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The development of the Filipino coping strategies scale

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Asia-Pacific Social Science Review 18(1) 2018, pp. 111–126

RESEARCH ARTICLE

The Development of the Filipino Coping

Strategies Scale
John Robert C. Rilveria
University of the Philippines–Diliman
Contact: jcrilveria@up.edu.ph

Abstract: The development of the Filipino Coping Strategies scale was based on the qualitative data on the resilience of
Filipinos and the ways by which they cope with stressful life experiences and the quantitative data on foreign measures of
coping. Integration of both data led to the formulation of nine coping strategies: cognitive reappraisal (pagsusuri), social
support (paghingi ng tulong), problem-solving (pagtugon), religiosity (pagkarelihiyoso), tolerance (pagtitiis), emotional release
(paglabas ng saloobin), overactivity (pagmamalabis), relaxation/recreation (paglilibang), and substance use (pagbibisyo).
Initially, the scale was composed of 45 items with five items under each domain. This was pilot tested to 627 male and female
Filipinos aged 18 above. Reliability analysis revealed items that are internally consistent with each other resulting in the
reduction of items to 37. Furthermore, construct validity was established via a) factor analysis through principal components
analysis extraction method and varimax rotation method and b) test for convergent validity by correlating each domain of
the Filipino Coping Strategies scale with the corresponding domains of Ways of Coping by Folkman and Lazarus and the
COPE Inventory by Carver, Scheier, and Weintraub. Independent samples t-test revealed significant differences among
males and females in each coping strategy which served as the basis for norm groups. The Filipino Coping Strategies scale
is a four-point Likert scale which aims to measure the coping strategies of Filipinos towards stress and generates a coping
dispositional profile which can be used to aid in the assessment of coping behaviors.

Keywords: coping strategies, reliability analysis, construct validity, factor analysis, coping dispositional profile

People experience stress throughout their lifespan. some are preferred because these are what worked for
At home, in school, at work, or in any situation them. These preferred coping strategies vary from one
when dealing with people and with life in general, cultural group to another. Up to this date, there are still
everyone has an everyday stressful encounter. Such ongoing researches exploring and identifying ways of
experiences of stress can be physical or mental ranging coping in different specific cultural settings.
from mundane to life-threatening effects on the body In the Philippine context, Filipinos keep on
(immune-related diseases) and the mind (mental receiving compliments about how resilient they are
disorders). It is only through the process of “coping” because they are all able to cope with very stressful
that people can overcome the stress and prevent it from situations such as calamity and poverty (Tan, 2006).
becoming worse. Different coping strategies are used; The country was even ranked as the 20th happiest

Copyright © 2018 by De La Salle University

112 J.R. Rilveria

country in the world according to the Happy Planet defined as the external or internal demand that causes
Index (Jeffrey, Wheatley, & Abdallah, 2016) despite the said stress. As a response to the stressor, the person
socio-economic difficulties. With this in mind, it is experiences stress and “cope” with it. Coping refers
very interesting to look at how third-world country
Filipinos cope with to the conscious effort to minimize, tolerate, or master
citizens
stress andlike Filipinos
identify whichcope withstrategies
coping stress and
areidentify
domin- the stress (Krohne, 2002).
whichused
antly coping
whenstrategies are and
dealing with dominantly
managingused when
stressful Folkman and Lazarus (1984) categorized all coping
dealing
life with and managing stressful life experiences.
experiences. strategies into two general domains: problem-focused
The development of this scale revolved around the and emotion-focused coping. Problem-focused coping
Filipinos’ general ways of coping and specific coping refers to a coping style that directly aims to change the
behaviors. This research endeavor seeks to: 1) create a source of stress (stressor). This can be done through
scale that would measure coping strategies of Filipinos planning, confrontation, and consequent problem-
toward stress and 2) generate a coping dispositional solving. Emotion-focused coping refers to change in
profile of Filipinos (relatively stable pattern of coping). the emotional load of stress through seeking support,
There is not much quantitative research on coping venting out of emotions, or positive reappraisal of
strategies in the local context. Most, if not all, written stressor.
accounts are qualitative in nature (phenomenological Weiten et al. (2008) further divided the emotion-
approach) focusing on lived experiences of selected focused coping into two. Thinking that the new
groups of Filipinos who were confronted with a divisions are distinct from each other, they added a
particular stressful life event and research outputs third and fourth type of coping: cognitive-focused
would reveal themes on recovery, redemption, and and occupation-focused. Cognitive-focused coping
coping. The quantitative study aimed to develop a refers to changing one’s personal assumptions and
scale which will identify prominent coping behaviors perceptions toward the stressor. Cognitive-focused
reflecting Filipino coping dispositions extracted from coping is done through optimistic thinking, goals, and
statistical and more empirical methods of analysis. values restructuring and meaning-making while the
Moreover, previous attempts to measure coping occupation-focused coping refers to changing one’s
strategies of Filipinos were just mere adaptations activities or daily routine to avoid or distance oneself
and translations of Western scales and concepts. from the stressor.
There is not yet a scale for the coping dispositions
of the Filipinos developed from the local population. Widely Used Coping Scales
The scale would not only be a locally-made test but There are a lot of measures of coping strategies,
would also incorporate identified coping behaviors most of which are Western-made tests. However, such
from existing qualitative research that are unique to tests did not make use of the four broad types of coping
Filipinos. The respondents were given the freedom mentioned above. The scales become more statistically
to list down and rate other coping strategies they and practically significant when they include more
specifically use that are not found on the scale so as to specific coping strategies as domains of the scale.
provide opportunity for added variables for analysis. The Ways of Coping Questionnaire (Folkman &
Lastly, this scale can serve as an assessment tool Lazarus, 1988) is a 66-item, 4-point scale that measures
that would determine how an individual generally the extent to which the individual used a particular
copes when facing a stressful or difficult situation. This coping strategy in a stressful situation. It is composed
can aid clinicians in finding out possible strengths and of eight sub-scales namely, confrontative coping,
getting insights about behavioral tendencies and coping distancing, self-controlling, seeking social support,
behaviors of the person. accepting responsibility, escape-avoidance, planful
problem-solving, and positive reappraisal.
Stress and Coping Another popular measure of coping is the Jalowiec
Stress is defined as the physical or psychological Coping Scale (Jalowiec, 1987). It seeks to assess
effect of the stressor. Stressor, on the other hand, is situation-specific coping behaviors by measuring the
The Development of the Filipino Coping Strategies Scale 113

degree of use and the perceived effectiveness of 60 266 selected Filipino college students from a high
cognitive and behavioral coping strategies in a stressful educational institution in the Philippines (De Leon
situation selected by the researcher or clinician. The & Balila, 2014). The results showed four dominant
two parts, use (Part A) and effectiveness (Part B), are factors: utilization of instrumental and emotional
measured on a 4-point rating scale (scored from 0–3). support, use of substance, planning and action-taking,
The degree of use of each coping strategy is rated as: and use of humor. The other domains of the COPE
never used, seldom used, sometimes used, or often Inventory did not yield any significant factor result.
used. The perceived effectiveness of each coping This goes to show that there are highlighted distinction
strategy (that has been used) is rated as: not helpful between Filipino and foreign populations in terms of
(in coping with the designated stressor), slightly preferred ways of coping with stress.
helpful, fairly helpful, or very helpful. It also yields There were also qualitative research studies done
eight sub-scales: confrontative, evasive, optimistic, to explore the Filipino psyche of coping. The 2009
fatalistic, emotive, palliative, supportant, and self- Philippine Star news article written by Dr. Nina Halili-
reliant. This American scale of coping has been Jao entitled, “Coping mechanisms of Pinoys” cited the
used cross-culturally especially in Asia and has been book, From Victims to Survivors of Lourdes Ladrido-
translated in various languages like Arabic, Chinese, Ignacio and Antonio Perlas (1995) which identified
Taiwanese, Korean, Kanda/Tamil (Indian), and even some coping mechanisms that Filipinos engaged in
Tagalog. when they experienced extreme difficulties. It is a
Another highly reliable and empirically validated combination of both healthy and unhealthy ways of
scale is the COPE Inventory developed by Carver, adjusting. Spirituality is the most frequently observed
Scheier, and Weintraub (1989). This scale has three coping style. Filipinos turn to religion and accept the
known formats: a “dispositional” or trait-like version reality. There are some utterances of bahala na or
from which the respondents report the frequency behaviors like ipinapasa-Diyos while there are other
of doing the things listed, when they are stressed; a who stay positive that God will never leave them in
time-limited version in which respondents indicate the these times of crisis. The bayanihan or pakikipag-
degree to which they already used the list of coping kapwa is also a well-observed coping behavior by
strategies during a particular period in the past; and which Filipinos empathize and help each other.
another time-limited version in which respondents Seeking emotional, physical, and financial support
indicate the degree to which they have been using the from family is also evident. There are also ways by
coping strategies in the past up to the present. It has 15 which Filipinos lessen the emotional burden of their
domains: positive reinterpretation and growth, mental problems by engaging in activities that would relax
disengagement, focus on and venting of emotions, use them, make them happy, and feel at ease even if it is
of instrumental social support, active coping, denial, just temporary. Creativity and humor are said to be the
religious coping, humor, behavioral disengagement, strengths of Filipinos that facilitate life improvement
restraint, use of emotional social support, substance after a stressful life event.
use, acceptance, suppression of competing activities, Dr. Michael Tan of the University of the Philippines–
and planning. Diliman also wrote an article regarding his observations
on how Filipinos cope with stress (2006). He agreed on
Local Literature on Coping the resilience of Filipinos but emphasized that the saya
The generalizability of these coping scales was that Filipinos are doing when stressed is actually a form
tested in different cultural groups. For one, the COPE of externalized merriment—trying to be happy. People
Inventory of Carver et al. (1989) was applied to the tend to smile, laugh, sing, dance or drink their problems
Philippine context to test the factorial validity of the away. Moreover, Filipinos would go on with their lives
scale. The “Filipino Adolescents’ Coping Strategies: through tiis (tolerance) and kimkim (suppression) of
A Confirmatory Factor Analysis” is a research the stress they are experiencing. Despite these, the
study designed to examine the coping strategies of camaraderie spirit of the Filipinos allows them to
114 J.R. Rilveria

survive these hardships by seeking support from their Methods

friends and family.
Participants
Sex Differences on Coping Strategies
Through purposive sampling, the scale was pilot
Coping strategies may also draw the boundary tested to 627 male and female Filipinos living in
between males and females. There are quantitative Metro Manila who are at least 18 years old and they
studies revealing significant differences between the were given an informed consent before participating
two in terms of preferred and most frequently employed in the study. There are 506 test questionnaires
coping strategies. A lot of foreign researches have administered through pen and paper at the University
concluded that women tend to engage in emotional of the Philippines-Diliman while 121 questionnaires
and avoidance coping styles while men have more were given online via Google Docs. Other socio-
emotional inhibition so they tend to engage in rational demographic information such as educational
coping styles (Matud, 2004; Lawrence, Ashford, & attainment, socioeconomic status, and occupation were
Dent, 2006). Moreover, when the type of stressor is gathered for a descriptive analysis of data.
held constant, dominant patterns of coping dispositions
are significantly different between men and women. Format and Domains of the Scale
Women are more likely to seek social support and
utilize emotion-focused coping. Men, on the other The scale was written in Filipino (Tagalog) with an
hand, are more likely to use problem-focused type of English translation under each item to better provide
coping (Ptacek, Smith, & Dodge, 1994). an understanding of the content of the scale and
observe sensitivity to the local Filipino context. As a
Theoretical Caveat of the Scale dispositional type of scale, the verbs were in the present
tense format. At the end of the scale, the respondents
The trait-oriented approach to coping states that were given the opportunity to add and rate a particular
personality dimensions are associated with coping coping strategy that they specifically use that are not
dispositions in ways by which differences in coping found in the scale.
styles are tied to personality differences (Krohne, The domains of the Filipino Coping Strategies
2002). Because of this, people tend to adopt certain Scale were extracted from both quantitative foreign
coping techniques as relatively stable behaviors. In line scales and qualitative local researches on coping.
with this perspective are the generality and stability Table 1 shows the coping strategies across different
principles (Schwarzer & Schwarzer, 1996). These foreign scales (from first to fifth column) and the
principles posit that when we measure coping with resembling coping themes from local literature (in sixth
standardized instruments, we, therefore, imply that and seventh column). Across the columns, there are
people can be characterized by some preferred ways of overlapping and similar coping strategies. This became
coping with adversity and that they continue to apply the basis to arrive at more integrated domains of coping
the same kind of strategies over time across situations. which were used in the development of the Filipino
These theoretical assumptions and principles laid Coping Strategies Scale. Reappraisal, reinterpretation,
the foundations for the development of the Filipino and optimism were merged into cognitive reappraisal
Coping Strategies Scale. Thus, the nature of the (pagsusuri); instrumental and emotional social
coping scale is trait-oriented and generalist in nature support, supportant, seeking support, bayanihan,
instead of situation-specific. The instruction of the and investing in family and friends were categorized
scale would involve asking the respondents how they into social support (paghingi ng tulong); planning,
are likely to use the listed coping strategies whenever confrontative, active coping, and self-reliant were
they are confronted with a stressful or difficult situation condensed into problem-solving (pagtugon); seeking
regardless of its specificity. Therefore, the scale would spiritual support, religious coping, and spirituality
measure relatively stable patterns of coping. were categorized under religiosity (pagkarelihiyoso);
The Development of the Filipino Coping Strategies Scale 115

self-control, restraint, acceptance, fatalistic, passivity/ were reclassified into three discrete coping strategies:
dependency, and kimkim were combined into tolerance overactivity (pagmamalabis), relaxation-recreation
(pagtitiis); venting of emotions such as humor and (paglilibang), and substance use (pagbibisyo)—all of
anger were grouped under emotional release (paglabas which pertain to behaviors that temporarily detaches
ng saloobin); forms of distancing, avoiding, evading, oneself from the problem and possibly reflect the
denial, and mental and behavioral disengagement weight of the problem.

Table 1

Comparison of Identified Coping Strategies Across Foreign Scales and Local Literature

Foreign Measures of Coping Local Literature on Coping

Ways of coping COPE Jalowiec Coping Adolescent Coping Stress and the
(Folkman & Inventory Coping Scale Strategy Coping Mechanism Filipino (Tan,
Lazarus, 1988 (Carver et al., (Jalowiec, 1987) Indicator Orientation of Filipinos 2006)
1989) (Amirkhan, (Patterson & (Ignacio &
1990) McCubbin, Perlas, 1995)
1987)
Confrontative Active Coping Confrontative Problem-Solving
Distancing Mental Engaging in Overactivity, Singing,
Disengagement Demanding Relaxation, Dancing
Activity, Creativity
Relaxing
Self-Control Restraint Fatalistic Tiis and Kimkim
Social Support Instrumental Supportant Seeking Support Social Support, Bayanihan, Social Support
and Emotional Investing in Family from Family and
Social Support Close Friends Friends
and Family
Acceptance Acceptance Passivity/
Dependency
Escape- Denial, Evasive Avoidance Seeking Denial
Avoidance Behavioral diversions
Disengagement
Planning Planning Self-Reliant Self Reliance
Positive Positive Optimistic Optimism
Reappraisal Reinterpretation
Venting of Emotive Venting Humor, Anger Saya
Emotions, Feelings, Being
Humor Humorous
Religious Seeking Spirituality
Coping Spiritual Support
Substance Use Paliative Smoking, Alcohol
Drinking Drinking
116 J.R. Rilveria

Figure 1. Nine domains of the Filipino Coping Strategies Scale.

Conceptually, the nine domains serve as the taking medicines to relieve some physical and mental
components of the coping dispositional profile of the manifestations of stress.
respondents. Cognitive reappraisal (pagsusuri) refers
to changing one’s view or assumptions about the Items and Scoring
problem. This includes optimistic and hopeful thinking, The Filipino Coping Strategies Scale was originally
alterations of goals and values, and meaning-making. composed of 45 items but eight items were excluded
Social support (paghingi ng tulong) refers to help- from the item analysis, making it a 37-item scale. It
seeking behaviors, receiving advice or professional is in a 4-point Likert format with 1 indicating Never
care, support from friends and family, and sharing of or Hindi to 4 indicating Often or Madalas. Items #1,
one’s problems. Problem-solving (pagtugon) involves 8, 17, 23, and 30 comprise the cognitive reappraisal
planning, taking action to confront the source of (pagsusuri) domain; items #9, 24, and 31 comprise
stress, and aims to eliminate the stressor. Religiosity the social support (paghingi ng tulong) domain;
(pagkarelihiyoso) has its distinct domain because it items #2, 10, 18, and 32 comprise the problem-
involves some religious behaviors such as praying, solving (pagtugon) domain; items #3, 11, 19, and 33
leaving everything to God, believing in destiny and comprise the religiosity (pagkarelihiyoso) domain;
will of God. Tolerance (pagtitiis) would involve items #12 and 25 comprise the tolerance (pagtitiis)
enduring the difficulty and stress without constant domain; items #4, 13, 26, and 34 comprise the
effort in confronting it. Emotional release (paglabas ng emotional release (paglabas ng saloobin) domain;
saloobin) would refer to venting out of emotions may it items #5, 14, 20, 27, and 35 comprise the overactivity
be through anger, humor, cry, and so forth. Overactivity (pagmamalabis) domain; items #6, 15, 21, 28, and
(pagmamalabis) means overextension of work or over- 36 comprise the relaxation/recreation (paglilibang)
exertion of one’s activity to distance oneself from the domain; and items #7, 16, 22, 37, and 39 comprise
stress. Relaxation/recreation (paglilibang) involves the substance use (pagbibisyo) domain (see Appendix
engaging in activities that would make the person A). The composite scores for each of the domains are
feel at ease and lessen the cognitive and emotional computed by averaging the sum of the scores across
load of the stress. Substance use (pagbibisyo) would the items of each domain (dividing the total raw score
entail using drugs, drinking alcohol, smoking, or even by the number of items in each domain). Therefore,
The Development of the Filipino Coping Strategies Scale 117

the minimum composite score for each domain is 1 instructors, and so forth (n = 66). Other fields of
and the maximum is 4. work were also represented like in the field of arts
and media, building and construction, hospitality and
Analysis tourism, human services and social work, legal services
Through a statistical software (SPSS v 20), and consultation, research and fieldwork, sales and
descriptive and inferential statistics were established. marketing, science and engineering, and software and
Sociodemographic characteristics of the participants technology.
were briefly identified in terms of frequency and Furthermore, an overall descriptive statistics for
percentage relative to the sample. To check for each of the domains of the Filipino Coping Strategies
reliability, inter-item consistency of the variables Scale was established (see Table 2). Ninety-six to
was analyzed to see whether items designated for a ninety-nine percent of the respondents completed the
specific domain correlate highly with one another and questionnaire. They generally scored high on most of
measure the same construct. To check for construct the domains in the scale except on the substance use
validity, confirmatory factor analysis through principal domain. This means that the participants are not more
components analysis extraction method and varimax likely to engage in smoking, drinking alcohol, and
rotation method was conducted. Furthermore, drug-related activities in order to cope with stressful
convergent validity was established through correlation life experiences. The top four domains that the
of each coping strategy/domain of the Filipino Coping participants scored highly would be on the problem-
Strategies Scale with corresponding domains of Ways solving, cognitive reappraisal, relaxation/recreation,
of Coping by Folkman and Lazarus (1988) and the and religiosity domains. The standard deviation of
COPE Inventory by Carver et al. (1989). each domain ranges from .37 to 1.0, indicating low
variability across the participants (most scores are
Results clustered around the mean). Interestingly, most of
the answers of the participants who responded to the
The age of the participants in the sample ranges free item of the Filipino Coping Strategies Scale were
from 18 to 58 years old (M = 27.13). There are more categorized under the relaxation/recreation domain.
females (n = 366) than males (n = 261), mostly with Examples of the responses they provided include:
average socioeconomic status (n = 356) followed listening to music, watching movies, shopping, writing,
by those with high socioeconomic status (n = 224) reading books, dancing, playing sports or computer
and those with low socioeconomic status (n = 47). games, and so forth which were rated either “most of
Majority of the participants are educated—bachelor’s the time” (3) or “always” (4).
degree holders (n = 322)—although the entire range
of educational attainment was represented such as: Reliability
those who are at least high school graduates, those Inter-item consistency refers to the degree of
who are still taking their bachelor’s degree, those interrelatedness or homogeneity of items in a scale,
who are still taking their master’s degree, those who thus, a high inter-item consistency presupposes high
are still taking their doctorate degree, and those who reliability because items in each domain represent the
have already obtained their doctorate degree. In terms same coping strategy construct. This was established
of occupation, majority of the participants are working through reliability analysis using SPSS (see Table
in the administration and management field—human 3). The number of items retained for each domain
resource officers, managers, supervisors, and so forth was determined based on the highest possible
(n = 144). Next are group of unemployed—students or internal consistency reliabilities for groups of items
job-seekers (n = 122); followed by medical and allied representing the domains. The coefficient alpha for
health professionals—doctors, nurses, occupational each domain after item deletion ranges from .60 to
therapists, speech therapists, and so forth (n = 121); .95 and the overall coefficient alpha for the Filipino
and those in the education and training field—teachers, Coping Strategies Scale is .716.
118 J.R.
J.R. Rilveria
Rilveria
118

Table 2
Descriptive Statistics of Scores on Filipino Coping Strategies Scale Domains

Minimum Maximum Standard

n Mean Score
Score Score Deviation
Cognitive Reappraisal
614 2.00 4.00 3.525 0.502
(Pagsusuri)
Social Support
613 1.00 4.00 3.066 0.742
(Paghingi ng Tulong)
Problem-Solving
621 2.25 4.00 3.800 0.367
(Pagtugon)
Religiosity
617 1.00 4.00 3.185 1.003
(Pagkarelihiyoso)
Tolerance
623 1.00 4.00 2.705 0.882
(Pagtitiis)
Emotional Release
618 1.00 4.00 2.626 0.749
(Paglabas ng Saloobin)
Overactivity
605 1.40 4.00 3.136 0.928
(Pagmamalabis)
(Pagmamalabi)
Relaxation/Recreation
605 2.20 4.00 3.672 0.377
(Paglilibang)
Substance Use
617 1.00 4.00 1.698 0.871
(Pagbibisyo)

Table 3
Item Analysis with Internal Consistency Reliability (Coefficient Alpha) of the Filipino Coping Strategies Scale

Filipino Coping Strategies Number of items

Cronbach’s a SD
Scale Domain (Retained)
Cognitive Reappraisal
5 .705 2.511
(Pagsusuri)
Social Support
3 .789 2.290
(Paghingi ng Tulong)
Problem-Solving
4 .755 1.473
(Pagtugon)
Religiosity
4 .950 3.983
(Pagkarelihiyoso)
Tolerance
2 .648 1.758
(Pagtitiis)
Emotional Release
4 .683 3.010
(Paglabas ng Saloobin)
Overactivity
5 .729 3.162
(Pagmamalabi)
(Pagmamalabis)
Relaxation/Recreation
5 .600 1.885
(Paglilibang)
Substance Use
5 .861 4.313
(Pagbibisyo)
TOTAL 37 .716
The Development of
The Development of the
the Filipino
Filipino Coping
CopingStrategies
StrategiesScale
Scale 119
119

Table 4
items of the Filipino Coping Strategies Scale
Rotated Component Loadings for 45 Items

Factor 6 &7
Factor 2 Factor 3 Factor 4 Factor 5 Factor 8 Factor 9
Factor 1 Overactivity
Substance Problem- Special Tolerancer
Tolerance Cognitive Tolerance & Community
Religiosity & Relaxation/
Use Solving Support & Emotion Reappraisal Relaxation
Recreation
#22 .902 .911
#4 .889 .850
#13 .886 .888
#40 .867 .826
#31 .829 .739
#27 .829 .772
#36 .786 .750
#45 .752 .727
#9 .737 .673
#18 .732 .637
#21 .744 .612
#39 .729 .657
#3 .725 .685
#37 .688 .520
#12 .558 .554
#19 .507 .504
#30 .470 .585
#35 .630
#11 .724 .628
#29 .711 .661
#33 .676 .628
#38 .666 .643
#2 590 569
#20 .449
#6 .475
#23 .683 .571
#41 .639 .521
#5 .609 .433
#15 .548 .494
#42 .536 .433
#26 .656 .635
#25 .655 .555
#7 .592 .578
#16 .567
#8 .638 .467
#34 .572 .590
#43 .561 .564
#44 .476 .535
#28 .730 .699
#1 .599 .604
#24 .504 .470
#10 .476 .468
#14 .751 .650
#32 .616 .670
#17 .484 .471
 120 J.R. Rilveria
120 J.R. Rilveria

Validity thus leaving the two items in the emotional release

Validity these were the actual items deleted in the item analysis,
Construct validity was initially established via domain (#15 and 42) which also loaded on factor 5.
Construct validity was initially established via thus leaving the two items in the emotional release
confirmatory factor analysis. The Kaiser-Meyer- The domains of overactivity and relaxation/recreation
confirmatory factor analysis. The Kaiser-Meyer- domain (#15 and 42) which also loaded on factor 5.
Olkin (KMO) Index is .780 which indicates that the were distributed across factors 6 and 7. Three items
Olkin (KMO) Index is .780 which indicates that the The domains of overactivity and relaxation/recreation
sample is adequate enough for the data to be suited in the cognitive reappraisal domain loaded on factor
sample is adequate enough for the data to be suited were distributed across factors 6 and 7. Three items
for factor analysis and Bartlett’s test of sphericity 8. One item (#24—about the expression of humor)
for factor analysis and Bartlett’s test of sphericity in the cognitive reappraisal domain loaded on factor
revealed significant value (p < .05) which indicates in the emotional release domain also loaded on the
revealed significant value (p < .05) which indicates 8. One item (#24 – about the expression of humor) in
that there are items correlated with the others that same factor, however, this is another item that was
that there are items correlated with the others that the emotional release domain also loaded on the same
can merit convergence into a specific factor. Principal deleted in the item analysis. Lastly, two retained
can merit convergence into a specific factor. Principal factor, however, this is another item that was deleted
components analysis was used as an extraction method items in the tolerance domain (#14 and 32) and one
components analysis was used as an extraction method in the item analysis. Lastly, two retained items in
to extract the underlying construct for specific groups item on relaxation/recreation domain (#17) loaded
to extract the underlying construct for specific groups the tolerance domain (#14 and 32) and one item on
of items and verify the existence of the proposed nine on factor 9.
of items and verify the existence of the proposed nine relaxation/recreation domain (#17) loaded on factor 9.
domains and Varimax rotation was used (see Table 4) Convergent validity was established through
domains and Varimax rotation was used (see Table 4) Convergent validity was established through
because of assumed independence among the domains correlations of the items in each domain of the
because of assumed independence among the domains correlations of the items in each domain of the
– “distinct sets of coping strategies.” Coefficient Filipino Coping Strategies Scale with corresponding
– “distinct sets of coping strategies”. Coefficient Filipino Coping Strategies Scale with corresponding
loadings less than .45 were suppressed in the model items of similar or related domains of the Ways of
loadings less than .45 were suppressed in the model items of similar or related domains of the Ways of
and the analysis yielded a 9-factor solution. All items Coping Questionnaire and the COPE Inventory.
and the analysis yielded a 9-factor solution. All items Coping Questionnaire and the COPE Inventory.
representing the religiosity, substance use, problem- Pearson correlation revealed statistically significant
representing the religiosity, substance use, problem- Pearson correlation revealed statistically significant
solving, and social support domains were confirmed associations among the domains of the three measures
solving, and social support domains were confirmed associations among the domains of the three measures
(Factors 1 to 4). Three items in the Tolerance domain of coping (see Table 5). The positive correlations
(Factors 1 to 4). Three items in the Tolerance domain of coping (see Table 5). The positive correlations
(#5, 23, and 41) loaded on factor 5 but interestingly, (ranging from low to high) support the validity of the
(#5, 23, and 41) loaded on factor 5 but interestingly, (ranging from low to high) support the validity of the
these were the actual items deleted in the item analysis, domain constructs.
domain constructs.
Table 5
Between each
Correlations between Eachdomain
DomainofofFilipino
FilipinoCoping
CopingStrategies
StrategiesScale
Scaleand
anddomains
Domainsof of Ways
Ways of of Coping
Coping
Questionnaire and COPE Inventory

Ways of Coping Questionnaire COPE Inventory

Filipino Coping Strategies Scale
(Folkman & Lazarus, 1988) (Carver et al., 1989)
Cognitive Reappraisal
.503** .664***
(Pagsusuri)
Social Support
.561** .647**
(Paghingi ng Tulong)
Problem-Solving
.616** .599**
(Pagtugon)
Religiosity
.793** .877**
(Pagkarelihiyoso)
Tolerance
.394** .292*
(Pagtitiis)
Emotional Release
.426** .428**
(Paglabas ng Saloobin)
Overactivity
.358** .522**
(Pagmamalabis)
(Pagmamalabi)
Relaxation/Recreation
– .487**
(Paglilibang)
Substance Use
.549** .826**
(Pagbibisyo)
*p < .05 **p < .01
Note. There are no items in the Ways of Coping Questionnaire that correspond to the items in the Relaxation/
Recreation domain of the Filipino Coping Strategies Scale.
The Development of the Filipino Coping Strategies Scale 121
The Development of the Filipino Coping Strategies Scale 121
Norms As shown in Figure 2, male and female norm groups
Sex-based norms were established on the basis of differ in their coping dispositional profile. Females
Norms As shown in Figure 2, male and female norm groups
significant differences between males and females have a higher likelihood of engaging in coping
Sex-based norms were established on the basis of differ in their coping dispositional profile. Females
in their scores in each of the domains of the Filipino behaviors under social support, religiosity, tolerance,
significant differences between males and females have a higher likelihood of engaging in coping
Coping Strategies Scale (see Table 6). Across all the and emotional release domains than males. Males, on
in their scores in each of the domains of the Filipino behaviors under social support, religiosity, tolerance,
domains, the male and female participants in the pilot the other hand, are more likely to engage in coping
Coping Strategies Scale (see Table 6). Across all the and emotional release domains than males. Males, on
test sample are significantly different from each other behaviors under cognitive reappraisal, problem-solving
domains, the male and female participants in the pilot the other hand, are more likely to engage in coping
in terms of their average composite scores. and overactivity domains than females. Both norm
test sample are significantly different from each other behaviors under cognitive reappraisal, problem-solving
As part of the procedure for norming, the Filipino groups, nonetheless, have high tendencies to engage in
in terms of their average composite scores. and overactivity domains than females. Both norm
Coping Strategies Scale was administered to two relaxation/recreation as their coping strategies and are
As part of the procedure for norming, the Filipino groups, nonetheless, have high tendencies to engage in
groups of participants different from the pilot test least likely to engage in substance use (e.g., smoking,
Coping Strategies Scale was administered to two relaxation/recreation as their coping strategies and are
sample: males (n = 107) and females (n = 113). drinking, etc.) as coping strategies.
groups of participants different from the pilot test least likely to engage in substance use (e.g., smoking,
sample: males (n = 107) and females (n = 113). drinking, etc.) as coping strategies.

Table 6
Independent Samples t-test of Each Domain Score Between Males (n = 261) and Females (n = 366

Males Females

M SD M SD t-test
Cognitive Reappraisal
3.600 0.467 3.469 0.518 3.345**
(Pagsusuri)
Social Support
2.621 0.654 3.044 0.583 8.493**
(Paghingi ng Tulong)
Problem-Solving
3.752 0.361 3.690 0.401 2.017*
(Pagtugon)
Religiosity
2.761 0.990 3.327 0.913 7.378**
(Pagkarelihiyoso)
Tolerance
3.076 0.546 2.923 0.475 3.724**
(Pagtitiis)
Emotional Release
2.454 0.562 2.955 0.552 11.089**
(Paglabas ng Saloobin)
Overactivity
3.303 0.641 3.016 0.591 5.788**
(Pagmamalabis)
(Pagmamalabi)
Relaxation/Recreation
3.718 0.353 3.638 0.390 2.694**
(Paglilibang)
Substance Use
2.152 1.043 1.374 0.522 12.271**
(Pagbibisyo)
Note.
*p *p < .05
< .05
**p < .01
122 J.R. Rilveria
122 J.R. Rilveria

Figure 2. Coping dispositional profiles of male (n = 107) and female (n = 113) norm groups based on average.
composite scores.

Discussion two factors. The mixing of these domains may be

Discussion attributed
both domains to the
of broader
overactivity typeandof coping strategy where
relaxation/recreation
Results supported satisfactory psychometric they
on twobelong.
factors.Relaxation
The mixing andofrecreation in the may
these domains form beof
properties
Results ofsupported
the Filipino Coping Strategies
satisfactory Scale.
psychometric saya or externalized merriment as mentioned
attributed to the broader type of coping strategy where by Tan
High inter-item
properties of theconsistencies
Filipino Coping in each domainScale.
Strategies were (2006)
they can beRelaxation
belong. categorizedand intorecreation
an avoidant, distancing,
in the form of
maintained after item deletion and convergent
High inter-item consistencies in each domain were validity or mental disengagement form of coping
saya or externalized merriment as mentioned by Tan strategy—a
was established
maintained through
after item significant
deletion correlations
and convergent with
validity type ofcan
(2006) coping that focuses
be categorized onavoidant,
into an redirecting oneself
distancing,
resembling domains from established coping
was established through significant correlations with scales. from the stressful experience or feeling
or mental disengagement form of coping strategy—a by engaging in
Factor analysis
resembling domainsalsofrom
confirmed the proposed
established nine
coping scales. activities
type that lessen
of coping that the emotional
focuses and cognitive
on redirecting load
oneself
domains which were extracted from the
Factor analysis also confirmed the proposed nine integration of the stress. Furthermore, the overactivity
from the stressful experience or feeling by engaging in domain is
of foreignwhich
domains measureswereofextracted
coping and fromlocal
theliterature
integrationon also grouped
activities that in the same
lessen broad category
the emotional from foreign
and cognitive load
coping and resilience. Very high significant
of foreign measures of coping and local literature on factor of the stress. Furthermore, the overactivity(Lazarus
measures of coping—Ways of Coping domain & is
loadingsand
coping were revealedVery
resilience. in domains of religiosity,
high significant factor Folkman, 1988) and COPE Inventory
also grouped in the same broad category from foreign (Carver et al.,
substance use, problem-solving, and social
loadings were revealed in domains of religiosity, support 1989). The
measures of cognitive
coping—Ways reappraisal
of Copingdomain that was
(Lazarus &
which were
substance theproblem-solving,
use, evident coping strategies
and social mentioned
support present also in these measures yielded
Folkman, 1988) and COPE Inventory (Carver et al., significant
by Ladrido-Ignacio and Perlas (1995)—bahala
which were the evident coping strategies mentioned na factor loadings
1989). in the Filipino
The cognitive reappraisalCoping Strategy
domain thatScale.
was
mentality
by or ipinapasa-Diyos
Ladrido-Ignacio and Perlastendency, paninigarilyonao
(1995)—bahala Lastly, the items comprising tolerance
present also in these measures yielded significant and emotional
panginginom, and bayanihan at pakikipagkapwa—and
mentality or ipinapasa-Diyos tendency, paninigarilyo releaseloadings
factor domainsinthat thewere alsoCoping
Filipino based from the foreign
Strategy Scale.
oTan (2006)—camaraderie
panginginom, and seeking
and bayanihan familial support.
at pakikipagkapwa— measures converged in the same factor
Lastly, the items comprising tolerance and emotional which could
and Tan (2006) —camaraderie and seekingproblem-
Likewise, the domains of social support, familial be attributed to being categorized into
release domains that were also based from the foreign an emotion-
solving, and substance use were the emergent
support. Likewise, the domains of social support, domains based coping
measures strategyinrepresenting
converged the same factor the opposite sides
which could
which yielded significant
problem-solving, factor
and substance useloadings
were the when
emergentthe of the spectrum—tolerating the emotional
be attributed to being categorized into an emotion- burden vs
COPE Inventory
domains was applied
which yielded in the
significant Philippine
factor loadingssetting
when venting
based out thestrategy
coping emotions. The merging
representing the of such factors
opposite sides
(De Leon & Balila, 2014). Another
the COPE Inventory was applied in the glaring result
Philippine implies that broader types of coping
of the spectrum—tolerating the emotional burden are as important vs
of the factor
setting (De Leonanalysis was the
& Balila, convergence
2014). Another of both
glaring as more specific coping strategies especially
venting out the emotions. The merging of such factors that the
result of the factor analysis was the convergence on
domains of overactivity and relaxation/recreation of profiles that
implies generated
broader from theof
types study revealed
coping are asaimportant
pattern of
The Development of the Filipino Coping Strategies Scale 123

dominant coping strategies that can be grouped into resilience, anxiety, personality traits, and so forth and
broader types of coping. establish discriminant validity through associations
The significant differences between Filipino men with socio-demographic variables such as sex, age,
and women in their coping dispositional profiles socio-economic status, educational background,
supported the foreign researches on sex differences religion, and so forth.
regarding coping (Matud, 2004; Lawrence et al., 2006;
Ptacek et al., 1994) wherein women are more likely to References
engage in emotion-focused (tolerance and emotional
release domains) and social support coping while men Carver, C. S., Scheier, M. F., & Weintraub, J. K.
are more into problem-based or cognitive-focused (1989). Assessing coping strategies: A theoretically
coping (cognitive reappraisal and problem-solving based approach. Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology, 56, 267–283.
domains). This implies that sex differences on how De Leon, J., & Balila, E. (2014). Filipino adolescents’ coping
Filipino men and women generally deal with stress strategies: A confirmatory factor analysis. Adventist
should not be neglected. Sex becomes an important University of the Philippines Research Journal, 18(2),
variable to consider when studying coping strategies 73–81. Retrieved from http://www.aup.edu.ph/alumni/
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associated with sex. Folkman, S., & Lazarus, R. S. (1984). Stress, appraisal, and
coping. New York: Springer Pub. Co.
Folkman, S., & Lazarus, R. S. (1988). Manual for the Ways
Conclusion of Coping Scale. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychology
Press.
The development of Filipino Coping Strategies Halili-Jao, N. (2009, April 5). Coping mechanisms of Pinoys.
Scale laid the foundations to extract dominant Philippine Star. Retrieved from http://www.philstar.com/
allure/454890/coping-mechanisms-pinoys
coping strategies unique to Filipinos and assess the
Jalowiec, A. (1987). Jalowiec Coping Scale (revised).
frequency of each coping strategy to generate a coping Unpublished manuscript, School of General Nursing,
dispositional profile. Coping strategies or dispositions Loyola University of Chicago, Chicago, IL.
unique to Filipinos are interesting to look at not only to Jeffrey, K., Wheatley, H. & Abdallah, S. (2016). The Happy
provide a better understanding of how Filipinos respond Planet Index: 2016. A global index
to stress but also to be able to capture a general picture of sustainable well-being. London: New Economics
Foundation.
of their strengths in overcoming stress. Furthermore,
Krohne, H. W. (2002). Stress and coping theories.
at the quantitative level, a coping dispositional profile International Encyclopedia of the Social and Behavioral
generated by the Filipino Coping Strategies Scale can Sciences, 22, 15163–15170. doi: 10.1016/B0-08-
be relevant to both counseling and research fields. In 043076-7/03817-1
counseling/psychotherapy, being able to identify the Ladrido-Ignacio, L., & Perlas, A. (1995). From victims
dominant coping strategies of a client can aid in the to survivors: Psychosocial intervention in disaster
management in the Philippines. International Journal
formulation of a more comprehensive personality
of Mental Health, 24(4), 3–51.
profile of the client and relate such results with Lawrence, J., Ashford, K., & Dent, P. (2006). Gender
client’s strengths and weaknesses and distinguish differences in coping strategies of undergraduate students
between adaptive or maladaptive coping strategies. In and their impact on self-esteem and attainment. Active
research, the dispositional implication inherent to the Learning in Higher Education, 7(3), 273–281 doi:
scale minimizes the complexity of coping assessment. 10.1177/1469787406069058
Matud, M. P. (2004). Gender differences in stress and coping
Nonetheless, future studies are recommended to
styles. Personality and Individual Differences, 37(7),
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prove the stability of coping dispositions, measure Ptacek, J. T., Smith, R., & Dodge, K. (1994). Gender
effectiveness of coping through correlations with other differences in coping with stress: When stressor
psychological variables such as positive well-being, and appraisals do not differ. Personality and Social
Psychology Bulletin, 20(4), 421–430.
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Schwarzer, R., & Schwarzer, C. (1996). A critical survey

of coping instruments. In Zeidner, M., & Endler,
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applications (pp. 107–132). New York: Wiley.
Tan, M. (2006, September 19). Stress and the Filipino.
Philippine Center for Investigative Journalism.
Retrieved from http://pcij.org/stories/stress-and-the-
filipino/
Weiten, W., Lloyd, M. A., Dunn, D. S., & Hammer, Y.
(2008). Psychology applied to modern life: Adjustment in
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Cengage Learning.
The
The Development
Development of
of the
the Filipino
FilipinoCoping
CopingStrategies
StrategiesScale
Scale 125
125

Appendix A
Filipino Coping Strategies Scale (After Item Analysis)

Name Educational Attainment

Age Occupation
Sex Socioeconomic Status
Male Mababa (Low) monthly family income < P 15,000.00
Female Katamtaman (Average) P 65,000 > monthly family income > P 15,000
Mataas (High) monthly family income > P65,000

FILIPINO COPING STRATEGIES SCALE

Gaano kadalas mong gawin ang mga sumusunod sa tuwing ikaw ay nakararanas ng matinding problema o stress?
Lagyan ng marka ang nakalaang patlang.
spaceprovided.)
(How frequently do you perform the following when you experience a stressful event? Put a mark on the spce provided.)
1 2 3 4
Hindi Minsan Madalas Palagi
(Never) (Sometimes) (Most of (Always)
the time)
1. Nag-iisip ako ng positibo tungkol sa aking problema.
(I think something positive about my problem)
2. Nag-iisip ako ng paraan para masolusyunan ang aking problema.
(I think of ways to solve my problem)
3. Ipinagdarasal ko sa Diyos ang aking problema.
(I pray my problems to God)
4. Iniiyakan ko ang aking problema. (I cry my problems out)
5. Pinapagod ko ang sarili sa isang partikular na gawain para mabawasan ang
stress na aking dinadala.
(I exhaust myself doing something to lessen the stress I have)
6. Nililibang ko ang aking sarili (I entertain myself)
7. Umiinom ako ng alak para mabawasan ang aking stress.
(I drink alcohol to reduce my stress)
8. Inaalam ko ang magandang dahilan kung bakit ako may ganitong klaseng
problema.
(I think of a good reason why I have this kind of problem)
9. Humihingi ako ng payo mula sa aking mga kaibigan.
(I solicit advice from my friends)
10. Sinisikap kong malampasan ang mga bagay na nagbibigay sa akin ng stress.
(I work hard to overcome my stress)
11. Naniniwala ako na tutulungan ako ng Diyos sa aking problema.
(I believe that God will help me in my problem)
12. Tinatanggap ko na lang ang stress na aking nararamdaman hanggang sa ito
ay mawala.
(I tend to just accept the stressful feeling until it is gone)
13. Naghahanap ako ng mapagbubuntunan ng galit dahil sa stress.
(I find something to release my anger to because of my stress)
14. Sinusubsob ko ang sarili sa trabaho (I overwork)
15. Pumupunta ako sa mga lugar kung saan makakapagpahinga ako.
(I go to places where I can rest)
16. Naninigarilyo ako upang mawala ang negatibong pakiramdam sa problema.
(I smoke to ease my negative feeling)
17. Iniisip kong kaya kong malagpasan ang aking problema.
(I think I can overcome my problem)
 126 J.R.
J.R. Rilveria

18. Gumagawa ako ng mga hakbang patungo sa pagkaya ng problema.

(I make ways to solve my problem)
19. Nananalangin ako sa Panginoon para mawala ang aking stress.
(I pray to God in order to take my stress away)
20. Kinakailangan kong mapagod sa paggawa ng ibang bagay.
(I need to be tired doing other things)
21. Gumagawa ako ng mga gawaing nakakapagpakalma sa akin.
(I engage in activities that would make me calm)
22. Umiinom ako ng gamot na makakatulong sa aking pakiramdam at pag-iisip
tungkol sa problema.
(I take medicine that would help me feel and think better)
23. Tinitingnan ko ang magandang dulot ng aking stress.
(I look at the good effect of this stress)
24. Nangangailangan ako ng suporta mula sa ibang tao.
(I need suppot from other people)
25. Tinitiis ko ang stress na aking nararanasan.
(I endure the stress I am experiencing)
26. Nilalabas ko ang aking hinanakit. (I release my emotional pain)
27. Nagdadagdag ako ng marami pang gawain para maiba ang aking iniisip.
(I burden myself with other things to do in order to redirect my thoughts)
28. Ipinapahinga ko ang aking sarili. (I take time to rest)
29. Gumagamit ako ng mga gamot na nakakapagpaginhawa ng aking pakiramdam.
(I take medicine that provides relief)
30. Sinisikap kong tingnan ang problema mula sa ibang perspektibo.
try totoviewe
(I take view the
the problem
problem in
in aa different
different perspective)
perspective)
31. Nangangailangan ako ng pagkalinga at pag-intindi mula sa mga taong
malapit sa akin.
(I need care and understanding from the people who are close to me)
32. Lahat ng posibleng solusyon ay ginagawa ko para lang mapagtagumapayan
ang aking problema.
(I consider all possible solutions just to overcome my problem)
33. Naniniwala akong kagustuhan ng Diyos ang nararanasan ko ngayon.
(I believe that what I am experiencing is God’s will)
34. Ipinapadama ko sa iba ang aking negatibong emosyon.
(I let others feel my negative emotion)
35. Kumakain ako nang marami at natutulog nang matagal upang panandaliang
mabawasan ang stress.
(I eat a lot and sleep longer hours to temporarily lessen the stress load.
36. Naghahanap ako ng mga gawaing nakakapagpahinga ng aking isipan.
(I find activities that can relax my mind)
37. Nagpapakalango ako sa alak para panandaliang makalimutan ang problema.
(I drown myself with alcohol to ignore my problem for the meantime)
Kung may iba ka pang mga ginagawa para makayanan mo ang iyong stress o problema, isulat ang mga ito at lagyan ng marka ang
nakalaan patlang.

(If there are other ways you cope with a stressful event which were not mentioned in the 37-item scale, you may write them down
and rate them accordingly)
1 2 3 4
Hindi Minsan Madalas Palagi
(Never) (Sometimes) (Most of (Always)
the time)

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