3D Print with Salt

Vesna Pungercar , Martino Hutz , and Florian Musso

Abstract Sustainable materials and additive manufacturing have the potential to

increase material efficiency and minimize waste in the building process. One of the
most promising materials is salt (sodium chloride). It is highly available as a residue of
desalination and potash production processes and attracts attention due to its material
properties (storage of humidity and heat). This research presents an investigation and
evaluation of using salt as an alternative material in additive manufacturing. Thus, the
focus of the study was on small-scale 3D printing with paste extrusion. Experimental
studies of different salt mixtures with different binders, printing properties and other
parameters were analyzed in three stages. In the first phase (P1) the mixing ratio of
salt and potential binders (clay, gypsum, cement and starch) was defined; in the phase
two (P2) the most promising mixture was selected, modified by additives and inves-
tigated by 3D image scan measurements; and in the last third phase (P3) the potential
applications of salt in additive manufacturing were presented. As the research shows,
the salt in material extrusion processes can substitute the main material by up to 70%,
is successfully manipulated with different additives (to improve the workability of
the printing mortar) and is highly dependent on the printer‘s settings. For future
full-scale 3D printing with salt many steps still have to be taken. However, incorpo-
rating salt in additive manufacturing showed a potential of saving material resources,
addressing environmental issues and initiating new construction processes.

Keywords Salt · Additive manufacturing · Experimental studies · Potentials ·

Sustainability of materials

V. Pungercar (B) · M. Hutz · F. Musso

Chair of Building Construction and Material Science, Prof. Dipl.-Ing. Florian Musso, Technical
University of Munich, 80333 Bayern, Germany
e-mail: vesna.pungercar@tum.de

© The Author(s) 2023 91

B. Rangel et al. (eds.), 3D Printing for Construction with Alternative Materials, Digital
Innovations in Architecture, Engineering and Construction,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-09319-7_5
92 V. Pungercar et al.

1 Introduction

Building materials are of great importance for our society and are used to protect
us from the outdoor weather conditions and to influence our physical/psychological
well-being [1–3]. However, meeting world material needs is becoming more difficult
each year due to the growth of the world population [4], increasing climatic changes
[5] and restricted commercial activities such as the COVID-19 disease [6]. The
construction sector is, in Europe, not only responsible for 50% of overall material
consumption but also for the generation of one third of the total waste and 5–12%
of total European greenhouse emissions [7]. So finding more available, affordable
and environment friendly materials and using more efficient technological processes
such as 3D printing will help to save material resources and minimize the impact of
the whole building process [8–10].

1.1 Salt as a Resource

One of the new promising materials is salt (sodium chloride), which has been a valu-
able material for many centuries. During the past decades it has attracted wide atten-
tion as a residue of desalination and potash production. Due to increasing demand
for fresh water and its limited supply, almost 47% of the world population does
not have enough fresh water for at least one month each year [11]. In some coastal
areas seawater has been used as a resource for producing fresh water. The process
of extracting fresh water from seawater and discharging the residue (hypersaline
brine) into the sea is called desalination. Around the world, some 15,906 operational
desalination plants (see Fig. 1) produce a total of 95 million cubic metres of desali-
nated water per day and an estimated 142 million cubic metres of hypersaline brine,
of which approximately 8.45 million cubic metres of salt per day are disposed into
the sea [12]. In terms of its origin, 70.3% of global brine disposal comes from the
Middle East and North Africa, 10.5% from East Asia and Pacific, 5.9% from Western
Europe, 3.9% from North America, 3.9% from Latin America and Caribbean, 2.6%
from Southern Asia, 1.8% from Eastern Europe and Central Asia and 1.0% from
Sub-Saharan Africa. The disposal of hypersaline brine into the sea and its negative

Fig. 1 Desalination plant in RAK (Ras Al Khaimah, United Arab Emirates). Licensed under the
Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Generic license. Source Wikimedia Commons [17]
3D Print with Salt 93

environmental consequences have already been acknowledged in scientific research.

The observed negative effects include; change of water quality (increase of salinity,
temperature), less light passing through the water (due to the growth of algae), and
a reduction of biodiversity (fish, corals) [13–15]. At the moment there is a lack of
regulation for brine disposal into nature, although measures such as brine discharge
system configurations or the reuse of the brine are proposed in different research
projects [14, 16].
Another source of salt waste (NaCl) is the potash industry [18]. Due to extensive
agriculture, many fertilizers are used to enhance crop growth. One common fertil-
izer is potash as found in sylvite and carnalite minerals [18]. The remainder of the
minerals consists of salt (NaCl) and small amounts of clay, silt, sand, and dolomite
[19]. Taking into account that annual global production presents around 68.1 million
tons of potash [20], salt waste (83.5 wt% of the mineral) can be calculated at around
335 million tons a year. Salt waste from mining (see Fig. 2) is also disposed into
nature as salt tailing on the surface [18], as brine injection/backfilling underground
or as direct discharge to rivers and seas [21]. One of the best known salt tailings in
Germany is the roughly 250 m high “Monte Kali” composed of 236 million tons of
mining salt waste [22]. It has been discovered that the salt contamination to nearby
waters are clearly caused by the salt load and prevents “a permanent recoloniza-
tion by typical sensitive freshwater species” [23]. In Spain and Canada researchers
discovered various negative environmental effects caused by potash mining activi-
ties: a decrease of water conductivity and the number of living communities in the
Llobregat Basin [24] and a devastating impact of high salt concentration in the rivers
near Saskatchewan’s potash mines [19]. If the world’s annual salt waste were spread
on the surface of the city of Munich (310.43 m2 ) a 54 m-high layer of salt would be
created within 5 years.

Fig. 2 Potash tailings stack Monte Kali, Heringen, Germany. Photo: Vesna Pungercar, 2020
94 V. Pungercar et al.

1.2 Salt Properties

Sodium chloride or table salt is one of the best-known substances on the Earth. It
consists of two different elements: Na (Sodium) and Cl (Chloride), which are linked
by an ionic bond [25, 26]. Salt crystals come in different sizes, are white and without
smell [27]. Microscopically observed, salt does not have many open spaces in its
structure and is known for its low permeability and porosity [28]. Literature records
sodium chloride’s specific heat as between 0.853 J/(gK) [29] and 0.859 J/(gK) [30,
31]. The thermal conductivity of salt varies from 6 to 6.5 WmK at room temperature
[29, 32–35] and 3.3 W/mK at higher temperatures (approx. 300 °C) [35]. Salt melts
at 801 °C [36, 37] and is used for heat storage in solar power plants [37].
In addition to the properties noted above, salt can dissolve in water, methanol
or formic acid [29]. At a relative humidity above 75.3% [29] salt crystals start to
dissolve and change to brine (salt with water). However, in the drying process the
water evaporates and crystals start to grow again. During the past decades, salt rooms
have been developed and used for drug free treatment of respiratory illness, skin
diseases [38] and lung cancer cells [39]. The treatment consists of sitting in salt
rooms, salt caves or at the seaside and breathing air saturated with salt particles
(aerosols) [40, 41]. Several studies focus on the positive effect of treatment with a
saline environment [39, 41–43], but unfortunately no research has been conducted
about how salt as construction material impacts the quantity of aerosols in indoor
environments and health.

1.3 Salt Materials in Building Construction

In historic building construction, salt materials were mostly used in dry-hot weather
conditions and in locations where conventional resources were not available. In some
cases, salt materials were cut from nearby salt seas or mines and used directly as a
building block for exterior walls [44–46]. One of these buildings is the hotel “Palacio
de Sal” in Salar de Uyuni in Bolivia (Material District 2016), which is built out of
about a million salt blocks. Other salt-based construction materials are mixtures of
salt and different binders (clay, volcanic ash, cement or starch) [44, 47].
Karshif and Roman maritime materials are among the oldest existing mixed salt
materials. Karshif, from the Siwa Oasis in Egypt, is a material for load bearing walls
made of small salt rocks (up to 95% of the material) and salt-clay mortar [44]. Due to
its hygrothermal and chemical properties, Karshif stone can be formed to “a sort of
monolith” [48] under repeated cycles of absorbing humidity from the environment
and emitting it again. The Romans mixed volcanic ash, lime and seawater [49] to
build highly durable protection walls in the Mediterranean sea. Different studies on
the long-term compressive strength of concrete made with seawater discovered that
there is almost no difference to that of concrete mixed with freshwater [50–52]. Other
mixtures of concrete and salt were developed for the protection of radioactive waste
3D Print with Salt 95

in abandoned salt caves [53–57], here salt comprised around 50% of the whole mass
[53].
Further salt materials may be produced by pressing, melting, additive technology
or natural salt crystallization. Salt lick blocks [58] are made of compressed salt as
an additive to animal nutrition and dissolve with animal saliva [59–62] if they do
not contain special additives [63] or coatings [62]. Salt crystallization processes are
used in contemporary art and architectural structures by soaking different materials
in very salty water or leaving materials outside to dry. Over time, salt crystals grow
and create salt crusts which are also used as artworks or as shading systems [64–67].
New salt mixtures (salt and starch) have gained attention in the last decades as a
result of a recent building technology made possible by advances in data processing—
additive manufacturing [68–70] (see Fig. 3). The first 3D printing prototypes were
developed by a research team at the Solheim Additive Manufacturing Laboratory of
the Mechanical Engineering Department of the University of Washington [68, 69]
(see Fig. 3). Their 3D printed elements were composed of salt (8 parts by weight),
maltodextrin (1 part by weight) and water. The same recipe was later adapted and
slightly modified by researchers from Emerging Objects to create a 3D-printed salt
pavilion [71] (see Fig. 3) and by TU Delft to examine mechanical properties of the
salt-starch mixture [69]. Researchers from Japan mixed salt-starch with wheat flour
and dextrin to create 3D moulds [72].

Fig. 3 Left—additive manufacturing. Right above—the first 3D printing salt prototypes. Right
below—the 3D-printed salt part for a 3D-printed salt pavilion. Source Left—TUM EBB. Right
above—The Solheim Additive Manufacturing Laboratory of the Mechanical Engineering Depart-
ment of the University of Washington [68, 69]. Right below—Emerging Objects/Ronald Rael and
Virginia San Fratello [71]
96 V. Pungercar et al.

1.4 3D Printing with Salt

As a porous material salt has a potential in additive manufacturing processes if it

can be bound. There are various methods in additive manufacturing such as binder
jetting, fused deposition modelling and paste extrusion. However, the most common
processes that have been used with salt are binder jetting [68, 69, 71, 72] and paste
extrusion. Binder jetting was invented almost 30 years ago at the Massachusetts
Institute of Technology [69] and generally includes spreading a thin layer of powder,
deposing a binder on the powder, repeating the first two steps multiple times and if
needed applying a heat treatment [73]. Paste extrusion includes mixing solids with
a liquid binder, pushing the paste through a nozzle, thus creating an object layer by
layer from the bottom up [74] (Fig. 4).
Dr. Mark Ganter and his team from University of Washington [69] were the
first to use binder jetting for salt and succeeded in creating the first, very small
3D printed objects (up to 5.2 cm). Only some years later a research team from
“Emerging Objects” used the same 3D printing process and powder mixtures (salt
and maltodextrin) but a different binder (rice wine). They developed 3D printed salt
elements which were light, translucent and waterproof due to a coating with wax. 330
salt printed elements were connected to create a salt pavilion called Saltygloo [71].
This recipe was also used by a student from UC Berkeley to print his 3D master-thesis
model [75].
Paste extrusion processes with salt were examined by the researcher and designer
Karlijn Sibbel who managed to print small 3D printed salt objects with a low height
(less than 10 cm) and a low quality [76]. Unfortunately, we were unable to find
any scientifically relevant information about the mixtures and the process. Japanese
[72] and Swiss researchers [77] have been investigating the creation of salt scaffolds
by paste extrusion which can later be removed by soaking the object in water (salt
leaching).
Most previous research in this area has focused on salt materials’ properties them-
selves rather than whether the salt materials are appropriate for 3D printing and which
additive manufacturing process is the most appropriate for salt. As a consequence

Fig. 4 Left and right—a 3D-printed salt pavilion. Source Emerging Objects/Ronald Rael and
Virginia San Fratello [71]
3D Print with Salt 97

of the increase of building with 3D printing devices on construction sites, a better

understanding of the interaction between 3D printing materials and additive manu-
facturing is growing. Nevertheless, the challenge of using more resource efficient
materials in 3D printing persists. In this paper, we address these research gaps by
using salt waste as a means to improve the resource efficiency of printing materials
and to evaluate advantages and disadvantages of using it in paste extrusion processes.

2 Experimental Studies

The main objective of our three experimental studies is to create and evaluate
salt mixtures in small-scale material extrusion processes and collect information
for future research with large-scale 3D printing. All 3D printing experiments were
conducted with a clay printer called “Potter Bot Micro 10” at the “Low-Cost-Lab” of
the Chair for Design, Construction and Materials (EBB) at the architectural faculty
of the Technical University of Munich.
The goal of our study was to evaluate all parameters that influence the quality of
printed objects. These parameters are: printer properties (printing speed, extrusion
flow rate, nozzle size), material properties (mixing ratio, water content, type of binder,
other components) and other modelling or thermodynamic processes (heating the
mortar, drying 3D printed objects in the oven).
The literature reveals various methods for evaluating the quality of printed objects
[78–80]. We analysed the printed salt objects in three stages using different methods.
In the first phase (P1) the mixing ratio of salt and potential binders (clay, gypsum,
cement and starch) was defined by continuously improving the quality of the printed
objects [81] and evaluating it with printability criteria found in literature [82]. In
phase two (P2) the most promising mixture was selected and further modified by
using different additives. Then the mixtures were analysed by 3D scan and image
measurement methods [79]. In the third phase (P3) potential applications of salt
mixtures in 3D extrusion processes were analysed and printed at small-scale. The
materials used in these studies were salt, clay, Portland cement, silica sand, starch
(maltodextrin), water and gypsum, their properties are listed in Table 1.

2.1 Experimental Study 1: Salt/Binder

2.1.1 Material

In this experimental study, the advantages and disadvantages of salt materials in paste
extrusion processes were analysed. After identifying potential binders in literature,
we investigated the mixing ratio of salt and binder. Again, the materials used are
listed in Table 1.
98 V. Pungercar et al.

Table 1 Materials used in the all phases

Material Producer Product properties
Salt (NaCl) Diacleanshop White colour, pharma quality, Eur.
Ph, USP, MG 58.44 g/mol, grain:
1 mm
Clay Sibelco WM2505, white colour, Firing
temperature: 1000–1300 °C
Firing color: light cream–light
grey, grain: 25% with 0–0.2 mm
grain size
Portland cement Solnhofer Portland Zementwerk Normal cement CEM I 42.5 N,
GmbH normal early strength, normal
post-hardening, normal hydration
heat development
Silica sand Sika Grain: 0.063–0.3 mm
Natural gypsum Diacleanshop Calcium sulfate dehydrate, powder
Starch (Maltodextrin) Myprotein 100% maltodextrin carbs, powder
Alcohol (Isopropyl) spinnrad 2-Prapanol, 99.5%

Four typical salt mixtures were named according to the composition of salt and
binder: SS (salt and starch), SC (salt and clay), CS (salt and concrete) and SG (salt and
gypsum) [81]. The SS mixture is a the most frequently used salt mixture in binder
jetting process [68, 69, 71, 81]. The SC mixture is still unknown in 3D printing.
However, it has existed as a traditional material for 2600 years in the Siwa Oasis,
Egypt [44]. CS is based on a mixture common in concrete construction (Portland
cement, silica sand and water) without any additives (bentonite or superplastificier).
The SG mixture consists of gypsum, salt and water and its main challenge was
expected to be the speed of the drying process.

2.1.2 Methodology

The mixing ratio of salt and binders was defined by experiments in which the salt
mixtures were continuously improved [81] and at the same time evaluated with visual
printability criteria such as pumpability, printed shape consistency, proper binding
time, acceptance for building up another layer and smoothness of the surface [82].
The first prototypes were mixed in a pot (A) and experimentally printed by hand
injection onto a transparent Plexiglas plate (B) in a circular form of up to three
layers, hardened at indoor room temperature and evaluated after one to three days
(C) (Fig. 5).
Table 2 shows the four salt groups (SS, SC, CS, SG) with 6 mixes each (recipes
from A to F), exploring the application in additive manufacturing. The initial mix
of each group is always Recipe A. The following mixes (B–F) were continuously
modified following the investigation and evaluation of the previous mix. For example,
3D Print with Salt 99

Fig. 5 Method for the experimental study. A—mixing materials, B—experimental printing with
hand injection, C—hardening at indoor room temperature and evaluating after one to three days.
Image: Vesna Pungercar [81]

if the printing mortar in recipe A was too liquid or too dry, the amount of water was
decreased or increased in recipe B. In the event that the mortar in recipe B had
appropriate printability, in recipe C the amount of salt was increased to gain higher
resource efficiency. The resource efficiency increased with a higher amount of salt
in the mixture.

2.1.3 Results

All salt mixtures were evaluated on a basic scale of 1 to 3 according to their poor,
median or good printing qualities. 1 represents a maximum score (good performance),
2 a middle score (average performance) and 3 a minimum score (bad performance)
(Table 2). The mortar with the highest number of scale 1 grades was considered to
be the best mortar and was further examined with our 3D printer (bold in Table 3).
We observed that the conventional and traditional materials (concrete, clay,
gypsum, starch) always failed to contribute to an adequate printing mortar when
used together with salt in the initial mix. Thus further adjustments depending on the
binder were made so that the printing mortar could pass through the nozzle of the
hand injection device and stay stable in the 3D object (cylinder).
The SS (salt and starch) mixture had white colour and no odour or salty taste.
As described in literature the starch was mixed in warm water to create a substance
similar to gelatine and was subsequently mixed with salt. However, the resulting
mortar was impossible to print. At the beginning, the mixture was too hard and after
decreasing the amount of salt, too fluid. We noticed that the starch increased the
viscosity of the mortar so much that at the end all printed layers connected to a
circular form of up to three layers and did not stay stable. After drying, the printed
object had a translucent, shining and hard surface.
Table 2 The recipes of salt mixtures. Source Authors [81]
100

Group Recipe Ratio salt: binder Salt (g) Clay (g) Fresh water (g) Sand (g) Cement (g) Gypsum (g) Starch (g)
SS A 88:12 352 – 10 – – – 48
B 50:50 200 – 100 – – – 200
C 61.5:38.5 200 – 40 – – – 125
D 21:79 80 – 40 – – – 300
E 46:54 90 – 40 – – – 105
F 30:70 45 – 40 – – – 105
SC A 70:30 280 120 100 – – – –
B 70:30 280 120 60 – – – –
C 80:20 320 80 60 – – – –
D 60:40 240 160 60 – – – –
E 65:35 260 140 40 – – – –
F 65:35 260 140 60 – – – –
CS A 50:50 600 – 210 480 120 – –
B 60:40 480 – 190 576 144 – –
C 60:40 480 – 190 576 144 – –
D 60:40 320 – 104 384 96 – –
E 70:30 240 – 104 448 112 – –
F 80:20 160 – 104 512 128 – –
SG A 50:50 50 – 20 – – 50 –
B 60:40 60 – 15 – – 40 –
C 60:40 60 – 18 – – 40 –
(continued)
V. Pungercar et al.
Table 2 (continued)
Group Recipe Ratio salt: binder Salt (g) Clay (g) Fresh water (g) Sand (g) Cement (g) Gypsum (g) Starch (g)
D 50:50 50 – 18 – – 50 –
E 70:30 70 – 16 – – 30 –
3D Print with Salt

F 40:60 40 – 19 – – 60 –
101
Table 3 Printability evaluation for salt mixtures. Photos: Martino Hutz [81]
102

Name Recipe Pumpability Printed shape maintenance Proper binding time Possibility to build another Surfaces Photo of the best mix
layer
SS A 3 3 3 3 1
B 3 3 3 3 1
C 3 3 3 3 1
D 2 3 3 3 1
E 2 2 3 3 1
F 2 2 2 3 1

SC A 2 3 2 3 2
B 1 2 1 1 1
C 2 1 1 1 2
D 1 1 1 1 1
E 3 3 1 3 3
F 1 2 1 2 2

(continued)
V. Pungercar et al.
Table 3 (continued)
Name Recipe Pumpability Printed shape maintenance Proper binding time Possibility to build another Surfaces Photo of the best mix
layer
CS A 1 2 3 3 2
B 2 3 3 3 3
3D Print with Salt

C 2 3 3 3 2
D 2 2 3 3 2
E 1 2 2 3 2
F 1 2 2 2 1

SG A 3 3 3 3 3
B 3 3 2 3 3
C 2 3 3 3 3
D 3 3 3 3 3
E 3 3 3 3 3
F 1 2 3 2 2
103
104 V. Pungercar et al.

The SC (salt and clay) mixture: had brown colour, a light odour and a taste of
soil. Clay, salt and cold water were mixed in a pot. The initial mixture was too
fluid, so the amounts of water and saltin the further recipes (B–D) were decreased.
Although recipe D had the best printability and workability, the amount of salt was
experimentally decreased in the next steps. More salt increased the porosity of the
material and influenced the application of the printing mortar negatively. Therefore,
recipe D was chosen as the best printing mortar of all clay-salt studies. Its advantages
were easy pumpability, keeping the shape and a short binding time (Fig. 6).
The CS (salt and concrete) mixture: had a dark grey colour, a strong odour and
a taste of cement. The CS mixture contained at first a mix of cement, sand and
salt. Afterwards cold water was added. None of the six of recipes were useable. To
push the material through the nozzle the mixture had to be fluid, otherwise it was
impossible to print. We suspect that the aggregate content (sand, salt) was too high
and congested the injection nozzle. After hand-printing it remained unstable, was
not plastic enough and took too long to dry.
The SG (salt and gypsum) mixture had a light brown-grey colour, a faint odour
and a taste of gypsum. Gypsum, salt and cold water were mixed in a pot. The initial
mixture could be pushed through the nozzle although the stability of the printed
object was not perfect. In the recipes from B to E an attempt was made to decrease
the water and gypsum content. However, either the mix would not pass through the
hand injection device or it was too fluid. At the end the amount of salt was decreased

Fig. 6 (clockwise from top left) Material mixtures, Salt and Starch, Salt and Clay, Salt and Gypsum,
Salt and Concrete. Photos Martino Hutz
3D Print with Salt 105

and the mortar became useable for printing (recipe F). Although the modified mixture
performed more favourably than the others, its binding and hardening times were
too short.
The best mixture of all salt mortars was salt and clay (SC, recipe D) and was thus
further analysed in phase two.

2.2 Experimental Study Two: Salt Cylinder

2.2.1 Material

The most promising salt-clay mixtures from experimental study one (P1) were further
analysed and refined in this second study (P2). The goal was to investigate the influ-
ence of salt and additives on the printing quality of 3D printed cylinders. Different
additives were used to improve the surface quality and change the viscosity (starch)
as well as structural stability (straw) for potential applications. As the salt-starch-
mixtures from the experimental study one did not show positive printing proper-
ties, the objective was to further investigate starch-salt-clay mixtures. To influence
viscosity and gain control over the efflorescence, starch with alcohol (Table 1) was
added to the salt-clay mixtures: Alcohol lowers the solubility of starch by attracting
water and prevents the formulation of non-Newtonian fluids (only starch and water).
To improve the overall stability in the salt-mixtures a natural reinforcement material
was tested. Since the 3D printing process and traditional steel reinforcement are not
very compatible, fine fibres were added to the material mixture similar to GFRC
(fibre reinforced concrete). Straw was selected for its widespread availability and
positive thermal potential.
Cylinders of four different materials were 3D printed for comparison: C (clay),
CS (salt-clay), CSS (salt-clay-straw) and SSC (salt-starch-clay) (see Fig. 7).

Fig. 7 Method for the experimental study two. A—mixing materials, B—3D printing, C—hard-
ening at indoor room temperature and visual evaluation D—3D scanning and evaluating the cylinder.
Image Vesna Pungercar
106 V. Pungercar et al.

2.2.2 Methodology

The quality of four different cylinders was assessed using visual evaluation and
optical 3D scanning methods in four steps (A–D). Step A consisted of mixing mate-
rials, step B of 3D printing 19 cylinders, step C of hardening them at indoor room
temperature. Step D consisted of optical 3D scanning measurements and evaluating
the cylinders (see Fig. 7).
Step A: Mixing Materials
Salt and binders were mixed for a minimum of 10 min to ensure a homogeneous
consistency. A “KitchenAid Classic 5K45SSEWH” with a capacity of 4.8 L and a
tilt-head flat beater proved to have sufficient capacity and strength for the material
mixtures (A).
Table 4 shows the following material mixtures CS: Clay, Salt, CSS: Clay, Salt,
Straw and SSC: Clay, Salt, Starch with 6 consecutive mixtures (recipes from A–F).
Each group starting with recipe A offering the best results from phase one (P1) or
being the best mixture from previous tests.
Step B: 3D Printing
All test cylinders printed were 10 × 10 × 10 cm. Each cylinder was created from
66 printed layers, each one 1.5 mm high. The circular nozzle had a diameter of 6
mm and the printing speed was set at 40 mm/s. The reference cylinder, purely out
of clay, was printed in approximately 8 min, however, the time was raised up to 20
min depending on the material mixture. The printing speed and the extrusion factor
were individually controlled and adjusted according to the behaviour of the material.
The amount of material usage was estimated at approximately 190 g on average. The
base cylinder was prepared and sliced in layers with the software Ultimaker Cura,
version 4.9.1 and exported as a G-Code file to the printer. One outskirt ring was set
and later removed to ensure a continuous extrusion once the main cylinder started
3D printing (Fig. 8, left image, bottom layer offset from the Test-Cylinder).
Step C: Hardening at Indoor Room Temperature and Visual Evaluation
All 19 test cylinders were printed with the same settings for better comparison.
However, due to the variation in material mixtures and recipes the overall shape,
surface and printability showed significant differences. To further understand the
properties of the salt-mixtures, the best printing results were further analysed. One
cylinder was taken from each material group (CS, CCS, SSC) and compared. A
test cylinder, printed with the same settings and consisting just of clay was added
(C) as a reference. Visual evaluation criteria were applied to the material mixtures:
pumpability, printed shape maintenance, proper binding time, possibility to build up
another layer and surface smoothness.
Step D: 3D Scanning and Evaluating the Cylinder
The successfully printed cylinders were stored to dry at room temperature and were
scanned with the optical 3D-coordinate measuring device Keyence, VL. Using this
3D Print with Salt 107

Table 4 Material mixtures CS: Clay, Salt, CSS: Clay, Salt, Straw and SSC: Clay, Salt, Starch with
6 consecutive mixtures (recipes A–F)
Group Recipe Ratio salt: Salt (g) Clay (g) Fresh water (g) Alcohol Straw Starch
binder (g) (g) (g)
CS A 60:40 900 600 140 – – –
(1500 g)
B 60:40 900 600 190 – – –
(1500 g)
C 60:40 900 600 190 – – –
(1500 g)
D 70:30 1050 450 200 – – –
(1500 g)
E 80:20 1200 300 250 – – –
(1500 g)
F 80:20 1200 300 210 – – –
(1500 g)
CSS A 60:40 720 480 180 – – –
B 60:40 720 480 180 – 30 –
C 64:36 840 480 180 – 10 –
D 70:30 840 360 180 – 10 –
E 70:30 840 360 162 – 10 –
F 70:30 840 360 160 – 10 –
SSC A 60:40 720 480 150 15 – 180
(1500 g)
B 70:30 560 240 80 8 – 100
(800 g)
C 80:20 800 200 100 10 – 125
(1000 g)
D 78:22 900 225 140 10 – 140
(1150 g)
E 75:25 750 250 100 10 – 125
(1000 g)
F 80:20 800 200 100 10 – 150
(1000 g)
Source Authors

equipment it was possible to 3D scan and compare the best prints. The optical 3D
coordinate-measuring device allowed us to compare the different cylinders with a
precision of 2 µm. The 3D scanning method compares the cylinders digitally, which
helps to understand small deflections, inaccuracies or discrepancies at a micro scale.
108 V. Pungercar et al.

Fig. 8 Cura-test-cylinder (step B). Photo Martino Hutz, Potterbot Micro 10 (step B). Photo
Potterbot, 3D scanner Keyence VL (step D). Photo Keyence

2.2.3 Results

Step A–C: Preparation and Selection of the Material

All salt mixtures were evaluated in three categories from poor, median to good
printing behaviour. Scale 1 represents good printing behaviour, 2 an average perfor-
mance and 3 a minimum score with bad printing quality. All recipes were first tested
with hand injection to understand the 3D printing potential and to save time in the
printer set-up. However we observed a significant discrepancy with multiple recipes
between the results of the hand injection and the 3D prints. In many cases the hand
injection showed good results but could not be printed with the 3D printer. All printed
cylinders, even successful prints, showed discrepancies to the original 3D file. All
printed cylinders were slightly smaller than the virtual design. During drying, the
cylinder dimensions decreased due to humidity loss. The drying time and level of
shrinking varied between the mixtures (see Table 5).
CS-Group: The CS-Group recipes showed different results after being 3D printed.
While recipes A–C did not contain enough humidity and clogged in the printing
process, recipes E–F showed increasing printing issues with greater water content.
Recipe D, being the most successful mixture, was easy to pump by hand injection and
had a homogeneous, even surface with a slightly watery consistence. The 3D printed
shape was even and air inclusions were covered due to the material consistency.
Layers could be built up evenly and the overall surface was homogeneous in all
stages. After drying, salt efflorescence occurred evenly on the cylinder (see Table 6).
CSS-Group: Recipes A and B could be printed partially and showed significant
problems in stability. Mixtures D–F were increasingly liquid and failed to print full-
sized test-cylinders. The best results were achieved with recipe C and a 64:36 ratio.
The material mixture printed even layers and was stable. Mixture C showed good
results in printing by hand injection as well as with the 3D printer. The overall shape
looked good and the full test cylinder could be printed. The layers connected despite
the overall rough and porous surface. Due to the added straw, the binding time was
significantly longer in comparison to the other mixtures (see Table 6).
3D Print with Salt 109

Table 5 Evaluation of the 3D prints and material mixtures

Name Recipe Pumpability Printed Proper Possibility Surfaces Photo of the
shape binding to build best mix
maintenance time another
layer
CS A 3 – – – 3
B 2 2 – – –
C 1 1 – 1 1
D 1 1 – 1 1
E 3 – – – –
F 3 – – – –
CSS A 2 2 3 3 1
B 2 2 3 3 3
C 1 1 3 1 2
D 2 2 3 3 3
E 3 3 3 3 3
F 3 3 3 3 3
SSC A 1 1 1 1 1
B 1 1 1 1 1
C – – – – –
D 3 2 3 3 1
E 1 2 2 1 1
F 1 3 2 2 1

Table 6 Process material mixture-preparation, Photos: TUM students

Name Mixing materials 3D printing process 3D printed cylinder Surface

CS

CSS

SSC
110 V. Pungercar et al.

SSC-Group: Recipe A showed positive print results and was easy to pump both by
hand injection and 3D printer. The reference shape could be printed without shifting
or distortions. The layers connected easily and therefore created a homogeneous and
even surface on the cylinder. Recipes B–F became increasingly weaker. Recipe A
produced the best results and was therefore used for future prints within the SSC-
Group (see Table 6).
Step D: Optical 3D Scanning
The overall scan illustrates the discrepancies with colour coding as well highlights
the biggest differences between the four cylinders (C, CS, CSS, SSC) compared
to the intended geometry (3D model) (see Table 7). The colour code represents a
deformation scale. Dark blue represents a negative offset of −10 mm whereby red
indicates the maximum extension of 10 mm. The smallest offset (±0) is represented
in light green. Neutral colour indicates that the discrepancy to the base geometry
exceeded the 10 mm offset. After optical 3D scanning the images of cylinders,
horizontal and vertical cross-section plots (positions 1–4 in Tables 5 and 6), also
called surface profiles, were created to quantify the discrepancies. The horizontal
section allowed the comparison of the layers width at a given height (50% print)
for all prints and visualizes the discrepancy to the outer surface (in yellow) as the
reference. The vertical section illustrates the material behaviour and deformation
in height. The digital base geometry for comparison was a single surface with the
dimensions 10 × 10 cm.
Table 7: Overall scan illustrates the discrepancies to the original geometry (dark
blue = negative offset of -10 mm, red = the maximum extension of 10 mm, light
green = the smallest offset (±0), neutral colour = the base geometry exceeds the 10
mm offset).
C Mixture: As intended for better comparison the model only showed small devi-
ations. The commercial clay had homogeneous and fine-grained material properties
and thus this mixture showed the best results. The scan of the clay-cylinder showed
overall small deviation from the base model. Local deflections are due to mechan-
ical inaccuracies or air inclusions within the material. It can be observed that the
lower layers extend unevenly due to the material weight. Slight discrepancies are
also visible in the horizontal section in comparison to the original base model, with
the highest values of 1.458 mm to the cylinder outer surface. The vertical section
confirms the slight extension at the base layers, however, stays at a 1–4 mm difference
from lower to higher measuring point.
CSS Mixture: The best results of the clay-salt-straw mixtures showed, in the
overall evaluation, a straight wall built up and acceptable deformations (see Tables 7,
8). However, the horizontal section shows significant deviations from the original
shape. Shifts in a range between 3.121 and 3.751 mm confirm the already visible
material roughness. We observed that due to the straw, the material mixture dried and
shrank differently than the other test-cylinders. The 3D scan shows interruptions due
to the surface roughness as well. The vertical section confirms the uneven surface
with significant variations.
 3D Print with Salt

Table 7 Overall scan illustrates the discrepancies to the original geometry (dark blue = negative offset of -10 mm, red = the maximum extension of 10 mm,
light green = the smallest offset (±0), neutral colour = the base geometry exceeds the 10 mm offset)
C CS CSS SSC
Recipe Clay Clay, salt Clay, salt, straw Clay, salt, starch
Discrepancy to the outer surface
111
Table 8 Vertical sections illustrate discrepancies to the original geometry
112

C CS CSS SSC
Recipe Clay Clay, salt Clay, salt, straw Clay, salt, starch
Bottom left width (mm) 5.340 7.103 5.997 6.163
Bottom right width (mm) 5.436 6.848 6.256 7.865
Upper left width (mm) 5.261 6.684 6.772 6.963
Upper right width (mm) 5.021 6.703 4.919 7.017
3D scan section

3D scan section-line

3D section width (mm)

V. Pungercar et al.
3D Print with Salt 113

SSC Mixture: The test cylinder of the clay-salt-starch mixture showed only small
differences to the original shape (see Tables 7, 8). Besides mechanical inaccuracies
at the lower third, the overall print showed no significant deviations. The horizontal
section confirms the overall appearance and captures deviations of only 1.3 mm. The
vertical section, due to the starch additive, further proves the good characteristics of
the overall surface.
All measurements were compared with the modelled 3D surface (see Tables 7, 8).
None of the prints matched the assigned dimensions. This illustrates that during the
printing process deflections and distortion occur even without visible damages. With
higher heterogeneity and lower humidity the printed quality declines. Larger grains
or additives also cause an increase of the deviations. Further, while increasing the
humidity improved the printability, it also weakened the substance and thus caused
more substantial deviations during the drying process. We noted that all scanned
cylinders show an uneven distribution of the material at the base. Our assumption is
that this effect, not noticeable to the human eye, was caused by a small inclination
of the baseplate. In future research the material properties and behaviour for the 3D
printed objects have to be evaluated at a 1:1 scale model and with a bigger sized
printer to further develop the mixtures.

2.3 Experimental Study 3: Potential Application

To accompany this research, our chair (EBB) also organized two elective master
courses in winter semester 2020 and summer semester 2021, whose focus was to
extend the knowledge of salt-mixtures, the historical significance of salt as well as
potential applications of the 3D printed salt-mixtures. Research of already established
applications of salt in everyday life was categorized to understand future fields of
application for 3D printing with salt (see Fig. 9).
Using salt as a local and environmentally friendly resource (geographical usage):
This approach is based on the concept of building with local materials in dry and
hot areas where little rain falls and salt waste is available from desalination plants or
potash mining. Materials found on site can be 3D printed and used for buildings. To
find suitable locations for this approach, weather data need to be overlaid onto maps
showing areas with salt waste. Once defined the use of salt as a building material can
be trialled in the identified regions (see Fig. 9, Left above).
Modular prefabricated elements: 3D printed building-elements fabricated off site
from salt-mixtures are installed on sites with the right weather conditions. If the
humidity is below 75% but high enough to fuse the salt-crystals without dissolving,
the separate building elements will join and work as a unified element (see Fig. 9,
Middle below)
Health/respiratory applications: This approach focuses on maximizing salt-rich
surface area assuming these particles are released over time due to air circulation in
indoor spaces. This concept focuses on the medical application of salt for respiratory
ailments (see Fig. 9, Right above).
114 V. Pungercar et al.

Fig. 9 Student work: Shiyu Chen, Kai Lin, Simone Gabbana, Mehmet Yolcu, Katharina
Broghammer, Philipp Neumann, Gabriele Mikalauskaite, Pinar Sel, Malaz Attar, winter semester
2020

Salt as air filter: Salt particles in the air are renowned for clearing the lungs and
helping asthmatic patients. This principle was the inspiration for the design of a
breathing shelter, where the chimney effect was used to intensify the airflow within
the space and to strengthen the therapeutic working (see Fig. 9, Left above).
3D printed salt-mixtures for antiseptic applications: A differentiation of surfaces
for interior spaces can be utilized in a more meaningful way: The usage of 3D
printed salt-containing surfaces can be used for antiseptic purposes; reducing germs
on surfaces but also controlling the growth of specific plants. This project focused
on green walls, allowing only salt resistant plants to grow (see Fig. 9, Right below).

3 Discussion

3.1 3D Printer

All experiments were performed with the Potter Bot Micro 10, which is designed for
3D printing with clay, principally used for the printing of ceramics. The ideal material
for 3D printing is, by default and as suggested by the manufacturer, a fine grain clay:
3D Print with Salt 115

“Maccabees cone 5 stoneware” clay or similar is suggested by the company; the

printer is not designed to print concrete or other tough materials by default. A block
of clay (10 kg) was separated into smaller pieces with a micro fiber towel placed in
between to spread the approximately 350 ml of added water equally in the block of
clay. The preparation and soaking process took two to three days.
The chair purchased the Potter Bot Micro 10 for the first test series due to its simple
technology and construction. The main advantage for the material-tests is the direct
extrusion. A threaded rod, controlled by a stepper motor, presses the material directly
through a plexiglass cylinder out through the nozzle onto the printing bed: Other
printers use compressed air systems with their elements connected with long tubes
to process the material, which could cause clogging and corrosion. The maximum
material capacity of the printer’s cylinder is 1000 ml and the maximum printing
envelope is X-280 mm, Y-265 mm and Z-305 mm. While the cylinder with the
material and nozzle only moves vertically, the base/print-bed (266 mm × 266 mm)
moves in the X and Y directions to enable full 3D movement. The printer is WIFI
controlled with a built-in web interface and can read and print common G-code files.
All prints were set up with CURA as slicing software. The speed, Z position and
material output can be changed during the print process and adjusted to the material’s
behaviour.
The printer properties of the Potter Bot Micro 10 and the material-mixtures are
highly dependent on each other. The test results derive from the behaviour and capac-
ities of this printer and are likely to change with bigger and more powerful printers.
Since the printer is designed to print clay, our salt mixtures (salt-cement, salt-gypsum
etc.) showed less convincing results.

3.1.1 Print Speed

According to the manufacturer, the print speed of the Potter Bot Micro 10 is recom-
mended within a range of 30 mm/s to 60 mm/s, and a maximum of 130 mm/s. The
speed is dependent on the material mixture and needs to be adjusted accordingly.
The fastest speed for a defined print result (see 2.2 Experimental study 2: Salt
Cylinder) was reached with processed clay. The main factors behind the need to
reduce the print speed were dryness and porosity of the material due to lack of
water or increased sand/salt ratio. The lower three layers on the printing bed were
printed with only 20% of the defined speed in the original CURA file to ensure
sufficient contact to the baseplate. Another reason to limit the print speed is the
printer construction: If the speed increases, the X–Y controlled base starts shaking
and inaccuracies in the print appear; detached and crooked layers that eventually
cause the print to collapse. Even though the speed had to be slightly adjusted in each
print, a speed of 25–30 mm/s was proven to print the best results with all material
mixtures.
116 V. Pungercar et al.

3.1.2 Nozzle

The Potter Bot Micro 10 comes with a range of four anodized aluminium nozzles
(3, 4, 5, and 6 mm). However, 3D printing with salt mixtures revealed that only the
6 mm nozzle was appropriate as smaller nozzle sizes caused clogging. Due to an
increased instability of the clay caused by adding salt (see 2.2 Experimental study
2: Salt Cylinder) narrower layers resulted in shaky and collapsing test cylinders.
Material mixtures with sand components (sand grain between 0.1 and 0.4 mm) caused
immediate clogging even with the 6 mm nozzle. Sand grains (in combination with
clay and salt) interlocked immediately as pressure on the nozzle was increased.

3.1.3 Printed Layer Height

All test cylinders were printed with a layer height of 1.5 mm since thinner layer
heights resulted in the overlapping of material. In relation to the print speed and
nozzle size the salt-mixtures were too rough to print clean layers and therefore the
material was pushed outwards significantly, increasing the layer width as a conse-
quence. Thicker layers resulted in lack of contact between the each other and led to
unsatisfactory test prints.
Additionally, we carried out tests printing with “falling infill”. The Z height was
moved upwards by about 200 mm in the source code so that the salt-mixture fell
into a prepared mould placed on the printing bed. The shape of the mould needed to
match the print bed dimensions but could be individually modified in height.

3.1.4 Printing with Inclination

Several tests were made with different material-mixtures. However, the recom-
mended inclination for PLA (Polylactic Acid, most commonly used for small scale
3D printing) of 45° could not be achieved with any of these. When increasing the
salt-ratio the mixtures became more and more fragile and therefore the maximum
inclination achieved was approximately 20° (depending on the complexity of the
shape as well as the water and salt content).

3.1.5 Replacing Printing Material

Changing the printing material requires demounting and replacing the cylinder,
including the removal of the top-part (motor with threaded rod and plate for material
compression) and bottom-part (component with nozzle) of the cylinder attachments,
each connected with eight screws. Since the cylinder material capacity is limited
to 1000 ml, larger 3D prints had to be paused while the material was refilled. The
cylinder position needed to be marked manually to retrieve the exact Z position of the
nozzle and the tracing of the refill had to be done by hand since the main print program
3D Print with Salt 117

could not be resumed once paused. This caused discontinuity within the shape as
well as of the material finish which was taken into consideration for the material
thickness and the design. Larger models needed a wall-thickness of a minimum of
25–40 mm to enable the precise continuation of the print with the second refill.

3.1.6 Printing Scale

The maximum printing envelope, described by the manufacturer as X-280 mm, Y-

265 mm and Z-305 mm could not be fully utilized in any of the test-prints. Only
prints with maximum dimensions of X-250 mm, Y-250 mm and Z-250 mm showed
positive results. We observed that large prints approaching the print size limits became
inaccurate at the edges. However, in most test-prints it was the material mixtures that
limited the overall model dimensions and not the printer. The 3D prints progressively
deformed with higher salt ratios in the mixtures and when increasing the overall
printing height.

3.1.7 Printing Time

The test cylinders were prepared with height and diameter of 100 mm. The cylinder
was printed with a single-layer wall build-up and therefore no infill. In the samples,
the layer height was set to 1.5 mm as to allow rougher material-mixtures to be built
up in continuous layers. The single layer wall line was set to a width of 6 mm with
a 6 mm nozzle. The print speed was set to 30 mm/s, which resulted in an estimated
printing time for the full test cylinder of 19 min (see 2.2 Experimental study 2: Salt
Cylinder).

3.2 Materials

3.2.1 Salt and Binders

Salt is too porous to be printed alone and requires the utilisation of a binder to hold the
salt crystals together in the material extrusion process. Different material tests with
our printer showed clay to be the most appropriate binder. Already in the first phase
of the experiments, salt-clay (SC) mixtures showed the best printability. However,
the SC 3D printed objects (in comparison to the solid clay mixtures) often showed
cracks, voids and roughness on the surface as result of a decrease in stiffness. So, in
the second phase of the research we experimented with the addition of starch or straw
to SC mixtures. While the SC with starch behaved better (stiffness and ductility were
improved), SC with straw was in most cases too hard to press through the nozzle of
the printer. The straw absorbed water to an unacceptable degree such that the mixture
118 V. Pungercar et al.

was no longer printable. Consequently, only very small amounts of straw could be
added.
The experimental studies with other binders showed gypsum to have a too short
a setting time, concrete to have a too high amount of aggregates and starch to be
too fluid. We expect that with adapted additives (super-plastifier, fly ash, short fibres,
retarder) or the application of heat, the printability (flow, compressive strength, setting
and drying time) could be improved. However, no such studies were carried out.

3.2.2 Amount of Salt in the Printing Mortar

The main goal of the research was to increase the resource efficiency by using the
highest possible amount of salt in salt binder mixtures and still obtain the desired
printing properties. The highest amount of salt was reached in the salt-clay mixtures
with the addition of starch. The optimal mixture consisted of 57% salt, 24% clay,
88% starch, 8% water and 0.8% alcohol. The ratio of salt and binder here was 70:30,
all other mixtures had lower salt/binder ratios.

3.2.3 Surface

Salt crystals on the surface of the 3D printed layers not only contribute to an attractive
surface, but may also have an effect on health (not yet scientifically investigated)
and hygrothermal properties. Higher levels of surface salt crystals could enhance the
infiltration of microscopic salt particles into the indoor air with a positive influence on
respiratory health. At the same time, the uneven and rough surface will store heat and
humidity more rapidly (max 75%) than a smooth one. However, the prevalence of salt
crystals on the surface did not only depend on the salt content in the mixture but also
on the additives. Although the salt-clay-starch mixtures contained the highest amount
of salt, crystallisation was almost undetectable on the surface (due to the starch’s
properties). In fact, the most visible crystallisation on the surface was observed with
the highest water content in salt-clay mixtures without additives.

3.2.4 Water Content

In all our studies, the water content had to be adapted to the salt content as well as
the types of additives and binders. The highest water content (with still acceptable
printability) was observed in the salt-gypsum (SG) mixtures of the first phase. In
salt-clay mixtures in the second phase the amount of water could be raised (up to
13% mass content) by adding straw and was lowest (8% mass content) when adding
starch. Finally, with more salt in the salt mortar the water content could be increased.
However controlling the printing mortar properties by addition of salt and water were
challenging because the salt/water ratio was never linear.
3D Print with Salt 119

3.2.5 Reinforcement

Reinforcement (straw) was used in the second phase of the studies to obtain better
control of cracks after the drying period. We found that the mortar was only printable
with the addition of small amount of straw (up to 0.7% mass content). Already in
the mixing phase, the straw reinforcement absorbed a lot of water and during the
3D printing process the mortar often became too dry to print with. The research of a
variety of reinforcing fibres and a closer control of their impacts is thus recommended
for future studies.

3.2.6 Drying

All 3D printed objects were dried at room temperature or in the oven at 90 °C, and
it became apparent that the drying process influenced the shrinkage of the objects:
with more cracks appearing with longer drying periods. The shortest drying period
was recorded for salt-gypsum mixtures and the longest for salt-clay mixtures with
starch. Drying an object in the oven accelerated the vaporization of water and caused
more salt efflorescence on the surface.

3.3 Other Parameters

3.3.1 Full-Scale Printing with Salt

The experiments explored the use of salt in a small-scale printing process. Further
optimization of the salt printing mortar is needed for full-scale printing. Small-scale
printing results will probably not be directly applicable to a full-scale print due to
a different “relationship” between printer and material. In this study we found that
the print mortar had to be adapted to printing properties and to the printer itself.
For example a mortar containing too much salt was impossible to push through the
printer‘s nozzle. Consequently, the amount of salt (maximum aggregate size of the
printing mortar) was reduced for better printing results. A similar need for adaptations
of the printing mortar in full-scale printing can be expected. The properties of the
mortar will have to be controlled by different salt/binder ratios or by the inclusion of
additives and adjusting the drying and hardening process (cracks should be minimized
and compressive strength for maintaining the intended shape must be ensured).

3.3.2 Influence of Salt on the Compressive Strength

The compressive strength of the 3D printed objects was not specifically investi-
gated in these experiments because the compressive strength of salt-gypsum and
120 V. Pungercar et al.

salt-clay mixtures have already been tested in previous studies on salt material prop-
erties. Compressive strength tests were performed on cuboids of 40 × 40 × 160
mm following the norm DIN EN 13,454–2. The testing cuboids were placed in a
climate room at 60% RH and 21 °C, which negatively influenced the values: All
mixtures were extremely porous, almost impossible to test and lost up to 96% of
their compressive strength in comparison with the reference (100% gypsum or 100%
clay). As a consequence, some salt-clay mixtures were put into the climate chamber
again as an experiment for 24 h at 40 °C before testing. The results showed that the
strength values of dried salt-clay mixtures (30% salt and 70% clay) increased up to
140% compared with the reference (100% clay). Considering the effects of relative
humidity on compressive strength it is thus preferable to use structural salt mixtures
in dry and hot climate zone or conditions.

3.3.3 Surface Treatment and Stucco

The process of additive manufacturing produces inherently textured surfaces. The

layers, depending on the material, nozzle size and layer height, are staggered horizon-
tally and therefore visible on the outer surface. Adding salt to other materials triggered
an increase of porosity and surface roughness, which will have a major influence on
the design of potential full size building elements. Depending on the application,
the surface would need to be protected from potential damage like humidity, rain or
manual impact. The type of protection will need to be analysed in a separate study.

3.3.4 Prefabrication, Field Factories and On-Site Printing

Different construction methods for 3D printing with salt can be considered and will
need to be studied. The printing method will depend on the field of application and
will have to comply with the constraints of the 1:1 scale printer. Prefabricating 3D
printed building parts will have the advantage of a controlled production environ-
ment which allows for more complexity and precision of the printed geometry (see
Fig. 10). As recently applied in the 3D printing industry for buildings, the printer
could alternatively be mounted to print on site. This would especially be attractive
for remote areas with high salt resources.

4 Conclusion

In this research three consecutive studies were undertaken to analyse salt mixtures
for additive manufacturing in paste extrusion. The intent of this research was to
find potential for the use of more salt in the building process. Salt is increasingly
becoming an environmental threat as a by-product in desalination plants as well as
potash production. However, salt has high potential due of its over-availability and
3D Print with Salt 121

Fig. 10 Remote 3D printing at Chaka salt lake, master Thesis, Kai Lin, summer semester 2021,
TUM

positive properties such as storage of humidity and heat as well as potential positive
impact on respiratory health.
The analysed mixtures were made with a small but significant fraction of potential
additives, this can be extended with cement, resins or other materials. The research
showed promising results and succeeded in integrating up to 70% of salt in the 3D
printed material mixtures. However, the tests were limited due to parameters as lab-
space, the available 3D printer and the testing facilities. Most of the printed mixtures
were less stable with increased salt content, although some results (see Sect. 3.3.2)
had an even higher compressive strength, so the need for additives has to be clarified.
Straw, as hydrophilic additive, caused increasing surface roughness and segmented
layers. The question of the dissolution of salt at above 75% humidity remains to
resolve; this can be improved with surface treatments and sealants. It can be seen
that by working with 3D printing as new construction method new approaches have to
be considered for the salt-mixtures. Prefabrication of “smarter” surfaces or systems
for on-site construction is likely to become a relevant field of application. The absence
of steel reinforcements in the 3D printing process allows salt to reveal its positive
properties instead of causing unwanted corrosion. Finally, 1:1 scale samples need to
be printed to fully understand the potential of 3D printing with salt.

Declaration of conflicts No conflicts.

Authorship Contributions Vesna Pungercar: Conceptualization, Methodology, Formal analysis,

Investigation, Paper Layout, Resources, Writing - Original Draft (Abstract, 1. Introduction, 2 Exper-
imental studies, 2.1 Experimental study 1: Salt/Binder, 2.2 Experimental study 2: Salt Cylinder, 3.2
Materials, 3.3.1 Full-scale printing with salt, 3.3.2 Influence of salt on the compressive strength, 6
Publication).
122 V. Pungercar et al.

Martino Hutz: 3D print strategy, Visualization, Formal analysis, Investigation, Resources,

Writing - Original Draft (2.2 Experimental study 2: Salt Cylinder, 2.3 Experimental study 3: Poten-
tial Application, 3.1 3D printer, 3.3.3 Surface treatment and stucco, 3.3.4 Prefabrication, field
factories and on-site printing, 4. Conclusion).
Florian Musso: Conceptualization, Writing: Review and Editing (All chapters).

References

1. Ferriss, A.L.: Does material well-being affect non-material well-being? Soc. Indic. Res. (2002)
2. Brambilla, A., Gasparri, E.: Hygrothermal behaviour of emerging timber-based envelope tech-
nologies in Australia: a preliminary investigation on condensation and mould growth risk. J.
Clean Prod. (2020)
3. Künzel, H.M., Holm, A., Zirkelbach, D., Karagiozis, A.N.: Simulation of indoor temperature
and humidity conditions including hygrothermal interactions with the building envelope. Solar
Energy (2005)
4. United Nations: World Population Prospects 2019. Data Booklet. United Nations, New York
(2019)
5. Pauliuk, S., Heeren, N.: Material efficiency and its contribution to climate change mitigation
in Germany: a deep decarbonization scenario analysis until 2060. J. Ind. Ecol. (2021)
6. Guan, D., Wang, D., Hallegatte, S., Davis, S.J., Huo, J., Li, S., Bai, Y., Lei, T., Xue, Q., Coffman,
D., Cheng, D., Chen, P., Liang, X., Xu, B., Lu, X., Wang, S., Hubacek, K., Gong, P.: Global
supply-chain effects of COVID-19 control measures. Nat. Hum. Behav. (2020)
7. European Commission: Buildings and construction - Internal Market, Industry, Entrepreneur-
ship and SMEs - European Commission. https://ec.europa.eu/growth/industry/sustainability/
built-environment_en. Last accessed 9 July 2021
8. Yuan, L., Ding, S., Wen, C.: Additive manufacturing technology for porous metal implant
applications and triple minimal surface structures: a review. Bioact. Mater. (2019)
9. Zhang, J., Wang, J., Dong, S., Yu, X., Han, B.: A review of the current progress and application
of 3D printed concrete. Appl. Sci. Manuf. (2019)
10. Blok, L.G., Longana, M.L., Yu, H., Woods, B.: An investigation into 3D printing of fibre
reinforced thermoplastic composites. Addit. Manuf. (2018)
11. Boretti, A., Rosa, L.: Reassessing the projections of the world water development report. NPJ
Clean Water (2019)
12. Jones, E., Qadir, M., van Vliet, M.T., Smakhtin, V., Kang, S.-M.: The state of desalination and
brine production: a global outlook. Sci. Total Environ. 657, 1343–1356 (2018)
13. Musfique, A., Rifat, A.: An assessment of the environmental impact of brine disposal in marine
environment. Int. J. Mod. Eng. Res. (IJMER) 2, 2756–2761 (2012)
14. Palomar, P., J. Losada, I.: Impacts of brine discharge on the marine environment. Modelling as
a predictive tool. In: Desalination, Trends and Technologies (2011)
15. Hoepner, T., Lattemann, S.: Chemical impacts from seawater desalination plants—a case study
of the northern Red Sea. Desalination (2003)
16. Hajbi, F., Hammi, H., M’nif, A.: Reuse of RO desalination plant reject brine. J. Phase Equilib.
Diffus. (2010)
17. Wikimedia Commons: Desalination plant RAK.: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:
Desalination_plant_RAK.jpg (2021). Last accessed 4 July 2022
18. Lottermoser, B.G.: Mine wastes. In: Characterization, Treatment and Environmental Impacts,
3rd edn, Springer, Heidelberg, New York (2010)
19. Reid, K.W., Getzlaf, M.N.: Decommissioning planning for Saskatchewan’s potash mines. In:
British Columbia Technical and Research Committee on Reclamation (2004)
3D Print with Salt 123

20. Government of Canada: Natural Resources Canada. Potash facts. https://www.nrcan.gc.ca/our-

natural-resources/minerals-mining/minerals-metals-facts/potash-facts/20521. Last accessed
24 February 2020
21. United Nations Environment Programme, International Fertilizer Industry Association: Envi-
ronmental Aspects of Phosphate and Potash Mining, 1st edn. International Fertilizer Industry
Association, Paris, France (2001)
22. Werra Kalibergbau Museum: Information und Zahlen zum Monte Kali. https://www.kalimu
seum.de/monte_kali/zahlen_daten_fakten/information_und_zahlen_zum_monte_kali.html.
Last accessed 10 June 2021
23. Braukmann, U., Böhme, D.: Salt pollution of the middle and lower sections of the river Werra
(Germany) and its impact on Benthic Macroinvertebrates. Limnologica (2011)
24. Ruben, L., Miguel, C.-A., Narcís, P.: Impact of potash mining in streams: the Llobregat basin
(northeast Spain) as a case study (2017)
25. Augustyn, A., Bauer, P., Duignan, B., Eldridge, A., Gregersen, E., McKenna, A., Petruzzello,
M., Rafferty, J.P., Ray, M., Rogers, K., Tikkanen, A., Wallenfeldt, J., Zeidan, A., Zelazko, A.:
Ion. Definition, Chemistry, Examples, & Facts. Encyclopædia Britannica (2019)
26. Ciferri, A., Perico, A. (eds.): Ionic Interactions in Natural and Synthetic Macromolecules.
Wiley, Hoboken, New York (2012)
27. Graef, M. de, McHenry, M.E.: Structure of materials. In: An Introduction to Crystallography,
Diffraction, and Symmetry. Cambridge University Press, New York (2012)
28. Beauheim, R.L., Roberts, R.M.: Hydrology and hydraulic properties of a bedded evaporite
formation. J. Hydrol. (2002)
29. Feldman, S.R.: Sodium chloride. In: Kirk, R.E., Othmer, D.F. (eds.) Encyclopedia of Chemical
Technology. Wiley, New York (2003)
30. Las Cuevas, C. de: Pore structure characterization in rock salt. Eng. Geol. (1997)
31. Håkansson, B., Andersson, P.: Thermal conductivity and heat capacity of solid NaCl and NaI
under pressure. J. Phys. Chem. Solids. (1986)
32. Sayem Z.: Experimental and theoretical investigation of novel phase change materials for
thermal applications. A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the, University of Ontario
Institute of Technology. https://ir.library.dc-uoit.ca/bitstream/10155/571/1/Zafar_Sayem.pdf.
Last accessed 6 June 2020
33. Ohlsen, P.E.: Thermal conductivity of sodium chloride within the temperature range 375 °K to
637 °K. Masters Thesis, Missouri School of Mines and Metallurgy. https://scholarsmine.mst.
edu/masters_theses/2573. Last accessed 10 June 2020
34. Lorenz, J., Haas, J.L., Jr., Clynne, M.A., Schafer, C.M., Potter, R.W., Jr., Tomkins, R.P.T.,
Shakoor, A., Hume, H.R., Yang, J.M., Li, H.H., Matula, R.A.: Physical Properties Data for
Rock Salt. Government Printing Office, United States (1981)
35. Durham, W.B., Abey, A.E.: Thermal Properties of Avery Island Salt to 573/sup 0/K and 50-MPa
Confining Pressure. Lawrence Livermore National Lab, United States (1981)
36. Ferguson, J.B.: The melting and freezing point of sodium chloride. J. Phys. Chem. (1922)
37. National Center for Biotechnology Information: PubChem Database. Sodium chloride. https://
pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Sodium-chloride#section=Computed-Descriptors. Last
accessed 15 March 2020
38. Puryshev, E.A.: The efficacy of speleotherapy in atopic dermatitis in children (The efficacy of
speleotherapy in atopic dermatitis in children). Voprosy kurortologii, fizioterapii, i lechebnoi
fizicheskoi kultury 34–35 (1994)
39. Asselman, J., van Acker, E., Rijcke, M. de, Tilleman, L., van Nieuwerburgh, F., Mees, J.,
Schamphelaere, K.A.C. de, Janssen, C.R.: Marine biogenics in sea spray aerosols interact with
the mTOR signaling pathway. Sci. Rep. (2019)
40. Zaj˛ac, J., Bojar, I., Helbin, J., Kolarzyk, E., Owoc, A.: Salt caves as simulation of natural
environment and significance of halotherapy. Environ. Med. 21, 124–127 (2014)
41. Chervinskaya, A.V., Zilber, N.A.: Halotherapy for treatment of respiratory diseases. J. Aerosol
Med. Off. J. Int. Soc. Aerosols Med. (1995)
124 V. Pungercar et al.

42. Horowitz, S.: Salt cave therapy: rediscovering the benefits of an old preservative. Altern.
Complement. Ther. (2010)
43. Horvath, T.: Speleotherapy: a special kind of climatotherapy, its role in respiratory rehabilita-
tion. Int. Rehabil. Med. (1986)
44. Petruccioli, A., Montalbano, C.: Oasi di Siwa. Azioni per lo sviluppo sostenibile = Siwa Oasis
actions for a sustainable development. Theory and method in Islamic architectural design.
DICAR, Bari (2011)
45. Couch, J. (ed.): Pliny’s natural history. In Thirty-Seven Books. A translation on the basis of
that by Dr. Philemon Holland, ed. 1601. George BakclAY, Leicester Square (1847-48)
46. Gibb, H., Beckingham, C.F.: The Travels of Ibn Battuta. AD 1325-1354. Hakluyt Society,
Second Series. Taylor & Francis (2017)
47. Farouk Mohamed, A.: Comparative study of traditional and modern building techniques in Siwa
Oasis, Egypt: case study: affordable residential building using appropriate building technique.
Case Stud. Constr. Mater. (2020)
48. Rovero, L., Tonietti, U., Fratini, F., Rescic, S.: The Salt Architecture in Siwa Oasis – Egypt
(XII–XX Centuries). Constr. Build. Mater. (2009)
49. Gotti, E., Oleson, J.P., Bottalico, L., Cucitore, R., Brandon, C., Hohlfelder, R.L.: A comparison
of the chemical and engineering characteristics of Ancient Roman hydraulic concrete with a
modern reproduction of Vitruvian hydraulic concrete. Archaeometry (2008)
50. Xiao, J., Qiang, C., Nanni, A., Zhang, K.: Use of sea-sand and seawater in concrete construction:
current status and future opportunities. Constr. Build. Mater. (2017)
51. Mohammed, T.U., Hamada, H., Yamaji, T.: Performance of seawater-mixed concrete in the
tidal environment (2004). 200528-004900
52. Griffin, D.F., Henry, R.L.: The effect of salt in concrete on compressive strength, water vapor
transmission, and corrosion of reinforcing steel. Y-R007-05-012. U.S. Naval Civil Engineering
Laboratory, Port Hueneme, California (1962)
53. DBE: Planfeststellungsverfahren zur Stilllegung des Edlagers für radioaktive Abfälle
Morsleben. Verfahrensunterlage (2004)
54. Müller-Hoeppe, N., Breustedt, M., Wolf, J., Czaikowski, O., Wieczorek, K.: Integrität geotech-
nischer Barrieren. Bericht zum Arbeitspaket 9.2; vorläufige Sicherheitsanalyse für den Standort
Gorleben 288, 7 (2012)
55. Weber, J.L.: Untersuchung von Materialien zur Abdichtung des Kontaktbereichs
zwischen Streckenverschlussbauwerken aus Hydraulisch Abbindenden Baustoffen und
dem Salzgebirge. https://dokumente.ub.tu-clausthal.de/servlets/MCRFileNodeServlet/claust
hal_derivate_00000453/Db113843.pdf. Last accessed 20 May 2020
56. Schmidt-Döhl, F.: Dauerhaftigkeitsprognose von Salzbeton im Kontakt mit salinaren Lösungen.
In: Nothnagel, R., Twelmeier, H. (eds.) Baustoff und Konstruktion. Festschrift zum 60. Geburt-
stag von Harald Budelmann. SpringerLink Bücher, pp. 425–432. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg
(2013)
57. Eyermann, T.J., van Sambeek, L.L., Hansen, F.D.: Case studies of sealing methods and materials
used in the salt and potash mining industries. Albuquerque, New Mexico (1995)
58. Orton, J.: Animal supplement lick blocks, Patent WO2004021801A1. United States of America
(2004)
59. Darcy, W.B.: Salt block. Patent US2599436A, United States of America (1952)
60. Whitney, A.L.: Salt block. Patent CA120934A. United States of America (1909)
61. Patten, L.A.: Salt block for cattle. Patent US2142825A. United States of America (1939)
62. Schelven, W.J. van: Construction block of compressed salts encapsulated with epoxy resin.
Patent US3211581A. United States of America (1965)
63. Mandler, D., Lapidot, N., Buffa, A., Dikovsky, G., Rikanati, L.: Compressed salt objects. Patent
US 2020/0031714 A1. United States of America (2020)
64. Faulders studio: Geotube Tower. https://www.faulders-studio.com/GEOTUBE-TOWER. Last
accessed 14 June 2019
65. Lahidji, R.: Marbled salts. https://www.roxanelahidji.com/marbled-salts. Last accessed 14
August 2020
3D Print with Salt 125

66. Sibbel, K.: SEAt. https://karlijnsibbel.com/portfolio/seat/. Last accessed 8 June 2020

67. Manor, D., Goldberg, L., Sterngast, T., Sadowsky, T.: Sigalit Landau: Salt Years. Hatje Cantz
Verlag GmbH & Company, Salzburg (2019)
68. Geboers, E.: The Salt Project. Master thesis, TU Delft. https://repository.tudelft.nl/islandora/obj
ect/uuid:528c3ddc-8a7e-4b95-89a3-60185109e674?collection=education. Last accessed 20
November 2019
69. Ganter, M.: Salty parts - 3DP in Salt. http://depts.washington.edu/open3dp/2011/03/salty-parts-
3dp-in-salt/ (2011). Last accessed 11 May 2020
70. Li, J., Wu, C., Chu, P.K., Gelinsky, M.: 3D printing of hydrogels: rational design strategies and
emerging biomedical applications. Mater. Sci. Eng. R Rep. (2020)
71. Rael, R., San Fratello, V.: Printing Architecture. Innovative Recipes for 3D Printing. Princeton
Architectural Press, New York (2018).
72. Marutani, Y., Kamitani, T.: Manufacturing sacrificial patterns for casting by salt powder
lamination. Rapid Prototyp. J. (2004)
73. Gonzalez, J.A., Mireles, J., Lin, Y., Wicker, R.B.: Characterization of ceramic components
fabricated using binder jetting additive manufacturing technology. Ceram (2016)
74. Patel, M.J., Blackburn, S., Wilson, D.I.: Modelling of paste ram extrusion subject to liquid
phase migration and wall friction. Chem. Eng. Sci. (2017)
75. Kelly, M.: Salt, Emergence and Formation at the Dead Sea: M. Arch Thesis at University
of California, Berkeley. Mastertesis, UC Berkeley. https://books.google.de/books?id=xY-7Aw
AAQBAJ. Last accessed 22 May 2020
76. Sibbel, K.: 3d printing salt. https://karlijnsibbel.com/portfolio/3d-printing-salt-2/. Last
accessed 11 July 2021
77. Kleger, N., Cihova, M., Masania, K., Studart, A.R., Löffler, J.F.: 3D printing of salt as a template
for magnesium with structured porosity. Adv. Mater. (2019)
78. Wangler, T., Lloret, E., Reiter, L., Hack, N., Gramazio, F., Kohler, M., Bernhard, M., Dillen-
burger, B., Buchli, J., Roussel, N., Flatt, R.: Digital concrete: opportunities and challenges.
RILEM Tech Lett 1, 67–75 (2016)
79. Wi, K., Suresh, V., Wang, K., Li, B., Qin, H.: Quantifying quality of 3D printed clay objects
using a 3D structured light scanning system. Addit. Manuf. 32, 100987 (2020)
80. Mu, X., Bertron, T., Dunn, C., Qiao, H., Wu, J., Zhao, Z., Saldana, C., Qi, H.J.: Porous polymeric
materials by 3D printing of photocurable resin. Mater. Horiz. (2017)
81. Pungercar, V., Hutz, M., Musso, F.: Reuse of salt waste in 3D printing: case study. In: 4th
International Conference PRE FREE - UP DOWN - RE CYCLE, Rome, Italy (2021)
82. Pacewicz, K., Sobotka, A., Gołek, Ł.: Characteristic of materials for the 3D printed building
constructions by additive printing. In: MATEC Web Conference (2018)
83. Rushing, T.S., Stynoski, P.B., Barna, L.A., Al-Chaar, G.K., Burroughs, J.F., Shannon, J.D.,
Kreiger, M.A., Case, M.P.: Investigation of Concrete Mixtures for Additive Construction. In:
3D Concrete Printing Technology, pp. 137–160. Elsevier (2019)

Open Access This chapter is licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0
International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits use, sharing,
adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate
credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license and
indicate if changes were made.
The images or other third party material in this chapter are included in the chapter’s Creative
Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not
included in the chapter’s Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by
statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from
the copyright holder.