ZIMSEC SOCIOLOGY

2022

Form six
sociology

SOCIOLOGICAL CONVERSATION 2

T. CHIHOTA
 Form 6 sociology

The book is in copyright. No reproduction of any part may take place without the permission
of the author. This is not the published book, you can find the published and registered copy
that is approved by Ministry of Education for use in secondary schools in any leading
bookshops, and however the content remains the same.

Author : Tatenda Chihota

Mobile : +263 718786253

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

My heartfelt gratitude goes to my Midlands State University

lecturers such as Dr Munemo for unwavering guidance and
constructive criticism throughout this project.

I would also like to extend my profound gratitude to my fellow

sociology teachers for reviewing my work and providing
valuable comments. A special word of thanks goes to B.
Chikakano for providing guidance and her great contribution on
the examination tips chapter.

I also want to thank M Moyo, Mbizo High School teacher and W

Dingani for the whole heartedly given support in the realization
of my dream.

Finally, to the Almighty God my creator.

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 Form 6 Sociology

The book is written by experienced sociologist, a sociology teacher, facilitator and a researcher
Tatenda Chihota. This book supports research skills as well as the knowledge and understanding
required to grasp key topics, develop analytical skills and to rigorously prepare students for
ZIMSEC exams. The book is written in a simple English for the level of learners

Features included:

 Comprehensive coverage of the syllabus and assessment objectives.

 Test yourself styled questions to reinforce and support self-assessment.

 Analysis of case studies to develop discussion and sociological research skills.

 Explanation of key terms within the text to reinforce knowledge and contextual
understanding.

 Locally Zimbabwean examples and case studies are given to consolidate understanding.

 End of term questions are given.

 Pictures and fun facts are given to consolidate understanding.

 Glossary at the end of each topic is provided to give learners a basis

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 Content

The book aims to provide you with the knowledge and understanding required to
succeed A level. The structure of each chapter reflects the order of information as it
appears in the syllabus. This allows you to track your progress in a logical way. The
books covers all topics, objectives and units of the syllabus.

Alert this copy is not edited, it contains some minor typing errors

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 Table of contents

Acknowledgments 2
Race and ethnicity 6
Poverty 90
Enterprise and work 120
Leisure 174
Population and health 198
Globalization and social change 261
Urbanization 290
Governance and citizenship 312
Crime and deviance 336
Mass media 370

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Topic 11
RACE AND ETHNICITY

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Units covered:
1.1 Race and Ethnic groups in Zimbabwe
1.2 Forms of discrimination
1.3 Theories of racial discrimination and prejudice
1.4 patterns of racial and ethnic inequality

Introduction
Globally, all societies have different racial and ethnic groups. The Zimbabwean society has not
been spared as it has been described as a society, which has more than one racially defined
group (Murphree, 1985). This therefore renders Zimbabwe as a multi-cultural and racial society.
Due to a variety in race and ethnicity, conflicts have been recognized in Zimbabwe. The Ministry
of Education, Sports and Culture (MOESC) drafted a cultural policy in September 2004, which
was revised in 2009 in a move that illustrated and recognizes Zimbabwe as a multicultural and
multi-racial society.

1.1 Race and Ethnic groups in Zimbabwe

Unit objectives
Learners should be able to:
 Distinguish the terms race and ethnicity
 Assess the characteristics of the majority and minority groups

Introduction
In this unit, we are going to distinguish race and ethnicity and the attention will be further given
to the characteristics of majority and minority groups. This does not show any element of
superiority or inferiority but cultural diversity.

Ethnicity
According to Giddens (2009), Ethnicity refers to the cultural practices and outlooks of a given
community of people, which sets them apart from others. Thus following the definition of
Giddens, members of ethnic groups see themselves as culturally distinct from other groups and
are seen by them, in return, as different. Ethnicity is a shared cultural heritage, which means it
is passed from generation to generation (Macionis, 2012). People define themselves or others
as members of an ethnic category based on common ancestry, language, or religion that gives
them a distinctive social identity.

Key term
generation - refers to all of the people born at about the same time, regarded collectively. A
generation has 20 to 30 years
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Social construction of ethnicity

As noted above, Zimbabwe is a multicultural and multi- racial society and this does not reflect
the idea of superiority and inferiority. In Zimbabwe for example, there is a general cultural
belief that the Ndebele group is violent and the Shona group and others are less violent which
an assumption. In this case, a general thinking is giving the differences between the Shona and
Ndebele group as biological, but in reality, Ndebele is a nonviolent community, these are
stereotypes and assumptions.

Key terms
Ethnicity: Refers to one’s cultural group. We are familiar with Shona and Ndebele as examples
of cultural groups.
Socially constructed: The differences in ethnic groups are produced by society.

Sociologists such as Brown (1997) have reject the biological explanation of ethnicity. This takes
us to the idea that there is nothing innate or inborn about ethnicity hence, it is of paramount
important for learners to understand that ethnicity is cultural not biological from sociological
point of view. In this respect, it clear that ethnicity is produced and reproduced by cultural
beliefs, which in turn, makes individuals to define others as inferior or regard themselves as
superior to other groups due to learned, believes.
Michael E. Brown (1997) has argued that ethnicity is something, which is socially constructed.
To him below are some of the characteristics, which distinguish different groups from other
groups.

Belief in common ancestry - According to Brown, it is not essential that this common ancestry
is real or that genetic ties exist. What matters in this case is the belief. Thus Shona group for
example, believes that they have their own
ancestors who were said to be manifesting through
Nehanda and Kaguvi that is why the present day
key Terms

Fig 1.1 Mbuya Nehanda statue

Zimbabwe has recognized them, which is evidenced by the erection of Nehanda statue in
Harare capital.
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Common history - The belief in common history distinguishes different groups into ethnic
groups. For example, the history has it that the Bantu people share a common history of origin,
which is why they speak closer to similar languages. In Shona, they refer a person as 'munhu', in
Ndebele as' Umuntu' and in Nyanja as 'untu'. In this respect, the last three words can be said to
be similar. This is why people in southern Africa have common language. Furthermore, the
Ndebele group distinguish themselves from the Shona and other groups because their history
of origin which is traced from Zulu land during the time of King Mzilikazi hence they might see
themselves or they might be perceived by the other groups as culturally different.

Shared culture - This is another factor which differentiates different ethnic groups from each
other. As noted by Brown, They have some degree of shared culture that is passed through a
combination of language , religion, laws , customs , institutions, dress , music, crafts,
architecture even food and so on. For example, the Tonga group is differentiated by Chitonga
language in Zimbabwe, Tonga (Chitonga), also known as Zambezi, is a Bantu language primarily
spoken by the Tonga people (Batonga) who live mainly in the Southern and Western provinces
of Zambia, and in northern Zimbabwe, with a few in Mozambique. The language is also spoken
by the Iwe, Toka and Leya people, and perhaps by the Kafwe Twa (if they are not Ila), as well as
many bilingual Zambians and Zimbabweans. Similarly, The Ndebele speak Ndebele and the
Shona speak Chishona. Through these cultural distinctions, individuals group themselves as
different. Thus, this proves beyond doubt that ethnicity is socially constructed.

Socialization - through socialization, individuals have taken and assimilated particular traits,
myth, or stereotypes about a certain group, which is likely to be a source of conflict. For
instance, it is alleged that some individuals within the Ndebele group share a myth that they are
aggressive. Such a belief is passed from generation to generation which had raised ethnic fear,
but in reality (though), it is said that the Ndebele migration was due to Zulu violence, there is
nothing biological about any differences in behavior but only myths are dominating because
Zimbabwe is said to be a nonviolent community.

The group has a sense of attachment to a specific territory - The different ethnic groups are
differentiated by territories not by biology. We are familiar with Bulawayo as an Ndebele
territory and Mashonaland provinces as for the Shona. The BaTonga people of Zimbabwe are
found in and around the Binga District, Binga village the Kariba area, and other parts of
Matabeleland. In Zimbabwe, the language of the Tonga people is called Chitonga. In reality, this
environment does not reflect any biological differences because there are a number of Shona
people living in the territories, which are said not to be their own. Hence, geographical location
make the groups to be culturally distinct.

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Causes of ethnic conflict
Brown distinguished three main types of explanation for ethnic conflict: the systematic, the
domestic and the perceptual

 Systematic explanation - it suggests that ethnic conflicts results from the nature of the
security ethnic groups operates on. An obvious explanation noted by Brown (1997) is
that ethnic groups live close to one another, which is likely to trigger conflicts.
Fortunately, Brown had accepted that not all ethnic groups who are neighbors end up
fighting.

 Domestic explanation - it relates to factors such as the effectiveness of states in

addressing the concern of the constituents. Brown argued that a certain group can feel
vulnerable and deprived which is likely to trigger conflicts. The value of Brown is
applicable to Zimbabwe situation. Nathan Shamuyarira in his book Crisis in Southern
Rhodesia chronicles events leading to the 1963 (ZANU and ZAPU) split though denies
that ethnicity was the basis of the split (Sithole 1980). Although Shamuyarira disputes
the ethnic factor, the split of 1963 gave birth to a Shona dominated ZANU that
concentrated its recruitment in Mashonaland and the Ndebele area was deprived
leading to 1982 - 88 Gukurahundi massacre. Gukurahundi as noted by Rwodzi is
defined as: a strategy of annihilating all those opposed to the chimurenga ideology and
to ZANU-PF ideology.

 Perceptual explanations - they are concerned with the ways ethnic groups perceived
one another. Hostility can be increased through myths and false history that distorted
and demonize members of another group. For example, the myths that Ndebele group
is aggressive and violent has distorted the Ndebele group but in reality, Ndebele is a
nonviolent community.
Did you know that humans are social animals? Violence is a human trait. You can be violent or
cause others to be violent. ?

Debate - violence amongst ethnic groups is inevitable. Discuss

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Race

Fig 1:2 showing differences in skin color

Race is a socially constructed category of people who share biologically transmitted traits that
members of a society consider important. People may classify one another racially based on
physical characteristics such as skin color, facial features, hair texture, and body shape
(Macionis 2012).

Social Construction of Race

Key term

Biological construct - the differences are biological, fixed and cannot be changed

 People’s opinions define race - . Society assigns people to racial categories, such as
Black, White, and so on, not because of science, logic, or fact, but because of opinion
and social experience. How groups are defined racially is a social process. This is what is
meant when one says that race is socially constructed.
 Race is shaped by history - It is not the biological characteristics per se that define racial
groups but how groups have been treated and labeled historically and socially
(Higginbotham and Andersen 2012). The experiences of Jewish people provides a good
example of what it means to say that race is a socially constructed category. Jews are
more accurately called an ethnic group because of common religious and cultural
heritage, but in Nazi Germany, Hitler defined Jews as a “race.” An ethnic group thus
became racialized. Jews were presumed to be biologically inferior to the group Hitler
labeled the Aryans white-skinned, blonde, tall, blue-eyed people. On the basis of this
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 definition which was supported through Nazi law, taught in Nazi schools, and enforced
by the Nazi military Jewish people were brutally mistreated. They were segregated,
persecuted, and systematically murdered in what has come to be called the Holocaust
during the Second World War.
 Race is for manipulation of privileges - Because race is a social construction, the
process of defining races typically benefits those who have more power and privilege
than others do. As sociologist Edward Telles notes, light skinned Brazilians continue to
be privileged and continue to hold a disproportionate share of the wealth and power.
Brazilians of darker skin color have significantly lower earnings, occupational status, and
lower access to education (Telles et al. 2011; Villareal 2010; Telles 2004, 1994)
 The diversity that exists across human race is very small - Center for health department,
(2021) argue that race is not biologically real because the genetic diversity that exists
across the entire human race is very, very small, and race is not even a good proxy for
what diversity does exist. That is why we say race is a social construct: it’s a human-
invented classification system. It was invented as a way to define physical differences
between people, but has more often been used as a tool for oppression and violence.
 The meaning of race changes with time - If raced were based on permanent, innate
divisions of human beings, the American government would not have to constantly
scramble to change the definitions and qualifications for each category. However, it
does. All the time. As political priorities change, American racial definitions adjust right
along with them. For example, people of Mexican birth or ancestry were "white" until
the 1930 Census snatched that privilege back. Since then, their status — white or
Hispanic — has flip-flopped several more times, all depending largely on whatever the
current thinking was about their role in labor or immigration. Then, suddenly, in 2000,
the government decided that Americans could be more than one race, adding options to
express this to the Census. In other words, one day you could be a single race, and the
next day you could be as many as you pleased could.
 DNA test cannot measure it - A DNA test can give you information about where your
ancestors came from. That is not the same as telling you what your race is. Dorothy
Roberts, the author of Fatal Invention Shows how Science, Politics, and Big Business re-
create race. He explains that the medical community links race to health outcomes but
science itself cannot shoe the biological differences. To him racial differences is due to
social inequalities. The term powerful are really just using race as a proxy for other
factors such as where your ancestors came from, or what social inequalities people who
have been grouped based on physical appearance.

What is the difference between race and ethnicity

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Both the terms race and ethnicity are used interchangeably; but theoretically, the terms have
distinct meanings, which cannot be interchangeably used with others. As the term race
specifically denotes the dividing of people on the basis of their physical traits, which are always
displayed, either in a lesser or greater degree, whereas the term ethnicity specifically refers to
the categorizing of people based on their social aspect, which can either be displayed or hidden.
The table below summarizes the differences between race and ethnicity.

Race Ethnicity

1.The term race is used to define a certain The term ethnicity refers to a certain
population or group of people based on their population or community of people whose
differing physical and some biological traits members share a common nationality or
such as complexion, hair texture etc. cultural habits such as Ndebele, Shona, Tonga
etc.

2. Race categories are divided because of Ethnicity is defined in terms of shared

shared genealogy, which is due to genealogy, which can be actual or presumed.
geographical isolation.

3. Race is fixed and cannot be completely Although Schaefer (2012) noted that, race and
changed. ethnicity are both considered ascribed statues,
Ethnicity is more of self-identified. An
individual can learn a language, social norms
and customs, and assimilate into a culture to
belong to an ethnic group but cannot learn
being black e.g. one ne can learn Shona
Language. Through socialization, people
assimilate the lifestyles, norms and beliefs of
ethnic communities.

Race cannot be hidden. For example, a white Ethnicity can be hidden, you cannot tell by just
person cannot hide his skin color seeing a person that this person belongs to
the Tonga people

There are few race-based conflicts. Ethnic Often brutal conflicts between ethnic
groups have

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 existed throughout history and across the
world e.g. BOKOHARAM terrorizing Christians
in Nigeria, the Hutu and Tutsi people in
Rwanda etc.

Table 1.1 a comparison between race and ethnicity

The characteristics of the majority and the minority groups

Online article shared by Pujar Mondal has pictured the below characteristics of the minority as
presented by Charles Wagley and Marvin Harris (1958) . The six basic characteristics of
minority groups are as follows: physical and cultural traits, unequal treatment, Ascribed status,
solidarity, in-group marriage and
subordination.

Minority group

Sociologist Louis Wirth (1945)

defined a minority group as people
who are singled out for unequal
treatment and who regard themselves as objects of collective discrimination. Surprisingly, a
minority group is not necessarily a numerical minority. When South Africa practiced apartheid,
a smaller group of Afrikaners, primarily Dutch, discriminated against a much larger number of
blacks. Accordingly, the term minority connotes discrimination, and in its sociological use, the
term subordinate group can be used interchangeably with the term minority in sociology,
members of a minority group are disadvantaged when compared with the dominant group - a
group possessing more wealth, power and prestige. Let us look at the characteristics of the
minority below

Physical and cultural traits - Members of a minority group share some physical and cultural
characteristics that distinguish them from the dominant (majority) group. Each society has its
arbitrary standards for determining which characteristics are most important in defining
dominant and minority group. Physical characteristics such as skin color are commonly called
racial. Cultural (ethnic) distinctions are rarely neutral and commonly associated with
antagonism between groups.

Key terms minority: refers to the subordinate or disadvantaged group.

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 Majority: the politically and economically dominant group.

Unequal treatment - Members of a minority group experience unequal treatment. They are
usually physically and socially isolated from the dominant (majority) community. For example,
the management of a community hostel or an apartment complex (or building) may refuse to
rent members of a minority community. For example, in India, it is often accused that the
members of minority groups (Muslims or Christians) are refused accommodation renting or
selling flats in the buildings managed or owned by the members of dominant group. Not only
this, in villages and small towns, it is seen that the members of minority groups are forced to
live in separate geographical localities. Physical segregation ultimately leads to social
segregation. This, probably explains why the minority groups in Zimbabwe such as the Tonga
are socially segregated which is why the Binga area is lagging behind in terms of development.

Ascribed status - Membership in a dominant (or minority) group is not voluntary. People are
born into the group. Thus, race, gender, ethnicity and religion are considered ascribed statuses.
For example, during colonial rule, the blacks were regarded as a minority group, and their
status was ascribed.

Solidarity- Minority group members have a strong sense of group solidarity. This sense of
solidarity is the outcome of prejudice and discrimination experienced by the minority group
members. It is based on in-group consciousness, which in turn gives rise to the feeling of ‘us’
versus them or versus they. It heightens feelings of common loyalty and interests. W.G. Sumner,
in his book Folkways (1906), noted that individuals make distinctions between members of
their own group called in-group and everyone else out-group.

In-group marriage- Members of a minority group generally marry within their own group in
order to keep alive their cultural distinctiveness
and to maintain group solidarity. For example,
Parsis, in India, and members of other minority
groups (Muslims or Christians) seldom marry in
other groups.

Subordination - The minority is subordinate to

the dominant (majority) in the distribution of power and privileges in a society. This is the key
characteristic of a minority group. The members of minority groups have relatively low power,
prestige and economic position in a societies system of social stratification. Not only this, they
have to observe the norms, values, cultural patterns and laws of the majority (dominant) group.
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Majority group

Look at Zimbabwean society, some groups have a better lifestyle and life chance as compared
to other groups. In terms of leadership, the group is dominant therefore, a majority group is the
group that is politically, economically, and culturally dominant. Accordingly, sociologists refer to
those who do the discriminating not as the majority, but, rather, as the dominant group, for
regardless of their numbers, this is the group that has the greater power and privilege. It is also
important for one to note the characteristics of the dominant groups as suggested below.

 Social honor or esteem - For the German sociologist Max Weber (1864-1920),
practically any characteristic could form the basis for a group, but a key is what he terms
honor or status honor. These are social valuations of others, both positive and negative.
Social honor or esteem could be associated with ethnicity, religion, styles of life, work
networks, or friendship groups. The privileged group often carry a higher status
 Lawmakers - Marxist theorists have argued that the laws are made by ruling class to
make the subordinate groups comply.

Key terms

Subordinate: lower in rank or position

Discriminate: Unfair treatment of a social group
Privilege ; benefit enjoyed by an individual or group beyond what is available to others.

 Discriminate the subordinate groups - the majority group actually deprive the minority
groups in all areas of life. Which is why the Ndebele rose against the Shona group in
1982-8 leading to Gukurahundi massacre.
Dominate all public spheres - although the Zimbabwean government has declared all
languages as official. The fact of the matter is that the Ndebele and Shona Languages
continue to dominate in all media forms.
 Marginalization of the minority - Marginalization often results in material deprivation
and exclusion.

End of unit 1.1 exercise questions

1. Discuss the differences between race and ethnicity (25)

2. Discuss the relationship between race and ethnicity (25)

3. Examine the view that ethnicity is socially constructed in Zimbabwe (25)

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4. Assess the view that violence is the main characteristic of ethnicity (25)

5. Assess the view that the characteristics of the majority and minority groups in Zimbabwe
is an indication that there won’t be equality and groups should just celebrate their
differences (25)

6. Discuss the characteristics of majority and minority groups in Zimbabwe (25)

7. Race is socially constructed .Discuss (25)

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Unit 1.2 forms of discrimination
Objectives

Learners should be able to;

 Identify types of discrimination
 Explain the concept of stereotypes, prejudice and racism

Introduction
In this unit, we focus on various forms of discrimination and the concept of stereotypes and
prejudice. It is noted that Societal discrimination exist about a broad range of social groups and
can vary by context or situation. Although the situation has changed in recent years, it should
be highlighted that where two or more different social groups meet, there is discrimination.

Forms of discrimination

Age discrimination - The age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967, as amended, protects
individuals who are 40 years of age and older from employment discrimination based on age.
Under this Act, it is unlawful to discriminate against a person because of his/her age with
respect to any term, condition, or privilege of employment.

Disability Discrimination - It is discrimination against qualified individuals with disabilities in

private businesses and in state and local governments (covering both mental and physical
impairments that limit major life activities), but who are otherwise qualified for employment.
This does not take place only in employment, but in everyday social life.

Sex discrimination - It is a discrimination bases on sex. A good example is any employer denying
an employment discrimination based on gender identity or sexual orientation. Sex
discrimination occurs when men and women who are similarly situated are treated differently
based on gender. It takes place when deliberate, repeated, or unsolicited verbal comments,
gestures, or physical contacts of a sexual nature are unwelcome. Sex discrimination also occurs
when an organizations policy has a disproportionate adverse impact on a person or group
based on gender

Religious Discrimination - it is unlawful for an employer to discriminate against an employee

because of his or her religion.

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National Origin - It is unlawful discrimination against an employee because of the individuals
birthplace, ancestry, culture, or linguistic characteristics common to a specific ethnic group.

Debate – in groups, discuss the view that the point where different social groups meet there is
discrimination

Race discrimination - Race discrimination occurs when employees are treated differently than
other employees because of unalterable characteristics, such as physical features attributed to
their race. For example, the discrimination against an Asian individual because of physical
characteristics such as facial features or height. Color discrimination occurs when persons are
treated differently than others because of their skin pigmentation. Color discrimination can
occur within the same ethnic group.

Reprisal/Retention - Retaliation is a discriminatory or adverse action made against a person

who files a complaint or charge, participates in an investigation or charge, or opposes an
employment practice made illegal by any of the statutes. The most obvious types of retaliation
are denial of a promotion, refusal to hire, denial of job benefits, demotion, suspension and
discharge. Other types of adverse actions include threats, reprimands, negative evaluations,
and harassment.

The concept of stereotypes, prejudice and racism

Stereotypes

If a new comer enters in a classroom, already you have your own personal conclusions about
that person based on the first sight.
For example, you might think that
the new comer is intelligent or dull
thus the new comer is stereotyped in
a certain way. Stereotype therefore
is a learned belief or is based on the
first

Fig 1:3 stereotype mindset

Impression. Stereotype is defined as fundamentally incorrect and derogatory generalizations

of group traits, reflective of the stereotypes underlying prejudices (Adorno et al. 1950).
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Stereotypes are selective, however, in that they are localized around group features that are
the most distinctive, that provide the greatest differentiation between groups, and that show
the least within-group variation

A related kernel-of-truth hypothesis holds that stereotypes are based on some empirical reality;
as such, they are useful, but may entail exaggerations (Judd and Park, 1993). This definition is of
the view that stereotypes have some important functions but warns that they may be an
element of group distortion. It should as well noted that stereotypes can be positive, for
example, one might stereotype girls saw good singers and this might be taken as a compliment.

The Oxford English Dictionary defines a stereotype as a widely held but fixed and oversimplified
image or idea of a particular type of person or thing. A good example of stereotype is when one
thinks that women are not good at driving, cannot do better in science subjects, have no
leadership skills. In this case, this is not a true reflection of women, but a cultural distortion of
women in a patriarchal society. This is the reason why feminist specifically the radicals want the
radical shift of society

Functions of stereotypes

Although stereotypes have negative consequences, researchers have found that being
associated with a group that is positively stereotyped in a domain (for example, in academics)
can result in enhanced performance if
one is led to think about one's group
membership, but not the specific
stereotype. For instance, researchers
have studied how the performance of
Asian-Americans is affected when they
are exposed to the common stereotype
that Asian-Americans are good at mathematics. In one study, before taking a math test, one
group of Asian-Americans were subtly led to think about the association of Asians and better
math ability through answering questions about their ethnic identity and family history (e.g.,
what languages they spoke, how many generations of their family lived in America).

Compared to both another group of Asian-Americans that were explicitly reminded about the
positive association between Asian-Americans and mathematics and a control condition that
was not reminded of their ethnicity or the positive stereotype, the group lead to indirectly think
of the positive Asian stereotype answered more math questions correctly.

The emphasis here is that stereotypes have some positive benefits, for example, positive
stereotypes may lead to better performance. In a classroom for example, have you ever noticed
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that those who are positively stereotyped as good in certain subjects tends to perform well in
their areas of stereotype?

In a study of age and memory, older individuals primed to think of positive stereotypes
associated with older age and wisdom showed increased performance on a set of memory tasks.

Evolutionary psychologists have suggested that the ability to stereotype gives humans an
advantage for survival. We may stereotype snakes as bad, and although not all are harmful to
us, this positive stereotype helps us to avoid potentially dangerous snakebites. They help
people to make predictions about other people’s behavior. For example, in the event of
violence, you would rather avoid.

However, Inzlicht argued that people are more likely to be aggressive after they have faced
prejudice in a given situation. They are more likely to exhibit a lack of self-control. They have
trouble making mentality or rational decisions.

Prejudice

Auestad (2015) defines prejudice as characterized by symbolic transfer, transfer of value

laden meaning context onto a socially formed category and then on individuals who are
taken to belong to that category, resistance to change and overgeneralization. Allport (1954)
defines prejudice as a feeling, favorable or unfavorable toward a person or thing, prior to or not
based on actual experience. Prejudice refers to negative feeling toward an outgroup (Taylor,
1997). Cashmore (1996) defined prejudice as learned beliefs and values that lead an
individual or group of individuals to be biased for or against members of particular groups.

Racism

Racism is the belief that one race is supreme and all others are innately inferior. Racism is a
stronger type of prejudice used to justify the belief that one racial category is somehow
superior or inferior to others.

Discrimination

Fig 1:4 an illustrative image of discrimination

Discrimination is an act of unfair treatment directed against an individual or a group. Different

from prejudice, which is an attitude, discrimination is behavior. In as much as prejudice is a
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psychological thinking about a certain group, discrimination is now the action. A good example
of discrimination is when a white person denies a black person an accommodation to rent.

RACISM
Refers to prejudice, discrimination or antagonism by individual, community or institution
against a person or people on the bases of biological differences

End of unit 1.2 exercise questions

1. Discuss forms of discrimination (25)

2. Assess the view that discrimination is a normal and inevitable aspect of society (25)

3. Analyze the notion that ethnic discrimination is worse than racism (25)

4. Discuss the concept of stereotype and prejudice (25)

5. Assess the social benefits of stereotypes in Zimbabwe (25)

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UNIT 1.3 THEORIES OF RACIAL DISCRIMINATION AND PREJUDICE
Objectives
Learners should be able to;
 Identify theories of racial discrimination and prejudice
 Explain the concept of racial discrimination and prejudice

Introduction
This section will focus on sociological and psychological theories of racial discrimination and
prejudice. We can examine issues of race and ethnicity through three major sociological
perspectives: functionalism, ethnocentrism, conflict theories, and symbolic interactionism

Theories of racial discrimination and prejudice

As you read through these theories, ask yourself which one makes the most sense and why.
Do we need more than one theory to explain racism, prejudice, stereotypes, and
discrimination?

Sociological theories

Functionalism
In the view of functionalism, society is in a stable state hence, there is a degree of equilibrium
therefore, racial and ethnic inequalities must have served an important function in order to
exist. Functionalists look at functions and dysfunctions caused by racial inequality.

ACTIVITY – DISCUSS THE VIEW THAT DESCRIMINATION IS DYSFUNCTINAL

Nash (1964) focused his argument on the way racism is functional for the dominant group, for
example, suggesting that racism morally justifies a racially unequal society. Consider the way
slave owners justified slavery in the antebellum South, by suggesting black people were
fundamentally inferior to white and preferred slavery. In this case, racism is functional as it
benefits various groups such as slaveholders.
Another way to apply the functionalist perspective to racism is to discuss the way racism can
contribute positively to the functioning of society by strengthening bonds between in-groups
members through the ostracism of out-group members. Consider how a community might
increase solidarity by refusing to allow outsiders access.

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Herbert Spencer (1971)

Fig 1:5 Hebert Spencer

Functions of racism

Spencer developed his idea of evolution following the footprints of Darwin. Spencer believed
that societies could sometimes benefit from mixing of races. For example, he claimed that the
Romans gained strength from amalgamating with other Aryan tribes. Sabini, Sabelli and
Samnites. England too had benefited from the interbreeding of closely related groups, including
different divisions of the Aryan race. Spencer did however acknowledged that this might bring
conflicts. He maintains that it is the role of government to keep the diverse racial groups from
engaging into conflicts with one another. The value of Spencer’s approach is applicable to
Zimbabwean situation. The government of Zimbabwe has implemented a number of measures
to embrace a multi- racial society. Negotiations are underway to compensate the victims of fast
track land reform program.

The evolutionary scale

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According to Spencer, societies could not consist of one race, but often consisted of a mixture
of several. The precise mixture helped determine whether a society became more evolved and
civilized.
This is an amazing approach being offered by Spencer here, Racism and a multi-racial society
have positive functions of symbolizing a more democratic, evolved and civilized country. Think
about Zimbabwe, is it civilized to an extent of accommodating and embracing all racial groups
like Britain?
Spencer left the reader in no doubt that simple societies were less developed and therefore had
no multiple races and described them as uncivilized and referred to some as ' savage tribes'. To
Spencer, social life and the evolutionary process involved the 'survival of the fittest' which is his
belief that stronger individuals and societies who adapt to the environment survive (prosper)
and weaker ones collapse. In this case, the societies, which fail to embrace racial groups, will
die out.

Key term

Survival of the fittest: Stronger societies, which embrace different racial groups, grow and the
weak societies die out due to the failure to embrace different racial, groups
Dysfunctional: the negative function such as conflict

Debate - the presence of various ethnic groups in society is an evidence that the society is
advanced, civilized and developed. Discuss

On the other hand, Rose (1951) suggested that dysfunctions associated with racism include the
failure to take advantage of talent in the subjugated group, and that society must divert from
other purposes the time and effort needed to maintain artificially constructed racial boundaries.
Consider how much money, time, and effort went toward maintaining separate and unequal
educational systems prior to the civil rights movement.

Evaluation
Functionalist theory did not develop a specific analysis of race and ethnicity. Functionalists
can be criticized for being unable to account for structural contradictions associated with race.
They failed to ignore that race can be a source of oppression and conflict.
Marxist theory of racism
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Oliver C. Cox (1979)

Fig 1:6 Oliver Cox (1979}

To Cox, the idea of race was itself a human creation or has an economic origin. In his view,
ethnic groups were socially groups that lived completely with the subordinate groups over
economic arena. To him such an economic struggle made the groups to become hostile to one
another. He argues that racism originated from capitalism thus, racism is a set of beliefs used to
justify and therefore to sustain the exploitation of one group by the other. To him, capitalism
was exploitative due to its need for labor power. The capitalist exploiter; being opportunistic
and practical, will utilize any convenience to keep his labor and other resources freely
exploitable. Early capitalism went hand in hand with colonialism. As European nations
conquered other areas of the world, they were able to exploit the workforce in colonies and to
justify their actions through racism.

Key terms
capitalism: a society characterized by greedy and profit making at the expense of non-owners
of the means of production
Colonialism: A practice of conquering weak countries or acquiring full or partial political control
over other country

To Cox, racism is always something developed by the exploiters against the exploited. This view
of Cox can be applied to Zimbabwean situation. For example, the racism carried out by
Zimbabwean government through land reform program of 2002 can be seen as a retaliation to
oppressive laws such as 1930 land apportionment act introduced by the British government.
This proves beyond any doubt that the exploiter produces racism.

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Therefore, Cox concluded that if capitalism had not developed, then the world might never
have experienced race prejudice. In Zimbabwe, if capitalism has not developed, the 'Jambanja'
(violence) land reform program against the whites could not have occurred

Evaluation
Many writers did not agree with cox that colonialism and capitalism are the only sources of
racism. Psychologists have argued that any individuals from a certain ethnic group can be racist.

Neo – Marxist

They agreed with Cox that racism was influenced by colonialism, but argued that capitalism
predated colonialism and was shaped by many other factors. According to Errol Lawrence,
racism has a long history because even before colonialism it was in existence. For example,
missionaries and other whites associated themselves with goodness and Africa as a continent
was regarded as 'savage and dark. Thus, this made Lawrence to conclude that racism was in
existence even before capitalism.

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Feminist theory

Patricia Hill Collins (1990) developed intersection theory, which suggests that we cannot
separate the effects of race, class, gender, sexual orientation, and other attributes. When we
examine race and how it can bring us both advantages and disadvantages, it is important to
acknowledge that the way we experience race is shaped, for example, by our gender and class.
Multiple layers of disadvantage intersect to create the way we experience race. For example, if
we want to understand prejudice, we must understand that the prejudice focused on a white
woman because of her gender is very different from the layered prejudice focused on a poor
Asian woman, who is affected by stereotypes related to being poor, being a woman, and her
ethnic status.
The Third world political approach focuses on heterogeneity of women. It is a theory of third
world women by third world women dissatisfied with other types of feminisms. Black feminism
looks at women affected by race especially the black women in the western world who are
excluded by macro theories. These black women are in industrialized nations because of slavery,
employment, studies, and refugee status.

Black feminists criticize white feminists for neglecting racialist and ethnic groups between
women. Brewer (1993) argues that class, race and gender combine to create multiple sources
of discrimination and exploitation of black women. Black feminists suffer because they are
being black and racist socialization had conditioned black women to devalue their femaleness
and regarded race as the only relevant label of identification. Collins (1999) argues that most
feminist theories have suppressed black women ideas and have concentrated on the grievances
of white feminists. To them, many black women have been employed in domestic household of
the whites where they are exploited.

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According to Postmodern feminist, women especially in third world Africa Zimbabwe included
are further subordinated as a black race. White women in the first world are the capitalists and
consumers of what the black race produces. The voices of the black women are not heard. The
concerns of the traditional (modernist) feminist theories did not take into account issues of
race. White women and black women do not have same experiences hence cannot speak with
one voice. Both white males and females of the first and third world subordinate black women.
The situation of women during the colonial and post-colonial has not changed much in relation
to racial issues in most African countries
The condition of women especially the black race is worse than that of other races. During the
colonial period, most whites had black women as their maids and nannies. This has not changed
much in the post-colonial period.
Women are further subordinated by other women for example, in Shona and Ndebele cultures
of Zimbabwe a muroora/ Umalukazana/wife has to take without questioning instructions from
the husband’s mother (vamwene/umamazala) and from the husbands sister (vatete/ubabakazi)

Ethnicity like race is a serious factor in issues of subordination, the world over. Different ethnic
groups have different statuses in their countries. A woman who belongs to the lowest ethnic
group is the most subordinated. A woman is subordinated by males and females of other
superior ethnic groups and she is looked down upon for ethnicity and gender. For example a
Nguni woman would always be the first wife during the reign of Mzilikazi and Lobengula
(Ndlovu-Gatsheni, 2003).Her firstborn son would always be an heir even if the husband had
many wives and sons before her .Wives from royal families did not work in the fields but had
other women working for them while they participated in public affairs

Black women are discriminated in school, and they are regarded as of less value. A study of
black girls school in Comprehensive school in London by Margaret Fuller found out Black girls
were resented the negative stereotypes associated with being black. They knew that they were
labelled as dull and felt that many people expected them to fail.

Evaluation

Black feminist can be criticized for failing to see racism practiced against women. Abbott et al
argues that black feminists have ignored the extent to which black women have resisted
oppression and fought for their rights. For example, they have campaigned for the right to vote
in USA.

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Symbolic interactionism

For symbolic interactionists, race

and ethnicity provide strong
symbols as sources of identity. In
fact, some interactionists
propose that the symbols of race,
not race itself, are what lead to
racism. Famed Interactionist
Herbert Blumer (1958) suggested
that racial prejudice is formed through interactions between members of the dominant group:
Without these interactions, individuals in the dominant group would not hold racist views.

These interactions contribute to an abstract picture of the subordinate group that allows the
dominant group to support its view of the subordinate group, and thus maintains the status
quo. An example of this might be an individual whose beliefs about a particular group are based
on images conveyed in popular media, and those are unquestionably believed because the
individual has never personally met a member of that group. Another way to apply the
interactionist perspective is to look at how people define their races and the race of others. As
we discussed in relation to the social construction of race, since some people who claim a white
identity have a greater amount of skin pigmentation than some people who claim a black
identity, how did they come to define themselves as black or white?

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Ethnocentric theory

It states that prejudice inevitably originates from ethnocentrism that combines to one's own
group with prejudice toward other groups. Sumner (1906) argues that ethnocentrism is a
technical name for this view of things in which one's own group is the center of everything.
Camphell (1972) who argues that it leads to pride, vanity and boasting because each group
thinks that its own culture is always right supports this. This is backed by Allport's (1954) study
of Anti-Semitism in which the Germans were expressing their hostilities toward the Jews who
were regarded as inferior. Following Camphell, Turner (1987) concludes that ethnocentrism
plays a role in giving birth to prejudiced opinion.

However, Allport argues that cross group friendships have been shown to reduce anxiety and
promote empathy. He argues that intergroup contact (equal status) must be met hence this will
be particularly effective at helping to reduce prejudice amongst different groups.

Psychological theories of racial discrimination and prejudice

Racism and psychology Racism is a pernicious, pervasive and persistent social problem, so it is
no surprise that it has been a central and defining topic in social psychology since the 1930s. As
a complex social issue, multiple perspectives have been advanced to understand and theories
racism, ranging from accounts that locate the causes within the psychology of the individual to
those that emphasize the political and structural determinants of intergroup hostility. In many
ways, social psychology has assumed responsibility for understanding racism as the litmus test
of its own value as a sub-discipline of psychology and on its practical value to solving real social
problems

Authoritarian theory

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Fig 1:8 mother pointing a finger to a miner

It alludes that prejudice and discrimination originate from the personality dynamics of
individuals. Ardono (1982) argues that prejudice and discrimination are manufactured during
the process of socialization. Fisher (1990) hypothesized that early in childhood life the parents
use harsh autocratic discipline to rear socially acceptable behavior.
Individuals suppress their hostilities toward their parents and project this aggression into
powerless minority groups .for example the Jews and blacks in Germany tested positive to
racial prejudice due to their inferiority. Henceforth, one can argue that prejudice originates
from the early stages of socialization .However; Green (2009) notes that prejudice can be
challenged by educational strategies .Educational efforts include encouraging empathy, which
seems to be a successful with young children

Frustration theory

Fig 1:9 a frustrated man on call

prejudice originates from frustrations experienced by individuals. According to Miller and
Dolland (1993), prejudice and aggression are closely linked to the consequences of frustration.
They state that frustration is usually caused by a thwart to reach a certain defined goal in
society, which triggers aggression in turn. For example, an individual who is disappointed
usually expresses aggression thus the less powerful groups become the suitable target for
expressing aggression hence propagating prejudiced opinion toward nearby groups.
Therefore, it is worth to note that prejudice originates from the consequences of frustration.

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Scapegoat theory

Fig The whole group placing a blame on the roped individual

Scapegoat theory refers to the tendency to blame someone else for one's own problems, a
process that often results in feelings of prejudice toward the person or group that one is
blaming. Scapegoating serves as an opportunity to explain failure or misdeeds, while
maintaining one's positive self- points out that prejudice and discrimination usually originate
from the competition over economic area. Rothbart and Lewis (1994) stress that prejudice
and intergroup hostilities originate during the time of economic hardship when unemployment
and competition for resources is usually is high. For example, African countries, Zimbabwe is
mentioned tend to blame the whites for their social and economic problems linked back to the
days of colonialism, thus, awarding whites with discrimination in turn.

In South Africa in 2022 for example, a social movement by the name operation dudula (go back
to your country) to xenophic attacks. Therefore suggesting that prejudice also originates from
competition over economic arena.

Key term

Xenophic : xeno means foreigner and phobic means fear. If two words are joined then this
means that xenophia is an attack of foreigners based scapegoats and fear.

Other theories

The social identity theory

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 It sees prejudice and discrimination as originating from social concept, which gives social
identity. Tojfel and Turner argue that social identity derives from the categorization of people.
This automatically generates identification, which leads to motivational tendency to positively
differentiate it from other groups through
bias, favoritism and discrimination. They
further argue that the in-group bias is
characterized by brotherhood within and war
likeness, hatred outside. For example, it is
believed that Germans had a social identity
which is based on assumption that they are
superior to the to the Jews hence the
outsiders suffer from the winds of prejudice. Therefore, Turner and Tjfel concluded that
prejudice originates social concept, which gives social identity.

Migration and race relations theory.

It is obvious that migrating to new areas leads to discrimination; although the situation has
changed due to asylum policies, the world is still experiencing discrimination.
According migration and race relations theory authors such as Park (1950), race relations and
migration cause prejudice and discrimination. He argues that different races originated with the
dispersal of a once - concentrated population. He further argues that the great migration
was particularly stimulated by the search for a more abundant food supply .This process
involved racial competition, conflict, accommodation and assimilation.
Parker notes that the mixing of groups in cities creates the conflicts, which have a prejudice and
discrimination effect. For example, Richardson (1990) pointed out that in the 16th
centuries ,England accepted large numbers of Protestant and Jewish refugees fleeing from
religious persecution in Europe which created tension characterized by prejudice where the
blacks were banned from renting property. Henceforth, Parker concludes that prejudice
originates from the race relations and migrations which create competition and conflicts for
resources.

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Unit 1.4 Patterns of Racial and Ethnic inequality
Objectives
Learners should be able to
 Outline patterns of racial and ethnic inequality
 Assess patterns of racial and ethnic inequality

Introduction

Patterns of racial and ethnic inequality include subjugation, assumptions on biological inferior,
cultural deficiencies and so on. However, not all racial and ethnic groups end up in inequalities
and fighting, but they resort to assimilation. This means that if the group is accepted, this leads
to assimilation but if they are rejected, this leads to patterns of inequality hence conflicts.
Patterns of assimilation include minority-conformity, cultural pluralism, and accommodation

1) Biological Inferiority

One long-standing explanation is that blacks and other people of color are biologically inferior:
They are naturally less intelligent and have other innate flaws that keep them from getting a
good education and otherwise doing what needs to be done to achieve the American Dream.
As discussed earlier, this racist view is no longer common today. However, whites historically
used this belief to justify slavery, lynchings, the harsh treatment of Native Americans in the
1800s, and lesser forms of discrimination. In 1994, Richard J. Herrnstein and Charles Murray
revived this view in their controversial book, The Bell Curve (Herrnstein & Murray, 1994), in
which they argued that the low IQ scores of African Americans and of poor people more
generally, reflect their genetic inferiority in the area of intelligence. African Americans’ low
innate intelligence, they said, accounts for their poverty and other problems. Although the
news media gave much attention to their book, few scholars agreed with its views, and many
condemned the books argument as a racist way of blaming the victim (Gould, 1994).

2). Cultural Deficiencies

Another explanation of racial and ethnic inequality focuses on the supposed cultural
deficiencies of African Americans and other people of color (Murray, 1984). These deficiencies
include a failure to value hard work and, for African Americans, a lack of strong family ties, and
are said to account for the poverty and other problems facing these minorities. This view

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echoes the culture-of-poverty argument presented in topic three “Poverty” and is certainly
popular today. As we saw earlier, more than half of non-Latino whites think that blacks’ poverty
is due to their lack of motivation and willpower. Ironically, some scholars find support for this
cultural deficiency view in the experience of many Asian Americans, whose success is often
attributed to their cultures emphasis on hard work, educational attainment, and strong family
ties (Min, 2005). If that is true, these scholars say, then the lack of success of other people of
color stems from the failure of their own cultures to value these attributes.

How accurate is the cultural deficiency argument?

Whether people of color have “deficient” cultures, remains hotly debated (Bonilla-Silva, 2009).
Many social scientists find little or no evidence of cultural problems in minority communities
and say the belief in cultural deficiencies is an example of symbolic racism that blames the
victim. Citing survey evidence, they say that poor people of color value work and education for
themselves and their children at least as much as wealthier white people do (Holland, 2011;
Muhammad, 2007). Yet other social scientists, including those sympathetic to the structural
problems facing people of color, believe that certain cultural problems do exist, but they are
careful to say that these cultural problems arise out of the structural problems. For example,
Elijah Anderson (1999) wrote that a street culture or oppositional culture exists among African
Americans in urban areas that contribute to high levels of violent behavior, but he emphasized
that this type of culture stems from face in their daily lives and helps them deal with these
difficulties. Thus, even if cultural problems do exist, they should not obscure the fact that
structural problems are responsible for the cultural ones.

3) Population transfer

This is another pattern of racial and ethnic inequality that is common in history but less harmful
than the first one.

In population transfer, a minority is forced either to move to a remote location or to leave

entirely the territory controlled by the majority. This was the policy most often used against
Native Americans. For example, in 1838, sixteen thousand Cher-okee from the southeastern
United States were set on a forced march along the Trail of Tears to Oklahoma reserva-tions,
where they became dependent on the U.S. government. An estimated four thousand Cherokee
(nearly a fourth of the tribes) died because of harsh conditions along the Trail of Tears.

4); Subjugation

Subjugation is the most common pattern of inequality. A subjugated minority is denied equal
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access to the culture and lifestyle of the larger society. Subjugation may be based on the law, or
de jure. An example was the de jure segregation of public schools in the United States during
the latter part of the nineteenth century and the first half of the twentieth century. In Brown v.
Board of Education of Topeka (1954), the Supreme Court overturned previous case law that had
made racial segregation legal and had made racial segregation exist to deny opportunities to
minority groups. The bottleneck system is a good example of the pre independence inequalities
in Zimbabwe. The pre independence education system was criticized as being a bottleneck
system, meant to make sure that only a limited number of people.

5) Structural Problems

A third explanation for US racial and ethnic inequality is based on conflict theory and reflects
the blaming-the-system approach outlined in topic one “Understanding form five Sociology ”.
This view attributes racial and ethnic inequality to structural problems, including (note that
below factors are patterns of racial and ethnic inequality as well under the umbrella 'structural'.

a) Institutional

b) Individual discrimination

c) Lack of opportunity in education and other spheres of life, and

D) The absence of jobs that pay an adequate wage (Feagin, 2006).

e) Segregated housing, for example, prevents African Americans from escaping the inner city
and from moving to areas with greater employment opportunities. Andrew Pilkington (2005)
comments that Minority ethnic communities are much more likely than whites to live in cities
and other urban centers. Due to these inequalities, they are likely to live in substandard
housing. The Home office (2005) noted that the majority of minority in Britain lived in
overcrowded areas.

d).Employment discrimination keeps the salaries of people of color much lower than they
would be otherwise. The schools that many children of color attend every day are typically
overcrowded and underfunded. As these problems continue from one generation to the next, it
becomes very difficult for people already at the bottom of the socioeconomic ladder to climb
up it because of their race and ethnicity.

Applying Social Research

Case study The Poor Neighborhoods of Middle-Class African Americans

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In a society that values equal opportunity for all, scholars have discovered a troubling trend:
African American children from middle-class families are much more likely than white children
from middle-class families to move down the socioeconomic ladder by the time they become
adults. In fact, almost half of all African American children born during the 1950s and 1960s to
middle-class parents ended up with lower incomes than their parents by adulthood. Because
these children had parents who had evidently succeeded despite all the obstacles facing them
in a society filled with racial inequality, we have to assume they were raised with the values,
skills, and aspirations necessary to stay in the middle class and even to rise beyond it. What,
then, explains why some end up doing worse than their parents?

According to a recent study written by sociologist Patrick Sharkey for the Pew Charitable Trusts,
one important answer lies in the neighborhoods in which these children are raised. Because of
continuing racial segregation, many middle-class African American families find themselves
having to live in poor urban neighborhoods. About half of African American children born
between 1955 and 1970 to middle-class parents grew up in poor neighborhoods, but hardly any
middle-class white children grew up in such neighborhoods.

In Starkey’s statistical analysis, neighborhood poverty was a much more important factor than
variables such as parents education and marital status in explaining the huge racial difference in
the eventual socioeconomic status of middle-class children. An additional finding of the study
underscored the importance of neighborhood poverty for adult socioeconomic status: African
American children raised in poor neighborhoods in which the poverty rate declined significantly
ended up with higher incomes as adults than those raised in neighborhoods where the poverty
rate did not change.

Why do poor neighborhoods have this effect? It is difficult to pinpoint the exact causes, but
several probable reasons come to mind.

In these neighborhoods, middle-class African American children often receive inadequate

schooling at run-down schools, and they come under the influence of youths who care much
less about schooling and who get into various kinds of trouble. The various problems associated
with living in poor neighborhoods also likely cause a good deal of stress, which, as discussed
elsewhere in this chapter, can cause health problems and impair learning ability.

Even if the exact reasons remain unclear, this study showed that poor neighborhoods make a
huge difference. As a Pew official summarized the study, we have known that neighborhood
matters but this does it in a new and powerful way. Neighborhoods become a significant drag
not just on the poor, but on those who would otherwise be stable. Sociologist Sharkey added,
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what surprises me is how dramatic the racial differences are in terms of the environments in
which children are raised. Threes this perception that after the civil rights period, families have
been more able to seek out any neighborhood they choose and that the racial gap in
neighborhoods would whittle away over time, and that hasn’t happened.

Data from the 2010 Census confirm that the racial gap in neighborhoods persists. A study by
sociologist John R. Logan for the Russell Sage Foundation found that African American and
Latino families with incomes above $75,000 are more likely to live in poor neighborhoods than
non-Latino white families with incomes below $40,000. More generally, Logan concluded, “The
average affluent black or Hispanic household lives in a poorer neighborhood than the average
lower-income white household.

A warning to governments, If these inequalities are not corrected, they may lead to a serious
conflict and history has identified genocide as the major conflict,

Genocide

At the extreme, conflict takes the form of genocide that is caused by racial and ethnic
inequalities, the systematic effort to destroy an entire population. One of the best-known
examples is the Holocaust, Adolf Hitlers attempt to destroy all European Jews during the 1930s
and begun in 1937, during which the Japanese massacred an estimated 260,000 to 350,000
Chinese men, women, and children (Chang, 1998).

Tragically, genocide campaigns are more common in world history than might be supposed.
Recently, the Serbians have been accused of conducting campaigns of ethnic cleansing against
the Muslims in Bosnia and Kosovo.
In 1994, the Tutsi tribe of Rwanda slaughtered 500,000 to 800,000 of the minority Hutu tribe. In
Zimbabwe, the Gukurahundi genocide is believed to have left close to 20 000 people dead in
Matebeleland.

Reducing Racial and Ethnic Inequality

Now that we have examined race and ethnicity in the society, what have we found? Where do
we stand in the second decade of the twenty-first century? Did the historic election of Barack
Obama as president in 2008 signify a new era of equality between the races, as many observers
wrote, or did his election occur despite the continued existence of pervasive racial and ethnic
inequality?

On the one hand, there is cause for hope. Legal segregation is gone. The vicious, old-fashioned
racism that was so rampant in this country into the 1960s has declined dramatically since that

39 | P a g e
tumultuous time. People of color have made important gains in several spheres of life, and
African Americans and other people of color occupy some important elected positions in and
outside the South, a feat that would have been unimaginable a generation ago. Perhaps most
notably, Barack Obama has African ancestry and identifies as an African American, and on his
2008 election night, people across the country wept with joy at the symbolism of his victory.
Certainly, progress has been made in US racial and ethnic relations.

On the other hand, there is also cause for despair. Old-fashioned racism has been replaced by
modern, symbolic racism that still blames people of color for their problems and reduces public
support for government policies to deal with their problems. Institutional discrimination
remains pervasive, and hate crimes, such as the cross burning that began this chapter, remain
all too common. So does suspicion of people based solely on the color of their skin, as the
Trayvon Martin tragedy again reminds us.

If adequately funded and implemented, several types of programs and policies show a strong
promise of reducing racial and ethnic inequality. We turn to these in a moment, but first let us
discuss affirmative action, an issue that has aroused controversy since its inception.

College Students and the Southern Civil Rights Movement

According to Margaret Mead: Never doubt that a small group of thoughtful, committed citizens
can change the world. Indeed, it is the only thing that ever has.” The beginnings of the Southern
civil rights movement provide an inspirational example of Meads wisdom and remind us that
young people can make a difference.

Case study

Although there had been several efforts during the 1950s by African Americans to end legal
segregation in the South, the start of the civil rights movement is commonly thought to have
begun on February 1, 1960. On that historic day, four brave African American students from the
Agricultural and Technical College of North Carolina, dressed in coats and ties, sat down quietly
at a segregated lunch counter in a Woolworths store in the city of Greensboro and asked to be
served. When they were refused service, they stayed until the store closed at the end of the
day, and then went home. They returned the next day and were joined by some two dozen
other students. They were again refused service and sat quietly for the rest of the day. The next
day some sixty students and other people joined them, followed by some three hundred on the
fourth day. Within a week, sit-ins were occurring at lunch counters in several other towns and
cities inside and outside of North Carolina. In late July 1960, the Greensboro Woolworths finally
40 | P a g e
served African Americans, and the entire Woolworths chain desegregated its lunch counters a
day later. Although no one realized it at the time, the civil rights movement had “officially”
begun thanks to the efforts of a small group of college students.

During the remaining years of the heyday of the civil rights movement, college students from
the South and North joined thousands of other people in sit-ins, marches, and other activities
to end legal segregation. Thousands were arrested, and at least forty-one were murdered. By
risking their freedom and even their lives, they made a difference for millions of African
Americans. And it all began when a small group of college students sat down at a lunch counter
in Greensboro and politely refused to leave until they were served.

Affirmative Action

Affirmative action refers to special consideration for minorities and women in employment and
education to compensate for the discrimination and lack of opportunities they experience in
the larger society. Affirmative action programs were begun in the 1960s to provide African
Americans and, later, other people of color and women access to jobs and education to make
up for past discrimination. President John F. Kennedy was the first known official to use the
term, when he signed an executive order in 1961 ordering federal contractors to take
affirmative action in ensuring that applicants are hired and treated without regard to their race
and national origin. Six years later, President Lyndon B. Johnson added sex to race and national
origin as demographic categories for which affirmative action should be used.

Although many affirmative action programs remain in effect today, court rulings, state
legislation, and other efforts have limited their number and scope. Despite this curtailment,
affirmative action continues to spark much controversy, with scholars, members of the public,
and elected officials all holding strong views on the issue.

The Debate over Affirmative Action

Opponents of affirmative action cite several reasons for opposing it (Connors, 2009).
Affirmative action, they say, is reverse discrimination and, as such, is both illegal and immoral.
The people benefiting from affirmative action are less qualified than many of the whites with
whom they compete for employment and college admissions. In addition, opponents say,
affirmative action implies that the people benefiting from it need extra help and thus are
indeed less qualified. This implication stigmatizes the groups benefiting from affirmative action.

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In response, proponents of affirmative action give several reasons for favoring it (Connors,
2009). Many say it is needed to make up not just for past discrimination and a lack of
opportunities for people of color but also for ongoing discrimination and a lack of opportunity.
For example, because of their social networks, whites are much better able than people of color
to find out about and to get jobs (Reskin, 1998). If this is true, people of color are automatically
at a disadvantage in the job market, and some form of affirmative action is needed to give them
an equal chance at employment. Proponents also say that affirmative action helps add diversity
to the workplace and to the campus. Many colleges, they note, give some preference to high
school students who live in a distant state in order to add needed diversity to the student body;
to legacy students those with a parent who went to the same institution to reinforce alumni
loyalty and to motivate alumni to donate to the institution; and to athletes, musicians, and
other applicants with certain specialized talents and skills. If all these forms of preferential
admission make sense, proponents say, it also makes sense to take students’ racial and ethnic
backgrounds into account as admissions officers strive to have a diverse student body.

Proponents add that affirmative action has indeed succeeded in expanding employment and
educational opportunities for people of color and that individuals benefiting from affirmative
action have generally fared well in the workplace or on the campus. In this regard, research
finds that African American students graduating from selective US colleges and universities
after being admitted under affirmative action guidelines are slightly more likely than their white
counterparts to obtain professional degrees and to become involved in civic affairs (Bowen &
Bok, 1998).

As this brief discussion indicates, several reasons exist for and against affirmative action. A
cautious view is that affirmative action may not be perfect but that some form of it is needed to
make up for past and ongoing discrimination and lack of opportunity in the workplace and on
the campus. Without the extra help that affirmative action programs give disadvantaged people
of color, the discrimination and other difficulties they face are certain to continue.

Other Programs and Policies

As the United States attempts, however haltingly, to reduce racial and ethnic inequality,
sociology has much insight to offer in its emphasis on the structural basis for this inequality.
This emphasis strongly indicates that racial and ethnic inequality has much less to do with any
personal faults of people of color than with the structural obstacles they face, including ongoing
discrimination and lack of opportunity. Efforts aimed at such obstacles, then, are in the long run
essential to reducing racial and ethnic inequality (Danziger, Reed, & Brown, 2004; Syme, 2008;
Walsh, 2011). Some of these efforts resemble those for reducing poverty discussed in Chapter 2
Poverty,
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Key Takeaways

Racial and ethnic prejudice and discrimination have been an American dilemma in the United
States ever since the colonial period. Slavery was only the ugliest manifestation of this dilemma.
The urban riots of the 1960s led to warnings about the racial hostility and discrimination
confronting African Americans and other groups, and these warnings continue down to the
present.

Social scientists today tend to consider race more of a social category than a biological one for
several reasons. Race is thus best considered a social construction and not a fixed biological
category.

Ethnicity refers to a shared cultural heritage and is a term increasingly favored by social
scientists over race. Membership in ethnic groups gives many people an important sense of
identity and pride but can also lead to hostility toward people in other ethnic groups.

Prejudice, racism, and stereotypes all refer to negative attitudes about people based on their
membership in racial or ethnic categories. Social-psychological explanations of prejudice focus
on scapegoating and authoritarian personalities, while sociological explanations focus on
conformity and socialization or on economic and political competition. Jim Crow racism has
given way to modern or symbolic racism that considers people of color to be culturally inferior.

Discrimination and prejudice often go hand in hand, but not always. People can discriminate
without being prejudiced, and they can be prejudiced without discriminating. Individual and
institutional discrimination both continue to exist in the United States.

Racial and ethnic inequality in the United States is reflected in income, employment, education,
and health statistics. In their daily lives, whites enjoy many privileges denied to their
counterparts in other racial and ethnic groups.

On many issues, Americans remain sharply divided along racial and ethnic lines. One of the
most divisive issues is affirmative action. Its opponents view it among other things as reverse
discrimination, while its proponents cite many reasons for its importance, including the need to
correct past and present discrimination against racial and ethnic minorities.

Critical Thinking

After graduating from college, you obtain a job in a medium-sized city or any city and rent an
apartment in a house in a nearby town. A family with an African American father and white

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mother has recently moved into a house down the street. You think nothing of it, but you begin
to hear some of the neighbors expressed concern that the neighborhood has begun to change.”
Then one night a brick is thrown through the window of the new family’s home, and around the
brick is wrapped the message, Go back to where you came from! Since you’re new to the
neighborhood yourself, you don’t want to make waves, but you are also shocked by this act of
racial hatred. You can speak up somehow or you can stay quiet. What do you decide to do?

Although race and ethnic related conflicts may rise, other societies, Zimbabwe included, at
some extend have embraced different groups through assimilation

Patterns of Assimilation

As indicated above, the group can be accepted which leads to assimilation or rejected which
leads to conflict. Within these two broad approaches, however, is a wide range of outcomes.
Assimilation refers to the blending or fusing of minority groups into the dominant society.
When a racial or ethnic minority is integrated into a society, its members are given full
participation in all aspects of the society. Assimilation has taken several forms in the Zimbabwe:

Minority-conformity - has been the most prevalent pattern of assimilation in Zimbabwe. In

minority conformity, traditional institutions are maintained. Other languages such as Chinyanja,
Chitonga are accepted as long as they conform to the accepted standards of the society. This
has made the Zimbabwean government to declare all 16 indigenous languages as official
languages in schools and other areas of life. In media, national FM was established and TV news
is reported in many but not all languages.

Melting pot - All ethnic and racial minorities voluntarily blend. Question about how much fusing
of cultures has really taken place. Instead of a melting pot, many sociologists are now using the
idea of a tossed salad, in which traditions and cultures exist side by side. The cultures of the
Ndebele, Shona, Tonga, kalanga are all respected and embraced in Zimbabwe.
This pattern of assimilation is called cultural pluralism. Because of the large numbers of the
Shona and the Ndebele for example, the state has instituted bilingual education programs in
public schools. The government now routinely makes official forms available in both English,
Shona, Ndebele, kalanga e.t c and many churches throughout the country conduct services in
both languages, and cable television stations offer all languages to audio tracks.

Ways in which the Zimbabwean society has embraced various ethnic groups

Assimilation - Zimbabwe is a multicultural society in which different groups have been allowed
to practice their cultures as long as they follow country traditions

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Accommodating - all languages and cultures have been accommodated in schools, media etc.
for example, Chivhenda is now an official language, which is included in 5 O levels.

Geographical location now open for all - The president of Zimbabwe announced that Bulawayo
is going to held the 42 years independence celebration for the first time and the Ndebele,
Kalanga group now live in the area identified as the Shona area.

The constitution of Zimbabwe has declared all ethnic groups as Zimbabweans - The government
is against all forms of hate crimes e.g. attacks based on ethnicity.

Gukurahundi compensation - the government of Zimbabwe has described Gukurahundi

massacre as an element of madness. This issue has not been forgotten.

Vice president should come from the other cultural groups - The Constitution of Zimbabwe has
highlighted that the president should appoint two vice presidents from different ethnic groups.

However, it can be argued that there are still some inequalities in the sense that the Ndebele
and Shona groups continue to dominate which is why the Binga area which is an area of the
minority is still lagging behind in terms of development.

End of unit 1.4 exercise questions

1. Discuss patterns of ethnic and racial inequality (25)
2. Discuss measures taken by Zimbabwean government to promote ethnic equality (25)
3. Outline patterns of racial and ethnic inequality
4. Assess the patterns of racial and ethnic inequality that lead to ethnic inequality (25)

Summary

It has been brought to light that sociological and psychological factors have given different
perspectives on race and ethnicity as well as prejudice and discrimination. This owed to the fact
that there is no a single theory to explain race and ethnicity. Therefore, such a different is
celebrated since it gives a leaner a broad mind when it comes to race and ethnicity. This has
made governments to understand racial and ethnic conflicts, which is why pieces of policies
have been implemented to embrace all racial groups. In this respect, the governments should
be commented for a job well done.

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GLOSSARY
Assimilation - it is defined as a situation whereby groups of individuals with different ethnic
background blend
Authoritarian - attempts by parents to control children’s behavior by explaining rules and use
of sanctions to enforce rules.
Culture - the ideas, customs, and social behavior of a particular society
Conflict - a serious ethnic or racial clash, contradiction and violence
Discrimination - unequal treatment of an ethnic or racial group
Ethnicity the state of belonging to a social group that has a common national or cultural
tradition
Ethnic conflict - is a conflict between two or more ethnic groups and the source of conflict
might be political, economic or social.
Equality - the state of being equal especially on status
Genocide - the deliberate killing of a large number of people from a particular nation or ethnic
group
Inferior - a little or less powerful cultural or racial group
Majority - culturally, economically and politically dominant group
Prejudice - refers to what people think, usually a negative thinking about a particular group,
which is not transmitted intro action
Race - a set of biological features that set individuals or groups apart or different such as skin
color
Racism - discrimination, prejudice and antagonism on the bases of race
Superior a politically dominant group
Stereotype it is a generalized belief about a particular category of people

End of term questions

1. Analyze the theories of racial discrimination and prejudice (25)

1. Discuss the factors that lead to prejudice and discrimination (25)

2. Analyze the patterns of racial and ethnic conflicts (25)

3. Discuss the characteristics between the majority and minority groups (25)

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Topic 12 unemployment

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Units covered
2.1 The concept of unemployment
2.2 causes of unemployment
2.3distributrion of unemployment
2.4 implications of unemployment

Introduction
Unemployment is a contentious topic in Zimbabwe. Newspaper reports – both in local and
international publications – routinely claim that unemployment rate stands at 80 per cent.
Therefore, unemployment has been defined as referring to individuals who are employable and
actively seeking a job but are unable to find a job. Chappelow (2020) argues that
unemployment occurs when a person who is actively searching for employment is unable to
find work. U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (2020) argues that unemployment occurs when
workers who want to work are unable to find jobs, which lowers economic output; however,
they still require subsistence. Unemployment describes the condition of people who are
without jobs. International Labor Organization (ILO) defines the unemployed as numbers of the
economically active population who are without work but available for and seeking for
work ,including people who have lost their jobs and those who have voluntarily left work
(World Bank 1998:63). Adebayo (1999) stated that unemployment exists when members of the
labor force wish to work but cannot get jobs.

Unit 2.1 the concept of unemployment

Objectives
Learners should be able to;
 Discuss the concept of unemployment
 Analyze the relationship between non work and unemployment

Introduction
The above definitions share a common denominator, as they all picture that an unemployed
person is the one without a job and is seeking for it. This means that the one not employment
and not looking for a job cannot be counted as an in a category of unemployment. However,
whatever the disagreements scholars have on the actual definition of unemployment, those
disagreements have made other theorist to group unemployment in different categories.
Unemployment can be classified as frictional, cyclical, or structural. Digging deeper,
unemployment—both voluntary and involuntary—can be broken down into numerous types.

Frictional Unemployment

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Frictional unemployment occurs when people voluntarily change jobs within an economy. After
a person leaves a company, it naturally takes time to find another job. Similarly, graduates just
entering the
workforce add to
frictional
unemployment. This
type of
unemployment is
usually short-lived. It
is also the least
problematic from an
economic standpoint.
Frictional unemployment is a natural result of the fact that market processes take time and
information can be costly. Searching for a new job, recruiting new workers, and matching the
right workers to the right jobs all take time and effort, resulting in frictional unemployment. For
example, a worker who quits their job in anticipation of lining up another one or someone who
has just entered the workforce after graduation would be considered frictionally unemployed.
For instance, the BBC world news in 2016 reported that Zimbabwe is going through its toughest
economic situation since the hyperinflation of 2008, which has made a bunch of civil servants to
switch to new jobs in Zimbabwe or abroad. Thus, the time spent transferring to a new job is
frictional unemployment.

Cyclical Unemployment
Cyclical unemployment is the variation in the number of unemployed workers over the course
of economic upturns and downturns, such as those related to changes in oil prices.
Unemployment rises during recessionary periods and declines during periods of economic
growth. Preventing and alleviating cyclical unemployment during recessions is one of the key
reasons for the study of economics and the purpose of the various policy tools that
governments employ on the downside of business cycles to stimulate the economy.

Structural Unemployment

Structural unemployment comes about through a technological change in the structure of the
economy in which labor markets operate. One cause of structural unemployment is
technological advances in an industry. That often happens in manufacturing industry, robots
have replaced unskilled workers. These workers often must get training in computer operations
if they want to keep working in the same industry. Technological changes, such as the
replacement of horse-drawn transport by automobiles or the automation of manufacturing,

49 | P a g e
lead to unemployment among workers displaced from jobs that are no longer needed.
Retraining these workers can be difficult, costly, and time-consuming, and displaced workers
often end up unemployed for either extended periods or leaving the labor force entirely.
In Zimbabwe for example, Zimbabwe Bank and Allied Workers Union (ZIBAWU) secretary
general Mutasa reported in Herald 10 February 2022 and told new Ziana that automation in
2020 to 2021 has led to the retrenchment of 327 workers. According Mutasa , 2022 year had
started with the retrenchment of 119 Steward Bank employees. In a memo to workers, Steward
Bank issued that the push towards digitalization has informed the decision to lay off staff. Thus,
Zimbabwe is going through structural unemployment.

Seasonal unemployment

It occurs when people are unemployed at particular times of the year when demand for labor is
lower than usual. Seasonal unemployment
refers to when the demand for labor or
workforce is lower than normal under certain
conditions. However, such a situation is only
temporary, and employment reverts to normal
after that. For example, Christmas Jobs: A few
extra jobs are created during the Christmas
and New Year eves, e.g., the salespeople in a few retail stores, for the sales of Christmas trees,
decoration, Santa disguises, etc. after which they will not have any work for the rest of the year.
They are employed only to deal with the additional customer activity during the relevant
season and would not be hired for an entire year but only for the particular season.

Regional unemployment

Geographical unemployment occurs when people are without work because of immobility’s in
firms and workers moving to/from depressed regions. For example, Kwekwe town in Zimbabwe
may have led to a booming job market with vacancies, however, an unemployed man in Mutare
may be unable to take the job because of difficulties in moving to Kwekwe .Alternatively, a firm
may wish to hire workers but the firm is unable or unwilling to move to areas with surplus labor
because it would be the wrong location for the firm.

Residual unemployment

Unemployment type that is caused by personal characteristics. The unemployment that

remains in periods of full employment, because of those mentally, physically, or emotionally
unfit to work. For example, disability may leads to unemployment.

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Activity - In pairs, discuss the types of unemployment giving relevant Zimbabwean examples
(25)

Relationship between non-work and unemployment

The influence of unemployment on non-work at work

Non-work time at work refers to the activities that might be viewed as investment in future
productivity but that are not currently productive, such as cleaning and perhaps exercising, as
well as others such as gossiping, web-surfing and chatting that are less likely to be productive.
The most prominent of these are Shapiro and Stiglitz (1984) and Bowles (1985). In this vein,
high unemployment signals a lower value of utility in the state of unemployment, either
because the incidence or duration (or both) of joblessness is high. To avoid unemployment,
workers exert higher effort when employed, in order to curry favor with their employers, to
increase their productivity, or to reduce the probability of detection when they do shirk.

In a temporary economic downturn, a layoff may be an inferior choice to maintaining

employment, possibly even at standard hours. Labor hoarding by firms is often associated with
the assignment of workers to “unproductive” tasks such as cleaning, maintenance, painting, etc.
or even tolerate more worker-initiated non-work when unemployment rises. Even holding
demographic characteristics constant, workers who retain their jobs may be those who report
less non-work at work, creating a compositional effect that negatively biases the estimated
impact of unemployment on non-work time.

Furthermore, additional time on the job increases the share of time spent not working.
Whether because of boredom, fatigue or something else, the marginal effect of additional work
time on non-work activities is increasing for most employees as the workday lengthens.

The overwhelming majority of the effect of changing unemployment on non-work time at work
operates through its impact on other non-work timeline. On leisure on the job. Eating at the
workplace is much less affected by variations in unemployment.

Moreover, High unemployment rate, it significantly reduces the probability that a worker
spends any time not working.

A Model of Non-Work as Loafing imply that workers engage in non-work less frequently in bad
times (when the rate of unemployment is higher), but given that they do so, they tend to do

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more of it. In that model, non-work is best thought of as worker-initiated loafing, with
employers playing a passive role. According to Karau & Williams, (1993) social loafing is a
natural occurrence whereby employees tend to reduce their effort when working in a group
rather than on their own.

However, most theorists have argued that it is not only unemployment rate which determine
the rate of non-work but other factors such as additional time on the job increases the share of
time spent not working. Whether because of boredom, fatigue or something else, the marginal
effect of additional work time on non-work activities is increasing for most employees as the
workday lengthens. In addition, eating as a non-work activity is a biological state, which is not
paid for and not influenced by the unemployment.

However, according to Gorz industrialization has made people to associate work with paid
employment. The option of non-work is not given a chance in the mind of the people.
Retrenchment, injury at work place, and lay off may lead to non-work moments. Non-work
from this process is a situation of not working on something paid. The concept of piecework
and part time work are signals of non-work. According to Gorz, as new technology advances,
non-work increases and many people will pursue their new lifestyles of non-work. This means
that individuals, spend time in working activities that are not formally paid, therefore, the
impact of non-work is not the same to everyone due to its deferential advantages and
disadvantages. An advantage of non-work to one might not be a disadvantage to some.

What are the advantages of non-work and disadvantages of non-work?

 Stimulates entrepreneurial skills - small and medium enterprises and collaborative jobs
are motivated by non-work.
 To some, non-work creates opportunities for people to pursue their interest and
develop their talents.
 Non-work may encourage people to further their education meaning some will get new
skills.
 It gives independence of thought and action.

However, non-work may leads to emotional defeats such as shock or depression

 May cause political unrest as the able-bodied men my blame the government for failing
to give them paid jobs.
 Non-work may cause early marriages as parents fail to send children to school.

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  Non-work may lead to mass external migration as people search for new Jobs.
Non-work may lead to children dropping from school due to the failure of parents to pay
fees

End of unit 2.1 exercise questions

1) Discuss the concept of unemployment (25)

2) Discuss the types of unemployment giving relevant Zimbabwean examples (25)

3) Assess the link between unemployment and non-work (25)

4) Justify the view that' the impact of non-work is not the same to everyone' (25)

5) Discuss the view that ' the definition of unemployment is problematic '(25)

7) Assess the view that Zimbabwe is going through structural unemployment (25)
8) Compare and contrast any two types of unemployment (25)

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Unit 2.2 causes of unemployment

Objectives
Learners should be able to
 Identify causes of unemployment
 Assess the impact of economic sanctions
Introduction

There are various causes of unemployment that have been discussed in sociology. Thus, it is
important to discuss the arguments raised by sociological theories on the causes of
unemployment. Discussing these causes in sociological language shows academic maturity since
sociology is not divorced from its own scholars.

Causes of unemployment in sociological language

Market liberal theory

J. M Keynes

He argues that unemployment is mostly caused by lack of demand in the economy. If too few
goods were purchased, then production will be cut back and jobs will be lost. If demands for
goods were increased, then the process would be reversed and unemployment would fall. It is
therefore the duty of the government to manage demand in the economy. The control of
government over key industries would allow the government to manipulate the economy so
that mass unemployment could he avoided. Thus, to him, government could solve economic
problems by increasing demand in the market

Marxian theory

Capitalism and unemployment

To Marx, unemployment is caused by capitalist industries

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Fig 2:1 capitalist manufacturing industry. Source: brainsphere IT solutions

Marxism focuses on the relationship between capitalism and unemployment. The

unemployment produced by this struggle is said to benefit the capitalist system by reducing
wage costs for the owners. According to Karl Marx, unemployment is inherent within the
unstable capitalist system and periodic crises of mass unemployment are to be expected. The
function of the proletariat within the capitalist system is to provide a “reserve army of labor”
that creates downward pressure on wages. This is accomplished by dividing the proletariat into
surplus labor (employees) and under-employment (unemployed). This reserve army of labor
fight among themselves for scarce jobs at lower and lower wages.

Key term

Capitalism: an economic system whereby means of production are privately owned and the
labor system is manipulated with the aim to make profits.

At first glance, unemployment seems inefficient since unemployed workers do not increase
profits. However, unemployment is profitable within the global capitalist system because
unemployment paves a way for lowers wages, which enables low labour costs from the
perspective of the owners.
From this perspective, low wages benefit the system by reducing economic rents. Yet, it does
not benefit workers. Capitalist systems unfairly manipulate the market for labour by
perpetuating unemployment, which lowers laborers’ demands for fair wages. Workers are
pitted against one another at the service of increasing profits for owners.

To Marx, capitalism work has to make profits thus in order to make profits, some money is
invested in machineries which will result in mechanization and automation. In this respect,
workers will be fired.

Furthermore, Bowles and Ginties have argued that unemployment is maintained through over
education. This is done to produce more reserved army labor. Individual capitalists are spurred
by competition to introduce cost-saving technological advancements into the production
process.
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Technological innovation in production leads to the increasing replacement of labor (variable
capital) with all other means of production, such as machinery (constant capital). This shift in
the ‘organic composition of capital’ is exacerbated by capitalisms tendency toward
‘centralization’ (wherein capitalist firms absorb other firms), which supplements the work of
accumulation by enabling industrial capitalist to extend the scale of their operations (Marx,
1876).

Technological advancement, driven by competition, throws workers out of work as they are
replaced by machinery.
According to Marx, the only way to permanently eliminate unemployment would be to abolish
capitalism and the system of forced competition for wages and then shift to a socialist or
communist economic system. For contemporary Marxists, the existence of persistent
unemployment is proof of the inability of capitalism to ensure full employment. To Marx, the
abolishment of the current system of capitalism is the permanent solution to all the problems.

Evaluation of Marxism

1. Marxism has been criticized as irrelevant, with many economists rejecting its core tenets and
assumptions. John Maynard Keynes referred to Capital as "an obsolete textbook which I know
to be not only scientifically erroneous but without interest or application for the modern world".
For example, his dream of an advanced classless society is seen as irrelevant in today's society.

2. According to some other opponents, Prof. Marx has been proved a false prophet. The
countries, which have toed the Marxian line of thinking, have been curiously those in which
capitalist development lagged behind. All the communist states had been poor and are even
now so, as compared to capitalist countries.

3. Marx can be criticized for exaggerating that capitalism has created a high rate of
unemployment and tends to ignore that capitalism has created more jobs than unemployment.

4. He exaggerated that capitalists benefit more from working class employment and tends to
ignore that the workers tend to become more prosperous with capitalist development and the
middle class instead of disappearing, has emerged as dominant class.

5. Marx contended that with the introduction of technology, industrial reserve army expands.
However, this is an exaggerated view for the long run effect of technological progress. It creates

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more employment opportunities by raising aggregate demand and income. The improved
techniques of production even if they may be labor saving can show better benefits on the
laborers.

Functionalism

To explain the origins of unemployment from a functionalist perspective – in the simplest way –
if people are not being educated on how to do jobs, there will be anyone left who are capable
of doing them.

There is also an increase in jobs being lost due to advances in technology where machines can
replace workers; merely benefiting those running the business.
Generally, those with higher levels of education have better job prospects and better chances
of getting paid jobs; the difference is predominantly marked between those who have acquired
tertiary education and those who have not (Education at a glance, 2012).
A manifest function of a university education includes preparing for a career and finding a good
job utilizing that education (Davis and Moore). According to Davis and Moore, the main role of
education is to allocate individuals who perform successfully and these individuals will be
ranked highly.

In Zimbabwe, following Marx weber analysis, those with high educational qualifications have a
greater prestige, market value and can easily find a job, some of them, leave one and switch to
another. Not only that, some have more than two jobs due to educational qualifications. For
example, Dr Chiwenga serves as both the vice president of Zimbabwe and the minister of health
and childcare.
Furthermore, Robert k Merton through his anomie analysis, argues that those with low levels of
education might find it difficult to get a job hence crime and deviance. In Zimbabwe, the
employers ask for educational qualifications, and the majority of people have appreciated the
education for the jobs they have.

Unemployment puts a brake on national economies, and the lack of a literate and skilled young
workforce limits businesses’ ability to generate higher growth, better profits and more jobs”
(Albright, 2017). Unemployment plays a significant part in our society as it affects reach
everywhere. The inference of unemployment as an individual problem being due to lack of skills,
only seeks to increase the problem as a whole (Albright, 2017).

To Durkheim, unemployment in society is caused by over population. In organic solidarity,

everyone has a role to play. Over population, however makes it impossible for everyone to play
roles leading to unemployment. Functionalists further argue that society is a system with
interconnected parts that form a whole. For example, family produces school members and

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government should make meaningful policies to create jobs. If this network is disturbed,
unemployment will be experienced.

Functionalist such as Murdock (1949) have assumed that there is division of labor in society in
which males should work for the family and the mother should play instrumental roles e. g
socialization.

Evaluation

1. Feminists theorists have reacted to Functionalism due to its gender blindness as it contented
that paid work is only for men.

2. Functionalist can be criticized for exaggerating that lack of educational. A close analysis
reviewed that educational qualifications leads to unemployment due to degree inflation and
curriculum mismatch. Bowles and Ginties commented that over education results in more
reserved army labor.

3. According to Tumin, functionalist perspective ignored that job allocation can be matter of
chance, connection and luck.

Feminism

The feminist perspective is of the view that unemployment is fundamentally a gender issue that
cannot be fully understood through any lens that does not include gender as the central
component of analysis (Dobash & Dobash, 2009).
The authors further assert that the patriarchal domination of women stems from the long
cultural history of legally sanctioned male subordination and outright ownership of women.
Despite the complexity of unemployment, the most fundamental feminist insight is quite simple:
unemployment among women cannot be adequately understood unless gender and power are
taken into account.

Debate - If lack of education leads to unemployment, then why the majority of graduates in
Zimbabwe are unemployed? Discuss with your peers

According to Curran & Renzetti (1996), generally, women have been ranked lower than men
have in the patriarchal society. A woman is still defined in term

Key term

Gender: refers to cultural differentiation between males and females. For example,
males are expected to meet family needs.

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s of the traditional female role of, primarily, being a housewife. Feminist theory holds that
unemployment is a result of male dominance and female subordination brought about by
culture.
This inequality has momentum in Zimbabwe whereby men are treated as being superior to
women.
Gender stereotypical roles manifested themselves in the labour market where men were
considered more important than women. The findings of the present study show that women
are more unemployed than men are and that they depend on part time jobs or odd jobs and
family support to meet their basic needs. The findings also demonstrate that the idea that a
women’s place is in the home is still prevalent in modern society. According to Sinfiled, work
gives males self-identity while work is seen as not necessary for women because women's
identity is given by marriage. Liberal feminists have pointed out to the inequalities influenced
by education in the labor market. To liberal feminists, realistic policies is the main solution to
women's unemployment.

Symbolic interactionist theory of unemployment

To Howard Becker (1974), unemployment results from social interaction due to stereotypes
and labeling. Becker contended that once an individual has been labeled as a deviant actor, he
or she might find it difficulties to get a job because employers are not prepared to employ
someone with a criminal background.
Furthermore, labeling and stereotypes have led to some groups being discriminated in the
world of work. For example, there are cases in Zimbabwe in which the minority groups are
described as not capable to take paid work and some groups such as Ndebele groups are
portrayed negatively as violent and not cooperating that might lead to unemployment.
However, this is a distortion of the culture of other groups because all groups in Zimbabwe are
co-operative.

There are cases in which employers ask the job seekers to indicate the languages they speak,
this might be a reflection of stereotypes being raised which results in employment or
unemployment.

Other causes of unemployment

Curriculum mismatch

Although the Zimbabwean government has invested in education, critics have argued that the
education curriculum is more theoretical than practical. Liberal perspective has argued that in
most curriculums, leaners are taught by being told rather than by doing things and taking
lessons into the field or practice. A study by edtech and skill development company ImaginXP
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has found that 33% of educated youth in India are unemployed due to a lack of future skills - for
most of them, despite getting a degree. This is also reflected in Zimbabwe since the curriculum
is seen as less relevant to the demands of a changing economy. Which is why the Ministry of
primary and Secondary Education has responded to this problem by introducing Continuous
Assessment Learning Activities (CALA}

Lack of educational qualifications

The first and most important reason for people being unemployed in Zimbabwe and other
societies is lack of education. As we, all know education is the most important thing in life, as it
shapes our future. Employers in Zimbabwe ask
for educational qualifications as a prerequisite
for opening an employment Job. Parsons from
a Functionalist perspective has argued that
better educational qualifications lead to a
better position in a stratified society. Most
employed people say their education is the
main reason they have their job and those who
think otherwise are mistaken. Alibek Mukambaev, the Deputy Director of “Consulting Media”
Ltd. says: “Students make a big mistake, when they put education second, work part time while
studying, and then give up studying.

Apparently, those lacking a proper education tend to become unemployed.

Therefore, there are two problems regarding education. First, University students drop out
because they lack motivation/ cultural capital or have chosen the wrong or unwanted degree in
the job market to study due to peer or family pressure. Another major problem is that there is
no careers advice service for pupils or students so they do not know where to look for work or
who to ask for advice. In Zimbabwe, most people often end up with a diploma but no job. On
the contrary, people who are currently unemployed say that education is not important and the
state should offer more jobs and raise wages.

Key term

Educational qualifications: refers to certificates such as diplomas, degrees and so on.

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Fig 2:2showing unemployed graduate

This has also been singled out by Machingaidze (1998) as a driver of youth unemployment.
Unemployed youths are graduates of an education system, which is irrelevant to the needs of
industry.

Lack of manufacturing industry

The economic direction a given country chooses for instance, a country like Japan can choose to
mismatch of the supply and demand of labour also manifests in the macro- concentrate on
boosting the manufacturing sector of industry which then employs more people. The value-
added finished products fetch high prices on international markets.
The money earned is ploughed back to the economy to create more business and absorb the
unemployed youths.

This is in contrast to Zimbabwe, which concentrates on extracting raw materials, which fetch
cheap prices on international markets where buyers buy them; add value and re-sale at a
premium to Zimbabwe and other countries. An economy, which is based on mining and land
tillage without any growth in the manufacturing industry, is sure to have institutionalized
unemployment of youths (Hassan, 2006).

Disability
According to a study by National Association for the care of Handicapped (2017), many disabled
people are not employed in Zimbabwe.
Employers in government and the private sector
are reluctant to give jobs to disabled persons. To
prove that public and private sectors are not
prepared to give jobs to disabled people in
Zimbabwe, Maphosa (2017) offered a critical analysis.

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Key term
Disability : The Disabled Persons Act Chapter 17:01 of 1992, defines a disabled person as a
person with a physical, mental or sensory disability, including a visual, hearing or speech
functional disability, which gives rise to physical, cultural or social barriers inhibiting him
from participating at an equal level with other members of society in activities.

To him most work places in Zimbabwe are not disable user friendly. Inaccessible buildings and
facilities were also cited as impediments to access jobs. Many working centers in Zimbabwe like
hospitals, including those in Chitungwiza, were not constructed with people with disabilities in
mind. (Maphosa ,2017). According to Maphosa (2017), most toilets which are always dirty and
not user-friendly for people with disabilities is another piece of evidence that employers do not
have any plans to employ individuals who live with disabilities. WHO (2013) and Groce et al.
(2009) conclude that disabilities is a great factor which lead to residual unemployment.

Closure of industries

Fig2:3 Zisco steel in kwekwe

Activity
Organize a school trip and tour to ZISCO steel in kwekwe and estimate how many people it
might employ.

Closure of industries due to different circumstances has led to mass unemployment in

Zimbabwe. For example, Ziscosteel shut down recently after 72 years of operation, leaving all
its employees jobless in an unprecedented move for a company that used to be the hub of steel
production in Africa.
Nearly 4 500 workers, some of them having been employed by the company for over 30 years
were sent home. Former Redcliff executive mayor Rogers Chisi described the closure of Zisco as
systematic economic genocide. "Nearly 90% of business depend on Ziscosteel for survival and
so does council, which collected nearly $3 million from levies and taxes from the company
every year,” he said.
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To prove the mass retrenchment of workers, Musicians such as Alick Macheso and the late
Tongai Moyo, who had long abandoned Redcliff in kwekwe held major gigs at Ziscosteel club as
hope was rekindled. The hope was lost when on Ziscosteel chairperson Nyasha Makuvise told
the management that all contracts had been terminated. Only 190 workers employed on new
contracts would remain at work. Therefore, the closure of industries can be described as a
factor, which leads to unemployment.

Debate – discuss the view that the closure of big manufacturing industries in Zimbabwe is an
economic genocide

Covid 19 lockdown

Soon after African countries imposed lockdowns in attempts to contain the spread of Covid-19,
news reports came out that showed populations feared hunger more than the virus itself. Yet,
at the same time in Zimbabwe, the government made use of the opportunity to push through
reforms of informal markets, not attempting to warn or consult vendors whose stalls were
bulldozed. Various civil society actors have demonstrated that both the pandemic and
government measures impact heavily on informal workers, who lose their livelihood due to
lockdowns or slowing demand for their services and products in complex international value
chains. The International Labour Organization (ILO) has shown that social protection systems
will fail on a global scale to safeguard the lives and livelihoods of most vulnerable groups,
including informal workers.

Zimbabwe has been on a national lockdown since 30 March 2020. The lockdown was initially
only supposed to last 21 days, but it has been extended twice already, and in mid-May, a
further ‘indefinite’ extension was announced.
Although some mobility restrictions were eased with the second lockdown extension, informal
businesses remain largely closed and were rem oved from essential services list, except for
some fruit and veg markets.
The ministry of health and childcare reported that mobility into town continues to be restricted
and thus impacting the flow of customers. The statistics estimated that over 90 per cent of
Zimbabweans work in the informal economy, and many live hand to mouth. A ZimRights report
reveals that the impact of the lockdown on the informal sector will hit women the hardest, with
women constituting the majority of informal workers.

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Dutch disease

The term was coined by The Economist in 1977 to describe the decline of the manufacturing
industry in the Netherlands. The idea, however, was first proposed by economists Peter Neary.

Dutch disease is a concept that describes an economic phenomenon where the rapid
development of one sector of the economy (particularly natural resources) precipitates a
decline in other sectors. It is also often characterized by a substantial appreciation of the
domestic currency. Dutch disease is a paradoxical situation where good news for one sector of
the economy, such as the discovery of natural resources, results in a negative impact on the
country’s overall economy hence unemployment.

The negative influence of Dutch disease on the economy can be explained by some features
attributable to the sectors that are related to natural resources. For example, mining industries
generally require heavy capital investments, but they are not labor-intensive. Therefore,
multinational corporations and foreign countries that have capital are often interested in
investing in such ventures.

Foreign investment may lead to higher demand for the country’s domestic currency, and it will
start appreciating. The appreciation of the domestic currency will make the country’s exports in
other industries more expensive while imports will become cheaper.

Subsequently, domestic producers will face lower demand for their products abroad, as well as
greater competition from foreign producers. Thus, the lagging sectors of the economy will face
further troubles.

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Economic sanctions

A significant number of non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and international cooperating

partners have moved their operations out of Zimbabwe after the imposition of sanctions.
DANIDA and the Canadian International Development Agency pulled out of Zimbabwe in 2001
and 2003, respectively, terminating all projects in progress and retrenching their employees.

The decline in employment levels was attributed to massive retrenchments mainly due to the
downsizing of operations and closure of companies particularly in the manufacturing sector.
Labor force surveys indicated that over 400 000 were at one point retrenched in the period
2005 to 2013.

The imposition of sanctions saw an increase in outward migration of skilled and nonskilled labor
force to neighboring countries. This human capital flight heavily affected the economy of
Zimbabwe, which was already under stress
The president of Zimbabwe H.E ED Munangangwa on anti-sanction campaign (2020) says the
Western sanctions are a cancer eating Zimbabwean economy. According to the
president ,sanctions is a new version of slavery. He said economic sanctions are causing
unemployment in Zimbabwe in the sense that Zimbabwe has no cordial relations with countries
like Britain.

What is economic sanctions?

Economic sanctions are coercive economic

measures taken against one or more countries
to force a change in policies or at least to
demonstrate a country’s opinion about the
other policies (Rennack & Shuey, 1999).
Economic sanctions can be defined as the
deliberate, government-inspired withdrawal,
or threats of withdrawal, of customary trade
or financial relations ( Boozer, 2000). Economic sanctions refer to the actual or threatened
withdrawal of normal trade or financial relations, imposed by the sender against the target, for
foreign policy purposes (Nyuni 2008). Economic sanctions are restrictions upon international
trade and financial dealings one country or a group of countries impose on another, usually as
punishment for following policies of the sanctioning country/countries disapproves (Kern, 2009)

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Economic sanctions can be defined as actions that one or countries take to limit or end their
economic relations with a target country in an effort to persuade that country to change its
policies or behavior (Morgan et al 2009).

History of economic sanctions

Zimbabwe’s economy is battling for life due to sanctions imposed by the United States of
America (USA), United Kingdom (UK), Australia, Canada and the European Union (EU). The Land
Reform Programme implemented in Zimbabwe in 2001 is believed to be the one that triggered
the imposition of economic sanctions against Zimbabwe in the form of the so-called Zimbabwe
Democracy and Economic Recovery Act (ZIDERA). The violence accompanying the land reform
exercise, as noted by Makaye & Munhande (2008); the deaths on the farms, and the allegations
of human rights abuses on the part of the government were enough bases for the West
imposition of sanctions against Zimbabwe. Chigora & Dewa (2009) noted that the ruling party
and its allies that comprise of war veterans, youth militia and service chiefs were accused of
fomenting intimidation, arson, kidnapping and murder.

According to Hurungo (2010), the USA and EU then imposed sanctions on Zimbabwe in order to
force politicians to refine government policies in a way that would ensure Zimbabwe is ruled in
a democratic manner. The USA actually argues that the ZIDERA Act was endorsed to provide for
a transition to democracy, to promote economic recovery and re-establish rule of law in
Zimbabwe

How do sanctions work?

Suspension of Technical and Aid Assistance

This includes the following:

 Cancellation or reduction of credit facilities at market rate.

 Cancellation or suspension of assistance in military, development and training.
 Inability (because of lower number of votes) to get grants, subsidies and loans in
 International organizations.

Trade Controls

These are also called the goods and services sanctions and include the following:
 Import or export quota.
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  Limiting exports (embargoes) of the target country.
 Limiting imports of the target country (boycott)
 Tariff policy against the target country.
 Cancellation or restriction of fishing rights.
 Cancellation or suspension of trade agreements.
 Ban on export of technology.

According to Elliot et al (2008), there are basically four main methods of applying sanctions on
the target country and these are:

i. Freezing financial assets.

ii. Suspension of technical and aid assistance.

iii. Trade controls.

iv. Blacklisting the target country.

Freezing Financial Assets This includes the following:

 Freezing the off-shore assets of individual members of the target nations ruling elite.
 Confiscation of different forms of assets.
 Stopping transfer payment and interest.
 Not paying the debt or rescheduling debt payment and interest.
 Refusal to do joint projects with a target country or company or individual in a target
country.

Activity

1. In pairs, discuss whether economic sanctions are hurting Zimbabwe or not (10)

2. Justify the positive effects of economic sanctions (8)

3. How far economic sanctions in Zimbabwe are used as scapegoats (10

Effects of sanctions

Afrocentric scholars

Their argument is that sanctions were imposed on the government and people of Zimbabwe for
reclaiming their land from the British. They believe that sanctions were imposed on ZANU PF to
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induce suffering on Zimbabweans so that people would vote against their government thereby
bringing regime change in the country. ZANU PF politicians argue that Movement for
Democratic Change (MDC) lobbied for these sanctions in a move to use them as a vehicle for
regime change, an allegation strongly denied by the MDC party. In 2001, Learnmore Jongwe a
legislator in MDC denied that there was any connection between his party and the economic
sanctions imposed on the country. (Parliamentary Debates 2001).

Economic sanctions work by inflicting damage on the target country, In all cases, economic
sanctions are supposed to work by imposing some kind of pain on the target country, and
particularly on its ruling regime, which then alters its policies in order to comply with the
sender’s demands and thereby avoid further sanctions damage (Kaempfer & Lowenberg, 2007).
One of the core assumptions of traditional sanctions theory is that the pain inflicted by
sanctions on citizens of target states will cause them to pressure their government into making
the changes demanded by the sanctioning body (Mack & Khan, 2000).

It is almost unnecessary to reiterate the fact that economic sanctions imposed on Zimbabwe
seldom directly destroy the infrastructure of Zimbabwe: what is actually happening on the
ground is that Zimbabwe’s infrastructure, especially roads, hospitals and sanitation systems are
being neglected and thus fall into disrepair due to economic sanctions. This sanctions-induced
neglect and scarcity has inflicted untold suffering on the ordinary, innocent and poor
Zimbabweans. In Zimbabwe, economic sanctions have significantly reduced the quality and
quantity of clean water.

In all urban areas, it is now normal to experience water shortages and sometimes drinking
water available from city councils would be dirty with visible objects of faucal-nature.
Furthermore, due to lack of unfettered access to nutritious food and clean water, the average
level of health of Zimbabweans has significantly deteriorated. It is also imperative to highlight
the fact that Zimbabwe’s health sector is genocidal right now due to economic sanctions that
have reduced the capacity of the public health system. Simple and treatable diseases have
become life-threatening problems in Zimbabwe because of a perennially inadequate supply of
medicines and medical and pharmaceutical equipment’s. As a result, a health worker in
Zimbabwe is always demoralized and demotivated by the poor working conditions.

More so, economic sanctions have significantly reduced available resources for Zimbabwe’s
health sector and as a result, options for preventive care and curative medical services have
become unacceptably limited.

The president of Zimbabwe H.E ED Mnangangwa on anti-sanction campaign (2020) says the
Western sanctions are a cancer eating Zimbabwean economy. The head of state president

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Mnangagwa contended that, sanctions is a new version of slavery. He said economic sanctions
are causing unemployment in Zimbabwe in the sense that Zimbabwe has no cordial relations
with other countries therefore;
there are no investors to invest in
Zimbabwe. The state owned
newspaper (The herald) reported
that sanctions have negatively
affected F.D.I (foreign direct
investment).The investors cannot
invest in a country that is perceived
as risky.
Sanctions have affected agricultural sector since they have made it extremely difficult to access
the agricultural lines of credit.

According to the reports from Herald, a number of functional tractors have declined from 14
000 to 6 000 due to lack of repair causes by illegal sanctions .Sanctions have violated basic
human rights by perpetuating hunger and poverty in Zimbabwe Functional irrigation schemes
declined from 275 to less than 206 000 hectors due lack of repair and maintenance. For
example, the irrigation schemes in Selouse (between chegutu and Norton) no longer functional
due to several factors including sanctions. An agricultural bank was under sanctions up to 2016
hence it did not finance agricultural sector properly.

The livelihoods of women and youths have become precarious, as they cannot access financial
assistance and lines of credit from local banks. The group can no longer access development
and entrepreneurship funding from regional and international financial institutions due to
sanctions.

Economic sanctions cause a significant disruption in the distribution of food, pharmaceutical

and sanitation supplies, it jeopardizes the quality of food and the availability of clean drinking
water, it severely interferes with the functioning of basic health and education systems and
undermines the right to work (Holmes, 2008).

The Southern African Development Community (SADC) has maintained that the economic
sanctions imposed on Zimbabwe are hurting the entire southern African region and hence the
economic bloc will embark on a campaign to speak with one voice until the sanctions are lifted.

The Heads of State and Government have declared 25 October 2019 as the day of solidarity to
lift the illegal sanctions imposed on Zimbabwe (Lopi, 2019). It is imperative to note that 25
October each year will be set aside as a public holiday and solidarity day against illegal

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sanctions imposed on Zimbabwe and all SADC countries have agreed to conduct various
activities in their respective countries on that day to resoundingly call for the immediate
removal of the sanctions.

Eurocentric view on economic sanctions

This is an approach, which gives a positive analysis on sanctions. They believe that sanction is
just a penalty for violating international norm.

Some scholars have adopted a Eurocentric standpoint on economic sanctions. They have
argued that sanctions are used as scapegoats (excuse) in Zimbabwe to loot funds and justify
corruption. This perspective has pointed out that there are no economic sanctions in Zimbabwe
and if there are any, they have nothing to do with the economic harm or meltdown in the
country (Hove 2012).
This school of thought further asserts that President Mugabe’s intolerance, human rights
abuses, DRC adventure and operation clean up (Murambatsvina) have contributed to the
economic challenges the country is going through and not sanctions (Chogugudza 2009.

Sanctions continue to be viewed as an important tool in promoting and maintaining

international peace and security (Bessler et al, 2004). The main objective of sanctions is to
ensure government compliance with the imposer’s interests and are usually seen as more
humane than military intervention (Kaempfer & Lowenberg, 2007; O’Driscoll, 2017). Sanctions
are not like military conflict, which is intended to kill civilians of the target country. They are a
more humane but coercive policy (Drezner, 1998). Theoretically, sanctions are motivated by an
implicitly humane rationale; although their implementation often wrecks great havoc and
civilian suffering (Weiss et al, 1997). Most of the time it is claimed that sanctions and especially
“targeted sanctions” aim at political leadership of sanctioned countries. Thus, sanctions are
meant to create a democratic environment.

Other scholars have argued that economic sanctions is a democratic aid meant to support
development. For example free and peaceful elections and respect to human welfare.

End of unit 1.2 exercise questions

1. Discuss theories of unemployment (25)

2. With the aid of Sociological theories, examine the causes of unemployment (25)

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3. Using sociological concepts and some of your own, suggest what can be done by your
society to curb unemployment (25)

4. Discuss the effects of economic sanctions in Zimbabwe (25)

5. Assess the view that the high rate of unemployment in Zimbabwe is due to economic
sanctions (25)

6. Assess the link between unemployment and economic sanctions (25)

7. Analyze the relationship between non-work and unemployment (25)

8. Discuss the concept of unemployment (25)

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Unit2:3 the distribution of unemployment
Objectives
Learners should be able to;
 Explain the distribution of unemployment
 Examine the distribution of unemployment

Introduction
This unit is going to focus on the distribution of unemployment, that is, some groups have high
unemployment rate than others due to a number of reasons. The distribution of unemployment
can be discussed based on cross cutting themes such as age, gender, race, class and ethnicity.

1.Youth

Fig 2:5 unemployed youth

Youth unemployment is a global phenomenon. Worldwide, youth are 43.7% of the total
unemployed people (ILO, 2010). In sub-Saharan Africa, about 60% of the unemployed are youth
(ILO, 2010).
The situation is no different for Zimbabwe with the Zimbabwe Poverty Assessment study (1995)
revealing that the youth have the highest unemployment rate among all the age groups in the
labour force in Zimbabwe. More recent figures indicate that out of the country's 12 million
people, only 480,000 were formally employed in 2008, down from 3.6 million in 2003 (The
United Nations Office of the Coordination Humanitarian Affairs [UNOCHA], 2008). Formal
sectors unemployment rate stood at 94 percent of which 67.7 percent constituted the youth
(www.mydec.gov.zw). The rate of youth unemployment with regard to both formal and
informal sectors of the Zimbabwe economy stood at 19 percent for females, 11 percent for
males (Chakanya, 2008).

Estimations of Zimbabwean unemployment rate stood at 95% in 2019. Unemployment is the

first challenge that is faced by the youth in Zimbabwe due to socio-economic and political
collapse. The National Association of Youth Organization (2016) reported that 90% of youths in

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the country are unemployed. NAYO reported that there is a massive number of youths who are
migrating from rural to urban areas seeking for employment

Causes and effects of youth unemployment

The causes of unemployment are manifold including the incompatibility between the
curriculum and the needs of the industry in changing times. As a result of this disjuncture,
graduates’ skills are not relevant to the needs of the communities and nation at large.
Furthermore, the shrinking economy cannot absorb all the youth.
The effects of high youth unemployment include youth engaging into drug abuse, violence and
crime, promiscuity leading to prostitution where they end up contracting HIV and AIDS and
other sexually transmitted infections that can be detrimental to their health.

2. Gender

Employment is being distributed unfairly on the bases of gender in Zimbabwe. The feminist
perspective is of the view that, unemployment is fundamentally a gender issue. The authors
further assert that the patriarchal domination of women stems from the long cultural history of
legally sanctioned male subordination and outright ownership of women. Despite the
complexity of unemployment, the most fundamental feminist insight is quite simple:
unemployment among women cannot be adequately understood unless gender and power are
taken into account. The theory challenges the existing social structures where men dominate in
almost all fields and women are treated as mere objects. A local newspaper Financial gazette (4
Aug 2017) reported that there are more women working in Zimbabwe than men.

The unemployment official statistics shows that Zimbabwean women make up 53% of the
workforce dominating jobs in agriculture, health, media and education but males dominate
highly paid jobs (Financial gazette). According to Curran & Renzetti (1996), generally women
have been ranked lower than men in
the patriarchal society. A woman is
still defined in terms of the
traditional female role of, primarily,
being a housewife. Feminist theory
holds that unemployment is a result
of male dominance and female
subordination brought about by
culture. This inequality has its roots in Zimbabwe whereby men were treated as being superior
to women, gender stereotypical roles manifested themselves in the labour market where men
were considered to be more important than women.

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The findings of the present study show that women are more unemployed than men and that
they depend on part time jobs or odd jobs and family support to meet their basic needs. The
findings also demonstrate that the idea that a women’s place is in the home is still prevalent in
the minds of many people.

3. Disability

Most people with disabilities in Zimbabwe are not accorded equal access to job opportunities.
According to study by the National Association of Societies for the Care of the Handicapped
(NASCOH), only two percent of people with disabilities are employed in the public sector, and
overall less than seven percent of people with disabilities in Zimbabwe are in employment.

Why is the employment of disabled persons a challenge in Zimbabwe?

The high rate of unemployment among people with disabilities in Zimbabwe is due mainly to
their lack of qualifications and discrimination from employers. Lack of qualifications often result
when people with disabilities, especially females, are denied access to school. Those who do
attend school do often not receive informed career guidance, and are not aware of appropriate
career opportunities.

Why do employers discriminate against disabled persons?

Employers perceive employing disabled persons as costly and are thus reluctant to employ
them. In general employers do not take measures to facilitate a working environment
appropriate for people with disabilities – such as wheelchair-friendly spaces, for example - as
this will cost them.

How do employers discriminate against people with disabilities?

Through lack of awareness among employers about appropriate environments for people with
disabilities, most workplaces in Zimbabwe are inaccessible to people with disabilities. For
example, they lack ramps, wide doors and hallways for those that are wheelchair bound. Many
escalators in buildings do not work. Office setups are not structured in ways that accommodate
people with disabilities. As another example - appropriate equipment is lacking such as basic
software that is required if people with visual impairments are to use computers.

4. Ethnicity

Ethnic minorities-face discrimination by employers. Most of them have challenges in accessing

education, which make them perform less well in education. According to Brown (1997), there
is a domestic explanation toward ethnic unemployment. - It relates to factors such as the

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ineffectiveness of states in addressing the concern of the constituents. Brown argued that a
certain group can feel vulnerable and deprived which is likely to trigger conflicts. The value of
Brown is applicable to Zimbabwe situation, the minority groups in Zimbabwe such as the
Kalanga and the Tonga people have low education because their geographical location is
lagging behind in terms of education and development. Sociologist Louis Wirth (1945) defined a
minority group as people who are singled out for unequal treatment and who regard
themselves as objects of collective discrimination. Therefore, they have a low status and
prestige due to job discrimination. Thus, the majority like the Shona and the Ndebele have high
employment rate as compared to the minorities such as the Kalanga.

5. Elderly

John Vincent

He argues that age is a form of stratification, source of inequality and potentially a source of
exploitation, conflict and discrimination based on workforce. Thus, old age is often
characterized by material deprivation and unemployment. The elderly are more likely to be
poor than other groups in society. Parsons also support this from a Functionalist perspective
who contended that adulthood is a period of break from social obligations and employment. To
Parsons, elderly lose their status hence they are seen as less capable when it comes to paid job.

6. Class

Individuals from lower social classes are generally more likely to experience unemployment.
Unskilled male manual workers are said to be three times more likely than the average of male
workers, while professionals, employers and managers have high employment rate than others.
Most lower class individuals have high employment rate in Zimbabwe due to lack of education
qualifications. According to Marxist perspective, education is a tool that is used to equip
learners with capitalist skills. However, Bourdieu, a Marxist theorist had argued that lower class
leaners have no cultural capital and educational resources hence they have no market value
which is why they experience high rate of unemployment that the middle class.

End of unit 1.2 activities

1. Discuss the distribution of unemployment in Zimbabwe (25)

2. Explain the reasons why youth have high unemployment rate than other groups (25)

3. Assess the view that women dominate the workforce than other males. (25)

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4. Discuss the distribution of unemployment in in relation to age and gender (25)

Unit 2.4 IMPLICATIONS OF UNEMPLOYMENT

Objectives
Learners should be able to;
 Analyze the effects of unemployment
 Assess measures to address unemployment

Introduction

Negative effects

Numerous claims have been made about the effects of mass unemployment on society. Usually
the effects of mass unemployment on society. Usually, the effects of unemployment in
Zimbabwe have been seen as detrimental to society. After sensing the distractive effects of
unemployment, the Zimbabwean government has responded by introducing various measures
to curb unemployment.

According to Adrian Sinified, unemployment has the following effects in society;

Negative effects

1. Poor standards of living.

Sinified has argued that those remaining in work feel less secure and may have their standards
of living threatened. This is partly because of short time working and reductions for overtime
and partly due to the reduced bargaining power of workers, which leads to downward pressure
on wages.

2. Divides society

Due to high rate of unemployment, Sinified has argued that divisions within the society are
likely to grow. The unemployment and those in unsatisfying work may blame weak groups in
society for their problems. For example, Immigrants and ethnic minorities are used as
scapegoats in South Africa leading to Xenophobia.

Social problems

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According to Watson, many social problems have been linked to unemployment. These
problems can be seen as the effects of unemployment have caused instabilities in society.
Examples of social problems cited by Watson are as follows:

 Marriage breakdown
 Attempted and actual suicide
 Premature death
 Marriage breakdown
 Child battering
 Ill health
Financial effects

Perhaps the most obvious effects of unemployment are financial. According to a study by the
Department of Health and social security (1978), the increasingly severe financial impact of
unemployment. This has been attributed to increase in number of long-term unemployment
(those who have been out of employment for a year or more. After 12 months, Key points out
those individuals lose their rights to claim unemployment benefit. Furthermore, the longer a
person is out of work the greater the greater their financial hardship is likely to stricken them.

Unemployment reduces social contacts

Fagin and Little have claimed that work give people a sense of identity of who they are and
what their role is society is. It is a source of relationship outside the family. In Zimbabwe for
example, if one has a paid work, will be respected and is in high contact with others due to
financial stability. However, unemployment tends to reduce this contact.

Psychological reactions

According to Fagin and Little, unemployment has caused different psychological reactions.

 Anxiety and stress - the unemployed became more concerned about finding work and
anxious about their futures.
 Shock - it consisted of a sense of disbelief and disorientation
Ill health

Perhaps, the most dramatic claims about the effects of unemployment relate to health.
According to Laurance, Unemployed school leavers in Leeds were found to experience poorer
mental health than those who get Jobs. A study based upon. 1971 census in Britain found a
20 % high mortality rate amongst unemployment men compared to the unemployed

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Suicide

Sociologists have linked unemployment to suicide. A recent research in Zimbabwe has showed
that males have high suicidal rate than females. In Zimbabwe, males are expected to be
breadwinners and all family eyes are on the father. In view of W. Mills, society with its
problems exercise so much power of individuals, which is why many people commit suicide.
For example, researches in Edinburg in found that suicide and attempted suicide rate was 11
times higher for unemployed men than employed men.

Disrupts the normal transition adulthood

According to Paul Willis a neo Marxist, the young are denied the opportunity to become
independent from parents and often experience long periods of poverty. The value of Willis is
applicable to Zimbabwean situation in the sense that the young are denied the legal and
moral opportunity to take on family responsibilities and planning for marriage is postponed.

Unemployment leads to waithood period and youth violence

The term was used by Alcinda honwana to refer to a prolonged period of suspension between
childhood and adulthood. According to Honwana, youth transition to adulthood has become so
uncertain due to unemployment.
Key term

Waithood period: Refers to a period of waiting to become adults. This roadblock is caused by
unemployment.

Case study of the waithood period and violence in Africa

As observed by Honwana, Young Africans are living in waithood, a prolonged period of

suspension between childhood and adulthood. She used the notion of waithood, which means
waiting for adulthood,to describe this prolonged period of suspension when young peoples
access to social adulthood is delayed or denied. While their chronological age may define them
as adults, they have not been able to attain the social markers of adulthood: earning a living,
being independent, establishing families, providing for their offspring and other relatives, and
becoming taxpayers. They are consigned to a liminal space in which they are neither dependent
children nor autonomous adults.

Thousands of young Mozambicans staged riots in Maputo in early September 2010, to protest a
substantial rise in the prices of bread, water, and fuel. Using text messaging to mobilize their
age-mates, they blocked the streets, burned tires, and confronted the police. The escalation of

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these protests forced the government to concede and reverse the price hikes. Few non-
Mozambicans were aware of these dramatic developments.

The events in Tunisia in 2011 attracted international attention. Youth from diverse social strata
articulated grievances ranging from unemployment, to corruption, to the denial of free
expression. They not only mobilized other Tunisians to oust the regime of Ben Ali, but also
inspired similar activism within the continent, in the Middle East, and more globally. However,
after the ousting of the regime, formal party politics superseded the broad base coalition of the
street protests and marginalized young activists.

In Dakar in June 2011, rallying around the movement Yen a Marre! (Enough is enough!),
Senegalese youth came out to the streets, clashed with police, and managed to stop the
approval of constitutional amendments that would benefit former president Wade. Galvanized
by this victory, and using the slogan Ma Carte dElecteur, Mon Arme“(my voting card, my
weapon), the young Senegalese helped to remove Abdoulaye Wade from office in February
2012.

In the past couple of years, apart from the well-known events in Egypt and Libya, young people
took to the streets in anti-government protests in Sudan, Angola, Burkina Faso, Malawi and
Nigeria, among other places in the continent. The Middle East, Iran, Bahrain, Yemen, Syria, and
more recently Turkey, have all witnessed youth riots due to unemployment.

in March 2011, the so-called geraí§í£o í rasca (precarious generation) came out to the streets
to denounce unemployment and the high cost of living. Since May 2011 the indignados
(indignant

Case study in Zimbabwe

At the height of this violence in 2008, Mbare became one of the epicenters of youth violence
after the emergence of a youth militia group aligned with the ruling ZANU-PF party, named
Chipangano. Chipangano created a network of violent political mobilization centered around
Mbares popular markets such as Mbare Musika, Mupedzanhamo, and Magaba Siyaso, among
other spaces in Zimbabwe’s capital Harare. This militia group used threats, intimidation, and
violence to grab and govern economically strategic spaces such as markets, public plaza termini,
and low-income flats, among other things, as part of its rent-seeking practices. In a context of
skyrocketing youth unemployment, dwindling economic and livelihood opportunities, and
systemic economic and political marginalization, many young people were compelled to join
Chipangano, while others were forcibly conscripted into this militia group and its attendant
violent networks of political mobilization and rent-seeking practices.

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For example, Jim Kunaka, the former leader of Chipangano and the provincial youth leader of
ZANU-PF, publicly apologized for his role in the political violence in Mbare.

Activity

Discuss the relationship between unemployment and youth violence (25)

Using the case study of Honwana examine the prolonged period of waithood associated with
unemployment has reduced youths to violence (25)
Examine the view that unemployment has only two negative effects on youths thus,
waithood and violence (25)

Unemployment has affected old age benefits

According to Vincent from a political economy perspective, the elderly are likely to be poor
than other groups due to lack of retirement benefits. This is linked to their long periods of
unemployment when they wanted to work.

Poverty

The devastating effects of mass unemployment is poverty. Although poverty is relative or

contextual, researchers have found out that absolute poverty and unemployment are two sides
of the same coin.

Political instabilities

Unemployment has created hungry and angry faces, which lead to demonstration, political
uprising etc.

Mass migration

Unemployment may result in mass outward migration, which leads to loss of labor, brain drain.
For example, in 2008 to 2013 in Zimbabwe, there was a mass migration to neighboring
countries like Botswana and South Africa in search for greener pastures

Other general effects of unemployment in Zimbabwe include;

 Drug addiction
 Theft crimes
 Early marriages
 Child labor
 Poor educational achievement
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  Domestic violence
 Prostitution
Positive effects of unemployment

Despite the above devastating effects of unemployment, researchers have found out that
there are some gains of unemployment. Being unemployed leads to;

 Increased leisure time

According to Burber and Dewberry, The unemployed spend more time watching
television, reading, engaging in different hobbies.
 Leads to social change
A high rate of unemployment may lead to social change, which leads to regime change.
 Unemployment may create jobs to other groups
Medical doctors, Police officers may get jobs out of unemployment to monitor the
distractive effects of unemployment.
 Dirt end jobs can be carried out.
According to Gans, unemployment leads to those jobs that are tiresome, risky to be
undertaken as part time jobs

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Unit 2.4 MEASURES TAKEN BY THE ZIMBABWEAN GOVERNMENT TO CREATE EMPLOYMENT

After sensing the distractive effects of unemployment, the Zimbabwean government has
responded by introducing various measures to curb unemployment.

1. Making the curriculum compatible with the demands of the work place.

The Zimbabwean government through its two ministries of education have revised the
curriculum (education and training) to make it compatible with the needs of the industry – the
world of work. Carrying out a skills requirements audit in the economy so that education and
training respond to the needs of industry. In view of John Dewey from a liberal perspective,
Education should impart skills not only knowledge. To him, learners should learn by doing
things not by being told. Thus, the Zimbabwean government has took its education into the
field through the introduction of continuous assessment. Therefore, this Zimbabwean
government should be credited for promoting the education system to be more practical than
theoretical.

However, despite this attempt, it has been noted that unemployment rate is on the rise
because this measure appears to be an experiment, which has not yet reached its conclusions.

2. Re introduction of ZUPCO buses

The Zimbabwean government indicated that they would be reviving ZUPCO to try to address
the local mass transportation woes and unemployment. The plans of the reintroduction of
ZUPCO shuttles was announced and it sounded too good to be true and the initiative has
unlocked many jobs. According to the ZUPCO acting CEO, Mr Everisto Madangwa, at least 1200
jobs have been created so far. These jobs were not there before the inception of the initiative.
There are plans in place to actually provide service to more routes which means even more jobs
will be unlocked.

The employment opportunities shall mainly have to do with the hiring of drivers and
conductors. So people interested in such occupations should be on the lookout for calls for
recruitment starting in July. ZUPCO has indicated that the recruitment drive will commence this
coming month and will be a national exercise.

However, critics of the government have contended that the Revival of ZUPCO did not create
any employment, infact, it led to unemployment because it was 'a hiring and firing aspect'.
ZUPCO has its own conductors and those individuals who volunteered their vehicles to operate
under ZUPCO were given a new conductor leading to the unemployment of the former and
employment of the latter.

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3. Land reform program

After, 1980 independence, the Zimbabwean government reversed all the colonial policies and
made access to the land available to the black Zimbabweans. This has made blacks to have an
access to fertile lands for agriculture, which enabled them to practice agriculture on a larger
scale leading to self-employment and employment of the workforce to monitor crops.

However, critics have argued that the land reform program was inhuman activity, which led to
unemployment of the individuals who were working in white plantations. In addition, this land
reform largely benefited powerful groups such as upper classes and males while minorities such
as women were left with no chance.

4. Zimbabwe Agenda for Socio-Economic Transformation (Zim Asset)

It is a macro economic blueprint is aimed at achieving sustainable development and socio
equity through indigenization, empowerment and employment creation. ZIMASSET identifies
mining, agriculture, transport, tourism, information communication technology, enhanced
support for small and medium scale enterprises as well as infrastructural sectors primarily
focusing on power generation as key drivers for the projected growth targets. These drivers
promote enterprise through opening opportunities.

However, achievements of this policy were hampered by lack of commitment and minimal
implementation. The ZIMASSET came when the economy was just coming from a deep
economic recession, some sectors were yet to recover, there was high levels of unemployment,
companies were still closing, the level of politics was still debatable and formal sectors were
less rewarded. According to Zindiye et al (2008), Zimbabwe is well known for coming up with
brilliant and well thought policies but the problem has been on implementation.

5 SMEs support structures

Some economic analysts believe that Small to Medium Enterprises (SMEs) is the best way of
addressing . Zimbabwe’s high unemployment rate, meaning the creation of an enabling
business environment for the SME sector may be key in addressing the unemployment scourge
(This is in line with the Government’s Indigenization Program ). Supporting indigenous business
development and black empowerment was done by most governments in Africa to curb
unemployment.

According to most economists, most SMEs in Zimbabwe are blighted by capital constraints,
where banks demand collateral, poorly structured organizations, lack of management
information systems and access to markets, but these issues can all be addressed with the
relevant support. Mupedziswa and Gumbo (2000) noted that the government saw informal
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microenterprises as popular instruments for overcoming poverty through self-employment.
6. Indigenization and Economic Empowerment Act.

It states that at least fifty-one per centum of the shares of every public company and any other
business shall be owned by indigenous Zimbabweans. Thus, this gives Zimbabweans a room to
employ fellow Zimbabweans. It defines indigenization as a deliberate involvement of
indigenous Zimbabweans in the economic activities of the country, to which hitherto they had
no access, to ensure the equitable ownership of the nation’s resources. It also defines
empowerment as the creation of an environment, which enhances the performance of the
economic activities of indigenous Zimbabweans into which they would have been introduced or
involved through indigenization.

7. Support structures that promote youth entrepreneurship

The government has establishment and strengthened training and teaching of

entrepreneurship secondary schools and tertiary institutions to foster the development of an
entrepreneurial culture among the youth to facilitate self-employment (Mpofu,
2020). Although there are support structures that promote youth entrepreneurship, there is
still the need to assess the extent to which their contribution can lead to sustainable
entrepreneurship, which creates jobs for the active population (Mpofu, 2020). The current
structures that promotes youth entrepreneurship include the Ministry of Small and Micro
Enterprises, Ministry of youth, Youth Council, vocational training centers and microfinance
schemes like the Youth Fund. There are also other structures at Provincial levels and District
levels (Mpofu, 2020).

8. Creating Conducive and Enabling Environment for Investment

According Mpofu (2020). There is the Improving relationships with the global world is also key
in attracting investment. The Zimbabwean government has tried to convince European
investors that its nation is conducive for European investments through President Mnangagwa's
mantra "Zimbabwe is open for business". It has tried to create a democratic environment and
President Mnangagwa recently launched an independent investment Court in order for
prospective investors to have the assurance that Zimbabwe is open for business (Mpofu, 2020).

This measure can be seen as effective when taking the Chinese investment into consideration
who have employed several Zimbabweans and some are in a position to feed their families and
send children to school. Thus, the Zimbabwean government can be commented for a job well
done of improving the access to life chances of its people.
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However, the president of Zimbabwe H.E ED Munangangwa on anti-sanction campaign day
admitted that the mantra 'Zimbabwe is open for business" is marred by economic sanctions. He
said economic sanctions are causing unemployment in Zimbabwe in the sense that Zimbabwe
has no cordial relations with countries like Britain and America. Rich business people from
these countries are not willing to invest in a country that is perceived as risky. Thus, such a
distortion of the history of Zimbabwe has affected foreign direct investment that is why
unemployment rate is high.

‘End of unit 2.3 exercise

1. Examine the effects of unemployment in Zimbabwe (25)

2. "The duty of the government is to create an environment for employment not to create the
employment for its citizens” Discuss this assertion in relation to Zimbabwean situation. (25)

3. Despite government's efforts to create employment, examine the reasons why

unemployment rate continues to rise (25)

4. Examine the view that unemployment has a psychological effect rather than political effect
(25)

5. Although unemployment has devastating effects, there are some positive gains from it.
Discuss (25)

SUMMARY

The above discussion has brought it to light that there are various types of unemployment in
Zimbabwe. The types can be linked to season and other factors. Sociological theories have
given different explanations on the factors that lead to unemployment. These differences are
celebrated in sociology since they enable leaners to broaden up their scopes. Sensing the
divastating effects of unemployment, the Zimbabwean government has responded by
introducing various ways to create jobs for it's citizens. However, despite the efforts of the
government, Unemployment rate is still high due to economic, political and social problems
being faced by the nation.

Glossary

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Cyclical unemployment - is a type of unemployment which is related to the cyclical trends in
the industry or the business cycle. If an economy is doing good, cyclical unemployment will be
at its lowest, and will be the highest if the economy growth starts to falter

Capitalism - Capitalism is often thought of as an economic system in which private actors own
and control property in accord with their interests, and demand and supply freely set prices in
markets in a way that can serve the best interests of property owners. The essential feature of
capitalism is the motive to make a profit.

Disability - a person who has a physical or mental impairment that substantially limits one or
more major life activities.

Dutch disease - is a concept that describes an economic phenomenon where the rapid
development of one sector of the economy (particularly natural resources) precipitates a
decline in other sectors.
Economic sanctions - Economic sanctions are commercial and financial penalties applied by one
or more countries against a targeted self-governing state, group, or individual.

Economic genocide - The destruction of economy by means of attack or policies

Economy - the state of a country or region in terms of the production and consumption of
goods and services and the supply of money

Employment - Employment is a paid work agreement between an employer and an employee

Frictional unemployment - Employees leaving their current positions to find new ones.

Gender refers to the characteristics of women, men, girls and boys that are socially constructed.
This includes norms, behaviors and roles associated with sex.

Job - a paid position of regular employment

Land reform program - purposive change in the way in which agricultural land is held or owned,
the methods of cultivation that are employed, or the relation of agriculture or it is land
redistribution exercise.

Measures to create employment - strategies implemented to create employment

Non work - working activities that are not productive or paid for something that is not work, or
a time when someone does not work: caring for family members is classified as non-work.

Residual unemployment - the unemployment that remains in periods of full employment, as a

result of those mentally, physically, or emotionally unfit to work.
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Structural unemployment - unemployment resulting from industrial reorganization, typically
due to technological change, rather than fluctuations in supply or demand.

Unemployment - refers to a situation where a person actively searches for employment but is
unable to find work

Work - activity involving mental or physical effort done in order to achieve a purpose or result

End of term questions

1. Discuss the concept of unemployment (25)

2. Examine the effects of economic sanctions in Zimbabwe (25)
3. With the aid of sociological theories, examine the causes of unemployment in Zimbabwe
(25)
4. Discuss the measures taken by Zimbabwean government to reduced unemployment rate
(25)

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 Topic 13 poverty

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 It is not simply that
there are rich and poor,
it is rather that some
are rich because some
are poor (Kincaid,
1973).

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Units covered
3.1the causes of poverty
3.2 impact of poverty on society
3.3 measures to curb poverty

Introduction

Poverty in Zimbabwe has been increasing over the last 20 years due to a combination of
economic and weather-related problems (The Moving Zimbabwe Forward). This chapter is
motivated by the need to help leaners understand the context in which poverty exists in
Zimbabwe. It is not meant to chronicle failures, but rather provide a deeper understanding and
analysis of the problems of poverty and help to identify factors that may contribute to poverty
reduction strategies. Many of the vernacular languages in Zimbabwe have terms that relate to
the concepts of wellbeing and poverty and locate it socially. Shona words that express
wellbeing are kugarika and upfumi and the Ndebele words are inhlalakahle and inotho. The
Shona word urombo or nhamo and the Ndebele word ubuyanga capture the essence and
recognize the time duration and depth dimensions of poverty. So which condition exactly
describes the state of poverty? In 2018, the World Bank presented that the national poverty
lines typically stood at (US$5.50 a day). If poverty datum line for an individual is below 3.50 per
day, how much do you spend a day as an individual? It

Unit 3.1 causes of poverty

This unit examines the various causes of poverty, most causes of poverty are pictured by
sociological theories. It is important for learners to understand absolute and relative poverty.
Before we go further, let us define poverty

What is poverty?

Poverty refers to the deprivation of tangible (things you can touch and count- money, land,
seed, inputs) and intangible (knowledge, low self-esteem etc.) resources for production and
sustenance. Poor people are sometimes taken to be those who receive social benefits in
consequence of their lack of means. The sociologist Georg Simmel argued that poverty, in
sociological terms, referred not to all people on low incomes, but to those who were
dependent: The poor person, sociologic. Poverty consists of a core of necessities as well as a list
of other necessities that change over time and place (George, 1988). Baratz and Grigsby [1971]
refer to poverty as a severe lack of physical and mental well-being, closely associated with

90 | P a g e
inadequate economic resources and consumption. Poverty is a condition characterized by
severe deprivation of basic human needs, including food, safe drinking water, sanitation
facilities, health, shelter, education and information. It depends not only on income but also on
access to services. (UN, 1995).

Key terms

1. Necessity - something that you must have.

2. Human Basic need - most basic human survival needs include food and water, sufficient rest,
clothing and shelter, overall health, and reproduction

3. Deprivation - the damaging lack of material benefits considered to be necessities in a society

Before we get into the causes of poverty, it is important to discuss the types of poverty

The concept of absolute and relative poverty

Absolute poverty

Researchers have argued that poverty should be measured absolutely. This is because there is a
common minimum standard that can be applied to all societies, below which individuals can be
said to be in poverty. However, supporters of relative poverty have dismissed this view. They
argue that the definition of poverty should relate to the standard of a particular society and at a
particular time.

Absolute poverty means that poverty is defined using a universal baseline with no reference to
other people’s income or access to goods. The failure of meeting this baseline thus means that
the individual is poor. Absolute poverty is typically discussed in the context of extreme poverty
in developing countries, although absolute and extreme poverty are not synonymous concepts.
Absolute poverty can be defined as the state in which a subject lacks the means to meet his or
her basic needs. Such basic needs are often listed in international poverty reduction programs,
and usually include food, water, shelter, basic education, and basic medical care. Most
measures of absolute poverty are concerned with establishing the quality and amount of food,
clothing and shelter. Deemed necessary for a healthy life.

Extreme poverty is typically defined as a state in which a person lacks access to all, or several,
of the goods needed for meeting these basic needs. Definitions of absolute poverty often
derive from the idea that the basic needs which need to be satisfied in order not to be poor in
the absolute sense are common to all human beings and thus in some. Absolute poverty is

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often known as subsistence poverty since it is based on the assessment of minimum
subsistence requirements. Absolute poverty is generally measured by pricing the basic
necessities of life, drawing from a poverty line in terms of this price, and defining as poor those
whose income falls below the line. For example, World Bank reported that those who spend
less than $3 in the whole world per day could be said to be in poverty.

Moreover, the supporters of absolute poverty believe that poverty is universal. For example,
what you call poverty in Zimbabwe is also poverty in other societies like UK, USA etc. They also
believe that poverty is fixed, it does not change with time, and this means that what you used
to call poverty 40 years ago is still poverty today.

Criticism of the concept of absolute poverty

Firstly, you should understand that most critics of the concept of absolute poverty are the
characteristics of relative poverty. Paul Spicker (2012) argues that the absolute definition of
poverty is problematic and misleading. He says, everyone needs food, but the test of what can
be considered food changes from one society to another. Furthermore, what is actually needed
for survival varies as well. Thus, Peter Townsend (1970) argues that it would be difficult to say
that nutritional needs of a particular society are universal. For example, the nutritional needs of
the nomadic hunters and gatherers of the Kalahari Desert in Africa may we be different from
those of office workers in London.

Jack and Roach criticized the attempt's to define absolute standards of shelter. City living for
example requires that adequate shelter due to water supplies, sewage and garbage disposal.
Thus, flush toilets may be considered as necessary in cities but not necessarily important in
rural areas.

Haralambos and Holborn cited that the concept of absolute poverty is even more difficult to
defend when it is broadened to include the idea of basic cultural needs such as education and
information; such needs vary from time to time and place to place. For example, the African
education that is more theoretical can be considered as unnecessary and primitive in highly
industrialized countries like Britain.

Firstly, you should understand that most critics of the concept of absolute poverty are the
characteristics of relative poverty. Paul Spicker (2012) argues that the absolute definition of
poverty is problematic and misleading. He says, everyone needs food, but the test of what can
be considered food changes from one society to another. Furthermore, what is actually needed
for survival varies as well. Thus, Peter Townsend (1970) argues that it would be difficult to say
that nutritional needs of a particular society are universal. For example, the nutritional needs of
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the nomadic hunters and gatherers of the Kalahari Desert in Africa may we be different from
those of office workers in London.

Jack and Roach criticized the attempt's to define absolute standards of shelter. City living for
example requires that adequate shelter due to water supplies, sewage and garbage disposal.
Thus, flush toilets may be considered as necessary in cities but not necessarily important in
rural areas.

Haralambos and Holborn cited that the concept of absolute poverty is even more difficult to
defend when it is broadened to include the idea of basic cultural needs such as education and
information; such needs vary from time to time and place to place. For example, the African
education that is more theoretical can be considered as unnecessary and primitive in highly
industrialized countries like Britain.

Relative poverty

It defines and measures poverty in terms of specific standards to a particular place at a

particular time as opposed to absolute poverty. In a rapidly changing world, the definition of
poverty has to change thus suggesting that it is not fixed as opposed to absolute poverty. It says
that poverty is not universal; it varies from society to society.
According to Townsend, the definition of poverty is related to the needs and demands of a
changing society. It has been argued that it is not necessary to discuss poverty in absolute
terms because what you call poverty in America for instance is not poverty in Zimbabwe. The
basic human needs vary from society to society and place to place as well as time to time.
Sociologists believe that poverty exist also where members of society are excluded from the life
style of the community to which they belong. Townsend applied the concept of relative
deprivation society determines your needs. Society determines what type of food staffs one
should consume.

He said relative poverty involves an inability to participate in approved social activities, which
are considered normal such as visiting friends, having birthday party etc.

Absolute poverty relative poverty

The concept of absolute poverty usually According to Townsend (1979), relative

involves the judgement of basic needs poverty involves the inability to participate in
required to maintain basic human life e.g. social activities that are considered normal
food, clothes, shelter, education e.g. hosting birthday parties.

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Supporters of absolute poverty believe that Townsend argued that poverty is relative
poverty is universal. They believe that there rather than universal. This means that it varies
are minimum standards that can be applied to from society to society. It measures poverty in
all societies in which individuals can be said to terms of standards of a particular place e.g.
be in poverty. cars are necessities in the Western world but
not in Africa.

Poverty is discussed in terms of lack of Poverty is discussed in terms of lifestyle e.g.

material possession e.g. shelter. hosting expensive parties.

Poverty is fixed or basic needs do not They say poverty or basic needs are not fixed.
constantly change with time. They constantly change with time. The
definition of poverty has to change because
society is changing e.g. in western societies
cellphones, hot and cold water, cars have
moved from being luxurious to comfort and
finally necessities or basic needs.

It measures poverty in terms of lack of basic Paul Spicker (2012) said that those aspects
education, shelter, information, food and cannot be universally applied because the
these aspects are said to be universal. quality of food, shelter, education vary from
society to society.

Cannot be eradicated especially in developing Relative can be easily eradicated.

countries.

Quality of life is poor because individuals do Quality of life is marginally better because
not have access to health, information, food those who are under relative poverty have
and shelter. access to food, health, shelter.

It is concerned about biological needs you It is concerned about basic wants you can
cannot survive without. survive without .It is a comparison between
two people in a different environment.

Absolute is found in developing countries. Relative is found in developed countries.

Table 3.1 differences between absolute and relative poverty

Causes of poverty in sociological terms

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In this unit, weconsider sociological explanations on poverty.

Individualistic and underclass theories of poverty

Theories under this category blame the underclass for their poverty.
They placed the blame for poverty on the poor themselves.
From this point of view, poverty is a self-inflicted phenomenon. Individualistic beliefs
attribute poverty to the poor people themselves (personal problems) like lack of ability,
effort, and morals.

1.Functionalist theory
Herbert Spencer - dissolute living

Spencer (1971), although he followed the ideas of Charles Darwin, argued that individuals
should be blamed for their poverty
because they indirectly and willingly
choose it. To Spencer, it is unnecessary to
help those engage in dissolute living and
those who are too lazy to work should not
be allowed to it. Thus, Spencer is
emphasizing that those who are in poverty
are too lazy to work. There is a degree of
truth in this assertion, in Zimbabwe for example, the so called the educated are not willing to
get their hands dirty rather they are waiting for a simple lifestyle which no longer exists.
Spencer went on to argue that such a lazy character drives individuals into poverty. He adopted
the concept of survival of the fittest, where he said for the society to evolve and to become
more successful, the most able and the hardest working would have to be allowed to keep the
rewards of their efforts. Therefore, Spencer concluded that the underclass takes personal
responsibility for their poverty.

Evaluation
Only handful sociologists accept this individualist explanation of poverty, critics have argued
that poverty is a characteristic of family, group, community or even global community and not a
characteristic of individuals. Spencer also ignored that some individuals are hard workers and
their work is unrewarded hence, the government and its policies can be blamed for creating
poverty.

Debate - discuss the functionalist view that laziness leads to poverty

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2. The culture of poverty theory
Oscar Lewis (1966)

To Lewis, the poor is poor due to the culture of poverty or more correctly the subculture of
poverty that has been transmitted from generation to the next generation. He argued that this
culture is a design for living, which directs behavior.
In Zimbabwe, have you ever heard parents telling their children that as long as you are in
Zimbabwe you will die poor? What are you learning? Is this not the culture of poverty, which is
so discouraging? More openly, the culture of poverty has the following elements;

1. on the individual level; a strong feeling of marginality, helplessness, dependence and

inferiority, a sense of resignation and fatalism.

2. On family level, a high probability of abandonment of mothers and children, a high rate of
divorce by male head leading to families headed by women.

Furthermore, the culture of poverty is then a reaction of the poor to their marginal position in a
class stratified and highly individualistic society (Lewis, 1961). As such, the culture of poverty
tends to perpetuate poverty since its characteristics can be seen as mechanisms that maintain
poverty. For example, a feeling of defeat by society, attitudes of resignation lead to the
acceptance of poverty. Thus, Lewis concluded that the poor could be blamed for self-
perpetuating poverty.

Evaluation

The culture of poverty thesis has received sustained criticism, Lewis tends to ignore that
poverty is caused by capitalism and government policies. Feminist have argued that
discrimination which leads to women’s poverty has nothing to do with the culture of poverty.

3. Lower class subculture

Walter B Miller
He Says the lower class subculture of poverty is self-perpetuating that has been transmitted
from one generation to the next. The subculture is maintaining the poor in their present
circumstances. Lower working class are combined by the culture of poverty and they tend to
believe that poverty is designed for them. This is a discouraging culture in which the members
de - motivate each other.

4.The culture of dependency

David Marsland (1996)

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Marsland (1989) has argued that the universal welfare provisions in Britain have created a
culture of dependency. He said that the welfare handouts create incentives for staying
unemployed; they discourage competition and self-improvement throughout education. Due to
this culture, individuals will be attracted to an easy life. To Marsland, the state should look after
the disabled and the old not to people who can support themselves. Thus, Marsland holds the
view that the poor is poor due to some policies introduced by the state.

5. Circle of poverty theory

It implies that poverty is the cause of poverty. A poor person, in order to repay his existing debt,
will borrow some more, thereby adding to his debt. Further, he will also incur interest payment
obligations. This will only increase his total amount of debt. He is also likely to pass on this debt
to his children, who will remain caught in this poverty trap. Poor people tend to remain poor
and pass on the poverty situation to the future generations.

Marxist theory

Marxist perspective argues that poverty is caused by capitalism. Marxist Theory maintains that
poverty, like wealth, is an inevitable consequence of a capitalist society.

The role of capitalism in causing poverty

Marxists argue that poverty benefits the ruling class, as it ensures that there is always a
workforce willing to accept low wages. Similarly, the existence of unemployment and job
insecurity means that there is always a ‘reserve army of labor’ able and willing (or, unable to be
unwilling!) to take their place if they are not happy. Capitalism and the bourgeoisie therefore
benefit from the existence of poverty (Cunningham, 2007). It is not simply that there are rich
and poor It is rather that some are rich because some are poor (Kincaid, 1973).

For Marxists then, poverty is an intrinsic and integral feature of capitalist society, which is a
direct consequence of the inequality inherent in the class system. According to Marxist,
capitalist have grabbed means of production and the working class are left with nothing hence
poverty. It can be argued that there is no good employer in the sense that each organization is
designed to make profits hence workers are given low wages and salaries leading to poverty.

According to Cox (1970), capitalism went hand in hand with colonialism, in which Africans were
denied access to their land and capitalist like Cecil john Rhodes enslaved them. Hence, from this

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point of view it can be argued that the poor is poor not because they are poor but they are
made to be poor by capitalist system.
In addition, Marxist medical sociologist such as Navarro believe that poverty is generated by
capitalist industries through illness. To Navarro ill health is caused by industrial gasse4s which
will make the able unable. The individuals will be paying medical bills to their capitalist medical
centers hence poverty. In the same discourse, injuries in capitalist industries are likely to cause
disability hence poverty.
Lastly, capitalism generate unemployment due automation and mechanization.

Finally, Marx and his colleagues concluded that until the proletariat and the capitalist system
overthrow the bourgeoisie is replaced by an egalitarian socialist system.

Feminist perspective on poverty

The feminist perspective has argued that the poverty of women is gendered. According to
Ravazi (2000), ‘the face of poverty is a woman’. Generally, there has been a significant increase
in the numbers of single women in poverty alone, primarily as single mothers. In the last three
decades, the proportion of poor families headed by women has grown to more than 50 percent.
This feminization of poverty may be related to numerous changes in contemporary society.
According to radical feminist, Increases in unwanted births, separations, and divorces have
forced growing numbers of women to head poor households. Meanwhile, increases in divorced
fathers avoiding child support coupled with lack of welfare support have forced many of these
women‐headed households to join the ranks of the underclass.
Further, because wives generally live longer than their husbands do, growing numbers of
elderly women must live in poverty.

Feminists also attribute the feminization of poverty to women's vulnerability brought about by
the patriarchal, sexist, and gender biased nature of society, which does not value protecting
women's rights and wealth.

0ther Causes of poverty

A lot of debate has been made on the

concept of poverty and what causes it. This
section seeks to undertake a critical analysis
of the acute causes of poverty in Zimbabwe

Drought and Poverty in Zimbabwe

As a result of the 2015-2016 drought that affected most of southern Africa, the rural poor have
become more vulnerable to the loss of both their food security and their livelihoods. A 2016
study by the Zimbabwe Vulnerability Assessment Committee (ZimVAC) shows that
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approximately 4.1 million Zimbabweans, nearly a quarter of the population, face food and
nutrition insecurity due to the drought. ZimVAC is a consortium of

fig 3:1 dry land

the Zimbabwean government, agencies of the United Nations, NGOs and other international
organizations formed in 2002 to assess the issues facing Zimbabwe’s poor, it is overseen by the
Food and Nutrition Council of Zimbabwe, which works to find multi-sector solutions to the
country’s food insecurity.

Some of the groups heavily impacted by food insecurity are children and pregnant or lactating
women. Zimbabwe has one of the highest rates of maternal mortality in the region as well as
one of the highest rates of HIV globally, at approximately 15 percent as of 2014. Women and
children living in food insecure homes are HIV prone and either already or in danger of
becoming malnourished.

Children under the age of two that do not benefit from optimal breastfeeding are more likely to
contract diarrhea or pneumonia. They may also not develop to their full potential. Acutely
malnourished children under the age of five are more likely to contract diseases that require
intensive care.

Drought and reduced rainfall also negatively affected the quality and availability of water.
Almost half of households lack sufficient water for their livestock. Eighty-one percent reported
having insufficient water for their crops. Zimbabwe’s average rainfall is projected to drop by 10
percent by the end of the century. IFAD asserts that the rehabilitation and maintenance of
irrigation systems must be of

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fig3:2 crop failure
the utmost importance to stabilize agricultural production. Improving irrigation systems would
minimize crop failure, raise household incomes and increase food security for rural smallholder
farmers.

Rampant corruption

The World Bank recognizes the harmful effects of corruption. It argues that the practice
Weakens public service delivery, misdirects public resources and people in authority may start
mismanaging resources and this may have
adverse effects to the citizens as greedy people
for their own personal gain may use resources
that may have been used in development. In
Zimbabwe, the case of the missing 15 billion
dollars from diamonds in Marange became a
thorny issue. Corruption holds back the

growth fig 3:3 symbolizing corruption

that is necessary to pull people out of poverty this means corruption undermines the driving
forces behind reform.
Foreign investors turn away in frustration. This also reduces public revenue, undermines public
trust, and weakens the credibility of the state.

Key terms

Drought : it is a period of time when an area or region receives low prepetition

Corruption: refers to dishonest conduct by those in power typically involving bribery.
DRC war

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The Zimbabwean government’s decision to support the Democratic Republic of the Congo in
the Second Congo War drained its bank reserves, alienated its allies and caused the U.S. and
the EU to impose sanctions. Subsequently, Zimbabwe’s economy collapsed. As a result, the
government began printing more money, leading to widespread hyperinflation of the
Zimbabwean dollar.

Unemployment

An unemployed person has no means to earn money and cannot fulfill his own and his family's
basic needs. Unemployment creates poverty due to the loss of income. For e.g. when a person
is jobless, he/she cannot earn better income, and due to the lack of income, their families
cannot meet living expenses.

Economic sanctions

The rapid economic decline experienced in Zimbabwe has driven the majority of Zimbabweans
into abysmal poverty, high cost of living and unemployment. Sanctions have perpetuated
hunger and starvation in Zimbabwe due to high levels of inflation.

Ill Health/ Disease

Poverty can also get worse if diseases such as Malaria and HIV Aids affect communities.
Disease out breaks such as HIV and AIDS leads to loss of life especially among the adult
population resulting in many children being left as orphans and exposed to poverty. The
outbreak of Covid 19 has resulted in loss of business and income for most families. Diseases
cause many deaths and children are left with no parents or caregivers. Household wealth can
also drain quickly from family members with diseases especially chronic diseases. Diseases can
increase the level of orphanage leading to poverty.
Disability

In many communities, disabled members are looked down upon and not allowed to inherit
assets. The disabled are left out in economic activities including employment where they are
discriminated against. They are considered a stigma and excluded from public events and
exposure. This mentality can adversely affect the well-being of families. The incidence of
poverty is generally higher in households with a disabled head or adult.

Early marriages

Women who are married as children become vulnerable to sexually transmitted diseases and
are less likely to receive an education or health care during pregnancy, according to UNICEF. In
Zimbabwe, if a girl child is impregnated or if a boy child impregnates they are usually disowned
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by parents, which is a drive to poverty. Furthermore, teen pregnancies lead to school dropout,
which is likely to affect the family in future.

End of unit 3:1 questions

1) Assess the view that the poor can be blamed for their poverty (25)

2) Discuss the view that poverty is directly linked to capitalism (25)

3) With the aid of sociological theories, discuss the causes of poverty in Zimbabwe (25)
4) Analyze feminist view on poverty (25)
5) Discuss the view that poverty is the face of women (25)

6) Distinguish between absolute and relative poverty (25)

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UNIT 3. 2 impact of poverty on society

Objectives
Learners should be able to
 Explain the impact of poverty on society
 Assess the impact of poverty on society

Introduction
The previous unit has focused on theoretical approach on causes of poverty as well as other
causes of poverty in Zimbabwe. Thus, this unit is going to examine the effects of poverty in
Zimbabwe.
Poverty affects 76.3% of Zimbabwean children living in rural areas as of 2020.Roughly 74% of
the population lives on less than $3.50 a day and the average wage per month is $253. Half of
Zimbabwe’s 13.5 and about 3.5 million children are chronically hungry. Approximately 1.3
million Zimbabweans were living with HIV as of 2016. However, the number of HIV cases has
been declining since 1997 because of improvements in prevention, treatment and support
services.

Negative effects of poverty

1. Mass outward migration

Since the early 1990s, roughly 20 percent of Zimbabweans have emigrated in search of greater
economic prosperity elsewhere. In 2008, there was a mass migration to neighboring countries
such as South Africa and Botswana in search of greener pastures. This has left a large gap in the
nation’s workforce and knowledge base.

2. Hunger, Health and Deaths.

Poverty is associated with a higher risk of both illness and premature death due to hunger,
starvation and malnutrition. Children born in the poorest areas on average have less at birth
than those born in the richest areas. Children from low-income families are more likely to die at
birth or in infancy than children born into richer families. They are more likely to suffer chronic
illness during childhood or to have a disability. Poorer health over the course of

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fig 2:4 a child battling mulnutrion problem

lifetime has an impact on life expectancy: professionals live, on average, 8 years longer than
unskilled workers do. People (and children) become vulnerable to preventable diseases such as
cholera, dysentery and tuberculosis, with no access to health services and medications. Death
rates rise.

3. Prostitution

Poverty forces people to engage in behaviors that expose them to diseases such as HIV Aids.
Whiles they may not starve to death, they may be living on unhealthy foods, which ultimately
weaken their immunity and expose them to diseases. Infectious diseases continue to blight the
lives of the poor across the world. An estimated 40 million people are living with HIV/AIDS. In
Zimbabwe, it was estimated that about one million people in 2007 are living with HIV and Aids

4. Effects on children

Fig 3:5 homeless street kid in Zimbabwe

source: Childhood explorer

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Children who grow up in poverty suffer more persistent, frequent, and severe health problems
than children who grow up under better financial circumstances. Many infants born into
poverty have a low birth weight, which is associated with many preventable mental and
physical disabilities. Not only are these poor infants more likely to be irritable or sickly, they are
also more likely to die before their first birthday. Children raised in poverty tend to miss school
more often because of illness. These children also have a much higher rate of accidents than do
other children, they are twice as likely to have impaired vision and hearing, iron deficiency
anaemia, and higher than normal levels of lead in the blood, which can impair brain functions.

Homelessness, or extreme poverty, carries with it a particularly strong set of risks for families,
especially children compared to children living in poverty but having homes, homeless children
are less likely to receive proper nutrition and immunization hence, they experience more health
problems. Homeless women experience higher rates of low‐birth‐weight babies, miscarriages,
and infant mortality, probably due to not having access to adequate prenatal care for their
babies. Homeless families experience even greater life stress than other families, including
increased disruption in work, school, family relationships, and friendships.

Poverty can be said to be depriving children from their rights, it deprives children;

 The right to Education

 The right to clean water
 The right to health
 The right to protection and security
 The right to balanced diet
6. Poverty and women

In the United States, more women than men live in poverty. According to U.S. Census Bureau
data, of the 38.1 million people living in poverty. In 2018, 56 percent—or 21.4 million—were
women. Women and girls are disproportionately affected by poverty and many have little or no
say in the decisions, which affect their lives. They often get less food, receive less education,
and are disproportionately affected by poor sanitation. Many have little or no money of their
own, which makes them dependent on others. This power imbalance also means they are often
subject to sexual and physical violence, affecting both their physical and mental health, and
their overall wellbeing. This once again affects other areas of their lives, such as their ability to
make a living.

Women are in poverty and suffer the most from poverty than other groups due to their
biological make-up. According to Firestone (1972), biological family burdens women, which
make them weak and more dependent on their husbands. Breast-feeding, pregnancies and
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childbirth often affect women if they get less food. In the event of poverty, women are too
weak to work for themselves since they have children to take care of.

Furthermore, there are more single mothers than single fathers, and single mothers have a high
poverty rate than single fathers. According to Liberal feminists, women are left out with a
burden of taking care of children in the event of divorce, separation or abandonment, which is
why women are tested positive to poverty. To radical feminists, only a matriarchal society is a
true liberation of women.

Another reason why women are in poverty is due to Educational failure, according to Kelly,
women have a low educational achievement due to Educational inequality at school hence they
are subjected to unemployment hence poverty.

In addition, the obvious and another reason why

women are in poverty is because they depend more
on their husband earnings. Thus, liberal feminist
advocate for changes in the society. According to
Otner, if gender equality is created, then they will be
true liberation of women.

8. Disability and poverty

Disability is both a cause and consequence of poverty. Eliminating world poverty is unlikely to
be achieved unless the rights and needs of people with disabilities are taken into account.
According to the United Nations, one person in 20 has disabilitty. Disability limits access to
education and employment, and leads to economic and social exclusion. Poor people with
disabilities are caught in a vicious cycle of poverty and disability, each being both a cause and
consequence of the other. A
Poverty and disability reinforce each other, contributing to increased vulnerability and
exclusion. The majority of people with disabilities find their situation affects their chances of
going to school, working for a living, enjoying family life, and participating as equals in social life.
It is estimated that only 2% of people with disabilities in developing countries have access to
rehabilitation and appropriate basic
services

Poor nutrition, dangerous working and

living conditions, limited access to
vaccination programs, and to health and
maternity care, poor hygiene, bad

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sanitation, inadequate information about the causes of impairments, war and conflict, and
natural disasters all cause disability. According to estimates by the World Health Organization
(WHO), as many as 20 million women a year suffer disability and long-term complications as a
result of pregnancy and childbirth. The most common causes of motor disability are injuries
from accidents on the road, at home, or the workplace; war and violence, including landmines;
birth trauma; and infectious diseases such as polio and leprosy. Children are often disabled as a
result of malnutrition.

In turn, disability exacerbates poverty, by increasing isolation and economic strain, not just for
the individual but often for the affected family as well. Children with disabilities are more likely
to die young, or be neglected, malnourished and poor.
People with disabilities who are denied education are then unable to find employment, driving
them more deeply into poverty. Breaking out of the vicious cycle of poverty and disability
becomes more and the poor and their literacy rates are considerably lower than the rest of the
population.
Women with disabilities suffer a double discrimination, both on the grounds of gender and of
impairment; their literacy rates are lower than their male counterparts are. Recent UNESCO
studies have suggested that only 1–2% of children with disabilities in developing countries
receive an education. Boys with disabilities attend school more frequently than girls with
disabilities. Studies show that women with disabilities are twice to three times more likely to be
victims of physical and sexual abuse than men with no disabilities.
Their access to reproductive health care is minimal and as a result, they suffer greater
vulnerability to reproductive health problems. There is a lack of awareness regarding women
with disabilities and reproductive health needs. More often than not, it is assumed that they do
not form part of the target groups because being disabled is associated with being sexless. As
many as 50% of disabilities are preventable and directly linked to poverty. For example, the
WHO currently estimates that worldwide there are 1.5 million blind children, mainly in Africa
and Asia. In developing countries, up to 70% of blindness in children is either preventable or
treatable

Old age and the pandemic of poverty

Older people have become silent victims of the pandemic/ poverty. Zimbabwean communities
used to pride themselves on looking after their ageing members, but poverty and high mortality
rates among working-age men and women as well as unrelenting economic pressures on
families have left older people isolated, poor and lonely while some have ended up sleeping
rough, risking infection and starvation. According to the Zimbabwe National Statistics Agency,

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80% of elderly people live in abject poverty. Vincent from a political economy perspective
argues that old age poverty can be linked to stratification and inequality. Old age is often
characterized by material deprivation. The elderly are more likely to be poor than other groups
in society. To him, pay gape during working years might have affected their pension. He accepts
that women live longer than men do, thus the patriarchal culture during working days affects
the pension of women.

Other general effects of poverty in Zimbabwe include;

Drug addiction - those in poverty may spend some time engaging in drug trade and drug abuse

Theft crimes - property related crimes are linked to high poverty rate since individuals have
nothing to feed themselves

Early marriages - poverty might force young women to jump into marriages as a way of self-
poverty alleviation

Poor educational achievement - poverty is linked to school failure, this might be due to lack of
interest, concentration etc.

Positive effects of poverty

Although the effects of poverty are obvious, social scientists have maintained that there are
some positive gains from poverty; these gains are extracted from the work of Gans.

1. According to Herbert J. Gans poverty survives in part because it is useful to a number of

groups in society. Poverty benefits the non-poor in general and the rich and powerful in
particular. They therefore have a vested interest in maintaining poverty. For them poverty is
not a social problem.

2. Gans maintains that poverty enables all temporary, dead- end, dirty and dangerous jobs to
be done. The emphasis here is that, there are some jobs that are dirty, due to poverty;
individuals are compelled to take on such a piecework for low wages. Thus, poverty is seen as
ensuring that those dirt end jobs are done for a song.

3. Poverty creates jobs for a number of occupations and professions that serve the poor or
shield the rest of the population from them. These include the police, probation officers, social
workers, doctors etc. Thus, in this sense, poverty is seen as creating jobs for other groups. For
example, the police officers are employed to monitor the distractive effects of poverty.

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4. Gans claims that poverty helps to guarantee the status of those who are not poor. It does
this by providing a reliable and relatively permanent measuring rod for status comparison. In
this case, the poor will use the non-poor as scapegoats.

Besides the submissions by Gans, it can be argued that old age have benefited from poverty
through ,

The Zimbabwean government has not ignored the plight of the aged.
The Older Persons bill (2012) – it aims at paving way for selected social protection mechanisms
and an older person’s fund to be set aside for such purposes as well as addressing other
emerging issues affecting senior citizens in Zimbabwe.

However, there has been little government budget allocation to implement the law due to
fiscal constraints faced by the country.

Pension payouts for the elderly - In most government institutions the elderly (above 60 years)
is given first priority in service delivery e.g.at hospitals. Economic meltdown or challenges faced
by the government pose a serious threat to the welfare of the elderly as the government fail to
support the elderly in society.

However, Pension payouts paid by the government to the elderly are little to cushion them
against the economic hardships befitting the country.

Social policy and strategy with respect to the Older Persons

The main instruments of poverty monitoring are the 1995 Poverty Assessment Study (PASS – 1)
survey which has provided a poverty baseline. The PASS-2 survey is now being undertaken to
include more attention to human poverty issues –including social and other entitlements – such
as food, shelter, access to safe water, health and others and the impact of HIV/AIDS. Both PASS
–1 and PASS-2 cover older persons poverty issues.
Social Safety nets with respect to older persons Apart from monitoring the situation, the
Government has provisions to cushion the impact of the recent economic situation on older
persons. The following steps have been taken:

 Provision of free food and nutrition under the Welfare Assistance Act and care and
protection under social protection.
 Provision of free medical treatment

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  Provision of shelter in three schemes catering for older persons in the form of (I) those
who are independent; (ii) those who need supervision and (iii) other who require
nursing care 24/7. The approach is community based.
 Legislated care and protection for older persons – a Draft Older Persons bill is under
consideration
 Income Security – in principle approved but suffers from lack of adequate resources.
Budgetary provision for Older Persons - (OPs) are involved in the budget preparation process
but lack of resources affects the budgetary provisions for OPs.

The National Policy.

In September 2002, a planning was held to map out the National Policy on ageing and prepare a
National Plan of Action.
(a) The rights of OPs to Life and Liberty to work and freedom from discrimination. A baseline
survey is to be undertaken on the situation of OPs; awareness raising is ongoing in conjunction
with NGOs and faith-based CBOs;
(b) Poverty and employment and income security focus and the ongoing review of National
Social Security Schemes needed to identify opportunities for the development of a pension
scheme for older persons out of employment and the self-employed.

(c) Health, nutrition and social services – to develop a comprehensive medical and social
welfare schemes for OPS;
(d) Strengthened participation of OPs in emergencies and epidemics
(e) Education and training component includes a databank on retired persons and the
educational levels of OPs.
Integration of Ageing into National Poverty Strategies

OPs welfare and services are catered for by the Ministry of Public Service, Labor and Social
Welfare. The National Social Security Scheme is currently being explored to extend coverage of
benefits and those OPs not covered under the scheme. The OPs policy and the drafting of the
2002 Older Persons Bill is a means to ensure that OPs rights are addressed and access to basic
social services for OPs is improved.

Volunteerism
Refers to the need to volunteer to care for the aged. Many religious organizations in Zimbabwe
usually put charity in practice by volunteering to take care for the old age. Agape family care for
example run by Ruth Makandiwa (UFI church), carried out charity work in Mahusekwa district.
The elderly was given free medical attention and other necessities. There are a number of well
popular old peoples homes in Zimbabwe in which some volunteer to care for the old.
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The Zimbabwean government has paved a way for old age homes especially for those in
poverty. The most common old age homes in Zimbabwe include:

Mucheke Old Peoples home - Masvingo

Idawekwako Old Aged home - Marondera
Bako redonhodzo old peoples home - Highfields, Harare.
Amaveni Old peoples home - Kwekwe
Darby and Joan Centre for the Aged - Belvedere, Harare.
Pioneer Lodge home for the Aged - Masvingo
S.o.d.a Society for the destitute aged - Harare.
Dandaro - Borrowdale, Harare.

End of unit 3.2 exercise questions

1. Examine the effects of poverty in Zimbabwe (25)
2. Assess the view that poverty is both the cause and the consequence of disability (25)
3. Discuss the how poverty has helped spread HIV and Aids (25)
4. 4. Discuss the link between poverty and migration (25)
5. 7. Assess the effects of poverty on disability and elderly (25)
6. 7. Analyze the assertion that the effects of poverty on old age are destructive (25)
7. Examine the view that the old age are silent victims of poverty (25)
8. Although the effects of poverty are devastating, society has benefited from poverty.
discuss
9. Assess the view that poverty has deprived children from their rights (25)
10. Analyze the view that poverty is gendered (25)

unit 3.4 Measures to curb poverty

Objectives
Learners should be able to ;
 Discuss measures to reduce poverty
 Assess poverty reduction measures

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Introduction
sensing the distractive effects of poverty, the Zimbabwean government in partnership with
non-governmental organizations and well-wishers have declared war on poverty by introducing
number of measures to curb it. However, leaners should be in a position to assess the
effectiveness and the weaknesses of the below measures.

1. Stimulating the Agriculture Industry

The key to reducing poverty in Zimbabwe is stimulating the country’s agricultural industry.
Nearly 66% of Zimbabweans rely on their small farms for survival. However, great inequality in
water access exists between the country’s many small farms and few large commercial farms.
Equality in water access would increase productivity and income for small farmers. A
revitalization of the agricultural sector would spur economic growth and alleviate poverty in
Zimbabwe.

2. Land reform program

It gave many people access to land and land is a source of livehood hence a productive
source. The colonial government introduced draconian policies to deprive Africans from
their productive land. Africans had a moneyless economy hence they depended largely
on agriculture. Europeans were
mainly interested in Agriculture
and they knew that Africans did
not want to surrender their land to
whites. Therefore, the colonial
government

Fig 3:7 land empowerment in Zimbabwe

introduced draconian policies and legislations to deprive Africans of their land e.g. Land
Apportionment Act of 1930. This policy drove Africans to unproductive land, sandy areas and
tsetsefly infested areas. This was meant to cripple down peasant agriculture because little or no
agricultural production could take place in those areas like Silobela, Shangani, Gwai etc.
However, after independence, the Zimbabwean government decided to reverse the land
apportionment act by giving Africans access to land. Africans were given access to their land not
only land but also fertile lands (Scones, 2014). This was a poverty reduction measure in the
sense that access to land meant good agricultural produce hence the Zimbabwean government
should be commented for a job well done.

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However, Professor Gaidzanwa notes that land reform program benefited only men and
Women were left out Corruption, violence, chaos had dominated the course of land reform.
Few women accessed land and they had placed the land in the names of their sons due to fear
of victimization. He further argues that The Fast Track Land Reform program largely benefited
Mugabe and colleagues, individuals who were not in poverty.

3. Command agriculture and food security (2015)

It is indeed a command for agriculture meant to support self-sufficient. It gives loans and inputs
to farmers. At its inception, Zimbabwe's command farming was hailed for registering
remarkable success, as yields realized in the first season surpassed the targeted yield of

and the World Bank shows that despite more public spending billions of dollars in agriculture by
the state, this has not translated into any meaningful productivity with over eight million
Zimbabweans in need of food. The report, Public Expenditure Review (PER) with a Focus on
Agriculture, also warns that without climate-smart agriculture investment, Zimbabwe's staple
food crop - maize - is expected to result in a 33% yield reduction by 2030. In 2017, the
government launched the Command agriculture programme with US$3 billion injected to fund
the scheme.

3. The Pfumvudza strategy

fig : 3: 9 Pfumvunza practice

Pfumvudza is a crop production intensification approach under which farmers ensure the
efficient use of resources (inputs and labor) on a small area of land in order to optimize its
management .Good rains and the massive roll out of the Pfumvudza/Intwasa programme has
boosted the country's food self-sufficiency levels and food security.
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The Grain Marketing Board has paid more than $25 billion to farmers. The grain agency has
also made tremendous progress in reducing debts still owed to farmers (GMB14 Oct 2021). The
aggressive promotion of the Pfumvudza/Intwasa programme -- a low input sustainable
agriculture approach to enhance household food and nutrition security has boosted crop yields
and smallholder farmer's resilience.

Zimbabwe adopted the concept in the 2020-2021 farming season as a way of climate proofing
agriculture by adopting conservation farming techniques on smallholder farming plots and
applying the correct agronomic practices for higher returns. Its massive uptake has improved
yields and enhanced household food security for the majority of smallholder farmers. The
Pfumvudza/Intwasa programme coupled with good conservation farming techniques and
correct agronomic practices could be the answer to the real threat that comes with climate
change

However, the threats of climate change are still real. Experts warn that Zimbabwe and South
Africa could experience a fall in crop yields of up to 30 percent or more by 2050 if climate
change is left unchecked. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change warns that reduced
crop productivity associated with heat and drought stress could have adverse effects on
regional, national and household livelihoods and food security. Zimbabwe and other African
countries have drawn up climate change national action plans and strategies. Climate change
threatens to overwhelm the ability of people to cope and adapt, especially if the root causes of
poverty and vulnerability are not addressed.

4. Presidential inputs schemes.

The Presidential Inputs Support Scheme surpassed the 2020/21 target, contributing to the
timely start to the season that is anticipated to bring a bumper harvest. According to
Agriculture Technical and Extension Services (Agritex) acting director Mr Stancilae Tapererwa,
Government was targeting 1, 8 million households in the country’s eight provinces. However,
the programme reached two million households, surpassing target by 200 000. In a report on
the Presidential Cotton Inputs Scheme, covering 2016 to 2022, the Cotton Company of
Zimbabwe Limited said thousands of households have been added to the programme. Before
the advent of the New Dispensation, the scheme used to benefit around 155 000 households in
support of the Government's poverty alleviation strategy but has now grown in leaps and
bounds to benefit over 500 000 households due to the introduction of Pfumvudza/Intwasa
specifically for the white gold

5. Zunde Ramambokadzi

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Zunde Ramambo as a traditional coping mechanism for the care of orphans and vulnerable
children, the Minister of Lands, Agriculture, Water and Rural Resettlement, Dr Anxious Masuka
has emphasized on the need to attain food security to support vulnerable families. Speaking at
the launch of the program, Dr Masuka said, involving the chiefs in such programmes is the right
way to go and further recognizing the traditional role that chiefs play in ensuring food security
at community level. The government came in ahead of the season to ensure that there is
adequate resources so that the chiefs can provide for their families but more importantly so
that they can cushion the vulnerable households, he said. This Zunde RaMambo programme
dovetails into the Pfumvunza programme. We want that context to be clear so that the
leadership in the community is reposed in the chief and the chief leads in terms of food security,
so this is in this context, said the minister.

6. Basic Education Assistance Module

It was noted that poverty has affected the rights children e.g. the right to education. Therefore,
the Zimbabwean government introduced BEAM as a way of fighting this poverty. BEAM is a
programme that provides school fees,
examination fees, levies and building assistance.
It was introduced by the Government of
Zimbabwe in 2001. It targets the vulnerable
children who are unable to pay school fees or
those who fail to go to school because of non-
availability of money.
Fig 3:10 learners going to school

The Basic Education Assistance Module (BEAM) is one of the important pro-poor funds that are
meant for the marginalized and vulnerable communities in Zimbabwe .BEAM has managed to
enroll 969 962 pupils from both rural and urban areas (Ministry of Public Works and Social
Welfare Service, 2011). Therefore, it can be argued that this measure was effective because it
managed to reduce school dropouts and access to education was made available for the
majority of the marginalized hence poverty alleviation.

However, though this program was largely effective, This programme is encountering
challenges such as increase in school fees, which is now increasing drop outs as they is a
reduction in government spending on social services and amenities (Nhapi & Mathende, 2016).
In this respect, the policy is now failing to drive the majority of children out of the trench of
poverty.
Furthermore, street children do not qualify in the selection process because they are living,
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working and staying in streets (Mutasa, 2015). Therefore, they are disadvantaged to access
education which is their right and this impedes the achievement of Sustainable Development
Goal NO:4 which ensure inclusive and equitable education and promote life-long learning
opportunities for all (UNICEF & Ministry of Public Service, Labor and Social Welfare, 2016).
Mutasa (2015), point out that due to inadequate funds some deserving children are left out
when allocated funds are exhausted.

7. Welfare handouts, which cushion the poor

Social Welfare Programme (SWP) which sought to target food subsidies (food money) to the
existing urban poor (Kaseke, 1993). The programme was aimed at cushioning the poor with
some welfare handouts. This was to be achieved through a strategy of exempting the old from
paying medical bills. The same criteria was used to deduce eligibility for free medical treatment.
In practice, though, this policy has encountered great problems and had reached only 4% of its
target population for food money, and 20% for school fees by mid-1993 (Kaseke, 1993).

End of unit 3.3 exercise questions

1. Examine the measures taken by Zimbabwean government to curb poverty (25)
2. Examine the view that poverty is a cancer that cannot be cured (25)
3. Despite the efforts to curb poverty, examine why poverty rate is escalating (25)
4. Assess the view that the Zimbabwean government has been defeated after its
declaration of war on poverty (25)

Summary

The above discussion has brought it to light that poverty is a social problem that has been
increased by different factors ranging from individuals to public factors. Many social scientists
have argued that the poor should be blamed for being poor. On the other hand, conflict
theories do not buy that idea; rather they believe that inequalities and structural contradictions
are responsible for poverty. Sensing this, the Zimbabwean government has responded by
introducing a number of measures to curb poverty. These measures are characterized by their
strengths and weaknesses, which explain why the majority are caught in the trap of poverty.

Glossary

Absolute poverty - Absolute poverty is when household income is below a certain level. This
makes it impossible for the person or family to meet basic needs of life including food, shelter,
safe drinking water, and education, healthcare and so on.

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Basic needs - Necessities of life you can not survive without such as food , shelter and so on.

BEAM - it means (Basic Education Assistance Module) . It was a poverty reduction mechanism
meant to support children by paying school , tution and examination fees for children as a way
of reducing school drop out.

Capitalism - an economic and political system in which a country's trade and industry are
controlled by private owners for profit, rather than by the community.

Communism society - Communism is a political and economic system that seeks to create a
classless society in which the major means of production, such as mines and factories, are
owned and controlled by the public

Command agriculture - is a contract farming scheme necessitated by land redistribution that

ruptured Zimbabwe's sources of resilience, distorted credit access, heightened tenure
insecurity, and spiked vulnerability to droughts.

Culture of poverty - The culture of poverty is a concept in social theory that asserts that the
values of people experiencing poverty play a significant role in perpetuating their impoverished
condition, sustaining a cycle of poverty across generations.

Circle of poverty - a social phenomena whereby poverty-stricken individuals exhibit a tendency

to remain poor throughout their lifespan and in many cases across generations.

Employment - Employment most generally means the state of having a paid job—of being
employed.

Food - Food is any substance consumed to provide nutritional support for an organism.

Face of women - poverty is a challenge that is being faced by women

Means of production - is a term which involves land or labor, which can be used to produce
products (such as: goods or services)

Nutritional needs - are defined as the amount and chemical form of a nutrient needed to
support normal health, growth and development without disturbing the metabolism of other
nutrients.

Poverty - it is all about not having enough money to meet basic needs including food, clothing
and shelter

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Prostitution - Involves engaging, agreeing, or offering to engage in sexual conduct with another
person in return for a fee.

Relative poverty - Relative poverty is the level of poverty that changes based on context- it is
relative to the economic climate.

Unemployment - A state of not being in a paid employment when the population is looking for
jobs

End of term questions

1. Examine the view that poverty is the face of women (25)

2. Discuss the view that poverty has deprived children of their rights (25)

3. Analyze the view that the poor is responsible for their poverty (25)

4. Distinguish between relative and absolute poverty (25)

5. Assess the measures taken by Zimbabwean government to eradicate poverty (25)

6. Examine the feminist view on poverty

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Topic 14 enterprise and work

In a world that is changing so quickly, the biggest risk you can take is not taking
any risk

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Units covered

4.1 The concept of enterprise

4.2 Generating enterprise projects
4.3 occupational structures in Zimbabwe
4.4 conflict management at work place
4.5 technology

Introduction

Once considered vestiges of the traditional sector, to be swept away by the process of
modernization, small- and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) have, in the past two decades,
become one of the main targets of policies aimed at creating growth and employment in
developing countries. Support for SMEs is generally based on three assumptions. The first is
that there are benefits for the country as a whole from having a strong SME sector. It sustains a
broad and diversified private sector and creates employment. The second is that a strong SME
sector will not emerge without support from the State. It is argued that ‘informational and
other market failures associated with the provision of financial, technical and market support to
SMEs’ need to be redressed (Levy 1994:2). Small enterprises suffer disadvantages in markets
because of their size. Third programs aimed at the smallest enterprises have been justified
more in terms of their welfare impact than their economic efficiency; support for
microenterprises is seen as a way of targeting aid at the poor and creating job opportunities for
the disadvantaged.

Unit 4.1 the concept of enterprise

Objectives

Learners should be able to;

 discuss the concept of enterprise
 identify policies by the government of Zimbabwe on enterprise
 evaluate the policies on enterprise

Introduction

An enterprise is an activity or a project that produces services or products in an effort to make

profits. Enterprise is another word for a profit business or company, but it is most often

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associated with entrepreneurial ventures. People who have entrepreneurial success are often
referred to as “enterprising.”. It is a commercial organization, usually small, especially a
business', or a difficult and important plan, especially one that will earn money or profits.
SEDCO (2010) which defines SMEs ( small to medium enterprises) as registered firms which
employ a maximum of 100 workers and with an annual turnover in sales of a maximum of
US$830,000.

Zimbabwean government policies on enterprise

There are over 60,000 registered SMEs in Zimbabwe, which contribute up to 60 per cent to the
country’s gross domestic product (GDP) (Mangudya 2017). After realizing the contribution of
SMEs to the economy, the Zimbabwean government introduced pieces of policies to support
the development and growth of some SMEs. Learners, however learners should identify the
strengths and weaknesses of the policies as indicated below.

Activity
1. In groups identify small businesses in your community (15)
2. State the problems you think are affecting SMEs in Zimbabwe (10)
3. In groups , make use of ICT gadgets to propose solutions to the problems befitting SMEs
(20)

1. Command agriculture

The Command Agriculture programme was started in 2015 as a way to improve agricultural
production and self-sufficient as the backbone of the economy. The Government started
funding agriculture by providing the farmers with inputs inform of seeds and fertilizers. The
government budgeted $3billion as a startup funding for potential recipients. This made farmers
to exploit the opportunities hence engaging themselves into agricultural enterprise as a well of
promoting self-sufficient and surplus production for profit making.

However, Parliaments Public Accounts Committee (PAC) report in 2020 indicated that the
program was marred by corruption; this means that the money was abused at government and
community level and the policy ended up failing to fulfill its mandate.

2. Land reform program

The Government of Zimbabwe, in pursuit of the policy of empowering its people, embarked on
the Land Reform Programme, which resulted in Britain losing land it had grabbed. According to
Scoones (2014), nearly one million people moved to new land and about 170 000 became
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landlords. Chiweshe (2014,) observed that organization into institutions has allowed greater
interaction promoting togetherness of farm dwellers as they work for their collective good. He
observed the bonding of farmers facilitated by working for the common good. This led to
immediate increases in agricultural production” (Marongwe, 2013). To Marx and Engels, land is
a part of means of production, which allows the property owners to use the land for profit
making hence enterprise.

Case study of Masvingo

A case study by Scoones et al. (2010) in Masvingo found that the newly resettled farmers in
Masvingo showed improvement of livelihoods and accumulation of assets by the resettled
farmers. This also made former workers in white owned farms to practice enterprise industry
and entrepreneurship skills they acquired from whites.

Key terms

Enterprise – refers to a small business or more openly to a person spotting a business

opportunity and setting up a business for the purposes of generating profits.
Policy - a course or principle of action adopted or proposed by an organization or individual to
create a conducive environment for the growth of enterprise.
S.M. E - small to medium enterprises

Case study of Norton

Another case study by Itai Kabonga (2020) in Norton indicated that Norton town was named
after a famous farming family, Norton family that used to farm in the area from 1890 and the
family was killed in 1896 during the First Chimurenga. Good agricultural soils and abundant
water resources from the twinlakes, Lake Chivero and Manyame dam provide conducive
prerequisites for farming (Swotwa et al., 2007). It is not surprising that the town produces a
range of crops including tobacco, maize and wheat. Cattle rearing for the beef and dairy
industries is also an important element of the local. Thus, Kabonga concluded that land reform
made access to land and full utilization of land hence enterprise.
https://doi.org/10.1080/23311886.2020.1816263

However,

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  Some farmers were allocated unoccupied land, which had nothing at all. In other words,
the farmers had to start from scratch and some areas had no rich soils (Marongwe,
2013).
 The Jambanja (violent) land reform program resulted in Britain and its allies imposing
illegal economic sanctions on the country after year 2000. The resultant sanctions
brought about poor economic performance and untold suffering to the populace leading
to the failure of the utilization of land hence affecting the potential growth of SMEs.
 according to Mapuva and Makaye (2017:7) Zimbabwe’s empowerment policies like land
reform and indigenization policies are seen to be investor unfriendly hence affecting the
entry of foreign currency
 Natural disasters such as drought have affected the policy by making agriculture
impossible due to poor rainfall patterns

Key term

Case study - it is a study of a person, group or event in order to come up with the data or
information on the ground.

3. Zimbabwean Agenda for Socio- Economic Transformation (ZimAsset)

The ruling ZANU PF party crafted ZIMASSET in 2013 after the 2013 poll victory to achieve a
sustainable development and social equity through the indigenization and empowerment
creation (Garikai 2014)
As stated by Matutu (2014), ZIMASSET is an economic policy meant to empower the society
and growing the economy. Additionally ZIMASSET was divided into different clusters for easy
implementation, thus, food security and nutrition, social services and poverty eradication,
infrastructure and utilities, value addition and beneficiation.

Additionally ZIMASSET was aiming at alleviating poverty by the creation of jobs through
entrepreneurship skills and the reviving of agricultural sector through farm mechanization to
attain food security. The government of Zimbabwe based its economic blueprint on the fact
that the country is rich in natural and human capital resources. They believed that by tapering
these resources, the country will be placed at a high economic level in African economies. The
source of funding was through public tax revenue.

In addition, the country was aiming at reengagement with the international community
especially the East through its Look East policy to get as much foreign direct investment as
possible to acquire the much-needed foreign currency. Additionally the government aims at

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creating employment by reviving the industrial sector through reopening the closed mines
(ZIMASSET (2013:1)

However,

 The context of the implementation of ZIMASSET presented many loopholes, which

triggers its failure. One of its limitation is on funding. Given the amount of funds needed
for its full implementation, Zimbabwe need vast amount of foreign currency through
foreign direct investments.
 Furthermore, as highlighted, by Chipaike and Matarutse (2018:1) the huge
unemployment rate in Zimbabwe limits the tax revenue base that the government
targets to use to supplement its ZIMASSET policy.
 Furthermore, the agricultural sector, which is one of Zimbabwe’s main source of foreign
currency, was destabilised with the land reform policy, which saw its productivity
dropping drastically.
 As stated by Chipaike and Matarutse (2018:9) the ZIMASSET was doomed to fail due to
lack of political will power among the top members who are responsible for its
implementation. For example, the ZIMASSET blue print pledged the reengagement with
the West but on the ground much attention was given to the East with the then
president Mugabe publicly using offensive language blaming the West for the country’s
economic disaster.
 According to Magure (2012:72), the ZIMASSET implementation was derailed by lack of
commitment by the top ZANU PF officials who used the policy such as the indigenization
policy under ZIMASSET for personal enrichment. Corruption was left unchecked hence
affecting the credibility of the policy.
 There was no willingness of those in charge to root out corruption
 Economic Sanctions made is impossible for the government to engage foreign investors
hence crippling the industry of enterprise.

Key term

Economic sanctions – refers to economic penalties applied to one or two countries for violating
international norm
4. Indigenization and economic empowerment Act

a). Indigenization - it is a drive to promote employment through Community share ownership

trust. It was meant to finance infant industries by taking 51% shares from foreign companies in
Zimbabwe. The policy was aimed to share economic cooperation between foreign and domestic
investors. After independence, the Zimbabwean government inherited economic inequalities
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brought about by racial segregation. Thus, indigenization can be described as a program meant
to re address the imbalances by increasing black participation at all levels of the economy
through black employment

b). Economic Empowerment - This initiative come against a background of a history of social
and economic discrimination against blacks through poverty alleviation, specific measures to
empower black women, education, skills transfer and management development, meaningful
ownership and access to finance to conduct business. It is also intended for this programme of
indigenous economic empowerment to deepen and broaden the economy and stimulate
economic growth in Zimbabwe, by releasing the economic potential of the black citizens. The
economic empowerment programme also aims, among other things to use black economic
empowerment as a mechanism to create a black middle class with interests in the economy.

Gergis (1999) argues that there are six categories of economic empowerment strategies:

 Financial intervention. This is where government intervenes to avail financial assistance

to indigenous entrepreneurs (increased access to credit e.g. through youth banks and
micro finance women's Bank.
 Enterprise development for indigenous people. increased access to skills, business and
management training and improved production technologies e. g the establishment of
vocational training centers
 Marketing strategies for locally produced goods and services (increased access to
markets);
 Bargaining strategies (for higher wages, better working conditions, etc.) for employees;
 Job creation (promotion of labour intensive projects); and
 Training and education that is responsive to skill requirements in the economy, (Gergis,
1999, quoted in Business Council of Zimbabwe 2011:21). Entrepreneurship, for example
is now a subject in schools
These aims create a conducive environment foe entrepreneurship. The act further promotes
enterprise by also stating that that businesses shall, to the extent possible, utilize locally
available resources and promote value addition. Businesses shall utilize indigenous knowledge
systems, and promote local research and development as well as promote technology transfer.

However, economic sanctions and series of droughts have affected the growth of S MEs

5} Zimbabwe Industrial Development Policy (2012/2016)

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It was enacted in order to improve the economy of the country by supporting the SME sector.
The IDP is the government’s blueprint for what it intends to implement in order to develop
SMEs. The policies brought up some positive results that include an increase in the number of
SMEs establishment and the involvement of the Black people in entrepreneurship programmes.
The SMEs took the center stage and their value was stated by Wang (2016) who pointed out
that in developing countries such as in Zimbabwe, SMEs are important for driving the growth
and economic development.

This view was shared by Zvarivadza (2016) who states that most SMEs are born out of the
people or groups of people with the visions to operate and run prosperous businesses.

However, the new policy framework did not do much to improve the economy of Zimbabwe.
This was alluded by Block (2013) who states that empowerment policy has negatively affected
the ability of Zimbabwean economy to attract foreign direct investment. These sentiments
show that effects of the indigenous policies on the economy of Zimbabwe, which has greatly
deteriorated.

6.) Small and Medium Enterprise Development Cooperation (SEDCO)

was established in 1984 by the Act of Parliament (Chapter 24:12) as a parastatal under the
Ministry of Small and Medium Enterprise and Cooperative Development (MSMECD) to assist
SMEs in the form of financial support, management counseling, training and provision of
information and advice on business issues (Manyani 2014; GoZ 2015).

However, financial assistance was and is in the form of loans, which require collateral. The
interest rates for the loans are too high for SMEs (Maunganidze 2013) leading to SMEs failing to
pay back the loans. The need for collateral meant and means that not every businessperson
could access the loans (Chikomba et al. 2013). Some of the business people did not have the
required collateral. This suppressed the growth of the SME, as the financial challenge could not
be adequately addressed. SMEDCO has played a critical role in the construction and provision
of factory space for SMEs. Examples include Nyika Growth Point, Gweru, Chitungwiza and
Gazaland in Harare and Bindura (Mhuka 2011). SMEDCO has also provided entrepreneurs with
access to machinery in Chitungwiza for metal fabrication, woodwork and machinery provided
by the Indo-Zimbabwe Project (SMEDCO 2015).

End of unit 4.1 exercise questions

1. Discuss the concept of enterprise (25)

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 2. Assess the effectiveness of the measures taken by the government of Zimbabwe to
support SMES (25)
3. Assess the view that the role of government is not to create employment but to create
opportunities for SMES (25)
4. To what extent has ZimAsset promoted the growth of enterprise in Zimbabwe (25)
5. Assess the view that economic sanction is the backbone of all the challenges that are
affecting the potential growth of SMEs in Zimbabwe (25)
6. Discuss the challenges befitting the grouth of SMEs in Zimbabwe (25)

Unit 4.2 generating enterprise projects

Objectives
Leaeners should be able to
 Identify business projects
 Discuss business proposal
 Analyze risk taking and innovation on enterprise
 Initiate enterprising projects
Introduction
In this unit, we are focusing on business projects that can be carried out by individuals. For
business to grow, there is need for a strategy through business plan and proposals. Thus, a
business can grow by taking risks and innovation.

Business and enterprise projects in Zimbabwe

In Zimbabwe, various small businesses can be taken, below are some of the small businesses
that can be undertaken.
Computer Business - Basically, Zimbabwe’s economic sector is growing rapidly. Therefore, the
telecommunication and IT sectors are also growing. Hence, the country is one of the most
suitable places for starting a computer-related business. Some of the most lucrative
opportunities are computer assembling, repairing services, computer training institutes, etc.

Event Planning - If you are a detailed oriented person and you feel happy helping others, you
can start this business. The most lucrative aspect is you can start and operate the business from
home initially. However, a commercial retail operation definitely ensures better profitability. In
this business, you can target both domestic and corporate clients for their various event
management requirements.

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Start a Food Business in Zimbabwe - Making money from the food business requires
knowledge about issues associated with food safety and safe food handling practices that are
relevant to your business. Food is an essential consumable item. There are several
opportunities you can find out in the food industry. Some of the most lucrative sectors are food
processing, packaging, wholesaling, distribution, retail shop operation, etc.

Gift Basket - Creating and selling gift baskets is another profitable business you can consider
starting in Zimbabwe. Actually, you can start the business in two ways. You can create a basket
of your own and offer customized gift baskets to your customers. Otherwise, you can also
procure the basket from other manufacturers. The market potential of the gift industry is
increasing day by day and people are more intending to have personalized charming gifts and
home décor items.

Gold Mining - Basically, Zimbabwe has a rich storage of the gold. The small-scale and artisanal
miners produced more gold than large-scale companies did. Small-scale mines control up to 65
percent of active gold deposits in the country, according to the Zimbabwe Miners Federation
(ZMF). Therefore, starting a gold mining business is definitely a profitable and lucrative
opportunity for new entrepreneurs.

Interior Designing - Interior designing is a perfect career option for individuals who are
passionate about design, art, and home decoration. Any individual of any age can start this
business from home. A degree in interior design is always a plus to start and run a successful
interior designing business. An internship with or work for established leaders of the industry
can be a great way to get your foot in the door and to get yourself some visibility. This will also
give your experience in the industry.

Small Scale Manufacturing Business in Zimbabwe - Basically, small-scale manufacturing

includes a wide range of sectors. These are food processing, garments & textiles, crafts, light
engineering, etc. Depending upon your skill, expertise, and investment capacity, you can
consider starting a small-scale manufacturing business in Zimbabwe.

Tutoring - If you want a self-employment mode of operation, you can start tutoring even from
home. Tutoring is a noble profession. In addition, you can earn definitely good money from
tutoring. Additionally, several online platforms allow online teaching also.

Start an Online Business in Zimbabwe - For people living in Zimbabwe looking to make money
fast with low investments, online businesses can be a good choice. There are several home-
based online business opportunities that can be explored based on your skills and experience.
Some of them include graphic designing.

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 Start a Transportation Business in Zimbabwe - Though entering the transport industry is
competitive for beginners, still there are wide scopes if planned properly. There is a good
demand for minibuses or kombi services. In Zimbabwe. One can start a transport business with
one van and then scale up as profit starts coming.

Agriculture - Zimbabwe’s commercial farming sector is traditionally a source of exports and

foreign exchange. Additionally, the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid
Tropics (ICRISAT) assists Zimbabwe’s farmers to adopt conservation agriculture techniques.
Furthermore, the institute helps in increasing yield through a sustainable method of farming.
Hence, you can consider starting a business in the agriculture and farming sector in Zimbabwe.

Business Proposal
A business proposal is perhaps one of the most critical documents you need to learn how to
write. It is what spells the difference between success and failure, whether you are a freelancer
or you have a company of your own. In today’s cutthroat business world, entrepreneurs find
themselves spending hours upon hours submitting business proposals to potential clients, and
not get any results. On the other hand, there are those that are like snipers, able to get the
contract after just submitting one business proposal.

The Basics of a Business Proposal

task draft a business proposal (25)

Before you even go and start writing that business proposal, you must first understand what it
is and learn the basics. A business proposal is a written document that offers a particular
product or service to a potential buyer or client. There are generally two kinds of business
proposals: solicited business proposals (which are submitted in response to an advertisement
published by the buyer or client) and unsolicited proposals (submitted or given out to potential
buyers or clients even though they are not requesting for one).
Quite often, the terms business proposal and business plans are used interchangeably, giving
you the impression that they are one and the same. However, they are not. A business proposal
is created to offer a product or service to a buyer or client. On the other hand, a business plan is
a formal statement of a set of business goals and how these would be achieved. The latter is
only part of what is included in a business proposal.

The secret behind writing a winning business proposal and one that will just be set aside is the
presence of the 3Ps: Problem Statement, Proposed Solution, and Pricing Information.

Steps taken when writing a business proposal

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1. Research

Before writing your business proposal, it is crucial you understand the company. If they have
sent you an RFP, make sure you read it carefully, so you know exactly what they want. It can
also be helpful to have an initial call or meeting with the new client to ensure you fully
understand the problem they are trying to solve and their objectives. You have done your
research; it is time to begin writing your business proposal. There is no one-size fits-all
approach to writing a business proposal.

2. Cover letter / Title page

The second or step of your business proposal should consist of a cover letter directed to the
clients. Thank the potential customers for choosing your products. You cover letter should end
with a couple of sentences thanking them for choosing you. Include your contact details such as
email address, phone numbers as they can get in contact with you. You can as well include your
contact electronic or hand signature.

You have to convey some basic information here. Introduce yourself and your business. Be sure
to include your name, your company's name, the date you submitted the proposal, and the
name of the client or individual you are submitting the proposal to. Your title page should
reconcile engagement with professionalism. It is a tone-setter, so you need to make sure yours
is sleek and aesthetically appealing.

3. Create a table of contents.

You need to make things as simple and accessible as possible for the people on the other side
of your proposal. That starts with a table of contents. A table of contents will let your potential
client know exactly what will be covered in the business proposal. If you are sending your
proposal electronically, it helps to include a clickable table of contents that will jump to the
different sections of your proposal for easy reading and navigation.

4. Executive summary.

The executive summary details exactly why you are sending the proposal and why your solution
is the best for the prospective client. Specificity is key here. Why are you the best option for
them? Similar to a value proposition, your executive summary outlines the benefits of your
company's products or services and how they can solve your potential client's problem. After
reading your executive summary, the prospect should have a clear idea of how you can help
them, even if they do not read the entire proposal.

5. Statement of the problem

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This is where you provide a summary of the issue affecting the potential client. It provides you
with the opportunity to show them you clearly understand their needs and the problem they
need help solving. Research, critical thinking, and extra thought are key here. You have to do
your homework. Take a holistic look at the specific issues your client faces that you can help
solve. Then, compellingly frame them in a way that sets you up for the next step.

6. Propose a solution.

Here is where you offer up a strategy for solving the problem. Like the last step, you need to
lean into specificity and personalization on this one. Make sure your proposed solution is

customized to the client's needs, so they know you have created this proposal specifically for
them. Let them know which deliverables you will provide, the methods you will use, and a
timeframe for when they should expect them.

7. Share your qualifications.

Are you qualified to solve this prospect's problem? Why should they trust you? Use this section
of your business proposal template to communicate why you are best for the job. Include case
studies of client success stories and mention any relevant awards or accreditations to boost
your authority. Look at the example below

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8. Include pricing options.

Pricing is where things can get a bit tricky, as you do not want to under or over-price your
product. If you would like to provide the prospect with a few pricing options for their budget,
include an optional fee table. Some proposal software offer responsive pricing tables that allow
clients to check the products or services they are interested in, and the price will automatically
adjust.

9. Summarize with a conclusion.

After providing the above information, it is necessary to simplify it into one final section. Briefly
summarize the proposal. Touch on your qualifications and why you would serve as the best
choice. To prompt further conversation, confirm your availability. At the end of the proposal,
the goal is to have the client ready to work with you. Provide your contact information to allow
them to follow up easily.

10. Clarify your terms and conditions.

This is where you go into detail about the project timeline, pricing, and payment schedules. It is
essentially a summary of what you and the client agree to if they accept your proposal. Make
sure you clear the terms and conditions with your own legal team before sending the proposal
to the client

11. Include a space for signatures to document agreement.

Include a signature box for the client to sign and let them know exactly what they are agreeing
to when they sign. This is also a chance to include a prompt for the prospect to reach out to you
if they have any unanswered questions you can address.

Top tips when writing a business proposal

A). Start with an outline.

If you want to produce a thoughtful, effective business proposal, you need to have some idea of
what you are hoping to achieve with it. Therefore, before you dive into writing, outline the
major sections of your business proposal and the pertinent information you want to include.
This will ensure you stay focused and your message stays intact as you write.

b) Include data and visuals.

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If you want your business proposal to capture your prospect's attention and help, set you apart
from any other ones they might have received. One of the best ways to do that is to include
hard, quantitative data that helps stress the value of your business. If you can find some
relevant, compelling figures that highlight what you have to offer, you can establish authority
and make yourself that much more convincing. It also helps to include visuals such as charts
and graphs to enhance your proposal.

c) Add social proof.

Like the previous point, adding social proof lends your proposal another degree of credibility.
You can only be so convincing when you are personally talking up how great your business is.
Prospects are skeptical. In many if not most cases, they probably will not take you at your word.
They will likely trust peers and fellow customers more than someone trying to win their
business. That is why including elements like customer quotes and testimonials can go a long
way.

e). Incorporate video into your proposal.

If you are creating an online proposal using document file formats like PDF, you can include
multimedia elements to enhance the proposal experience. They can make your document
richer and more engaging. Whether you add video at the beginning as an intro to your proposal
or in the project breakdown to verbally discuss some of the more confusing parts, extras like
this can make an impression. This works especially on prospects who are visual or auditory
communicators.

f). Keep it simple.

There's no definitive blueprint for how long a business proposal has to be. Yours should be
however long it takes to convey the information you want to get across. That said, you are best
off focusing on quality over quantity. Keep your sentences short and simple, and avoid including
too much business jargon. You want your proposal to be straightforward enough for anyone
who picks it up to make sense of it. So do not get carried away with being too fancy.

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The concept of risk taking and innovation
Innovation

Majaro (1988:27) differentiates between creativity and innovation as constructs. Creativity is

the thought process that leads to the development and generation of ideas. Innovation is the
practical implementation of the idea concept to ensure that the set aims on a commercial,
profitable basis are met, in line with a specific opportunity in the market environment.
Innovation is therefore ideas that seem to be newer, faster, more cost effective and possibly
more aesthetical.

Schumpeter (1934) described innovation as the creation and implementation of new combination.
This new combination may be associated with new products and services, processes, markets,
delivery systems and policies.

Innovation does not only creates but add value to the firm itself, but also to other stakeholders
and the community. Most definitions of innovation include the development and implementation
of something new. According to Zimmerer and Scarborough (2005), innovation is the ability to
apply creative solutions to problems and opportunities to improve and enrich people’s lives. In
other words, innovation means the opportunity for employees to transform an idea that can be
marketed.

Drucker (1994:20) suggests that innovation is an entrepreneurial instrument, one that is used to
develop a differentiated undertaking or service. It is possible to regard innovation as a discipline
in itself, where it is possible to be taught as well as to practice. He adds that entrepreneurs should
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purposefully search for sources of innovation, as well as changes and their symptoms. This could
point to certain opportunities for successful innovation. It is furthermore also important to
identify the principles of innovation and to successfully implement them.

The origin of innovation is of the utmost importance. It is critical that the causal relationship that
leads to the invention of the successful instrument is pointed out. Drucker identifies four
resources of innovative opportunities:

1) The unexpected

Unexpected success, or failure and the unexpected external incident are highlighted. IBM is a
very relevant example pertaining to unexpected success. IBM developed computer equipment to
use in banks during the 1930s. Due to the depression of the American economy, nothing could in
reality be sold to the banks. However, state libraries saw this computer equipment as very
advantageous for their systems. All stacked stock was sold, which resulted in unheard of and
unplanned success.

The business world is full of surprises – not only the unexpected failures but also the
unexpected success that comes to the organization can be a great source of inspiration for
innovation. Both, unexpected success and unexpected failures should not stay unnoticed and
should not be overlooked as opportunities for a change. Unexpected situations can be
extremely powerful in the business world as they inspire the leaders and innovators to get
another perspective on the situation (no matter if it is positive or negative) and to take
advantage of the opportunities that emerge.

1) Changes in marketing and industry structures

These phenomena usually occur unexpectedly. The change in the market structure of any
industry (for instance the information technology industry), often creates opportunities for
innovation. Should there be a definite change in the market structure, all role players should
adapt to it. In this instance, the leadership is often replaced. Many industries are disrupted
almost overnight. The leaders need to keep an eye on these changes and to treat these changes
not as threats but more like opportunities.
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 2) Demographic changes

Companies are affected in one way or another by the change of demographics. These changes
affect the markets as they determine the demand for products, who is buying these products
and what quantities of the product are bought. The demographic changes in age, education,
employment, affect the direction that the business takes and can open new horizons to the
company if it manages to appropriately identify the opportunity. The Internet performed a
platform for new venture creation by innovative young entrepreneurs.

3) New knowledge

Both scientific and non-scientific knowledge is emphasized. Knowledge-based innovation

features high on the list of successful innovations. New knowledge is often used as a byword for
innovation. Technological and scientific breakthroughs are the source of innovation that cannot
be overlooked by businesses. Companies that refuse to adapt to the changes inspired by new
discoveries are doomed to fail. New knowledge, however, can be applied in every aspect of the
company – from learning more about the customers through analytics through improving the
supply chain to hiring the best employees.

Debate – business should go digital if not, they will die out. Discuss

The process of nurturing and managing innovation

Our world today is evolving faster (technologically speaking), than it ever did in the past.
Technology is constantly being improved to better suit our lifestyles and needs. How then, do we
as business owners nurture a culture of innovation and creativity in the workplace to keep our
companies thriving and progressing?

Innovation is not a mathematical equation that can be applied to a brand or company. Instead, it
is an environment that is nurtured in such a way that leaders are able to unlock and harness the
“light bulb” ideas that go off. Business leaders and owners cannot just announce that the office
is now an innovative office and encourage all staff to get thinking creatively. Rather, they must

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procure an environment, both physical and mental, that engages employees in a non-traditional
way. Here are just a few suggestions to help you shape the environment in your company into an
innovative one that allows employees to be open and able to take risks in their thinking:

Taking a break to innovate

This type of leadership in an organization is critical to establishing an experimental culture. At

Microsoft, Bill Gates has done a great deal to create a vision for innovation in the business. Two
or three times a year, he sets aside dedicated time to think about the future.

Schedule Brainstorming

Teams should brainstorm at the beginning of each project. Bouncing ideas off each other can be
helpful to mold and stretch ideas that may have been ignored in other traditional offices. All
members of staff should be included in the brainstorming, not just the people with a creative title.
During these sessions encourage out-of-the-box thinking by making it a safe place to say
anything. Who knows one idea may spur another and so on.

Rewards
Give rewards, even small ones for creative ideas around the office. This might include a longer
lunch, a premium parking spot, or a small gift card.

Do not be afraid to fail

Failure may seem negative, but it also means that you were not afraid to try. Even Ben Franklin
failed hundreds of time before his experiment succeeded. 50 to 70 per cent of all new product
innovations fail at even the most successful companies.

Provide Education and Training

Learning should be a lifelong adventure. Give employees a chance to be learning and expanding
their knowledge base. Much of the debate has tended to focus on how individuals within an
organization innovate, rather than analyzing how an organization itself can utilize the talents of
its employees.

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Risk taking
In business, there is no such thing as a "sure fire bet". All business investments carry an element
of risk, which is the chance or probability that things will go wrong. At the worst, the risk of an
enterprise might mean the person making the investment loses all his/ her money or becomes
personally liable for the debts of the business. The trick is to take calculated risks, and to
ensure that the likely returns from taking a risk are enough to make the gamble worthwhile.

In a world that’s changing so quickly, the biggest risk you can take is not taking any risk. If you
want to start your own business, you need to be comfortable with taking risks. While two-thirds
of businesses with employees survive at least two years, according to the U.S. Small Business
Administration, only half survive at least 5 years. The act of opening a business itself is a risk.

Debate - In a world that is changing so quickly, the biggest risk you can take is not taking any
risk. Discuss
However, without taking a risk, there is rarely a reward. Entrepreneur coach and growth
marketing agency founder Sujan Patel reveals some key aspects to the entrepreneurial spirit
that align with risk-taking behavior. According to Patel, entrepreneurs must:

 Look at decisions from a reward-perspective, not from a risk-perspective

 Think outside the box to create solutions
 View challenges optimistically: as opportunities, not problems
 Set goals and have a vision for what they want to accomplish
Importantly, Patel writes, Entrepreneurs take risks because they are necessary to start and
grow a business. Some of the risks an entrepreneur might face include:

 Leaving a full-time job and steady paycheck

 Using personal savings with no guarantee of a return on investment
 Misjudging interest in a product or service
 Putting trust in coworkers
 Giving away time, energy, sleep, the ability to enjoy personal interests, etc.

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  Many entrepreneurs dedicate the majority of their waking hours, at least in the initial
phase, to their business. Entrepreneurs may make myriad personal sacrifices to get a
business off the ground.
Once the business is running, an entrepreneur continues to make calculated risks to grow a
business. Risks can be classified as:
 Competitive risk: losing business to similar service or product providers.
 Credibility risk: getting consumers to trust and be interested in a product or service
with no brand recognition
 Financial risk: having the cash flow needed to stay in operations
 Market risk: knowing whether a product or service is what the market demands.
 Technology risk: facing business operations interruptions due to technology failure, or
choosing a technology that is not the best for the business
There are many ways to mitigate these risks and make them more likely to turn into rewards.
Research, marketing, planning, testing and reporting are a few strategies entrepreneurs use
when taking calculated risks.

Benefits of Taking Risks as an Entrepreneur

Ask most successful entrepreneurs, and they tell you their business success was influenced by
taking a risk at some point. Taking risks is the way to create opportunity and progress. When an
entrepreneur takes certain risks the competition is not willing to take, they can become leaders
in their field.

Activity – tour to community bases projects and identify the degree of risk and innovation
Risk-taking shows a team that the entrepreneur is a true business visionary and leader who
believes in the potential reward on the other side. Risk-taking enables and encourages
innovation, which can be an important product/service differentiator.

Failed risks are not always negative. Sometimes, they provide the most valuable business
lessons an entrepreneur can learn. Failure helps shape future business strategies and can
eventually lead to business growth.

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End of unit 4.2 exercise questions

1. Describe four business projects in Zimbabwe (25)

2. Discuss the importance of business proposal (25)
3. Using clear examples, Explain the stages involved when crafting a business proposal
(25)
4. Discuss the view that failed risks are not always negative (25)

5. Discuss the concept of risk taking and innovation (25)

6. Assess the view that a business project is a gambling (25)
7. Examine the view that the greatest risk you can take is not to take any risk (25)
8. Discuss the benefits of risk taking to the entrepreneur (25)
9. Describe the risks that can be taken by entrepreneurs (25)
10. Examine the view that a successful business project is innovative (25)

UNIT 4. 3 OCCUPATIONAL STRUCTUIRES IN ZIMBABWE

Objectives
Learners should be able to
 Examine types of occupational structure
 Analyze the types of occupational structure in Zimbabwe
Introduction

The occupational structure is described and analyzed by means of various classificatory

schemes, which group similar occupations together according specific criteria such as skills,
employment status, or function. During the early phase of European industrialization, the
dominance of manufacturing made for a preponderance of manual occupational structure in
Zimbabwe while in recent times the shrinking of this sector, together with growth in services
has made an expansion for white collar occupational structure which require less manual labor.

Occupational structure
The occupational structure refers to the type of jobs performed by the working population.
There are two forms of labor:
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1. Manual labor (or blue-collar), work that involves physical labor of some kind such as a miner,
bricklayer or mechanic performs;
2. Non- manual (or white collar) labor, work that involves little physical labor but relies more on
mental effort or force of personality. For example, shop assistant, clerk or teacher.
Occupational structure also refers to the aggregate distribution of occupations in society,
classified according to skill level, economic function, or social status. The occupational structure
is shaped by various factors:
The structure of the economy (the relative weight of different industries), technology and
bureaucracy (the distribution of technological skills and administrative responsibility) and the
labour market (which determines the pay and conditions attached to occupations); Status and
prestige (influenced by occupational closure, life-style, and social values).

There are three types of industry, which offers jobs in Zimbabwe:

1) Primary, such as mining or agriculture, which involve exploiting natural resources;

2) Secondary or manufacturing, such as industry, where objects are created to be sold;

3) Tertiary or service, involving providing a service of some kind, such as banking or transport.
The occupational structure of Zimbabwe is mainly made of tertiary industry which makes up to
60% of the total GDP as of 2017.Zimbabwe has the second biggest informal economy as a share
of its economy which has a score of 60.6%.[Agriculture and mining.

Primary industry in Zimbabwe

Agriculture

Agriculture in Zimbabwe can be divided into two parts: commercial farming of crops such as
cotton, tobacco, coffee, peanuts and various fruits, and subsistence farming with staple crops
such as maize or wheat.

Commercial farming was almost exclusively in the hands of the white minority until the
controversial land redistribution program began in 2000. Land was seized from white farmers
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and redistributed to black settlers. However, the following challenges were experienced after
the redistribution:

 The new owners did not have land titles

 They did not have the collateral necessary to access bank loans
 The small-scale farmers also did not have experience with commercial-scale agriculture
 Much of Zimbabwe's land went fallow and agricultural production decreased steeply.
 The University of Zimbabwe estimated in 2008 that between 2000 and 2007 agricultural
production decreased by 51%. Production of tobacco, Zimbabwe's main export crop,
decreased by 79% from 2000 to 2008.
 The country was put on sanctions by British allies United States of America, European
Union etc.
Regardless of these challenges, the following transpired which improved agriculture;
There was the contract system of agriculture. International tobacco companies, such as British
American Tobacco and China Tobacco, supplied farmers with agricultural inputs, equipment,
and loans, and supervised them in growing tobacco. Chinese demand for Zimbabwean tobacco
increased. Instead of large white-owned farms selling mostly to European and American
companies, Zimbabwe's tobacco sector now consists of small black-owned farms exporting over
half of the crop to China.

Zimbabwe also tried to boost agriculture through issuing 99-year leases for larger land reform
farms. Opening opportunities for the return of highly skilled former white farmers, Partnerships
and joint ventures with Chinese and Command agriculture Programme.

Work

The meaning of work

What is considered as work varies depending on such things as time, place, society and
individual preference.
Examples include -
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i. Planting seeds: - if done for sale its work but when done for pleasure or interest then it
becomes leisure.
ii. Playing soccer: - there is professional football but people can also play soccer as a pass time
or leisure activity.
The following features characterize work:

It is paid for, done primarily for pleasure however people can derive pleasure from work and
most commonly there is an employer who imposes his or authority on the worker in exchange
of wage. In addition, Work usually takes place in a special place designed for the purpose of
work e.g. factory or office. There is some productive or useful outcome of the work done e.g.
cars are produced. .
Reasons why people work: - people work for two sets of reasons; intrinsic and extrinsic.
Extrinsic reasons: - people do work for wages.

Intrinsic reasons: - people work for more than wages.

 For interest and enjoyment of the job as in sportsmen.

 Companionship found among workmates.
 For women to escape the restrictive role of housewife.
 Gives Sense of identity
 Work gives status
 For women economic independent
 For the smooth transition to adulthood
Work satisfaction: - level of enjoyment one obtains from participating in work.
The degree of work satisfaction influences our whole life. If work is not fulfilling, then
alienation is experienced.
Alienation
According to Karl Marx, alienation is a situation when one gets no enjoyment from their
work. Alienation includes the following elements: -
Meaninglessness: - a feeling that the job does not make sense; experienced especially
where there is division of labour and work is divided into such small unrelated tasks. The
workers fail to see why they are working.
Powerlessness: - belief that the work has no power over the direction and speed of

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 their work. Worker has no control of their work.
Normlessness: - what the employer says the worker should feel about their work is
different from what the worker feels and this difference lead to industrial conflict.
Isolation: - work environment cuts the worker from workmates and society. Noise,
safety, and cleanliness e. t. c make the worker feel for themselves only and forget about
others; feel they are not part of society.

Key term

Alienation: According to Karl Marx, alienation is a situation when one gets no

enjoyment from their work.

Self-estrangement: - ideally any job ought to use the abilities and intelligence of the worker so
that the work is fulfilling, if the job fails this then the worker gradually loses their personality
and tries to express themselves in their leisure activities.

End of unit 4.3 exercise questions

1. Describe the occupational structure of Zimbabwe (25)
2. Examine the view that occupational structures in Zimbabwe are associated with
alienation (25)
3. Examine the relationship between manual and white collar occupational structures in
Zimbabwe (25)

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UNIT 4.4 Conflict management at work place

OBJECTIVES
Learners should be able to ,
 Identify measures to manage conflict at the work place
 Assess measures to manage conflict
 Analyze case studies in conflict management
Introduction

Many sociologists have admitted that conflict at work place in inevitable, but efforts to avoid it
should not be ignored. Before we look at conflict management mechanism, it is of paramount
important for learners to picture forms of conflicts at work place. Below, are some of the
examples?

Forms of conflicts at work place

1. Conflict may occur between managers and non-managerial workers. According to Max
Weber, the genesis of conflict in organizations is due to manipulating and controlling.

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 This might face resistance from employees. Conflict is inevitable between workers and
employees because the two parties have different interest.

Key terms
Conflict management - can be defined as the process of dealing with (perceived)
incompatibilities or disagreements arising from, for example, diverging opinions, objectives,
and needs.

Conflict: it is a clash and contradictions of opinions that may result in a hostile working
environment.

2. Conflictual behavior by workers can take a variety of forms, these include sit ins, working to
rule, refusal to work overtime, absenteeism, leaving the job, striking or even social loafing.

3. As Richard Hyman points out, many of the actions taken by workers may be responsible to
management behavior. Employers and their managers may initiate conflicts. Conflict with the
employee may take the form of plant closure, blacklisting, and arbitrary discipline and so on.

4. There are subtler forms of conflict involving rivalries, jealousies, personality clashes, role
definitions, and struggles for power and favor.

5. There is also conflict within individuals between competing needs and demands – to which
individuals respond in different way.

6. Work to rule, where workers stick rigidly to the letter of the rules of employment, which
effectively slows down production process.
7. Industrial sabotage, where workers deliberately sabotage the machinery on which they are
working in order to make their grievances known or stop work for a rest. These forms usually
occur where the workforce is not strong enough to strike.
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Sources of conflict

Activity - research on the causes of conflict at work place

1. Profit and control - Marxist perspective has argued that conflict comes from the nature of
work itself. According to Marxist sociologists such as Craig Littler, In order to achieve the
maximum amount of profit, employers need to control their labor force to make them as
reproductive as possible; they therefore cheapen and regulate labor. The workers are
constrained according to the specifications of the employer. By so doing, conflict is generated;
this might lead to industrial sabotage or even strikes.

2. Sharing scarce resources can lead to conflict

3. Wage disputes can result in conflict

4. Gender differences results in conflict

5. Most organizations are fraught with power struggle leading to conflict

6. Nepotism may result in conflict

5. Different work objectives also contribute

Types of industrial conflict

As noted earlier, there are a number of different types of industrial conflict. This section will
concentrate on two types thus, strikes and industrial sabotage.

Strikes

According to Richard Hyman, strike is a temporary stoppage work; employers expect to return
to work for the same employer after the strike is over

There are two types of strike:

a) Official. These are strikes officially recognized by the appropriate trade union

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b) Unofficial. These strikes are not formally recognized by the executives of the appropriate
trade unions.

Cause of strikes

 Low wages and salaries - in 2008, civil servants went for strikes and schools were closed
due to poor remuneration of workers.
 Working conditions such as long working hours can lead to strikes
 Solidarity in support of another group
Judging from the nature of strikes, it can be argued that strike is a form of conflict that is meant
to solve a conflict. According to Ralph Miliband, strikes can be an effective an effective
bargaining strategy. To him, strikes bring positive results. In a study of strikes, Richard Hyman
concludes that they regularly prove highly effective in speeding negotiations towards an
acceptable conclusion.

2. Industrial sabotage

Laurie Taylor and Paul Walton define industrial sabotage as the rule breaking which takes the
form of destruction of the work environment such as machineries.

Causes and motives of sabotage

1. Attempts to reduce tension and frustration - this action release frustration for the loss.
Following the frustration theory, sabotage makes the workers feel better.

2. Attempts to assert control - used by workers, in an attempt to gain greater control.

Problems of Conflicts

 It can destroy an organization through industrial action.

 If not properly managed, it reduces productivity in an organization.
 It can tarnish the image of the firm.
 It can affect organizational growth.

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  Conflicts can sour relations between staff.
 Can be time wasting if unproductive.
 Conflicts can suppress some ideas by minors.
 The majors will lose control and workers will gain power
 Can lead to new laws that will affect
Benefits of Conflicts
1). Can lead to better solutions.
2).It increases awareness that a problem exist.

3).Promote organizational change.

4). It enhances communication.

5) It strengthens the relationship between employees and management.

6) It encourages creativity and innovation.

7. As noted by Miliband, strikes can lead to quick negotiations

Measures to manage conflict

1) Tosi, Rizzo, and Caroll suggested that improving organizational practices could help resolve
conflicts, including establishing superordinate goals, reducing vagueness, minimizing authority-
and domain-related disputes, improving policies, procedures and rules, re-apportioning existing
resources or adding new, altering communications, movement of personnel, and changing
reward systems.

2) Representative organizations/Trade unions

Trade unions are groups of workers who band together in order to negotiate over pay and
conditions with employers e.g. Zimbabwe Teachers Association (ZIMTA), Zimbabwe Nurses
Association (ZINA) etc. The functions of trade unions include:
1) Seeking to improve wage rates

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2) Seeking to improve working conditions, such as speed of the job and safety

3) Seeking to improve hours of work, such as shortening the working week, gaining longer
holidays
4) Seeking to unite individual members so that they will have more bargaining power. Collective
bargaining is a method of negotiation in which employees negotiate as a group with their
employers via a trade union.
5) Influencing legislation relevant to its members

6) To act as a channel between workers and employers

The importance and effectiveness of unionism in Zimbabwe

Key term

Trade unions - are groups of workers who band together in order to negotiate over pay and
conditions with employers

Trade unions emerged because of their efforts to protect worker's rights and workers were
being more aware of their rights in many areas of their life such as the right to bargain, organize,
the right to negotiate in the conditions of employment. Trade unions have become an
important instrument in the improvement of the workers' quality of life due to the
establishment of various conditions of service such as general improvement of working
conditions, minimum wages, and norms for mandatory work hours, provisions for health and
safety (Rao 2010).

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A trade union is a permanent form of workers therefore the is an emphasis on collective
bargaining and coordinated efforts and it is formed to protect worker's interests such as
economic, political, and social interests with economic interest taking a center stage.

Group effort and collective action are core in the achievement of trade unions' objectives.
Workers join trade unions to get greater bargaining power and a sense of job security because
a worker cannot bargain as an individual. Trade Union membership helps safeguard its
member's job security, as a union is there to campaign on behalf of its members, Trade Union
ensures that health and safety regulation exist in an organization.

1). Promote industrial relations

According to the International Labour Organization (2015), trade unions understand the labor
challenges in their country and they have practical ideas for overcoming them, which makes
them natural stakeholders in employment policy-making. Trade unions are the only vehicle
where workers' interests can be channeled better than any other means. Salamon (2000) and
Maimunah (2007) argue that there are three main reasons why people join trade unions and
these are

 economic regulations
 protection of rights and
 Social needs.
Workers who are ill-informed about their rights, without the unions they will remain exploited
because a trade union is a body where workers can turn to and informed about their rights
better, it speaks on their behalf, advice and represent them in court (Taylor, 1994). Trade
unions play an important role in representing workers and this is supported by International
Labour Organization Conventions 87 and 98 which recognize freedom of association and
workers' rights to organize and to bargain freely.

b) Collective Bargaining
The main duty of the Unions is to bargain collectively ensuring workers are rewarded properly,

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furthermore, the unions are also charged with the task to prevent disputes between the two
parties who have to bargain in good faith and disclose all relevant information to each other.

According to the Labour Act Chapter 28:01, workers have the right to collective bargaining and
to be provided with a collective bargaining agreement at the workplace. Workers also have the
right to engage in a collective job action provided proper procedures be followed hence the
role of trade unions.

C) Protection of Workers' Rights and Economic Defense Organ

Workers' rights are human and legal concerned with the employment relationship between
employers and employees between workers and their employers, these include the right to be
a member of a trade union. Trade unions play a vital role in giving their members information
about their rights in the employment relationship. Schillinger (2008) asserted that trade unions
play an important role in protecting their members' rights and conditions of employment.

Trade unions are the basic economic defense organs of the working class. The individual worker
is too atomized and powerless to counter-balance the concentrated power of the employer
who controls the means of livelihood (Gwisai, 2006:327). Trade unions minimize the power of
the employer on the suppression of worker's rights and mobilize the collective power of
workers to gain better working conditions and counter unilateral control of the workplace by th
employer (Gwisai, 2006). Trade unions also serve to reduce potential strife between employers
and employees, between government and employees.

d) Protect Social Needs of Workers

Trade unions also create a platform where workers can socialize, develop self-esteem, and
companionship. There is solidarity in trade unionism as reflected in union slogans such as "an
injury to is an injury to all" and "all in, all-out" (Gwisai, 2006). Ashwin and Clarkes (2002) argue
that trade unions in countries like Russia they negotiate on working conditions and general

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rights for the workers. One of the trade union's main aims is to the protection of members'
interests at the workplace is a core function of trade unions.

e) Political Change

Trade unions act as a platform where workers learn to work collectively, develop political
consciousness, and learning on how to organize. Unionism has played a significant role in
democracies in different countries as South Africa with the Congress of South Africa Trade
Unions (COSATU), the Movement for Democratic Change (MDC) formation in 1999 backed by
the Zimbabwe Congress of Trade Union (ZCTU) herald a different era of the employer-employee
relationship. The government accused the ZCTU of violating its constitution for opposition
politics (Tarugarira, 2011). The association of trade unions with political parties started in the
early years of the rise of African nationalism. It is the abuse of workers by colonial employers
that led to the formation of trade unions by workers leading to the formation of nationalist
parties. Bhorat and Naidoo (2014) argued that trade unions have an important role in changing
labor laws. Trade unions are instruments of change in the socio-political system so that workers
may have their government and prevent their exploitation by the employers. Marx also argue
that trade unions are meant to correct inequalities and a radical political shift.

The Extent to which Trade Unions are achieving their goals in Industrial Relations.

Trade unions are effective when they meet the expectations of their members (Boxall and
Haynes, 1997). A union that understands workers' needs, but cannot shift employer behavior is
ineffective (Boxall and Haynes, 1997). Bryson (2003) argued that effective trade unions should
produce tangible positive results for their members such as general genuine representation in
areas such as job security, better salaries, and wages, protection against unilateral control of
the workplace by the employer. Trade unions have made various achievements in representing
workers.
Achieved Democracy and Independence

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Trade unions in Zimbabwe have played an important role in the democratization process
(Maree, 2012). Trade unions have been effective in fighting for democracy and the
independence of African states from colonialism. Movement for Democratic Change (MDC), in
1999 gained political with its leader Morgan Tsvangirai a former trade union leader. (LEDRIZ,
2012). Morgan Tsvangirai was sworn in as prime minister and the parties agree to share power
and produce a new constitution. This is one of the major achievements of ZCTU in bringing a
democratic change at work place and Zimbabwe at large in Zimbabwe.

Improved Wages
The minimum wages received by certain employees within a particular industry has also been
an important concept in trade unionism especially in Zimbabwe and this is one of ZCTUs
achievement over the years. Collective bargaining is an important tool for determining salaries
and wages to be paid to employees through trade unions representatives Improvement of
Workers Conditions. The relationship between ZCTU and the government of that day was
paternalistic, with the government claiming to protect workers' rights, gazetting minimum
wage (Dansereau 2003).

Reward systems

The ZCTU bargained for improvement of workers conditions bringing about more pay, bonuses,
profit sharing, and stock options. Among the chief non-monetary benefits that companies can
give to their employees are stock options, fringe benefits, promotions, employee autonomy,
health, and educational allowances.

Working conditions
The maximum regular working hours in most countries are eight hours a day and 40 hours a
week and the agreed working time in a week in the collective agreement is 37.5 hours per week.
Trade unions in Zimbabwe had to bargain for normal working hours, as workers had to work for
over 16 hours a day. Overtime work is restricted and an increment in salary must be paid for
the overtime. Employers terminating the employment relationship without proper notice is

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deemed to pay the employee full pay for the notice period.
Social Needs Protection
Employees can ask for assistance from Trade Unions to protect them from unilateral decisions
by employers such as termination of employment by an employer without proper procedures,
sometimes these issues spill in courts. ZCTU has tried over the years to protect the social need
of workers and this has been evidenced by confronting the government on the soaring of of job
termination.

Minimized Discrimination
The relationship or association between workers and their employees is critical in upholding the
rights and working conditions of the workers described above. Discrimination has, however,
become common nowadays for workers to be receiving unlawful treatments at their
workplaces. Negative issues such as worker discrimination and harassment are evident in
increased denial of workers due to wages, the continued provision of unsafe conditions in
which to work as well as the unlawful termination of employment contracts are minimized by
trade unions. The ZCTU has successfully addressed the issue of discrimination in the workplace
and now there is minimized discrimination in the workplace although this is an imbalanced
relationship as workers end up without bargaining power and advocacy and are only
manipulated by the employer through lower wages, longer hours of work as well as poor
conditions in which to perform the work (Devereux, et al, 2015).

Termination of Employment due to conflict

Case study of ZCTU and Zuva case (2015)

Termination of an employment agreement is an interesting concept in trade unionism. Through

providing guidelines and advocacy on how employees should be dismissed, trade unionists can

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address the unfair or improper dismissal of employees. Proper procedures of employee
dismissal are also outlined, which helps to ensure that the severance of employment does not
impact seriously and negatively upon the worker's life (Bryson, 2003). The Supreme Court ruling
of 27 July 2015 of the Zuva case in Zimbabwe, resulted in employee's contracts being
terminated without being given their packages and three months notice. This ruling resulted in
many workers losing their jobs. ZCTU, in response to this scenario, vouched that companies
which had retrenched workers should honor their obligations to pay packages as prescribed by
the Labour Act Amendment No 5 of 2015 leading to conflict resolution.

Challenges faced by Trade Unions

The challenges trade union face worldwide is closely related to the political, social, and
economic environments (Anyango et al, 2013).

Severe Economic Hardships

The economic decline continued up to 2008, which saw the total collapse of the economy
coupled with the abandonment of local currency and high inflation. Currently, unemployment is
over 90%, most of the workers are in the informal sectors, and this has grossly affected trade
unions.

The closure of companies has led to the decline of trade union density and their influence and a
collective force that can counter the employer's unilateral control of the workplace, despite
such supportive frameworks

Restrictive Labor Legislation

Restrictive legislation has affected trade unions' density most workers perceived trade unions
as incapacitated because of withdrawing their membership. The Public Order and Security Act
(POSA), more appropriately a reincarnation of the notorious colonial Law and Order
Maintenance Act (LOMA), severely curtailed the operations of trade unions in that it became

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practically impossible to either organize meetings or embark on collective job action (Tarugurira,
2011). The leaders, who try to encourage strikes, are likely to be arrested.

Financial and Organizational Resources

Trade unions have been embroiled in poor administration such as mismanagement of funds
leaders enjoying lavish life such as paying themselves high salaries and driving posh cars using
membership contributions and they have affected the credibility and functions of trade unions
(Saunders, 2001). Furthermore, the economic hardships, which affected membership density,
also led to subscriptions decline therefore affecting the operations of trade unions. Workers did
not see the logic of paying subscriptions while their salaries were being eroded.

This also affected the outreach programs of trade unions, which were meant to recruit more
members (Tarugurira, 2011). Currently, the country is facing economic challenges coupled with
high inflation, low productivity, high unemployment as a result of the poor performing
economy have grossly affected trade unions' performance.

Politicization

The participation of trade unions in politics at the expense of worker representation has
become a major challenge of trade unions. The environment has become so political to the
extent that institutions clearly show their political affiliation even some churches let alone
trade unions. Trade union shows their political affiliations and there are more concerned about
fulfilling the interests of their leaders in politics at the expense of the interests of workers
(Schillinger, 2005).

The issue of trade unions pursuing political goals at the expense of the interests of workers is
now a common phenomenon (Raftopoulos and Sachikonye, 2003). The government has viewed
trade unions who represent workers' interests from a labor militancy perspective as a threat to
national stability and as pursuing regime change agenda.
Strikes organized by trade unions have been viewed from a political perspective however; Henk

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(1995) argued that the trade unions have shifted from a direct vindication of the interest
workers to be the vehicles for political action organized labor in a populist alliance. The story of
the post-independence period is enthralled with some ineffective unions that were absorbed by
the employer and they condemned strikes as counter-revolutionary. Labor militancy was
construed as a threat to nationalism and the gains of the nationalist struggle, much to the
detriment of workers. The government expected trade unions to operate within the parameters
of its socialist objectives. At the 1985 Congress, the ZCTU president bemoaned how the
government (Tarugurira, 2011) had hijacked the role of the union, as a mediator for workers.
Loss of Membership
The decline of membership density in trade unions has been a cause of concern to the smooth
function of trade unions. Tarugurira (2011) the economic challenges in Zimbabwe such as
unemployment, hyperinflation coupled with a weak currency and other political challenges and
natural disasters such as Cyclone Idai and COVID 19 have reduced the size of trade union
membership there affecting its financial base collective bargaining position whose forte is
based on the size of membership.

The massive exodus of skilled professionals to greener pastures in countries like Namibia South
Africa, Botswana, and other overseas countries have negatively affected trade union density.
The International Labour Organization statistics indicate that by June 2005, three to four million
Zimbabweans earned their living through informal sector employment while the formal sector
employed one million three hundred thousand workers.

COVID 19

Trade unions have raised alarm over conditions of service of employees in the COVID 19 era but
the circumstances associated with the pandemic do not allow trade unions to function properly
under lockdown regulations it is an offense to organize a strike under what circumstance. The
Zimbabwean government cushioned the civil servants without consulting the trade unions
making trade unions powerless.

Weaknesses of trade unions

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Problems, which Trade Unions can cause
Might stimulate grievances, which disturbs progress.
Can lead to industrial actions (strikes) and change balance of power between worker and
managers
However, some sociologists suggest that trade unions in reality perform rather different
functions. Clarke and Clements argue that trade unions prevent any radical restructuring of the
relationship between employers and employees by only ever focusing on wages and conditions,
never on questions of ownership and control.

Other measures of managing conflicts apart from trade unionism.

Improved wages - End conflict between management and workers. Both the concerns of
managers (high productivity, profits) and workers (high incentives) will be well met. Therefore,
there was no need for trade unionism since there would be no exploitation and everybody would
be satisfied (Taylor).

However, For Braverman there has never been and will never be compatibility between workers
and owners of means of production. The relationship is characterized by exploitation
everywhere. Therefore, the fair day’s work assumption by Taylor is a myth because if there was
consistency or balance then there would be no profit. People make profit because they exploit.
Therefore, business is all about exploitation. There is no good employer

Counseling - when personal conflict leads to frustration and loss of efficiency, counseling may
prove to be a helpful antidote. Although few organizations can afford the luxury of having
professional counselors on the staff, given some training, managers may be able to perform this
function. Nondirective counseling, or "listening with understanding", is little more than being a
good listener — something every manager should be.
Party-Directed Mediation (PDM). It is a mediation approach particularly suited for disputes
between colleagues or peers, especially those based on deep-seated interpersonal conflict or
multicultural or multiethnic ones. The mediator listens to each party separately in a pre-caucus
or pre-mediation before ever bringing them into a joint session.

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The Negotiated Performance Appraisal (NPA). It is a tool for improving communication
between supervisors and subordinates and is particularly useful as an alternate mediation
model because it preserves the hierarchical power of supervisors while encouraging dialogue
and dealing with differences in opinion.

The case study of air Zimbabwe

CONFLICT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES IN SETTLING WORKPLACE DISPUTES: THE CASE OF AIR

ZIMBABWE

Sandiso Ngcobo and Morgen Komichi

The context of the study was workplace disputes that have been one of the prime challenges
for Air Zimbabwe (Air Zim) over the past decade. The conflicts have not only contributed to the
poor performance of the airline in the discharge of its services but have also affected the
livelihood of its workers and other economic sectors like tourism. The national airline’s
workplace conflicts have often disrupted the organizational performance and efficiency at one
time resulting in the grounding of AirZim. In January 2012, the airline came under judicial
management. The pilots refused to resume domestic services over $35 million in unpaid
salaries

In March 2012, the government of Zimbabwe established Air Zimbabwe Private Limited as the
new owner of the carrier after disbanding the airline's former parastatal-owner Air Zimbabwe

Holdings and absorbing a$150 million debt. The airline resumed flying on continuous basis in
early May 2012, yet using a single aircraft and serving only three domestic destinations
Bulawayo, Harare and Victoria Falls and only for a short period until the grounding of the
aircraft on 2July 2012. The airline was reactivated in late November 2012, with a reduced flight
scheme serving the Zimbabwe and South Africa, Harare

It would appear that the management has failed to weed out the working conditions related
disputes at the national airline. The airline, therefore, makes a curious case for assessment on
its conflict. Management appears to keep an open door policy and employees who have
concerns approach the human resource department for negotiations. They often employ
collective bargaining when engaging employees in labour related issues like salaries and
benefits. Collective bargaining is a process of negotiation between employers and a group of

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employees aimed at agreements to regulate working salaries, working conditions, benefits, and
other aspects of workers' compensation and rights for workers

The Case study of Bindura Salvation Army Citadel

Masunungure C. and Mbwirire J
This study sought to assess how congregants at Bindura Salvation Army Citadel understand
conflict and conflict resolution methods. The study used a mixed method approach combining
focus group discussions, in-depth interviews and congregant’s survey. Located in Bindura’s
Chipadze high-density suburb, the Salvation Army Bindura Citadel was established as a branch
of the Salvation Army Zimbabwe Territory in 1931. The Salvation Army Bindura Citadel draws its
membership from the medium and all the high density areas of Bindura namely Aerodrome,
Chipindura, Chipadze, Chiwaridzo, Chiwaridzo Phases 1, 2 and 3 as well as Garikai.. In the view
of all respondents, participants and interviewees, counseling, mediation, arbitration and
facilitation were being used as mean-spiritedness of resolving conflicts in the church the study
found out that about 73 percent of respondents were of the view that conflict inform of
violence, quarreling , arguments over violation of doctrines led to church members dropping
from the church. The domination through its conflict resolution was able to minimize conflicts.
Conflict resolution is summarised mainly as involving counselling, mediation, negotiation,
facilitation and the engagement of the top leadership to deal with intra and interpersonal
conflicts.

Conflict avoidance - non-attention or creating a total or partial separation of the combatants

allowing limited interaction.
Dominance or power intervention - the imposition of a solution by management at a higher
level than the level of the conflict

Increase number of females in the work place Gibbs thinks the study of industrial justice
should be updated to account for the increasing number of females in the work place. Studies
of employment differentials between women and men have done little to increase the
understanding of the relationship between dispute resolution in the work place and gender
inequality. Gibbs argues that women promotion and recruitment reduce gender based conflict.

However, Parsons a functionalist believe that there are no conflict at work places due to
consensus. Marx on the other hand saw conflict and alienation of workers at work place and

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argued that only an overthrowing the capitalist enterprise is the permanent solution to conflict
resolution.

End of unit 4.4 exercise questions

1. Examine the view that technology has reduced the power of unionism in Zimbabwe (25)
2. Describe any two case studies of conflict resolution citing their strengths and
weaknesses

3. using case studies , examine the role of unionism in resolving conflicts at place (25)

4. Discuss the view that conflict is an inevitable feature of work (25)

5. Assess the social benefits of work to the worker

6. Discuss the effectiveness of unionism in conflict resolution in Zimbabwe

7. Analyze the view that increasing productivity and workers’ wages is the only way of
managing and avoiding conflicts at work place (25)

8. Analyze various ways of managing conflicts at work place (25)

9. Discuss the usefulness of trade unions in Zimbabwe {25]

10. Discuss the challenges that are being encounter by trade unions in Zimbabwe (25).

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Unit 4.5 technology

Objectives
Learners should be able to
 Outline forms of technology
 Evaluate mechanization and automation
 Recognize appropriate technology to use in enterprise
 Analyze the impact of technology in production
Introduction
In this unit, our focus is on technology and its impact on production. Technology is the use of
scientific knowledge to create tools. Industrial Technology is the use of engineering and
manufacturing technology to make production faster, simpler and more efficient. Information
technology- A broad class of technology based on machines that process data and perform
calculations at high speed known as computers. This technology also include Sensors that are
devices that record data from their environment such as microphones, cameras.

Forms of technology

There are two forms of technology that is mechanization and automation

Mechanization
Mechanization of Production refers to the replacement of manual implements of labor in
sectors of material production or in labor processes with machines and mechanisms using
various types of power and traction for their operation. Its main goals are to raise labor
productivity and free humans from heavy, labor-intensive, and fatiguing operations.
Mechanization of production promotes rational and economical use of raw and processed

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materials and power, reduction of prime cost, and improvement of product quality.
In addition to improvement and replacement of equipment and production processes,
mechanization of production is closely linked to a rise in the level of workers’ skills and
production organization and to the use of methods of scientific organization of labor.

Automation

Automation of Production a process in the development of mechanized production in which the

control and monitoring functions previously performed by humans are transferred to
instruments and automatic devices. Its goal is to improve the efficiency of labor and the quality
of manufactured products and to create conditions for the optimum utilization of all production
resources. A simple example is the way that bread is passed from the oven to the slicing
machine and finally passed on to a packing machine.
Advantages of mechanization and automation in production
1). Boring repetitive tasks can be eliminated e.g. counting money using hands can now be done
by ATMs
2). is a demand for more highly educated workers to understand and control the machinery
e.g. the high demand for people with computer literacy at workplaces recently in Zimbabwe.
3). More goods are produced in fewer hours of work. Working week could be shortened and
increase opportunities for leisure.
4. According to Blauner, automation brings the possibility of eliminating the divisions between
production line workers and management. All could be done in a team to solve work problems.
Machines could take responsibility of some areas of production.
5) Work would become healthier and safer as the dangerous jobs will be eliminated e.g. lifting
loads at work is now done by forklifts. Excavators now dig deep into the earth which manual
labor used to do

6) Leads to scientific management and control over production. According to Taylor work is
now performed based on training, experiments and tested tools not general knowledge
Disadvantages of mechanization and automation in production

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1). There will be deskilling. Henry Braverman referred this process as a situation whereby
workers lose their skills to machines. Employers use deskilling to cut the workforce and
decrease wages. Microchips through word processors have made the work of typist as a
profession less popular as one can learn to use word processing in hours.
2) Loss of pride and craftsmanship at workplaces

3) Wages will decrease

4) Unemployment will increase

5) Interaction will decrease as people increasingly stay home to work and to engage in leisure
pursuits. This could alter the basis of our society, which is dependent upon social mixing in
shops, offices and factories.

6). According to Serge Mallet - automation will lead to class conflict and reduction of the power
of trade unions. This will revitalize the trade’s union movement, which will no longer be
represented by, centralized, bureaucratic organizations distanced from the shop flow. Instead,
union power will be decentralized and based on 'syndicate: principles that is worker control at
the level of the company.

Increasing reach. E-commerce allows small businesses to reach a broad range of consumers. It
allows all sellers to be a part of a global marketplace.

Debate – in groups, discuss the view that technology has brought more harm in business
productivity.
The impact of technology on enterprise

Positive

1) Workers are productive because the work scientifically designed. There is only one best way
of performing any given task. It was the management function to scientifically and
systematically find and establish this one best way. This one best way was the least resource

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wasting and least effort wasting (this fulfilled Taylor’s objective of increasing efficiency, control
and predictability of job performance (through standardizing tasks)

2) Increasing reach. E-commerce allows small businesses to reach a broad range of consumers.
It allows all sellers to be a part of a global marketplace.

3) One of the disadvantages of e-commerce is that business owners have more limited
relationships with their clients. Since their clients are typically on the other end of a computer,
it can be more difficult to build meaningful relationships, something that is important to many
business owners and customers.

4) For business expansion- Technology in business allows organizations to improve both the
performance and overall effectiveness of products, systems and services, which, in turn,
enables businesses to expand quickly and efficiently. For instance, Information and
communication technology enable a business to scout for new areas to establish a business.
Businesses use advertising technologies to target customers with increasing precision. . Internet
allows current and potential customers to view your products and services conveniently online.

An Internet present gives businesses the ability to reach potential customers worldwide.
Certain products or services may not be in large demand where you live or establish your
business, but people in other parts of the country or the world may be searching for exactly
what you have to offer.

5) For increased efficiency- microchips help a business in accessing word processing that are
necessary for communication via emails. One can type a document swiftly and send it to its
destination in time than posting via postal mail or physical delivery. With accounting software,
many businesses are able to handle accounting functions without the need for a CPA (certified
public accountant). The technological advances in accounting software have turned tracking
sales, invoicing, employee records and payroll into simple task with no specialized training
required.

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Some programs include notifications that alert the business owner when quarterly taxes and
bills associated with operating costs need to be paid.. Elevators also increase the movement of
workers from one shop floor to the other. Forklifts, front-end loaders assist the loading process
in shops and mines respectively.
6) For enhanced business management- CCTV (closed circuit television) cameras assist
businesses in detecting criminal activities easier, monitor worker performance etc. Major
advancements in electronic security systems and biometric alarm systems are helping keep
businesses safe from hackers and thieves. This saves a lot in terms of losses. Maintenance of
employee records is also enabled through creation of files in computers. Technology in the
workplace also improves the efficiency of recruiting, screening and hiring potential candidates.

7) For labor saving- Employers worldwide continue to seek reduction of the cost of production
and at the same time increase their profits. Advanced technology offers a solution to this
pursuit through labor-displacing technology. Automated Teller Machines take the place of bank
tellers and automated airline kiosks take the place of ticket agents.

As a result of these, many jobs are lost as technology reduces or replaces the need for human
resource. Though negative, the entrepreneur make profits (manifest and latent functions of
technology). The use of modern technology reduces the cost of production especially when
technology takes the place of human resource; this increases the profits. When using labor-
displacing technology, you do not have to pay a monthly salary and benefits to employees.

8) For customer management- Customer service is an important part of any business, and
Computers are essential in that function. If you have a large client base, you likely have a
Customer relationship management (CRM) system that houses all of their information.
Customers enjoy the personalized approach, which makes them want to continue to work with
you.

9) For Accounting Practices- Although there are still a few holdouts, most businesses use
technology to handle their accounts payable processes. Gone are the days of conducting
bookkeeping using a paper-based ledger. Instead, businesses can log invoices and manage
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payment approvals using a cloud-based software solution. Paper can be scanned into a
document management system where it can easily be accessed when needed.

Payroll is also handled electronically, with many employees logging in and updating their own
timesheets before submitting them for payment. Instead of a paper-based check you must take
to the bank, you are more likely to be paid through an automated clearinghouse, which means
your paycheck is directly deposited into your bank account. This entire not only makes things
easier for the employer and employee, but it also saves businesses money.
However, technology use at workplaces have its own limitations:

Loss of jobs- many jobs are lost as technology reduces or replaces the need for human resource.
Increase of crime- abuse of computer technology to commit crimes such as Internet hackings
and theft of money through illegal access of credit card numbers. Invasion of the privacy of
employees also happens in the workplace through computer-based technology. The theft of
personal information and data from computer hard drives for illegal gain or manipulation is
another crime that has risen due to the use of technology in the workplace.

Power cuts - may reduce productivity especially the during the episode of she loading.

Machine repairing can reduce productivity - machines are expensive to buy and repair, this
might reduce profit margins

Negative attitudes to machines - Humans can break machineries, and such a vandalism
behavior reduces profit margins

End of unit 4.5 exercise questions

1. Examine the impact of automation and mechanization in business production (25)

2. Assess the view that technology is more destructive than constructive in business (25)

3. Examine the view that without the application of technology, businesses will die out
(25)

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 4. Assess the view that technology has reduced productivity in business enterprise (25)

Summary

The chapter has examined the importance of SMEs on economic development. After the
realization of this importance, the Zimbabwean government introduce a number of policies to
create a conducive environment for SMEs. Furthermore, a work environment is characterized
by conflicts hence conflict measurements a necessary for a good working environment. Lastly,
technological breakthrough has made work easier though some have pointed to the negative
effects of technology on production.

Glossary
Automation - the technique of making an apparatus, a process, or a system operate
automatically.it is also defined automation as "the creation and application of technology to
monitor and control the production and delivery of products and services.”

Alienation - it is a theoretical concept developed by Karl Marx that describes the isolating,
dehumanizing, and disenchanting effects of working within a capitalist system of production

Business- Business is the activity of making one's living or making money by producing or
buying and selling products

Business proposal - is a document send to a prospective client, outlining the service you're
offering, and explaining why you are the best person.

Customer - a person who buys goods or services from a shop or business

case study - can be defined as an intensive study about a person, a group of people or a unit,
which is aimed to generalize over several units’.1 A case study has also been described as an
intensive, systematic investigation of a single individual, group, community or some other unit
in which the researcher examines in-depth data relating to several variables.2

Creativity in business - a way of thinking that inspires, challenges, and helps people to find
innovative solutions and create opportunities out of problems.

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Command agriculture - Command agriculture is a contract farming scheme necessitated by
land redistribution that ruptured Zimbabwe's sources of resilience, distorted credit access,
heightened tenure insecurity, and spiked vulnerability to droughts.

Conflict - to be different, opposed, or contradictory : to fail to be in agreement

Conflict management - Conflict management is the process by which disputes are resolved,
where negative results are minimized and positive results are prioritized.

COVID 19 - A deadly pandemic, which leads to non-pharmaceutical interventions colloquially

known as lockdowns (encompassing stay-at-home orders, curfews, quarantines, cordons
sanitaires and similar societal restrictions) have been implemented in numerous countries and
territories around the world

Drought- A drought is an event of prolonged shortages in the water supply, whether

atmospheric, surface water or ground water.

Enterprise - is a term in the commercial world used to describe a project or venture undertaken
for gain

Entrepreneurs -person who sets up a business or businesses, taking on financial risks in the
hope of profits

Employment - an act or instance of employing someone or something

Innovation - Innovation is the practical implementation of ideas that result in the introduction
of new goods or services or improvement in offering goods.

Industrial sabotage - is defined here as deliberate action or inaction that is intended to

damage, destroy or disrupt some aspect of the workplace environment, including the property,
product, processes or reputation of the organization.

Industrial conflict - A term that refers to all expressions of dissatisfaction within the
employment relationship, especially those pertaining to the employment contract, and the
effort bargain

Job - a paid position of regular employment

Mechanization - Mechanization is the process of changing from working largely or exclusively

by hand or with animals to doing that work with machinery.

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Manual occupational structure - Manual labour or manual work is physical work done by
humans, in contrast to labour by machines and working animals. It is most literally work done
with the hands and, by figurative extension, it is work done with any of the muscles and bones
of the body

Nepotism - the practice among those with power or influence of favouring relatives or friends,
especially by giving them jobs.

Occupational structure - is described and analysed by means of various classificatory schemes,

which group similar occupations together according to specific criteria such as skill,
employment status, or function.

Policy - course, strategy or principle of action adopted or proposed by an organization or

individual

Risk taking - the part of business strategy that involves assessing how a business's decisions will
harm or benefit the company. Every business encounters risks, which may or may not be
anticipated or controlled by the company.

Small to medium enterprise (SME) - A small and mid-size enterprise (SME) is a business that
maintains revenues, assets or a number of employees below a certain threshold

Technology - Technology is the result of accumulated knowledge and application of skills,

methods, and processes used in industrial production and scientific research

Trade union - A trade union, often simply referred to as a union, is an organization of workers
intent on "maintaining or improving the conditions of their employment", such as attaining
better wages and benefits

Work - activity involving mental or physical effort done in order to achieve a purpose or result

Whiter collar occupational structure - White collar workers are those who work in an office.
The name comes from older times, too, when office workers usually wore white, collared shirts
at work (and some of them still do). It involves mental effort.

ZimAsset - Zimbabwe Agenda for Sustainable Socio-Economic Transformation . It is an

economic blueprint that was crafted by the ruling Zimbabwe African National Unity Patriotic
Front party for Sustainable development.

End of term questions

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1. Examine the effectiveness of the measures taken by the Zimbabwean government to
support the growth of enterprise (25}

2. Examine the impact of automation and mechanization on production (25)

3. Assess the various measures that can be employed to solve work related conflicts (25).

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Topic 15 leisure

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Units covered

5.1 Theories of leisure

5.2 leisure

5.3 Factors influencing leisure

Introduction
The sociology of leisure is in sociology has focused on the nature, role and functions of leisure.
The contribution has focused on the relationship between leisure and other areas of social life
such as work, family, class, racer, gender and so on. Recreational areas in Zimbabwe have been
taken as a priority. On the other hand, there are some challenges such as corruption, droughts
that are being faced by recreational areas leading to poor maintenance.

Unit 5.1 theories of leisure

Objectives
Leaners should be able to ;
 Identify theories of leisure
 Evaluate theories of leisure

There are various perspectives and theories of leisure. These theories mainly discuss the factors
affecting leisure hence it is important for leaners pick the factors affecting leisure from
theoretical points of view. Before we get into detail, it is important for leaners to define leisure.
The term leisure is common and some confuse the term leisure with pleasure. There is no single
definition of leisure, but all theorist accept that leisure is an activity done when one is free from
compulsory obligations. Below are some of the discussed submissions definitions of leisure

Leisure time refers to time spent doing something we choose to do rather than something we
must do. Most definitions of leisure establish it as time free from work or work related
demands. Leisure time is, then, discretionary time, and leisure activities are a matter of
individual judgment and undirected choices (Voss, 1967, pg.101). This then suggest that leisure
Refers to one's free time.

Akintunde (2001), described leisure as the period of time referred to as the ‘free time ‘after or
before compulsory activities such as employment, running business, household chores,
education, day-to-day stress, eating and sleep are undertaken.

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In the same vein, Jackson (2005) defined leisure as a block of free time; a time when man is free
from the obligations and necessities of life. Stanley Parker (1972) defines leisure as the residual
category of time left over rafter other obligations have been attended to. Leisure has often
been defined as equality of experience or as free time. Free time is time spent away from
business work, job hunting, domestic chores, and education, as well as necessary activities such
as eating and sleeping below are the most discussed theories of leisure in sociology

The influence of work on leisure theory

Stanley Parker (1972)

Parker argues that leisure activities are determined by work. He suggests that the amount of
autonomy/ freedom one has at work place is the degree of involvement in leisure activities.
This means that high degree of autonomy means there is less leisure time and less degree of
autonomy means long leisure time. He sees the relationship between work and leisure falling
into three main patterns.

Key term

Autonomy: refers to a high degree of freedom

1. The extension pattern

In this pattern, work is not sharply distinguished from one's leisure, or, one’s work extends to
leisure activities. In simpler terms, what you will be doing is closely related to your work. This
means that there is no clear demarcation or dividing line between leisure and work. To Parker,
this pattern is associated with occupation providing a high degree of autonomy hence leisure
time is short. For example, school heads in Zimbabwe or state presidents in almost all countries
have high degree of freedom at their work but time for leisure is limited. When they resorting
to leisure activities probably they spend much of their r time improving or discussing about
their work. Parker found the social workers in his survey spending much of their time in
activities connected with their work. Business workers were found often-entertaining clients
and discussing about their work in areas where leisure and pleasure can be combined. Thus,
Parker concluded that leisure time and activities are determined and closely linked to one's
work.
2. The Neutrality Pattern

This pattern is different from the above pattern in that one's work does not extends to leisure
activities but leisure time is still determined by work. Parker argues that this pattern is

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associated with occupation providing a medium degree (not high) of autonomy. This therefore
means that leisure time is long as compared to extension pattern. Leisure activities under this
pattern are mainly used for relaxation not for improving work. In this Pattern, then, there is a
fairly clear demarcation between work and leisure. To Parker, occupation associated with this
pattern include semi-skilled manual workers, clerical workers etcetera. For example, the
caretakers of school cannot spend their free time at home practicing the way they will clean
toilets the following day, thus, leisure is used for relaxation.

3. The opposition Pattern

This the final pattern identified by Parker and this pattern provides a very low degree of
autonomy than the above patterns hence suggesting that leisure time is very long. This pattern
was named 'opposing' because it produces a feeling of hostility towards work. The opposition
Pattern is typical for unskilled manual workers such as artisanal miners, long distance water
fishermen and so on. In a study of a long distance fishermen in Hull, the occupation had a high
death and injury rate. This suggested that the work produces high levels of stress. Their leisure
activities as observed by Parker, were centered around drinking in pubs in company of
workmates. Leisure, in this pattern, is seen as a form of relief from the demands and dangers of
work. Tunstall states that fishermen say ' of course fishermen get drunk, anybody who does
what we do has to get drunk to stay sane'. According to Dennis et Al, the miners leisure is
dangerous and the insecurities produced by high rate of death and injury encourages them to
live good time down at women's clubs. Parker therefore, concluded that work is a determinant
of leisure.

CRITICISMS

There are a number of criticism levelled against parker,

1. He over focused on the influence of work on leisure. If you read Parkers theory on leisure, it
seems as if those who do not have a paid work do not have leisure time.

2. Parker tends to ignore factors other than work that shape leisure such as class, gender
etcetera.

4. His opposition Pattern, is outdated, thus, the lifestyle of fishermen for example, has changed
in recent years due to increased safety hence the work is no longer entirely stressful.

5. He exaggerated that under the extension pattern, leisure time of those with high degree of
freed is linked to their work. A survey by John Child and Brenda Macmillan of 964 British majors

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revealed that only 2.3 % mentioned that their leisure time was used to improve their jobs; the
rest stated that leisure was a means to escape from and forget about work.

Therefore, this observation weakens the forcefulness of the claim that leisure activity is
connected to one's work.

2. The family life cycle theory

Rhona Rapoport and Robert Rapoport.

The Rapports argue that family lifecycle / age is important in shaping leisure. They believe that
leisure is a matter age because the leisure activities of the adults are different from those of
adolescence. The Rapports identified four main occupations arising and under go through
biological maturational process.

Phase 1 Adolescence
Refers to those aged roughly between 15 and 19. The major preoccupation in this phase is a
quest for personal identity. Some of the leisure activities of this stage are arts such as dancing,
traveling, travelling and making music.
Phase2 Young adulthood
It is seen lasting for about ten years after a person leaves school. For young adults the
preoccupation is with establishing a social identity rather than a personal one. Much of leisure
is focused on places where heterosexual contacts can be made. For example, young adults
frequently visit nightclubs, sports center and pubs.

Phase 3 Establishment phase

To the Rapoports, this phase occurs roughly between 25-55years. People are no longer
rehearsing future roles but are trying to establish a satisfying lifestyle. Physical activities
become less important for both men and women. Leisure activities are home centered for
example watching television and gardening, children become more significant.

4 The Rapoports refer to final phase simply as the later years and it starts roughly at the age of
55 or with retirement . The preoccupation at this phase is ‘a sense of and personal
integration …of personal meaning and harmony with the world around one’. Patterns of leisure
very a great deal in this phase and in part depend upon such factor as health and income. Poor
health or low income restrict the opportunities for some. Despite the variety of leisure patterns,
they do note tendency for it to become more home - centred and grandchildren are sometimes
a focus for leisure

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CRITICISM
They have been criticized for having both inadequate theory and inadequate evidence. Clarke
and Critcher claim that despite many qualifications made by Rapoports, then put too much
emphasis on the lifecycle, thus, this lifecycle has a biological basis and and ignored that leisure
is socially constructed rather than biologically based.

3. NEO MARXISy theoryy

CLARKE AND CRITCHER

They believe that leisure activities are constrained by capitalism and social class. Leisure is an
arena of struggle between different classes but it is not an equal struggle. The bourgeoisie are
in a strong position to shape leisure than the subordinate classes. Clarke and Critcher claim that
the existence of capitalism shape the nature of work and leisure. To Clark and Critcher leisure
and work in capitalist society could be combined in the sense that people drink whilst working.

Neo Marxist argued that the development of capitalism had made many effects on leisure and
work, thus, class position through the advent of capitalism. Clack and Critcher argue that
industrialization removed many opportunities for leisure and led to a clear demarcation
between work and leisure. In this sense, capitalism requires the working class to work for long
hour’s hence free time and any flexibility was lost. According to Clarke and Critcher, capitalist
enterprise okay a crucial role in defining leisure and leisure opportunities available. In this case,
leisure is determined by social class through capitalism.

This is because the state plays an important role in licensing certain leisure activities such as
pubs, wine bars, betting shops and so on. Films and videos for leisure are cleared for release. In
Zimbabwe, films and music, through grammar studios, music producer, Bothwell
Nyamhondera's work was cleared by the state before release of music hence suggesting that
leisure is determined by social class and capitalism.
Furthermore, leisure context or recreational areas in such Victoria Falls and Matopo hills in
Zimbabwe are controlled by the state through its ministry of tourism. In these contexts, limits
are placed as to how leisure time is spend. For example, you are given a specific period.

There is also inequality of access to private places for leisure; this is because the state is
involved in the regulation of private space for leisure. The disadvantaged tend to use the public
space in the streets for leisure. More importantly, the participation of the working class in the
areas regulated by the state is seen as inappropriate and is disapproved by the police. For
example, the use of public space led to the conflict and riot in Britain. Working class leisure
activities are discouraged. For example, during COVID-19 in 2021 in Zimbabwe local artists and
producers were arrested in Harare for hosting a public gathering in Mbare. Although the arrest

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was linked to COVID 19 regulations, it can be argued that that the state and some state officials
were participating in leisure activities almost daily but who could arrest them? , Nobody would.
Henceforth, this suggests that leisure activities are determined by state, class position and
capitalism.

Leisure is commercialize

To neo Marxist, leisure is a state enterprise that is designed to generate income and make more
profits. For example, the Zimbabwean government established its arm, which is the ministry of
tourism and hospitality management. This means that tourist pay a gate fee, hence bringing in
capitalist foreign currency thus, suggesting that leisure is commercialized to raise revenue. For
example African Journal of Hospitality, Tourism and Leisure (2018) showed that in the year
2016 to 2017 the tourism sector in Zimbabwe gathered in $157 million worth of foreign export
revenue earnings.

Leisure and false class-consciousness

Moreover, leisure is used to dull the pain produced by exploitation, working class are ultimately
given free trips , holidays to leisure context hence they can not revolt because anger is
suppressed . Thus, capitalism will endure forever.

Therefore, neo Marxist have concluded that leisure is controlled by capitalism.

The pluralist theory

This theory was propounded by K Roberts. He is of the view that leisure is determined by a
variety (plural) of factors.

Kenny Roberts believes that leisure is determined by chains of factors not a single factor. He
does not deny that work and life cycle influence leisure but he sees other factors as important
as well. He stresses the variety of leisure patterns that ar available to individuals. Below, are
some of the factors which determine leisure pictured out by Roberts.

A. leisure and choice

He defines leisure in terms of choice and it is relatively self-determined. Individuals are only
engaging in leisure when they feel they are free to choose what to do for themselves. Roberts
argues against theories which claim that the public have their leisure interest manipulated by
others

To him, the state provides some facilities but this does not guarantee that it can shape leisure
patterns. Members of the public can choose what suit their taste. People only use the facilities

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they find useful and if the public sector does not satisfy their tastes, individuals respond by not
using state facilities. In fact, they put pressure on the state to force it to subsidize the type of
leisure pursuits that they most enjoy. According to Roberts, commercial providers of leisure
have to respond as much as the government does to public tastes. The declining of public
demand for cinemas has forced many to close down. Thus, people do not have to use state
leisure context, for example, kids can play street football and arrange their own informal games.

B. Class

He accepts that class affects leisure but rejects the view that it is the dominant influence. Low
income limits the leisure activities of some groups but he claims that nearly everyone has
enough money to participate in a sport.

C. Gender

He recognizes gender as being important bin shaping leisure and suggest that women have less
leisure time than men due to the culture of the society do.

d. Education

Education has a strong influence on leisure. Roberts argues that those who stay longer in
education watch less television and spend more time doing schoolwork.

e. Marital status

Married couples who have joined conjugal roles tend to engage in home centered leisure,
while those with segregated conjugal roles tend to go out more-In Zimbabwe, leisure activities
of married and unmarried people is different (consider, Zimbabwean culture)

Feminist theory
This is a conflict theory that links leisure to gender. To feminist, leisure activities can be
understood when gender is taken into consideration. Feminist believe there are important
differences between men and women leisure. In fact, leisure is determined by gender.

Key term

Gender : in social science terms, gender is something that is socially constructed. Therefore,
every society has its own vision of what is appropriate for men and women

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In the comfort of feminism, every society has its own vision of what is
appropriate for men and women. Gender has an important influence on leisure opportunities,
experiences and meanings. The influence of gender can be seen in the extent to which leisure
pursuits and activities are gender stereotyped.

The research dates back to Methany (1967) a sport sociologist on gender stereotyping of sports,
she argued that the stereotype is linked to gendered roles and expectations. Methany's
research revealed that the sports could be categorized as either "masculine" or "feminine"
depending on physicality, body contact, and aesthetics.

Decades later, Wiley, Shaw and Havitz (2000) noted that football, ice hockey and boxing are
considered as socially appropriate for men while dance, gymnastics, figure skating and other
non-contact sports are considered as socially appropriate for women. Based upon their findings,
they concluded that gender stereotyping of activities clearly affects participation choices, with
the most men restricting their participation to masculine activities that conform to make
gender role expectations.

The majority of women participants also conforming by choosing activities that are thought of
as feminine. In short, men are channeled towards contact sports whereas women are
encouraged to participate in graceful, aesthetically pleasing activities that do not involve
physical contact or aggression (Shaw,N/D)

A second area where the research reveals a strong influence of gender on leisure is with respect
to leisure constraints. Constraints are personal and situational factors that impact upon access
to and enjoyment of, desired leisure pursuits (Shamdahl, 2013). Constraints are often
categorized as structural lack of resources or external forces and intrapersonal. Research in this
area reveals that women experience all constraints including time and money (structural).
Society is seen as patriarchal hence women have less money as compared to men thus their
leisure is limited.

Key term

Constraints : lack of resources for leisure in this context such as money, time e and so on,

According to feminist, men enjoy more leisure than women. Women spend much of their time
at home doing domestic duties such as looking after children or taking care of them. All feminist
writers on gender and leisure believe that there are important differences between men and
women's leisure. They argue that women have less access to leisure opportunities than men.

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Liberal feminist focus on unequal opportunities to participate in leisure. These unequal
opportunities are seen as deriving from socialization through which boys and girls are socialized
differently. Gender discrimination socialization prevents women from enjoying the same leisure
opportunities as men.

Diana Woodward a socialist feminist believe that capitalist system is to blamed for affecting
women's leisure negatively. Capitalist system employs men and women depend on men's
income hence suggesting that their leisure time is limited. The lower class men are payed low
wages and the same men will return home stressed and women exploit women thus limiting
women's access to leisure.

Green et al argues that men have more time for leisure than women do. Women find it hard to
participate in leisure because they spend most of their time doing domestic duties. Violence
also makes women afraid and this proves to be difficult for women to participate in leisure
activities. Many leisure activities outside the home are dominated by men and women feel less
comfortable to participate in them e.g. betting shops. The patriarchal culture of society also
restricts women from participating in leisure. For example, in Zimbabwe, it is very strange to
see a woman walking around consuming drugs and alcohol.

Thus suggesting that leisure is determined by gender since men have more access to leisure
time than women do.

Functionalist theory

Durkheim

Leisure is seen as peaceful solution to the struggle of life. Society can be threatened by same
contradictions and conflicts, which disrupts the society hence consensus is fulfilled during
leisure time and brings a new connection. Leisure provides opportunities to meet life values
and needs. Leisure restores and allows individuals to recover energy and the ability to function
hence order is maintained.

Talcott Parsons believes that leisure plays an emotional function since it allows individuals to
pent up emotions in a heartless world and order is maintained bin society.

END OF UNIT 5.1 EXERCISE QUESTIOINS

1. Discuss the theories of leisure (25)

2. Assess the view that leisure is gender biased (25)
3. Discuss the feminist theory of leisure (25)

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 4. Examine a theory of leisure (25)
5. Assess the view that work is the main determinant of leisure (25)
6. Analyze the notion that leisure is shaped by capitalism (25)
7. Discuss the notion that leisure is a matter of work and age (25)
8. Assess the submissions of Marxist theory on leisure (25)
9. Discuss the applicability of feminist theory in explaining leisure patterns in Zimbabwe
(25)
10. Examine the view that everyone has enough money for leisure (25)

5.2 Leisure

Objectives
Learners should be able to ;
 Outline resort and recreational areas in Zimbabwe
 Analyze leisure activities in Zimbabwe
Introduction
There are a variety of resort and recreational areas in Zimbabwe where individuals can spend
their leisure time. Each leisure activity is determined by the facilities available. Thus, it is
important to define the concept of recreation and tourism

Resort and recreational areas in Zimbabwe

According to Triggs (1996), there are two major parts of leisure namely: tourism and recreation.

The differences that exist between recreation and tourism is the purpose of the activity chosen
and geographical range or distance travelled. This agreed with Edington, Compton and Hanson,
(1980) who in their study claimed that participants in recreation are involved in activities within
their vicinity, while tourists are involved in variety of activities in the course of their travels, but
both are participating in these activities in their leisure time. Thus, the difference between
recreation and tourism is a matter of location of activity. In other words, recreation and tourism
are both of a continuum, travelling being the differential factor ( Standenaven and De
Knop,(1999).

- The relationship between recreation and tourism according to Olarewaju (2000) are as follows:

✓both are carried out at free time.

✓both are carried out by choice.

✓both do not allow for remuneration of participants.

✓Tourism is bigger concept than recreation.

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✓both make us same elements or resources.

Recreation

The word recreation stems from Latin recreation, which refers to restoration of recovery. The
term implies the recreation of energy, or the restoration of human's ability to function (Alli,
20007; Famayo and Adunbi, 2009) -It comes from the concept of creating again, recollecting or
reforming the mind.

Recreation refers to a voluntary activity a person chooses to participate in during his/her leisure
time, which generates an experience that results in satisfaction, enjoyment, pleasure,
achievement and a sense of well-being (Torkildse ,2005). It is an activity engaged in for
relaxation and recuperation; as well as an activity that rejuvenates and replenishes the
individual to continue to perform on the job without undue stress. -Recreation is a guided
process of voluntary participation in any activity, which contributes to the improvement of
general health and well-being and skills of both individual and the society (South Africa
Department of Sport and Recreation, 2008).

The United Nations Organization presented recreation as an activity pursued during leisure,
either individually or collectively that is free and pleasureful, having its own immediate appeal,
not impelled by a delay reward beyond itself or by any immediate necessity.

Why people go to recreational areas?

- Olanrewaju (2000) itemized the objectives of people for going out for recreation. They are:

1 For purpose of utilizing spare time.

2 For the intrinsic value of recreation.

3 To escape from boredom of locality or job.

4 For fun and relaxation.

5 To contribute to the physical, mental and moral well-being.

Tourism

Mahdi (2008) reported that the word “tourism" is derived from "tour" an old French word. In
French language, this word means circle movements, act of going, going around and circulating.
Until the 20th century, there was attention to perfect definition of tourism, but because of the
economic crisis of 1929, the governors of western societies found that tourism could play an

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economic recovery. In 1973, the committee of United Nations Statistical experts took the first
step to define international tourism. In the opinion of the committee all, the people who leave
their countries for the period at least 24 hours and lived in another country will bear the title
international tourists.

Tourism in the words of Adejuwon (1993) means the government of person (s) from his or her
abode to place far or near the purpose of leisure. They are visits to places outside one's home
place, location and country for various purposes such as vacation, interest in the history of
destination of the tour and or its architecture.

Tourism encompasses the activities of person traveling to and staying at places, outside their
usual environment, for not more than one consecutive year, for leisure, business or other
purposes not related to the exercise of an activity remunerated from the place visited
(Torkildse 2005)

From the various definitions of tourism given above, one can safely described tourism as a set
of activities of a person traveling to a place outside his or her usual environment for less than a
year and whose main purpose of travel is other that the exercise of any activity remunerated
from within the place visited.

towns’ such as Kariba being rendered ghost towns.

RECREATIONAL AREAS IN ZIMBABWE and leisure activities

1. NYANGA NATIONAL PARK

It is also called the land of mystery Nyanga situated in one of the most scenic areas of
Zimbabwe's Eastern Highlands rolling green hills and perennial rivers transverse the 47 000
hectares park. Altitude between 1800 and 2593 meters provide cool weather and fresh
mountain air perfect for rest and relaxation. With its stunning mountainous views, numerous
waterfalls, varied activities and unique flora and fauna. Nyanga national park provides the
visitor and unforgettable holiday experience.

2 KARIBA RECREATION PARK.

Is based around the Zambezi River, which was initially dammed so as to build a hydro-
electricity utility for the benefit of Zimbabwe and Zambia. The dam wall 6 flood gates
builtituted on the western tip of Zimbabwe the UNESCO national heritage site. The falls known
by the local Kololo tribe as mosi- oa-tunya " the smoke that thunders”. It is one of the " seven
wonders of the world" and one of the largest and most spectacular waterfalls on earth. The
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rainforest area of Victoria Falls is filled with many species of flora and fauna. One can wonder
amongst the did , mahogany and date palm groves while gazing at the falls from magnificent
view.

3 CHINHOYI CAVES

It is not far from Zimbabwe's capital Harare. Visitors to the park will find stunning blue pools
inside preserved limestone and dolomite caves. Inside the caves, the air becomes cool and
damp and silence descends as one walks down to the water. Holes in the roof of the cave usher
in sunlight that illuminates its depths. One of the best parts of visiting the caves is that you're
likely to have them to enjoy yourself in subterranean silence. What visitors can see is only the
tip of iceberg. The caves continue incredibly far underground in a complex limestone formation.
The water is so clear and constant in temperature that scuba teams have descended to depths
of more than 300 feet (100 meters) they have discovered subterranean passages linking the
various pools.

4 MATOBO/MATOPO COUNTRYWIDE PARK.

The matobo countrywide park shapes the focal point of the Matobo Hills. It is a region of shake
kopjes and rich vallies and it is located near Bulawayo.

5.Zambezi National Park-it is situated near Victoria Falls in Zimbabwe. This park has lots of fish
(75 species of fish: including the tiger fish) , birds(400 species of birds) and game (four members
of the Big 5: African elephant, lion, Cape buffalo and leopard). Recreational activities include
canoeing, Camping, Picnicking, Walking Safaris ,Bird watching ,Game drives

Lake Manyame (formerly Darwendale) Recreational Park-it is located 76 kilometers west of the
capital city of Harare. The park has small mammals, mainly herbivores including Sable, kudu,
waterbuck, bush pig,etc. There are a variety of tree species within the park suchs as musasa,
munhondo, mukarati etc. Recreational activities include Fishing, angling, boating

End of unit 5.2 exercise questions

1. Analyze leisure activities in Zimbabwe (25)

2. Describe leisure activities in Zimbabwe (25)
3. Discuss the reasons why individuals tour to recreational areas (25)
4. Examine the view that individuals go to recreational areas for for the purpose of
escaping from boredom (25)
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Unit 5.3 factors influencing leisure
Objectives
 Learners should be able to identify factors affecting the growth or decline of leisure
 Examine factors affecting leisure
Introduction
As highlighted in unit 5.1 , there are so many theories which discuss the factors which influence
leisure activities. However there problems which as well affect the growth and decline of
leisure. If tourism and recreational areas collapse, it may take years to recover and requires a
considerable investment by the host country in promotion schemes. Below are some of the
problems being faced by recreational areas in Zimbabwe?

Factors which influence leisure

Factors affecting leisure

1. Gender

Gender is an influence in the decisions made by men and women in tourism, sport and leisure.
The resources below focus on female participation in sport. Watch and explore the resources

2. Life cycle stage

The decisions people make about leisure and tourism will be affected by their age and their
family status. A single 30 year old woman with no children is likely to have different options
than a woman of the same age with a partner and children for example; why is this the case?
What factors will be different for the two women?

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 activity -
Study the
table
below
which is
one
perspectiv
e on life
cycles.

Work in pairs to suggest what kind of tourism and leisure you think each group is likely to
choose and why? As you do this consider the reasons why it is not a simple process.

Which groups of people are missing from the table? How might their choices be different and
why?

4. Personality

The decisions that people make about their personal participation in leisure and tourism will be
strongly influenced by their personalities and preferences. Plog (1971) suggested that tourism
choices were influenced by psychological factors.

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Plog argues that tourist populations are like all other populations and can be characterised
along a normal population distribution curve based on people's psychological profile. The
profile is likely to affect:

 Desire to travel

 Frequency of travel

 Type of travel

 Destination Choice

 Type of activity

Plog divided people into categories:

Allocentrics/venturers

A tourist who seeks new experiences and adventure in a wide range of activities. This person is
outgoing and self-confident in behavior. An allocentric person prefers to fly and to explore new
and unusual areas before others do so. Allocentrics enjoy meeting people from foreign or
different cultures. They prefer good hotels and food, but not necessarily modern or chain-type
hotels. For a tour package, an allocentric would like to have the basics such as transportation
and hotels, but not be committed to a structured itinerary. They would rather have the
freedom to explore an area, make their own arrangements and choose a variety of activities
and tourist attractions.

Psychocentrics/dependables

A tourist falling in this category is usually non-adventuresome. They prefer to return to familiar
travel destinations where they can relax and know what types of food and activity to expect.
Such tourists prefer to drive to destinations, stay in typical accommodations, and eat at family-
type restaurants. Study the images below

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For each image, briefly describe the type of holiday or leisure activity shown.

Which personality type from Plog's theory do you think would be most likely to take part in this?
Justify your answer?

What does this tell us about the difficulty of classifying people's choices by personality.?

5. Place of residence

There are many factors which are associated with place of residence which will affect people's
participation in leisure, sport and tourism. These include:

 Availability of facilities eg golf or tennis courses

 Accessibility e.g. road links, airports, ports

5. Political factors e.g. power of passports or government policy on sport and leisure
developments

Environmental factors e.g. weather, relief (consider skiing, mountain climbing, and beach based
leisure)

6. Family

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Household and child care responsibilities further deduct from our leisure time pursuits. Both
men and women report spending two or more hours on household chores daily. This includes
activities, such as cleaning, preparing meals, lawn care and other household maintenance
chores. Households with children under six years of age estimate an additional two hours daily
in child care tasks.

7. Finance

Closely tied to work, finances play a critical role not only in the amount of leisure time we
spend, but also in the choice of activities. Even with days off of work, engaging in most leisure
activities requires some amount of disposable income. Not surprisingly then, the most popular
pastimes also are the cheapest and include TV watching, socializing, reading and using the
computer. The number of Americans taking vacations decreases each year.

Factors affecting the growth of leisure

For Zimbabwe’s recreational areas to remain viable, they need to be based upon a steady local
demand, which provides the economic base of the industry. While the foreign tourist provide
the profits, the falling numbers of local tourist since 1980 has affected recreational areas in
Zimbabwe. The statistics showed that the local tourist do not use recreational areas for a
number of reasons hence tourist industry is in suspense. Below are some of the problems being
faced by recreational areas in Zimbabwe?

1. Finance
Finance proved to be the most serious problem of all. Originally, funding was largely to be
shared by the Department Of Tourism and the Department of National Park's and Wildlife
Management. The two managements provided assistance largely in the form of field - workers’
salaries and some of the cost of travel and subsistence. However, the department of Tourism
ran into funding problems very early. According to Midlands State University survey, today’s
financial problems are due to corruption hence affecting the credibility of the tourism industry.
2. Conflict in a land-hungry nation,
The conflict may take place between peasant farming communities and protected areas of any
nature. They may respond by cutting the fence wire.
3. Poaching
Wildlife poaching has proved to be a big threat in parks. Elephant poaching has reduced the
population of elephants in Zimbabwe hence reactional areas are suffocating.

4. Natural disasters such as droughts

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It has been noted that poor rainfall patterns is a huge blow to recreational areas and it's
vegetation. Poor rainfall has affected water tables leading the areas to be less attractive.

5. High Prices of Zimbabwean destinations

The multi-currency system adopted in 2009, especially the use of the United States dollar is a
huge contributory factor as visitors whose currencies were weaker that the US$ (eg those from
South Africa, Botswana or Mozambique) found that their holidays to Zimbabwe were expensive
because of currency differentials.

6. Sanctions

Bad publicity has dealt Zimbabwe’s tourism sector a very negative blow. Zimbabwe has been
falsely perceived as an unsafe and risky country to visit with the like of the UK, US, Germany
and Australia issuing negative Travel Advisories to their citizens. This drastically reduced the
number of tourist arrivals from the West with resort towns such as Kariba being rendered ghost
towns. (https://www.herald.co.zw/impact-of-sanctions-on-zim-region-part-2

7. Outbreak of covid 19 pandemic has forced the government to close recreational areas.

The once popular Lion and Cheetah Park, located some 25 kilometers (16 miles) west of
Zimbabwe's capital Harare, was mostly empty, hosting only a handful visitors in months amid
the coronavirus pandemic. Even Chinhoyi Caves, once a tourist hub, has lost the mob of visitors
to coronavirus and business is in the doldrums, according to tourism activists in the town which
is 120 kilometers (75 miles) northwest of Harare. Not forgetting Cleveland dam about 10
kilometers (6 miles) east of Harare. Just over a year ago, Cleveland dam used to draw hundreds
of indigenous tourists every day, but with the advent of coronavirus, that is no more. Very few
people visit since coronavirus broke out, necessitating a series of lockdowns to defeat the
disease. There were very little activity in recreational areas.

According to the UN, the impact of COVID-19 on tourism will cost the world economy $4 trillion,
with developing countries among the most affected ones. Of course, that does not leave out
Zimbabwe, where an estimated 54,000 people who worked in the sector have since lost their
jobs, according to the Zimbabwe Tourism Authority (ZTA). Before the pandemic, we had about
120 000 people that were employed in the tourism sector. I can safely say there were 40 to 45
percent of jobs that were lost during this period, ZTA spokesman Godfrey Koti told Anadolu
Agency. “The Covid-19 pandemic has really decimated the tourism sector in a very big way.
Retrenchment of workers meant there was going to be poor maintenance hence collapsing of
Taurism industry (Anadolu Agency)

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8. Poor Infrastructure and other facilities

The dilapidated road networks littered with potholes makes travelling very difficult especially
for tourists that prefer self-drives. The rail system is almost non-existent with no reliable
scheduled departures and very poor conditions and services on the trains. Lack of connectivity
between tourist destinations because of a lack of budget planes, good road and rail networks
has also led to the country missing marketing of the less known tourist destinations outside of
Victoria Falls, Great Zimbabwe and the Eastern Highlands

9. Negative attitudes on domestic tourism.

Coordinator for Ubuntu/Way/Nzira yeHunhu Culture Trust, Luta Shaba, said the failure to
appreciate local product such as traditional foodstuff, herbs and dances was detrimental to the
development of the tourism sector. “A lot of us are happy taking Chinese herbs and fail to
appreciate those indigenous. As part of cultural tourism, we should promote the local herbal
treatment. You can have tourists attending lobola ceremonies, bira and nhimbe,” she said.
(https://www.newsday.co.zw/2017/07/corruption-roadblocks-major-threats-
tourism/)Coordinator for Ubuntu/Way/Nzira yeHunhu Culture Trust, Luta Sha

10. Lack of travelling culture

Tourism ministry official, Ebinezel Mucheka, said the lack of a travelling culture was also
affecting nation branding under tourism. Domestic tourism is almost on its knees due to poor
attitudes towards travelling. There is a need of a culture of supporting the nation by visiting
our own seven wonders of the world such that when we meet a foreigner we will advertise
them better.

End of unit 5.3 exercise questions

1. Discuss the factors which determine leisure time and activities in Zimbabwe (25)
2. Assess the factors that are leading to the decline of leisure activities and recreational
areas in Zimbabwe (25)
3. Discuss the challenges treat are being encountered by recreational areas in Zimbabwe
(25)
4. Account for the reasons why individuals do not visit recreational areas (25)
5. Examine the view that covid 19 left recreational area in Zimbabwe with an injury that
can not be forgotten (25)
6. Assess the view that corruption is the backbone of all the challenges that are being
faced by recreational areas in Zimbabwe (25)

Summary

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Leisure has been defined as a block of free time. Other scholars have focused on the factors,
which determine free time- or, what is done during free time. Factors in point include work, age,
class, gender and so on. In Zimbabwe, there are so many recreational areas ranging from
Limpopo to Zambezi offering leisure activities of any kind. However, there are challenges that
are affecting the growth of tourism industry leading to its decline.

Glossary

Age - a period of human life, measured by years from birth, usually marked by a certain stage or
degree of mental or physical development and involving legal responsibility and capacity. It also
refers to length of time during which a being or thing has existed; length of life or existence to
the time.

Biological maturation - can be understood as a process that characterizes human growth and
development, suffering individual variations in time and rate at which this process occurs

Betting shops - an establishment licensed to handle bets on races and other events.

Choice -an act of choosing between two or more possibilities

County parks - is a natural area designated for people to visit and enjoy recreation in a
countryside environment

Canoeing - is a sport where one gets into a little boat made for the sport called a canoe and
using a single-bladed paddle to steer the canoe, tries to travel down the Rivers or streams

COVID 19 - it is a pandemic diseases that has forced governments to close recreational areas in
a motive to prevent it by minimizing interaction.

Corruption - dishonest or fraudulent conduct by those in power, typically involving bribery."the

journalist who wants to expose

Capitalism - socio-economic system based especially on private ownership of the means of

production and the exploitation of the labor force.

Class position - social class is a grouping of people into a set of hierarchical social categories,
the most common being the upper, middle and lower classes.

Enjoy leisure - having more leisure time, or participating more in leisure activities.

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Family life cycle - stages you pass through from childhood to your retirement years as a
member of a family are called the family life cycle. In each stage, you face challenges in your
family life that allow you to build or gain new skills

Famine - having qualities or appearance traditionally associated with women.

False class-consciousness - unaware of your class exploitation

Gender - refers to the characteristics of women, men, girls and boys that are socially
constructed. This includes norms, behaviours and roles associated.

Masculine - having qualities or appearance traditionally associated with men.

Recreational areas - refers to leisure centers

Reaction - restoration of energy or recovery.

Resort - place that is frequented for holidays or recreation or for a particular purpose

Tourism – movement of people to recreational areas

End questions

1. Discuss a theory of leisure (25)

2. Examine theories of leisure (25)

3. Discuss the factors that influence leisure activities in Zimbabwe (25)

4. Analyze the challenges that are being faced by recreational areas in Zimbabwe (25)

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Topic 16 population and health

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Units covered

6.1 demography

6.2 migration

6.3 environmental pollution

6.4 health

Introduction
Sociologist commented that population change is an important source of other changes in
society. The study of population is so significant that it occupies a special subfield within
sociology that is called demography. Health and illness has been related to gender, class and
race in sociology. In sociology and population geography, population refers to a group of
human beings with some predefined criterion in common, such as location, race, ethnicity,
nationality, or religion. Demography is a social science, which entails the statistical study of
populations. To, be more precise, demography is the study of changes in the size and
composition of population. It encompasses several concepts: fertility and birth rates, mortality
and death rates, and migration (Weeks, 2012).

Unit 6.1 demography

Objectives
Learners should be abler to;
 assess demographic measurements
 evaluate the demographic transition theory
 examine current population trends and patterns

Introduction
Between 2011 and 2012, we reached a population milestone of 7 billion humans on the earth’s
surface. The rapidity with which this happened demonstrated an exponential increase from the
time it took to grow from 5 billion to 6 billion people. In short, the planet is filling up. How
quickly will we go from 7 billion to 8 billion? How will that population be distributed? Where is
population the highest? Where is it slowing down? Where will people live? To explore these
questions, we turn to demography, or the study of populations. Three of the most important
components that affect the issues above are fertility, mortality, and migration.

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Fertility and Birth Rates

The fertility rate of a society is a measure noting the number of children born. The fertility
number is generally lower than the fecundity number, which measures the potential number of
children that could be born to women of childbearing age. Sociologists measure fertility using
the crude birthrate (the number of live births per 1,000 people per year).

Demographers use several measures of fertility. The general fertility rate refers to the number
of live births per 1,000 women aged 15–44. The U.S. general fertility rate is about 65.5.

Mortality and Death Rates

Just as fertility measures childbearing, the mortality rate is a measure of the number of people
who die. Demographers measure it with the crude death rate, the number of deaths for every
1,000 people in a population in a given year. To determine the crude death rate, the number of
deaths is divided by the population size, and 1,000 then multiply this result. In 2006, the United
States had slightly more than 2.4 million deaths for a crude death rate of 8.1 deaths for every
1,000 persons. We call this a “crude” death rate because the denominator, population size,
consists of the total population and does not consider its age distribution.

All things equal, a society with a higher proportion of older people should have a higher crude
death rate. Demographers often calculate age adjusted death rates that adjust for a
population’s age distribution. When analyzed together, fertility and mortality rates help
researchers understand the overall growth occurring in a population.

Migration

Another key element in studying populations is the movement of people into and out of an area.
Migration may take the form of immigration, which describes movement into an area to take
up permanent residence, or emigration, which refers to movement out of an area to another
place of permanent residence. Migration might be voluntary (as when college students study
abroad), involuntary (as when Syrians evacuated war-torn areas), or forced (as when many
Native American tribes were removed from the lands they had lived in for generations).

The great migration of African Americans from the South into northern cities during the first
half of the 20th century changed many aspects of those cities’ lives (Berlin, 2010). Meanwhile,
the movement during the past few decades of northerners into the South and Southwest also
had quite an impact: the housing market initially exploded, for example, and traffic increased.

Natural increase
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The natural balance (or natural increase) is the difference between the number of births and
the number of deaths recorded over a period. The words "surplus" or "increase" can be used
when the number of births is greater than that of deaths. Births and deaths are natural causes
of population change. The difference between the birth rate and the death rate of a country or
place is called the natural increase. The natural increase is calculated by subtracting the death
rate from the birth rate. The major findings were that social factors such as education, child
marriage, and religion correlate most strongly to natural increase

What is population explosion?

A population explosion is a sudden increase in the number of individuals in a particular species.

The population explosion in Zimbabwe can be traced to three causes: the country's economic
prosperity during the period of the Central African Federation (1953–63), and its successful
food policy, both before and after independence; the success of the health system, also in both
periods; and the fact that women have not been incorporated into the economy as
wage‐earners, which has contributed to a high birth rate.

Furthermore, population explosion in India was due to early marriage. In Zimbabwe, early
marriages in the past and today are common leading to the growth of the population. In India
lack of birth control measures led to population explosion. The population explosion of china
was due to high birth rate and good health care systems

Fig 6.1 population explosion

Functionalist like Durkheim argue that society moves from mechanical solidarity. This was a
simple society with self-sufficient. However, in organic solidarity, due to natural increase,
increase in communication and so on has led to over population and division of labor. To
Durkheim, everyone has a role to play in society, but if individuals exceed the roles, this might
lead to anomie, unemployment hence crime and deviance

What can be done to reduce population explosion?

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Municipalities should set growth management boundaries, discouraging sprawl development
on their fringes. Towns and cities should purchase surrounding lands, or the development rights
to such lands, in order to set them aside as nature preserves and open space

City councils should pass resolutions accepting limits to growth, and directing their national
governments to develop policies to stabilize or reduce national populations

Actions on the national level, in high fertility developing countries, governments should:

 Generously fund family planning programs

 Make modern contraception legal, free and available everywhere, even in remote areas
 Improve health care to reduce infant and child mortality
 Restrict child marriage and raise the legal age of marriage (minimum 18 years)
 Introduce obligatory education as long as possible (minimum until the age of 16), and
generously fund the necessary infrastructure
 Embrace rather than fight aging and shrinking societies – read more here
 From radical feminist perspective, the government should empower women, assuring
equal rights, treatment and opportunities for both genders.

Functionalist like Durkheim argue that society moves from mechanical solidarity. This was a
simple society with self-sufficient. However, in organic solidarity, due to natural increase,
increase in communication and so on has led to over population and division of labor. To
Durkheim, everyone has a role to play in society, but if individuals exceed the roles, this might
lead to anomie, unemployment hence crime and deviance

Population momentum

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Fig 6:2population pyramid

The above population pyramid is showing that even though the government can help reduce
population explosion through the above the population will continue growing. This is called
population momentum. Even if all the people would suddenly practice birth control much more
than is currently considered possible, the world population would still continue to grow for a
while. This is the consequence of population momentum, a notion that refers to the
phenomenon of demographic inertia, comparable to the phenomenon of momentum and
inertia in the field of physics. Demographic growth is like a moving train: even when you turn
off the engine, the movement will continue for a little while.

Key terms

Natural increase - when the number of births is higher than the number of deaths and negative
when the number of deaths exceeds the number of births.

Population - is the complete set group of individuals, whether that group comprises a nation or
a group of people with a common characteristic.

fertility - Fertility is the capability to produce offspring through reproduction following the
onset of sexual maturity

population explosion - sudden, large increase in the size of a population

Population momentum - is the situation where a population continues to grow despite falling
birth and fertility rates.

Demographic Transition Model

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Having originated in the middle of the 20th century, the demographic transition model is now
over half a century old. It is the product of observations regarding population growth and
development across numerous countries throughout the world and death rates, on the one
hand, and industrialization and economic development on the other. This is a safe assumption
in most cases as it has been demonstrated to be consistently true by many historical instances
of industrialization and development since the 19th century.

Key term
Demographic Transition Theory - It is a simplified way of looking at how population is
changing and has changed around the world

The Demographic Transition (TDT) is of the view that the changes in the economic system
determine changes in the on the structure of the population. If the economy improves, the
population growth rate increases.

The demographic transition model (DTM) shows shifts in the demographics of a population
during economic and social development. This transition is two-fold: both death and birth rates
go from high to low over time as development progresses. There are four key stages of
demographic transition; the term “transition” refers in particular to the transient period when
many fewer people die than are born, with the result of very high population growth.

Demographic Transition Model Stages

The demographic transition model consists of four key stages. There is also a fifth stage that is a
bit less established; we will explain why that is the case. Finally, the sixth stage is a much newer
development in this field and demonstrates the degree to which the demographic transition
model remains evolving and in flux. Demographic transition theory It proposes that countries
pass through a consistent sequence of population patterns linked to the degree of development
in the society, ending with relatively lowbirthrates and death rates (Davis 1945).

Stage 1: High Stationary stage

This is generally a pre-industrial society in which both birth and death rates are quite high. Birth
rates and death rates are effectively in balance. This is also a stage of poverty The lack of food
availability as well as adequate medical care or effective sanitation and hygiene means the
population does not grow very much due to disease and starvation.

The majority of people are concentrated in rural regions, primarily focusing on agriculture. This
agricultural focus means that having more children is an economic benefit as well as a status
symbol, further contributing to high birth rates and efforts to have larger families. The poor
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experience the highest mortality rates of any demographic, but life expectancies are short
overall.

Stage 2: early expanding / Population Explosion

This is the point at which the country begins to experience social and economic development.
With more productive agriculture (and thus more food supply), better medical care, and more
effective sanitation and hygiene, death rates fall quickly and lifespans are longer. The birth rate,
however, does not fall at the same time (it does not increase, but rather remains high). Birth
rates far outpace death rates with the result that the population grows rapidly.

The graph fig 4below provides a visual to explain this stage population increases as the birth
rate stays the same and the death rate falls significantly:

Stage 3: late expanding

At this stage, birth rates decline. This can be attributed to a wide array of social factors,
including:

 Contraception access
 Higher wages
 Fewer families participating in agriculture (meaning less need for large families to work
on farms)
 Improvement in education and social status of women
The result of this decline in birth rates, as the death rate continues to decline with further
improvements in health and sanitation, is that population growth starts to decline as compared
to the second stage. As an example, Mexico began to arrive at stage three at the beginning of
the 21st century. Additionally, China used its One-Child Policy to attempt to move toward the
third and fourth stages more quickly than the country might otherwise have done.

Stage 4: Low Stationary Population

Both birth and death rates are now low at this stage. As a result, the population may remain the
same or even decrease as birth rates come to be lower than replacement level ”—that is,
families are having an average of fewer than two children each. At this time, we would expect
that the generation born during the second stage of demographic transition is aging.
Meanwhile, the potentially shrinking working population must support these elderly members
of society. Japan, for instance, is currently dealing with this socio-economic challenge; some
consider Japan to be at the fifth stage of the demographic transition model (described below)

Stage 5: Further Changes in Birth Rates

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This stage is a bit more uncertain. At this stage, some demographers say that fertility rates will
experience shifts to either above or below replacement levels. While some experts argue that
fertility levels will increase, others state the opposite. This depends on the society, too: while
populations in China and Australia are expected to fall due to lower birth rates, those in the U.S.,
India, and Mexico are expected to increase. Additional stages have also been proposed this is a
contested area and theorists have quite a bit more work to do to come to some kind of
consensus within the field of demography. The stages are summarize in fig 5 below

Fig6:3 DMT , https://ourworldindata.org/world-population-growth

Strength of DTM

1) Historically, the rate of demographic transition has varied enormously. Certain countries
have passed through multiple stages quite rapidly, including Brazil as well as China.

2). The demographic transition model is a highly useful model for making educated guesses
about how populations are likely to shift in the future. Rooted, as it is in a wide array of real-

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world population trends, it is considered an empirical model, as it is based on actual data and
observation.

3). the demographic transition model describes how the population of a country changes over
time. It gives changes in birth rates and death rates, and shows that countries pass through five
different stages of population change (Stage one High fluctuation, Stage two ‘ Early expanding,
Stage three ‘ Late expanding, Stage four; Low expanding stage.

4), it can be applied to any country in the world, as it is a universal concept. For example in
Zimbabwe, it is applicable (though it is Eurocentric).

5) Useful for comparison between countries and for assessing development.

6) Allows for forward planning,

7). Shows relationship between DTM and economic development.

Criticism and weaknesses of DTM

Although the demographic transition model establishes a general structure of society and the
population. It has received some criticism. Always remember that, there is no theory that is
100% reliable and 100% unreliable.

1. Although it has given a predication for what is likely to happen as societies experience
economic and social development, it does not suggest any time frame for how long this will
take to occur. This is a limitation in the forecasting ability of the DTM

2). although many countries have passed through multiple stages, By contrast, other societies
remain at the second stage of the DTM as a result of additional social obstacles and roadblocks
to development, such as widespread and debilitating outbreaks of disease.

3). Each country has its own set of social and cultural attributes that can heavily influence its
demographics, causing them to operate differently than you might expect based solely on the
DTM. One prominent example of this unpredictability is that of Russia. You might guess that
their continuing economic development would mean the country’s population would follow the
patterns of the DTM. This devastating reality is rooted in a number of complex and
interconnected social, cultural, and economic factors. The situation is simply more complicated
than the DTM could possibly predict.

4). Furthermore, economic development does not guarantee the kind of social changes that
would lead to a reduction in birth rates. For instance, a country might experience significant
economic development and industrialization without providing women with widespread access
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to birth control. Without birth control, birth rates would remain high. For this reason, they
would not be likely to make it to stage three, at which point birth rates begin to fall.

5). The DTM Itself is Continuing to Shift - As described above, when first established, the
demographic transition model had just four stages. Demographers then added a fifth stage to
accommodate new trends in development they had noticed. This contested status
demonstrates that the model is not set in stone enough to be considered foolproof. Experts
note that the DTM is likely to continue to evolve as the real world evolves.

6). Migration is also a significant factor in demographic shifts, and one for which the
demographic transition model does not explicitly account. Both in- and out-migration affect
natural and actual increases and decreases in population. The effect of migration depends
especially on migrants’ fertility, social attitudes, age, gender, and other identity factors.

7). The DTM is Eurocentric as the model assumes that all countries pass through the same four
stages. It now seems unlikely; however, that Africa and many other LEDCs will ever be
industrialized. There are also variables and exceptions such as war that may lead to different
results.

8). the model assumes the fall in death rate in stage 2 was due to industrialization. In the UK,
however, the death rate rose due to the poor conditions during the industrial revolution. The
delayed fall in death rate in many LEDCs is due to the inability for people to afford healthcare.
In many countries, the fall in birth rate has been slower in stage 3 due to opposition by religious
organizations. Alternatively, in China, the birth rate has fallen sharply due to government
intervention.

Key terms

LEDC: Less economically developed country (LEDC) has low levels of development, based on
economic indicators, such as gross domestic product (the country's income).

MEDC: A more economically developed country (MEDC) has high level of development based
on economic indicators such as gross domestic product (the country's income).

Natural increase: The natural growth of a population due to the number of births exceeding
deaths

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The current population trends and patterns in Zimbabwe
The world is experiencing a high rate of population increase. The rapid increase in population
over a short period is called exponential growth or population explosion.

Factors, which influence population trends and patterns

1) Education

Most women delay marriages due to educational commitment. Liu and Raftery looked at the
effect of education on fertility changes. For this, they examined two different aspects of
education, both tied to cultural values and economic outcomes: school enrollment and the
highest level of education girls typically attain. The latter stems from the academic and
professional opportunities available to women and girls, which may affect their childbearing
decisions. The former has been hypothesized to affect fertility because if more children go to
school, it is more expensive to bring them up, which may discourage families from having more
children.

Liu and Raftery found that education affected fertility mostly through the educational
attainment of girls, particularly through their early teens (the “lower secondary” level of
schooling). Generally considered the last stage of basic education, completing at least the lower
secondary level had a greater effect on fertility decline than completing only primary schooling.
The situation has no different in Zimbabwe, due to the impact of feminism; Zimbabwean
government has embraced the education of women through policies such as education for all
and affirmative action policy. This has reduced fertility rate in two ways leading to low
population growth rate;

 Sending girls to school can be more expensive leading to low birth rate
 Girls no focus more on educational achievement than marriages hence leading to slow
population growth. This is supported by women proverb that says 'marriage is not an
achievement'.
2). Women emancipation from cultural beliefs

The majority of women no longer believe in cultural beliefs. This is due to secularization and
feminist movement. Women now choose to bear one child, and some choose to be single
mothers leading to low population growth.

3) Within the category of family planning,

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Liu and Raftery looked at contraception and linked it do low fertility. Contraception For
example, data from El Salvador shows that the link between an increase in contraceptive use
and a corresponding decline in fertility rate is especially pronounced. In Zimbabwe, the use of
contraceptives and birth control measures is common hence reducing fertility rate leading to
low birth rate.

2015 ZDHS data also shows that fertility has been fairly stable since 1999. Still, it is fair to
emphasize that the TFR is lower than the average number of children ever born to the cohort of
women aged 45 to 49, suggesting that fertility has been declining overall in the last three
decades. Although the overall picture is that of declining fertility, the TFR is still high,
considering that Zimbabwe is doing relatively well in the region in terms of contraceptive us.

4) Out Ward Migration

Zimbabwe, since 2009, has been characterized by mass outward migration to different
neighboring countries such as Botswana, South Africa and Zambia. This has reduced fertility
rate in following ways

 The movement of spouses to other areas in Zimbabwe reduces Chances of procreation

leading to low population growth.
 Foreign inborn babies. In 2012, the Population Division of the United Nations
Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UN DESA) Population Division and UNICEF
estimated a much higher percentage (slightly above 2.7%) of the foreign-born in 2013
leading to population decline in the source area.
 Migration can lead to divorce leading to limited probability of pro creation.
5) Religious beliefs that encourage polygamy -

Traditional religion in Zimbabwe has the polygamy belief. From radical feminist viewpoint,
religion justifies the oppression of women by providing a false belief that they are child bearing
machines and they are fulfilling the pro creation goal. Thus, some men in Zimbabwe believe in
bearing more children. This is further facilitated by their economic position in rural areas.
Historically, wealth meant more wives hence polygamy.

The Marange religious sect beliefs in polygamy. For example, Johanne Marange as the founder
of this social movement had thirteen wives. The church has been promoting polygamy, and
polygamous marriage, in line with traditional African, as well as ancient Jewish cultural
traditions.John Marange, also known as Johane Marange, was a Zimbabwean Apostolic leader,
prophet, and founder of the Apostolic Church. He died in 1963. The late self-proclaimed High
Priest St Noah Taguta Momberume, the leader of Johane Marange Apostolic Church had 25

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wives and 120 children in April 2022. It was said that Taguta had over 100 wives, some of them
under the legal age of marriage in Zimbabwe. However when he died, Noah Taguta's son said
his father had 25 wives and 125 children. If the church leaders have more wives, then the
followers follow the same footsteps leading to high birth rate hence population growth.
https://zero.pindula.co.zw/high-priest-noah-taguta-had-25-wives-120-children

6) Economic hardships

Many people unwilling to have many children due to economic hardships resulting in low birth
rate. However, active education and health policies in the previous decades have helped to
create favorable conditions for the demographic transition. However, ZIMSTAT observes that
Zimbabwe runs the risk of losing the demographic dividend in the absence of leadership to
manage its demographic transition. Currently, Zimbabwe confronts huge challenges that could
preclude the demographic dividend:

In Zimbabwe for example, many young girls are married before the legal age of 18 years, while
the rate of teenage pregnancy remains high. A larger proportion of young person’s drop out of
school at the secondary level. In urban areas, there are few employment opportunities for
young person

End of unit 6:1 exercise questions

1. Assess the demographic measurements of a population (25)

2. Discuss the effects of population explosion in Zimbabwean society (25)

3. Discuss the strength and weaknesses of demographic transition model (25)

4. With the aid of examples, describe the demographic transition model (25)

5. Discuss the measures that can be taken to avoid population explosion

6. Analyze the current population trends and patterns in Zimbabwe (25).

7. Discuss the factors, which influence the current population trends and patterns (25)
8. Examine the view that adding the 5th stage to demographic transition theory reflects an
element of misfiring (25)

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Unit 6.2 Migration
Objectives
Learners should be able to;

 Identify types of migration

 Examine the causes of migration

 Discuss the effects of migration on society

Introduction
The global industrial community has made individuals to be very mobile hence migration.
Migration refers to the movement of people into and out of a specified territory. To understand
migration, we need to look at both push and pull factors. The push factors are what people
want to escape poverty or persecution for their religious and political ideas. The pull factors are
the magnets that draw people to a new land, such as opportunities for education, better jobs,
and freedom to worship or to discuss political ideas, and a more promising future for their
children (Henslin 2012). Thus in this unit, we are going to discuss the concept of migration.

Fig 6:4 migration Image : Encyclopedia Britannica

Migration is sometimes voluntary, as when people leave a small town and move to a larger city.
In such cases, “push-pull” factors are typically at work; a lack of jobs “pushes” people to move,
and more opportunity elsewhere “pulls” them to a larger city. Migration can also be involuntary.

Types and causes of migration

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a) Internal migration- occurs when people move from one region to another within the same
country. Below are subtypes of internal migration

i. Rural-urban migration
it is a movement from rural areas to urban areas, b below are some of the causes that cannot
be left out,

Push factors in rural areas

Drought and famine - the 2008 drought pushed the majority of people to urban cities.
According to the 2017 study by National Association and youth Organization. The majority of
youth migrated to urban areas in search of jobs to rescue them from falling into the trenches of
famine.
Poor health facilities - Rural areas are characterized by poor health care systems. Zimbabwe’s
Health Assessment in 2010 cited in Chirwa and a study on healthcare delivery in Zimbabwe
reported the same findings as the current study, indicating that only 20% of rural health
facilities had essential medical drugs for the treatment of common chronic diseases. The
provision of medical drugs at rural facilities is urban areas has pushed the majority to urban
cities desperately looking to medical care.
Low education standards - Bourdieu a Marxist is of the view that home - distance is a factor
leading to school underachievement because parents from lower working class especially in
most remote areas cannot afford transport cost. Lack of finances for transport in some cases
where there are no nearby schools has caused the child to fail rom school.

Although in Zimbabwe, it was government policy to build a primary school every 5km and a
secondary one every 15km in rural areas (Zvobgo, 2009), it seems this dream was not achieved
in some areas. Students in West Nicholson areas in Gwanda appear to be walking distances
ranging from 15km to 40km (Mupunde, 2017) and some from 20km to 50km for schooling and
exams respectively (Netsianda, 2017). The issue of distance seems to be affecting the viability
of both primary and secondary schools. Most schools have poor infrastructures and no
educational resources. Thus, urban prospects are more attractive leading to migration.

Pull factors
Better social benefits such as education - There are numerous social benefits attributed to life
in cities and towns. Examples include better educational facilities, better living standards, and
better sanitation and housing, better health care, better recreation facilities, and better social
life in general.

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Employment opportunities - cities and towns, there are ample job opportunities that
continually draw people from rural areas to seek a better livelihood. Therefore, the majority of
people frequently migrate into urban areas to access well-paying jobs as urban areas have
countless employment opportunities in all developmental sectors such as public health,
education, transport, sports and recreation, industries, and business enterprises. Services and
industries generate and increase higher value-added jobs, and this leads to more employment
opportunities.

Marriage - most women migrate to urban areas due to marriage. They will live with their
partners.

ii. Urban-rural migration

it is a movement of people from urban to rural and it is caused by the below factors,
Push factors in urban areas

Job losses - retrenchment of workers may force some to go to rural areas. The closure of Zisco
steel in Kwekwe was described as an economic genocide that led to the retrenchment of about
4500 workers. This forced some to go to rural areas due to the failure to pay rents.
Retirement - The majority of old people due to retirement migrate to rural areas to escape
from urban stress. Parsons support this and John Vincent who argued that old age is a period of
deprivation and social isolation.
Political unrests - Due to power struggle, political violence are common, hence pushing the
targeted individuals to rural areas.

Pull factors in rural areas

Closeness to relatives - individuals migrate to rural areas because it is a their place of origin
where their ancestors are buried. Furthermore, they migrate to rural areas because that's
where their relatives are.
Parental care during illness - if any person is sick, Parsons argued that they should take on a
sick role, and they cannot be blamed for the illness hence, family members might go to rural
areas in a motive of looking after the ill.
Agriculture - Those who have an agricultural background may use it as an opportunity to
practice farming. Hence, they prefer growing crops such as maize and some other commercial
crops such as Tobacco for sale.
iii. Urban-urban migration
Job transfers - police officers are good examples of this, most of them are transferred to new
areas e.g. Harare to Bulawayo

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Residents - some, get a chance of a residential stand, hence they transfer the whole household
to new area, especially if they were tenants.
Educational betterment - large cities offer better education due to competition, this forces
some to go to those areas.

Marriage - when people form a union, a woman is likely to go and live with her partner.

iv. Rural to rural

it is a rural top rural movement that is caused by the below factors

 Marriage – a married woman might migrate to area were husband lives.
 Land distribution - once allocated land, the majority go where their property belong.
 Recreational facilities development - e.g. dam, game park construction

b) International migration

Occurs when people move from one country to another or when people move across borders
e.g. from Zimbabwe to South Africa. International migration has an effect on the total
population of a country

Causes of external

Inflation- As a result of the political and socio-economic challenges that Zimbabwe experienced
over the last decade, millions of Zimbabweans left the country as a survival strategy. As this
socio-political and economic crisis deepened, all macroeconomic indicators were unfavorable
and unstable. Inflation rate reached 231 million percent in July 200, the official exchange rate
against the greenback was pegged at US$1/ZWD$300 000 with the parallel market rate
reaching the hyperbolic rate of US$1/ZWD1.5million in 2007. Unemployment were in excess of
90 percent by December 2008.

Unemployment - For a whole decade, Zimbabwe experienced the worst economic crisis in its
recent history, which witnessed an estimated 4 million Zimbabweans migrating to other
countries (Pasura, 2008). The livelihood of the remaining Zimbabweans during the crisis implies
an exogenous source of income as there was a huge discrepancy between earnings and poverty
datum line. Hence, Tevera and Chikanda (2009) claim that without remittances, the situation in
Zimbabwe would have been dire than it was. Unemployment were in excess of 90 percent by
December 2008 and this prompted the majority of Zimbabweans to migrate to better areas.

Fear of retribution - Migration during this period involved white Zimbabweans leaving the
country because of fear of retribution on attainment of independence (Selby, 2006). Tevera and

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Crush (2003) estimate that about 50,000 to 60,000 whites left the country between 1980 and
1984. The white population of 232,000 in mid-1979 was estimated to have fallen to about
80,000 by 1990 (Godwin, 1993).

Also, during this period migration emanated from the post�independence conflict
(Gukurahundi) in Matabeleland and parts of the Midlands between the ruling Zanu-PF
government and the opposition liberation party PF-ZAPU. This conflict is estimated to have led
to the emigration of 4,000 to 5,000 refugees to other countries (Jackson, 1994).

For better education - Many Zimbabweans have migrated to urban areas for education.

Political culture - While Zimbabwe’s liberation struggle secured independence, the style of rule
associated with armed struggle has scarcely evolved in institutional terms. It is still
characterized by intolerance, intimidation, and violence. This implies that, in the current
political context, the number of people who migrate due to political oppression is unlikely to be
reduced unless significant reforms are introduced. Reforms can only be expected when the
present style of government, which is predicated on the importance of regime security, is
replaced or radically transformed

Imbalances on the distribution of resources - The Equilibrium Model of Migration In the neo-
classical economic framework (Sjaastad 1962; Todaro 1969), population movement is
conceptualized as the geographical mobility of workers responding to imbalances in the spatial
distribution of land, labour, capital and natural resources. The skewed geographic location of
the factors of production determines the unequal returns to each factor. This, in turn,
influences the direction and the magnitude of migratory streams. The neo-classical approach to
international migration is based on the notion of wage differentials between receiving and
sending areas, as well as on the migrant’s expectations for higher earnings in host countries
(Todaro, 1969).

Effects of migration on society

It can be noted that migration has several effects, learners should be in a position to
understand the effects of migration, and some of them that cannot be left out are as follows.

Negative effects

On the source/ sending area

Brain drain - A survey by Chetsanga and Muchenje (2003) found that 24.6 percent of
Zimbabwean emigrants were trained doctors, nurses or pharmacists; 23.1 percent were
engineers or scientists; 20 percent were teachers and 16.9 percent were accountants. In total,
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they estimated that 490 000 skilled Zimbabweans were outside the country by 2002. Hill (2004)
estimated that between 70 and 90 percent of all Zimbabwean university graduates were
working outside the country. Information from the UK Home Office Skills Audit on the pre
migration activities provides further evidence on the high skills base of those leaving Zimbabwe
for UK. It is estimated that 80 percent of doctors, nurses, pharmacists, radiologists and
therapist who were trained since 1980 have left the country (Chikanda, 2005)

Most migration pessimists tend to address migration as a negative phenomenon contributing to

the further underdevelopment of sending societies through the ‘migrant syndrome’, which
drains developing countries of their labour and human capital resources (Papademetriou, 1985).
These theorists were the first to come up with the concept of brain drain (Adams, 1969) and
brawn drain10 (Penninx, 1982). Thus, migration is seen as a means to increase spatial and inter-
personal disparities in developmental levels, as well as socio-cultural effects rather than as a
means to development. In sum, migration is believed to intensify regional development
inequalities.

Key term
Brain drain- the emigration of highly trained or qualified people from a particular country

Culture of dependency - Migration pessimists argue that remittances are used for conspicuous
consumption and that they create a culture of dependency. Recipients tend to choose more
leisure as opposed to more work. Some recipients stop working and simply wait for remittances
to come (Kapur and McHale, 2005). The pessimists due to increased consumption also saw
inflation because of migrant is remittances.

Foreign consumption - Remittances induce an appetite for foreign consumption patterns in the
receivers. Information about goods and services in the countries where the migrants are hosted
has resulted in a demand for foreign products hence the remittances ‘leak’ back into other
countries. Briefly, migration is seen as an undesirable product of poverty, a problem which
needs to be solved.

Cultural erosion -, this kind of structural unbalancing may also be brought about by means of
mass communication, which spreads information on Western lifestyle and shapes consumption
expectations in the culturally peripheral societies. Thus, the historical/structural paradigm
perceives migration as one way of the developing world’s increasing dependency on the global
political economic systems dominated by the powerful western states. Marxist argued that
challenged the migration optimist and argues that migration ruins the peasant societies by
undermining their economies and uprooting their populations.

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Migration and underdevelopment - According to dependence theories, the cause of
underdevelopment is the reliance on industrialized countries while internal factors of
developing countries are considered irrelevant or seen as symptoms and consequences of
dependence. The development of industrialized countries and the underdevelopment of
developing countries are parts of one historical process. Developing countries are dependent
countries. The economic and political interests of industrialized countries determine their
development or underdevelopment. Implicit development here means liberation, an end of
structural dependence, and independence, hence migration is seen as a form of dependency on
the developed countries and detrimental to development.

Cultural domination - In Karl Marx’s view, migration is seen as a form of cultural domination.
Massey et al (1998) state that this paradigm leads to the hypothesis that international
migration is especially likely between past colonial powers and their former colonies. This is
because of cultural, linguistic, administrative, investment, transportation, and communication
links that were established and which allowed to develop during the colonial era. Specific
transnational markets and cultural systems are the result of these links. Which is why the
colonial symbols are still reflected today in Zimbabwe.

Promotes patriarchal dominance - according to Feminist perspective, male migrants were the
largest group in any migrant category, although the share of female movers was not
insignificant. Based on the preceding analysis of migration trends, one can conclude that the
dominance of men in migration statistics transcend nationality, educational level, occupation
and other socioeconomic markers. While the prominence of male migrants was expected, given
that migration in Africa remains male-dominated, statistics analyzed pointed to a growing
feminization of both voluntary.

Changes in the structure of family - migration has promoted a new dimension of family. To
Murdock (1949), a functionalist, the role of family is to provide common residents, which is an
ingredient for society to run smoothly through nuclear family. Thus, due to migration, spouses
and their children no longer share common residents hence resulting in limited socialization or
divorce.

Return migration and the spread of HIV and aids

IOM defines return migration as the movement of a person returning to his/her country of
origin or habitual residence, usually after spending at least one year in another country. This
return may or may not be voluntary. Return migration includes voluntary repatriation, the
Department of Social Services of the MPSLSW provided statistics on Zimbabwean emigrants
that South Africa and Botswana returned for failing to satisfy the legal requirements for regular
entry and stay in those countries. South Africa returned Zimbabwean nationals through
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Beitbridge Border Post. Botswana used Plumtree Border Post to return Zimbabwean nationals
who had become irregular on its territory. Upon arrival at either border post, irregular
returnees accessed shelter, new partners or married partners. This is likely to spread HIV and
aids, because the health status of the returnees is not known.

Depopulation - - For a whole decade, Zimbabwe experienced the worst economic crisis in its
recent history, which witnessed an estimated 4 million Zimbabweans migrating to other
countries (Pasura, 2008) hence reducing population size leading to population decline.

Impacted the health sector negatively - due to Brain drain the health care system in Zimbabwe
is experiencing a human and financial resources crisis. The increasing loss of trained workers to
the diaspora has eroded the skilled human resource base needed for economic and social
development. A 2003 study estimated that more than 80 per cent of doctors, nurses,
pharmacists, radiologists and therapists trained since 1980 had left the country, and that by
2003 Zimbabwe had lost more than 2 100 medical doctors and 1 950 certified nurse’s mostly to
South Africa, Botswana, Namibia, Britain, and Australia. The problem has been compounded by
the fact that, due to staff shortages, the University of Zimbabwe medical training hospital in
Harare has been forced to reduce its annual intake of medical students from 120 to 70.
The resultant shortage of health professionals in all categories has led to a deterioration of
health services, presenting the country with a serious challenge, especially at a time when it is
struggling to contain the HIV/AIDS pandemic and COVID-19 .

According to Talcott Parsons, a functionalist sociologists, when members of society are Ill, they
are not able to perform their social roles hence they are relieved from normal obligations. Thus,
it is the role of the health sector to bring people back to normal so that they carry on the roles.
From this view, if the health system is poor, they will be little if not zero development.

Impacted educational sector negatively - According to the Progressive Teachers Union of

Zimbabwe (PTUZ), 15 200 teachers have migrated to neighboring states, notably South Africa,
Botswana, Namibia and Swaziland, since the beginning of 2007. As a result, some schools have
closed, and others are staffed by untrained relief teachers. In an attempt to fill 10 000 vacant
teaching posts, teachers who had been previously dismissed for misconduct have been invited
to reapply. Severe staff shortages are exacerbated by powerful push factors including low
wages, high inflation, and poor working conditions, which account for the unprecedented
exodus of teachers from Zimbabwean schools during the past two years. The PTUZ dismissed an
increase in the salaries of teachers in August 2007 from about Z$5 million (US$10) a month to
about Z$15 million (US$30) a month as far too small, since much of this band fell well below the
official poverty datum line.

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The high teacher-to-pupil ratios have resulted in overcrowding in schools, which is
compromising performance standards and may contribute to an increase in dropout rates.

Positive effects on the source area -

The pluralist perspective

Economic development
According to pluralist theorist such as De Haas (2007), Migration is typically not a desperate
response to destitution and unemployment, but a deliberate attempt to spread income risks,
improve social and economic status and hence, overcome local development constraints.
Accordingly, migration is generally a reaction to relative rather than to absolute poverty and
thus, a survival or coping strategy hence development (de Haas, 2007).

Remittances and poverty reduction at family level

The most influential study on the remittances-development nexus in Zimbabwe was done by
Bracking and Sachikonye (2007). The study explores the role of remittances within an
internationalized informal welfare system, reframing vulnerability and marginalization. They
embarked on a household survey in Harare and Bulawayo interviewing 300 households. They
found out that about 50 percent of urban population receive remittances in Zimbabwe. Their
findings included the point that distribution of money and goods received is not weighted to
the poorest, as 40 percent do not receive any remittances. Thus, they however suggested that
richer households use remittances for productive accumulation or acquisition of consumption
assets while poorer households tend to consume their remittances wholly on food and durable
goods hence poverty reduction.

Entrepreneurship

Migration can lead to small business. Remittances boost consumption, increase investments in
human capital and may be used in asset-building projects and small businesses e.g. car spares
selling. Households can use such ventures as social safety nets in the event of future shocks.

Tap into the wealthier of diaspora

Countries can tap into the wealth of diaspora communities and direct it towards development
at origin, through diaspora bonds and other financing mechanisms. The diaspora community

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has a pro-trade effect through, for example, facilitating information about markets and
products.

Education - migration has promoted skill exchange through education, hence economic
development in a global system.

Remittances as a revenue for economic development. The For instance, the International Fund
for Agricultural Development (IFAD) reported that in 2006 Zimbabwe received US$361 million
in remittances excluding hand-in-hand transfers, representing 7.2 percent of the country’s 2006
GDP. The Reserve Bank of Zimbabwe (RBZ) data shows remittances of US$5.2 million (2006)
and US$14.0 million (2007) as having been transferred through money transfer agencies have
been used for development.
The Reserve Bank of Zimbabwe officially recorded US$46.3 million in remittances in 2004. This
figure increased by 69 percent to US$78.5 million in 2008 which also shot to US$198.2 in 2009
thus an increase of 152 percent hence raising revenue for economic development.

Effects of migration on the destination area

Negative effects

Over population and population explosion - migration can lead to population growth hence
exerting pressure on resources.

Xenophobia attacks - the recent 2022 operation Dudula in South Africa has been condemned
by governments for killing foreigners due to scapegoat views.

High crime rate - this can be linked to unemployment. For example, the black crime in England.

Racial and ethnic discrimination - According to Park (1950), prejudice and discrimination are
caused by race relations and migration. He argues that different races originated with the
dispersal of a once - concentrated population. He further argues that the great migration
was particularly stimulated by the search for a more abundant food supply .This process
involved racial competition, conflict, accommodation and assimilation. Parker notes that the
mixing of groups in cities creates the conflicts, which have a prejudice and discrimination effect.
For example, Richardson (1990) pointed out that in the 16th centuries ,England accepted
large numbers of Protestant and Jewish refugees fleeing from religious persecution in Europe
which created tension characterized by prejudice where the blacks were banned from renting
property. Henceforth Parker concludes that prejudice originates from the race relations
and migrations which create competition and conflicts for resources.

Positive effects on the destination area

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Economic development - according to Marxist sociologists, migration operates mainly in the
interest of capitalist enterprise. For example, capitalist countries such as Britain have benefited
from Zimbabwean skilled personnel such as doctors and engineers. This therefore suggest that
Zimbabwe is a training area for capitalist labor force.

Market area - migration through cross borders has created a big market area for foreign
products e.g. South Africa products. Thus, Zimbabwe is a big market sister of Southern African
products.

Cheap labor - foreigners, can take any work in a desperate situation

Democratic and civilization effects - According to Herbert Spencer, then, societies could consist
of one race, but often consisted of a mixture of several. The precise mixture through migration
helped determine whether a society became more evolved and civilized. People tend to go
where democracy and civilization is noted.

Effects of internal migration on society

It should be noted that internal migration has a number of effects on society, for example, rural
to urban lead to Anomie, which breeds crime and deviance as suggested under organic
solidarity, prostitute, pollution, theft related crimes, urban cultural which is a threat to unhu.
However, positive effects such as better education, cultural enrichment and better health care
facilities cannot be ignored.

End of unit 6.2 exercise questions

1. Discuss various causes and effects of migration (25)

2. Examine the view that internal migration is less harmful to society than international
migration (25)
3. examine the view that migration has promoted a culture of dependency (25)
4. assess the effects of migration on culture (25)
5. examine the view that migration is has reduced poverty at family level (25)
6. discuss the contribution of migration on divorce (25)
7. assess the notion that migration has promoted xenocentrism rather than
ethnocentrism on the source area (25)
8. discuss the role of migration in fueling racial and ethnic discrimination (25)
8. Assess the view that migration leads to economic development (25)
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Unit 6.3 Environmental Pollution

Objectives

Learners should be able to;

 explain the problems of environmental pollution

 examine the impact of climate change on society

Introduction

Like every other species, humans depend on the natural environment to survive. Yet
with our capacity for culture, humans stand apart from other species; we alone take
deliberate action to remake the world according to our own interests and desires, for
better and for worse.The subfield of environmental sociology studies the way humans
interact with their environments. This field is closely related to human ecology, which
focuses on the relationship between people and their built and natural environment.
This is an area that is garnering more attention as extreme weather patterns and policy
battles over climate change dominate the news.

The problems of environmental pollution

Environmental problems, from pollution to acid rain to global warming, do not arise from the
natural world operating on its own. Such problems result from the specific actions of human
beings, which means they are social problems.
Pollution describes what happens when contaminants are introduced into an environment
(water, air, land) at levels that are damaging.
a) Air pollution

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Fig: 6:4 Sable chemicals air pollution in Zimbabwe. Source: Daily news images

Air pollution, caused by toxic emissions into the atmosphere, is thought to claim more than 2.7
million lives per year (Giddens 2009). It is possible to make a distinction between two types of
air pollution: 'outdoor pollution', produced mainly by industrial pollutants and automobile
emissions, and ‘indoor pollution', is caused by burning fuels in the home for heating and
cooking. For instance in Zimbabwe, braziers kill people over the sleep during winter periods
through emitting carbon monoxide.

Air pollution affects human health through increased respiratory diseases like lung cancer.
According to Navarro a Marxist, capitalist industries lead to air pollution, which causes a wide
range of respiratory diseases, and they get profits from the attempts to heal the ill.
b) Water pollution

Fig 6:5 water pollution in Zimbabwe:

Water pollution can be understood broadly to refer to the contamination of the water supply
by elements such as toxic chemicals and minerals, pesticides or untreated sewage. According to
Marxist perspective, capitalist contaminate water bodies through toxic chemicals they use in
their industries.
The high levels of bacteria that result from untreated sewage lead to a variety of waterborne
diseases, such as diarrhea, dysentery and hepatitis. Agricultural chemicals increases the growth
of waterweed (algae) through eutrophication. This reduces oxygen in the water, which kills fish.
Human source of food and water will be affected. For instance this reason, water pollution

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destroys aquatic life.

c) Land pollution
According to the 1998 UN Human Development Report, a third of the world's population lives
more or less directly from the land- on the food they can grow or gather, and the game they
can catch. Land pollution by chemicals usually leads to water and air pollution. Most land
pollution affects animals that live off the land such as cows, goats and other herbivores.

D) Noise pollution

Exposure to transport noise disturbs sleep which compromises human health Noise reduces
concentration (reduces social learning).

The impact of climate change on the society

Climate change (global warming) is the systematic increase in worldwide surface temperatures
and the resulting ecological change (Andersen 2017).
The process of global warming is closely related to the idea of the greenhouse effect - the build-
up of heat-trapping greenhouse gases within the earth's atmosphere. These greenhouse gas
emissions, which also include methane, nitrous oxide, and ozone, trap heat in the lower
atmosphere. Even one additional degree of warmth in the globes average surface temperature
can increase the likelihood of wildfires, shrinkage of rivers and lakes, expansion of deserts, and
torrential downpours, including typhoons and hurricanes (Giddens 2011; Lynas 2008).

Scientists have recently estimated that global warming kills about 160,000 people every year,
with children in developing countries being most at risk. (Giddens 2009). To Malinowski, death
is seen as socially distractive because it removes the members of society hence public outcry.
To feminist, this result to widowers
It has also been estimated that the numbers dying from the 'side-effects' of climate change,
such as malaria and malnutrition, could almost double by 2020 (New Scientist, 1 October2003).
The consequences of climate change are likely to be devastating, with some of the potentially
harmful effects worldwide including:

Rising sea levels. Global warming may cause the polar ice caps to melt and the oceans to warm
and expand. As glaciers and other forms of land ice melt, sea levels will rise. Cities that are near
the coasts or in low-lying areas will be flooded and become uninhabitable. If sea levels were to
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rise by one meter, Bangladesh would lose 17 per cent of its total land area, Egypt would lose 12
per cent and the Netherlands would lose 6 per cent (UNDP 1998). Zimbabwe as a country suffer
from this because it relies on coastal countries like Mozambique, South Africa, and Namibia etc.
for ship transportation.
Desertification. Global warming may contribute to large tracts of fertile land becoming desert.
Sub·Saharan Africa, the Middle East and South Asia will be further affected by desertification
and intense soil erosion.

The spread of disease, Global warming may extend the geographical range and the seasonality
for organisms, such as mosquitoes, which spread diseases like malaria and yellow fever. If
temperatures were to rise by 3- 5 degrees Celsius, the number of malaria cases could increase
by 50- 80 million per year (Giddens 2009).
Poor harvests - Agricultural yields may fail in many of the poorest areas of the world if global
warming progresses. Populations in Southeast Asia, Africa and Latin America would be likely to
be most affected. This increases deviance, crime and many other.

Geopolitical instability, a report published for the US Department of Defense warned that, at
their most abrupt, the effects of climate change could lead to disputes or even wars between
nations as they attempt to protect their increasingly limited agricultural, fresh water and
energy resources. The report cautions that mass migration could occur as people attempt to
move to those regions, which possesses the resources to adapt to climate change (Schwartz
and Randall 2003).

Solutions/ measures to minimize climate change

As solutions to challenges of climate change on the society,

1.The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change was created in 1997 in Kyoto,
Japan; where agreement was reached to cut greenhouse gas emissions significantly by 2010 in
order to stabilize the situation at levels that do not pose a threat to the global climate. Under
the terms of the protocol, industrialized nations committed themselves to a range of targets to
reduce emissions to below 1990 levels - the base year - by 2010.

However, in 2001, the US President, George W. Bush, refused to ratify the Kyoto Protocol,
arguing that it would damage the US economy. After some debate, most other nations agreed
to go ahead without the United States, in spite of it being the world's largest producer of
greenhouse gases. It is clear that tackling global warming will be

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2.AFFORESTATION

Today, trees absorb one-third of global emissions every year. And when we burn them, all of
that pollution gets released into the air. 2019's forest loss released an amount of carbon equal
to adding 400 million cars on the road for a year.

Disadvantages of Afforestation

If not properly managed, afforestation can result in a reduction of local biodiversity, the
modification of particular biomes, the introduction of non-native and potentially invasive
species, reduced stream flow, and lost revenue from agriculture. Native grasslands that are
converted to forests may not contain the same habitat for local species, and ill-managed
reforestation efforts may result in the production of a monoculture that lacks not only plant
diversity but reduces the number of available habitat types for forest inhabitants

3. SHIFT TO LOW CARBON USE

Reducing Greenhouse Gas Emissions Can Improve Air Quality and Save Lives. Reducing global
greenhouse gas emissions to slow climate change could prevent millions of premature deaths
due to air pollution over the next century, according a new study funded by NIEHS.

Reducing GHG emissions slows the rate of temperature rise, sea-level rise, ice melting, and
ocean acidification. Reducing GHG emissions lessens the likelihood and severity of extreme
weather events, improves air and water quality, maintains biodiversity, and supports a healthy
food supply

4. CLEANING UP

Pollution in the atmosphere is having an unexpected consequence, scientists say it’s helping to
cool the climate, masking some of the global warming that's occurred so far very difficult if the
country with the highest national emissions levels - the USA - continues to opt out of
international attempts to cap greenhouse gas emissions.

End of unit 6.3 exercise

1. Discuss the various types of pollution (25)

2. Examine the relationship between climate change and pollution (25)
3. Discuss the problems of environmental pollution (25)

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 4. Examine the impact of climate change on the society (25)
5. Assess the measures to minimize climate change (25)

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Unit 6:4 Health
Objectives

Learners should be able to ;

 Identify models of health in Zimbabwe

 Explain health and well-being

 Discuss theoretical approaches on healthy

Introduction
What images come to your mind with the word hospital? White coats, patients resting on beds,
X-ray machines, MRI scan machines, patients standing in the queue for their turn to see the
doctor, the smell of drugs, injection and anymore. Even though this description of
contemporary treatment setup looks like part of our common sense but it would not have been
for our great-great-grandfathers and other ancestors the social and physical environments have
long since been recognized as important determinants of health. People in urban settings are
exposed to a variety of health. . Conflict Medical sociologists believe that society is composed of
different social groups. There is a strong Sense that access to health is limited by class
inequalities ushering to the fact that some groups, especially the powerful benefit more from
health.

What is health and Illness?

In sociology, what is considered health or illness itself is a matter of different point of views.
This gives the realization that health is relative - there is no absolute or universal truth of health
because what is considered health itself in Zimbabwe might not be health in other societies or
what is considered, as illness in Western societies might be a normal life in Zimbabwe.

What is health from a scientific point of view?

People can be defined as healthy if they have no diseases. According to World health
organization (1974) health is not merely an absence of disease, but a state of complete physical,
mental, spiritual and mental wellbeing. This approach suggest that health is not only about
physical fitness but the mental wellbeing. From this scientific perspective, if you are stressed,
you are not healthy. From a scientific point of view, illness can be due dysfunctional of some
body parts, organic disorder or infections.

What is health from traditional point of view?

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In traditional religion, health is a state of being free from spirits such as avenging spirits.
According to this perspective, angry ancestors, spirit possession or even Avenging spirits cause
illness.

Furthermore, there is close if not kindred relationship between the scientific and traditional
medicine in the sense that they are all supported and regulated by the Government of
Zimbabwe (Karenga, 1999). This has happened in other settings such as Nigeria, South Africa
and Sudan and the results are encouraging. It is supported by government and made
complementary to contemporary medicine in the treatment of illnesses.
In Zimbabwe, traditional healers who are registered with the Zimbabwe National Traditional
Healing Association believe that almost all forms of illnesses are caused by cultural and spiritual
issues, failure to observe ones culture, or aggrieved spirits. This encouraged their preference for
traditional healers.

Traditionally, Zimbabweans believe that ancestral spirits cause unhappiness, confusion and
depression. This could lead in some cases to patients becoming unconscious (Chavhunduka,
2012). Thus, the Zimbabwean government, through the Zimbabwe National Traditional Healing
Association have allowed natural herbs to operate in Zimbabwe in conjunction with scientific
medicine.

The research showed that traditional medicine was more favored because it addressed cultural
and spiritual issues, and because it focused on the comprehensive person of the mind, body
and spirit which biomedicine could not provide.

What is illness from a modern religious point of view?

From this point of view, illness is demonic and there is a strong sense believe that supernatural
powers can restore health and wellbeing. In Zimbabwe and Africa at large, there is the rise of
independent religious organizations with so many patients confirming that they had an illness
condition that medical doctors failed to treat, but men of God. Therefore, the issue of health is
quite problematic

What is illness from sociological point of view?

Some Sociologists believe that Illness is socially constructed and some linked it to inequalities.
Navarro, following Karl Marx's ideas, defines illness as an inability to work for the ruling class.
This definition is too broad to be used in academic field; however, this unit will be examined
later.

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Models of health
Since the 19th century, the medical model is the most prevalent model of health and illness
among contemporary healthcare practitioners. The most common is biomedical model of
health amongst others.

1. Biomedical / biomechanical model of health

This is the dominant approach to understanding the body as used by the medical profession.
The term ‘biomedical comes from the Greek word bios (meaning ‘life’) and the Latin word
medicus (meaning ‘healing’). The model is sometimes referred to as the biomechanical.

Specifically it is a scientific model of

health that sees human body as similar to
a machine, which goes wrong if not
correctly maintained. If a machine breaks
down, the mechanic fixes the machine
back to normal, thus human body breaks
down too and the medical doctor is seen
as a mechanic who fixes the body back to normal. The role of medicine is to encourage decent
maintenance and intervene if anything goes wrong. This model has pictured the power and
status of doctors. Let us look at some of its core elements.

Cause of Disease: This model considers health as equivalent to a state of absence of disease
and symptoms. The root cause of a disease according to this model is always some external
pathogenic agents like virus, bacteria or some other physiological problem or cellular
abnormalities. (Guttmacher, 1979). Further, it denies any role of emotional and psychological
factors in disease.

Responsibility for disease: This model considers that the cause of illness is not dependent on
the individual. Due to this reason, individuals are not seen as responsible for their illness.
Patients are considered as only victims of some external factor or internal abnormalities.

Mind and body dualism: it is the belief that mind and our ways of thinking can be completely
separated from body. This therefore means that what affects the body does not affect the mind.
The emphasis is that a disease is an outcome of some malfunctioning part of the body, while
the mind and wider social factors came to be seen as irrelevant.

Specific aetiology : it assumes that diseases have specific causes that can be identified and
cured. For example, Koch and Pasteur tubercle and bacillus (which causes TB , a disease which
was a major killer in Brian until 20th century), it was generally believe that the disease was
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caused by polluted air. Flue, in all societies, like Zimbabwe can be linked to cold weather, or it is
shared on through coughs, sneezes and so on thus this model came to view all diseases as
having a specific cause. Doctor regard the human body as similar to a very complex and
advanced machine. For example, each problem on a machine has a specific cause; hence,
mechanics target the specific cause. In this case, they look at the functions that each part of the
body performs, and seek to repair, heal or replace it. For example, heart transplant.

Mechanical metaphor: it refers to the categorization of diseases. According Dixon (1978), with
the establishment of specific disease categories, medical doctors can identify and classify illness
through symptoms. The well-known symptoms can be linked to a particular disease. Doctors
regard body as similar to a machine, mechanic can identify the problem through symptoms
such as sound or smoke. This has led to medical specialization along the lines of machine parts.

Objective science: science can be relied upon to provide truth about Health and illness. The
development of scientific thinking took place during the enlightenment period and was based
upon the idea that everything should be scientific.

Techno-oriented Model: This is the only model of health, which relies heavily on machines and
technologies. From making a generic drug to performing a surgery, everything here requires
technology. Practitioner-Physician relationship: This model considers that physicians possess all
the required knowledge, expertise, and skill to treat patients. The medical model further
considers patients as only passive recipients of their physician’s expertise and expects patients
to only corporate with their treatment regime. Thus, the model considers practitioners superior
to patients.

Episodic bouts: it assumes that Illness is a temporary thing that only requires curing.

There is no doubt that the medical model is very effective in critical medical conditions.
Therefore, it is often referred to as “quick fix” approach. It can provide immediate relief and
quickly minimize the symptoms of the disease.

However, many researchers have pointed out a number of limitations of medical treatment.
According to George Engel (1997) and Guttmacher (1979), the medical model have many
drawbacks. Some of the major limitations are as follows:

 It has a reductionist approach to human body and views it in the mechanistic framework.
It does not give importance to the concept of ‘mind’ and considers mind-body dualism.
It ignores that stress can affect one’s body.

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  It ignores any role of social, emotional, spiritual and psychological factors in health and
illness. Thus, it does not talk about the wellbeing or healing aspect of the disease.
 It is not always effective in treating many diseases. Specifically, any psychosomatic
diseases, chronic and lifestyle-related diseases. The issue of affordability is also
associated with this model. Hospital treatment offers impersonal professional care,
leading to a burden on one’s pocket because of high fees. Its accessibility also depends
on one’s socio economic status.
 McKeown argued that it is not only medicine that promotes health and wellbeing, but
balanced diet and protection from hazards.
 Ignores that sometimes illness goes away naturally
 Ignores that some forms of illnesses are permanent e.g. HIV and Aids
 Ignores the side effects of medicine

2.HOLISTIC MODEL OF HEALTH

In response to the various limitations of the medical model, many scholars came up with new
models for health and illness. One such model is
known as the holistic model. The term Holistic
medicine was first used by F. H. Hoffman in
1960 (Derick, 2009). It refers to conceptualizing
health as a ‘whole’. Guttmacher (1979) has
suggested that holistic model considers health
as equivalent to “a sense of wellbeing” and disease is not considered as a presence or absence
of a pathogenic agent only. Instead, according to the holistic model, a disharmony between
social, psychological and spiritual dimensions of one’s life causes disease.

In this way, the holistic model puts responsibility for ill health on the individual also. This model
also gives equal importance to the role of practitioners and patients. Unlike biomedical model,
it considers a practitioner as a mentor and role model, whose role is to motivate patients to be
self-responsible for their health instead of having blind faith in practitioners’ efficacy.

In recent times, the concept of holism has become quite popular among scholars and health
care. As a result of this, there are many associations that are promoting the concept of holistic
health. Some of these prominent associations include the American Holistic Medical Association,
British Holistic Medical Association, American Holistic Health Association and, American Holistic
Nurses Association. According to one such association, American Holistic Medical Association
(n.d.) Holistic medicine is “the art and science of healing that addresses care of the whole
person-body, mind, and spirit.
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The practice of holistic medicine integrates conventional and complementary therapies to
promote optimal health, and prevent and treat disease by addressing contributing factors”.
Based on this definition and earlier discussion we can conclude following points about the
holistic model:

 Holism refers to a complete and comprehensive analysis of health and illness.

 We need to understand health from multiple perspectives as there is no single cause of
illness.
 A holistic practitioner may treat patients from a wide range of HealthCare options, that
is, he/she may use medication along with alternative therapies.
As a result, many researchers called for an alternative model which can incorporate all
dimensions of health and treats health as a whole.

3.BIOPSYCHOSOCIAL MODEL

Between the 1960s and 1980s, George Engel published a series of papers criticizing medical
model and advocating the need for a new model of health and illness. He proposed that, ‘‘...the
existing biomedical model does not suffice. To provide a basis for understanding the
determinants of disease and arriving at rational treatments and patterns of health care, a
medical model must also take into account the patient, the social context in which he [sick]
lives, and the complementary system devised by society to deal with the disruptive effects of
illness. That is, the physician role and the health care system. This requires a biopsychosocial
model’’ (Engel 1977, pg. 132)
Biopsychosocial model, as the name suggests, conceptualizes health as consisting of multiple
dimensions. The medical or biomedical model focuses only on the physical aspect of health, but
Engel’s new model includes psychological and social aspects as well. It is based on the idea that
“humans are inherently biopsychosocial organisms in which the biological, psychological, and
social dimensions are inextricably intertwined” (Melchert, 2007, pg. 37).

Engel did not completely reject the benefits of the medical model but emphasized on giving
equal importance to psychological and social factors in the process of treatment. This model
suggests that other than physiological abnormalities, germs and viruses, our behaviours,
thoughts, and feelings may also influence our physical state.

Further, Engel also argued that physicians should also give importance to subjective
experiences of their patients.
Broadly, the biopsychosocial model has offered new insights in three areas:

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(1) Patient’s subjective experience is as important as objective biomedical data,

(2) A comprehensive causation can give fuller and deeper understanding of our health and
illness, and

(3) Patients should not be treated as passive recipients of the treatment. They should be given
more power in the clinical process.
The main advantage of this model is that it leads to numerous development in technology and
research. It also contributes to the diagnoses and effective treatment of varied illnesses. It also
leads to increase in life expectancy and enhancement of life expectancy.

However, the model tends to rely on technology and thus could be cost ineffective and may
not be affordable. The focus of this mode is also more on treatment than on actual promotion
of good health.

4. SOCIAL MODEL OF HEALTH

Social model of health finds its roots in the social model of disability and as such is a reaction to
the medical model. In this model, various factors that play an important role in health, like,
social, political, economic, cultural and even environmental are taken in to consideration. For
instance, environmental pollution can lead to detrimental effects on health. This model can be
termed as a community based approach where the focus is on prevention of the illnesses/
diseases. Thus, relevance is given to the awareness programmes and policies related to health
to modify the lifestyle and health related behavior of the individuals so as to promote their
health and wellbeing. Thus, according to this model health can be promoted by keeping in mind
the social, political, economic, cultural and environmental factors.
The main characteristics of this model are as follows (Yuill, Crinson andDuncan, 2010):

Social context in which the individual exists has a significant influence on the health related
experiences, choices and behavior of the individual. The social context includes class, ethnicity,
and gender and so on.
2) The human body is social, psychological and biological simultaneously.
3) Cultural variations exist in the way health and illness are perceived.
4) Though, biomedicine and medicine are relevant in the context of health, there are other
aspects as well that play a role such as exercises.
5) Health and social determinants of health are influenced by political decisions.
6) The opinions of persons from non-medical background are relevant as they may provide a
different perspective on health.

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Social model thus focuses on the social responsibility in order to ensure that people have a
healthy lifestyle and environment. Strategies at varied levels, like, economic, political and so on,
need to be developed in order to promote health amongst individuals. Thus, the social model of
health focuses on varied determinants of health and also strives towards decreasing social
inequalities.

It focuses on empowerment of not only individuals but communities as well.

Some of the major advantages of this model are that this model promotes education amongst
the individuals and is cost effective. It also puts the onus on the individual so that he/ she
develops healthy lifestyle. The model is based on community approach and seeks involvement
of both governmental and on-governmental agencies. Despite of the advantages, the social
model may also display some issues or disadvantages. Individuals may not be motivated or may
lack awareness regarding health behavior and lifestyle.

Further, bringing about change in an individual’s health related behavior is not easy. This is a
long-term measure and thus quick results may not be achieved.

6. The salutogenic model of health and illness.

7.

The term was first coined in 1979 by the medical sociologist Aaron Antonovsky in his book
Health, Stress and Coping. The approach or autogenesis is a term applied in sociology, health
sciences, and more recently in other fields, to refer to an approach to wellness focusing on
health and not on disease (pathogenesis). Salutogenesis translates to “the origins of health”,
from the Latin 'Salus' meaning Health, and the Greek 'Genesis' meaning origin or beginning. The
term was first coined in 1979 by the medical sociologist Aaron Antonovsky in his book Health,
Stress and Coping. Antonovsky developed a theory that suggested that the way people view
their life has a positive or negative influence on their health.

In 1971, Antonovsky presented the results of an epidemiological study in which he interviewed

a group of Israeli women who had been in concentration camps during the Holocaust. Despite
all the terrible things they had been through, some of them had managed to stay in good health
while others had not. Trying to find an explanation for these differences was the motivation for
Antonovsky to develop the salutogenic theory.

In the beginning, Antonovsky’s research focus was on social class and health, but after a few
years, his attention changed to the impact of stress on health. During this time, throughout the
late 1980s, the focus was on risk factors and disease; and stress was considered a high risk
factor for breakdown. However, Antonovsky observed that change, chaos, stress and disease
are a constant in life and therefore “natural” conditions of it; that human beings are in a
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heterostatic state rather than in homeostasis. All these observations raised the question of how
we can survive with this disequilibrium. Over time, this consideration has given a more central
role to the nature of the stress agent, as well as the ability of people to cope with it and the
environment they are in.

The Salutogenic Model is centered around the idea that health results of continuous everyday
life interactions between the individual and inevitable social-, economic-, cultural-, physical-,
mental- and biochemical stressors.

Sense of Coherence

It is defined as:

…a global orientation that expresses the extent to which one has a pervasive, enduring though
dynamic feeling of confidence that one’s internal and external environments are predictable
and that there is a high probability that things will work out as well as can reasonably be
expected. (Antonovsky, 1979, p. 123).

Starting with the origins of the sense of coherence, it develops, according to the salutogenic
model, from infancy and the infant’s experience of its sociocultural and historic context.
Antonovsky wrote extensively about the roles of culture in salutogenesis and the development
of the sense of coherence (Benz, et al, 2014). His writings included attention to the role of
culture in shaping life situations, in giving rise to stressors and resources, in contributing to life
experiences of predictability, in load balance and meaningful roles, in facilitating the
development of the sense of coherence and in shaping perceptions of health and well-being.

Meaningfulness

Indicates the extent to which a person feels that life makes sense emotionally and is sufficiently
motivated to put effort into confronting problems and difficulties

CONCEPT OF WELLBEING
The concept of wellbeing can be termed as broad and finds application in varied situations like
economic, social, psychological and so on (King, 2007). According to Veenhoven (2004), the
term ‘wellbeing’ broadly “denotes that something is in a good state”.

Though the term does not specify what is in the good state and what constitutes that good
state. There were mainly two approaches to defining wellbeing. The hedonic tradition and the
eudaimonic tradition. The hedonic tradition focuses on constructs such as happiness, positive
emotions and life satisfaction. The eudaimonic tradition on the other hand described wellbeing

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in terms of effective and positive psychological functioning and development. Despite of these
two different views, as such wellbeing as a construct is seen as multi-dimensional (Dodge et al,
2012).

Let us now look at various definitions of wellbeing.

Shin and Johnson (1978, pg. 478) stated, “wellbeing is a global assessment of a person’s quality
of life according to his own chosen criteria”. Shah and Marks (2004, pg. 2) explained “wellbeing
is more than just happiness. It is feeling satisfied and happy. Wellbeing means developing as a
person, being fulfilled, and making a contribution to the community’’. According to Dalal and
Misra (2006), the concept of wellbeing is closer to the concept of mental health, life satisfaction,
and happiness. The concept of wellbeing refers to a subjective feeling, which involves an
evaluation of those affective and cognitive aspects of life, which are getting affected by disease
and illness directly or indirectly. Often it involves evaluation of happiness, sense of
contentment, sense of belongingness, achievement and being without any distress and
discomfort.
Wellbeing can be of two types: subjective wellbeing and objective wellbeing.
Subjective wellbeing

It is that part of one’s wellbeing which can be measured only by asking people directly about
three aspects of wellbeing: evaluative wellbeing (life satisfaction), hedonic wellbeing (positive
emotions such as feelings of happiness, sadness, etc.), and eudemonic wellbeing (sense of
purpose and meaning in life). Subjective wellbeing consists of three interrelated components:

 life satisfaction,
 pleasant affect, and
 Unpleasant affect.
Affect refers to pleasant and unpleasant moods and emotions, whereas life satisfaction refers
to a cognitive sense of satisfaction with life” (Diener & Suh, 1997, pg. 200).

Objective wellbeing

This type of wellbeing has its roots in the discipline of economics. It can be measured through
self-reports as well as by studying objective measures such as mortality rate, life expectancy etc.
wellbeing measures whether people have basic human needs and rights such as education,

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food, water and health facilities. Wellbeing can also be categories as emotional wellbeing,
physical wellbeing, Social wellbeing, workplace wellbeing and societal wellbeing (Davis, 2019).

 Emotional wellbeing denotes an individual’s ability to adequately manage stress, display

resilience and display positive emotions.
 Physical wellbeing is explained in terms of improving one’s bodily functioning exercising
and eating healthy.
 Social wellbeing is described in terms of effective communication and ability to develop
relationships and having adequate social support.
 Workplace wellbeing is an individual’s ability to develop in his/her profession and
pursue one’s interest, values and gain meaning and happiness.
 Societal wellbeing is about active participation in activities related to community and
environment.

Theoretical approaches on health

Medical knowledge is not purely scientific, but shapes and shaped by the society in which it
develops. Disease are socially produced and distributed-they are not just a part of nature or
biology. The key variables shaping the production and distribution of diseases are class, gender,
ethnicity, and the ways in which professional groups define conditions as diseases. Sociologists,
depending on their model society develop different explanations of social shaping and
production of diseases. Different Scholars have different point of view about health and illness
perspective in a society. Some mentionable are:

Functionalist perspective

Talcott Parsons (1951)

As conceived by Talcott Parsons (1951), the functionalist perspective emphasizes that good
health and effective medical care are essential for a society’s ability to function. Ill health
impairs our ability to perform our roles in society, and if too many people are unhealthy,
society’s functioning and stability suffer. This was especially true for premature death, said
Parsons, because it prevents individuals from fully carrying out all their social roles and thus
represents a “poor return” to society for the various costs of pregnancy, birth, childcare, and
socialization of the individual who ends up dying early. Poor medical care is likewise

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dysfunctional for society, as people who are ill face greater difficulty in becoming healthy and
people who are healthy are more likely to become ill.

For a person to be considered legitimately sick, several expectations must be met. He referred
to these expectations as the sick role. First, sick people should not be perceived as having
caused their own health problem. If we eat high-fat food, become obese, and have a heart
attack, we evoke less sympathy than if we had practiced good nutrition and maintained a
proper weight. If someone is driving drunk and smashes into a tree, there is much less
sympathy than if the driver had been sober and skidded off the road in icy weather.

Second, sick people must want to get well. If they do not want to get well or, worse yet, are
perceived as faking their illness or malingering after becoming healthier, they are no longer
considered legitimately ill by the people who know them or, more generally, by society itself.

Third, sick people are expected to have their illness confirmed by a physician or other health-
care professional and to follow the professional’s instructions in order to become well. If a sick
person fails to do so, she or he again loses the right to perform the sick role.

Talcott Parsons wrote that for a person to be perceived as legitimately ill, several expectations,
called the sick role, must be met. These expectations include the perception that the person did
not cause her or his own health problem.

If all these expectations are met, said Parsons, sick people are treated as sick by their family,
their friends, and other people they know, and they become exempt from their normal
obligations to all these people. Sometimes they are even told to stay in bed when they want to
remain active.

Physicians also have a role to perform, said Parsons. First, they have to diagnose the person’s
illness, decide how to treat it, and help the person become well. To do so, they need the
cooperation of the patient, who must answer the physician’s questions accurately and follow
the physician’s instructions. Parsons thus viewed the physician-patient relationship as
hierarchical: the physician gives the orders (or, more accurately, provides advice and
instructions), and the patient follows them.

Parsons was certainly right in emphasizing the importance of individuals’ good health for
society’s health, but his perspective has been criticized for several reasons.

First, his idea of the sick role applies more to acute (short-term) illness than to chronic (long-
term) illness. Although much of his discussion implies a person temporarily enters a sick role
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and leaves it soon after following adequate medical care, people with chronic illnesses can be
locked into a sick role for a very long time or even permanently. Second, Parsons’s discussion
ignores the fact, mentioned earlier, that our social backgrounds affect the likelihood of
becoming ill and the quality of medical care we receive. Third, Parsons wrote approvingly of the
hierarchy implicit in the physician-patient relationship. Many experts say today that patients
need to reduce this hierarchy by asking more questions of their physicians and by taking a more
active role in maintaining their health. To the extent that physicians do not always provide the
best medical care, the hierarchy that Parsons favored is at least partly to blame.

The Conflict Approach

The conflict approach emphasizes inequality in the quality of health and of health-care delivery
(Weitz, 2013). As noted earlier, the quality of health and health care differs greatly around the
world and within the United States. Society’s inequities along social class, race and ethnicity,
and gender lines are reproduced in our health and health care. People from disadvantaged
social backgrounds are more likely to become ill, and once they do become ill, inadequate
health care makes it more difficult for them to become well. As we will see, the evidence of
disparities in health and health care is vast and dramatic.

The conflict approach also critiques efforts by physicians over the decades to control the
practice of medicine and to define various social problems as medical ones. Physicians’
motivation for doing so has been both good and bad. On the good side, they have believed they
are the most qualified professionals to diagnose problems and to treat people who have these
problems. On the negative side, they have also recognized that their financial status will
improve if they succeed in characterizing social problems as medical problems and in
monopolizing the treatment of these problems. Once these problems become “medicalized,”
their possible social roots and thus potential solutions are neglected.

Several examples illustrate conflict theory’s criticism. Alternative medicine is becoming

increasingly popular, but so has criticism of it by the medical establishment. Physicians may
honestly feel that medical alternatives are inadequate, ineffective, or even dangerous, but they
also recognize that the use of these alternatives is financially harmful to their own practices.
Eating disorders also illustrate conflict theory’s criticism.

Many of the women and girls who have eating disorders receive help from a physician, a
psychiatrist, a psychologist, or another health-care professional. Although this care is often very
helpful, the definition of eating disorders as a medical problem nonetheless provides a good
source of income for the professionals who treat it and obscures its cultural roots in society’s
standard of beauty for women (Whitehead & Kurz, 2008).

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Obstetrical care provides another example. In most of human history, midwives or their
equivalent were the people who helped pregnant women deliver their babies. In the
nineteenth century, physicians claimed they were better trained than midwives and won
legislation giving them authority to deliver babies. They may have honestly felt that midwives
were inadequately trained, but they also fully recognized that obstetrical care would be quite
lucrative (Ehrenreich & English, 2005).

According to conflict theory, physicians have often sought to define various social problems as
medical problems. An example is the development of the diagnosis of ADHD, or attention
deficit/hyperactivity disorder.

The political economy perspective

This perspective derives primarily from Marxism. Political economy writers argue that medicine
is closely related to the concept of social control. According to Vicente Navarro (1986) health is
the ability to produce goods for the ruling class. Medicine benefits largely the ruling class in the
sense that it is used to mantain a health population, and a health population is the one that is
productive and able to work for the ruling class. Thus, is used to ensure that people are fit
enough to work for the ruling class.

According to Lesley Doyal and Imogen Pennell (1979), illness is caused by capitalism. For
example, capitalist industries generate pollution which causes a wide range of respiratory
diseases and cancer.

Furthermore, Doyal capitalism also cause illness through industrial stress, accidents and
alienation.

In the same vein, the capitalist make profits through the attempts to heal the sick. This is
because the health sectors are controlled by them hence medical bills generate profits.

Criticism
Nicky Hart (1985) argued that the perspective fails to recognize that capitalism has provided
real Health care gains as well as increased life expectancy for the majority of the population.

Feminist perspective

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The radicals, liberals, Marxist socialist argue that health and illness should be linked to gender
issues due to the fact that there are significant power differences between men and women in
society.

Liberal feminist have focused on the different roles and economic positions of men and women
in society. From this perspective, if women can obtain the same economic and social status as
men, then improvement in standards of health must follow.

Similarly, this perspective argues that there are inequalities between males and females in high
medical positions and sought for equality in medical hierarchy.

Marxists socialist emphasize that it is not it is not possible to change the roles of males and
females within the capitalist system as liberal feminist seek to do. Instead, it is necessary to
amend fundamentally the nature of economic system and replace capitalism with socialist
society in which males and females have equal roles and statuses.

This perspective argues that medicine supports patriarchal system by defining women's health
in terms of the ability to produce next generation of workers and the ability to undertake
household roles.

Radical feminist see the basis of contemporary society as exploitation and oppression of
women by men. Gaining equal rights or overthrowing patriarchal system would produce real
gain for women. Ehrenreich (1978) argued that patriarchal medicine such as contraceptives are
affect women's life expectancy and they are used as a method of social control.

Critics say the conflict approaches assessment of health and medicine is overly harsh and its
criticism of physicians motivation far too cynical. Scientific medicine has greatly improved the
health of people around the world. Although physicians are certainly motivated, as many
people are, by economic considerations, their efforts to extend their scope into previously
nonmedical areas also stem from honest beliefs that people’s health and lives will improve if
these efforts succeed. Certainly, there is some truth in this criticism of the conflict approach,
but the evidence of inequality in health and medicine and of the negative aspects of the
medical establishment’s motivation for extending its reach remains compelling.

The Symbolic Interactionist Approach

The symbolic interactionist approach emphasizes that health and illness are social constructions.
This means that various physical and mental conditions have little or no objective reality but
instead are considered healthy or ill conditions only if they are defined as such by a society and
its members (Buckser, 2009; Lorber & Moore, 2002). The ADHD example just discussed also

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illustrates symbolic interactionist theory’s concerns, as a behavior that was not previously
considered an illness came to be defined as one after the development of Ritalin. In another
example first discussed is “Alcohol and Other Drugs”, in the late 1800s opium use was quite
common in the United States, as opium derivatives were included in all sorts of over-the-
counter products. Opium use was considered neither a major health nor legal problem. That
changed by the end of the century, as prejudice against Chinese Americans led to the banning
of the opium dens (similar to today’s bars) they frequented, and calls for the banning of opium
led to federal legislation early in the twentieth century that banned most opium products
except by prescription (Musto, 2002).

In a more current example, an attempt to redefine obesity is now under way in the United
States. Obesity is a known health risk, but a “fat pride” or “fat acceptance” movement
composed mainly of heavy individuals is arguing that obesity’s health risks are exaggerated and
calling attention to society’s discrimination against overweight people. Although such
discrimination is certainly unfortunate, critics say the movement is going too far in trying to
minimize obesity’s risks (Diamond, 2011).

The symbolic interactionist approach has also provided important studies of the interaction
between patients and health-care professionals.

Consciously or not, physicians “manage the situation” to display their authority and medical
knowledge. Patients usually have to wait a long time for the physician to show up, and the
physician is often in a white lab coat; the physician is also often addressed as “Doctor,” while
patients are often called by their first name. Physicians typically use complex medical terms to
describe a patient’s illness instead of the more simple terms used by laypeople and the patients
themselves.

Symbolic interactionist reject the notion that illness is a direct result of some form of disease,
instead , they perceive it as a form of social definition. People may well have a serious disease
but this does not automatically result in the people defining themselves as Ill.

Serving Goffman (1970)

Stigma

The ill people, according to Goffman are stigmatized. Goffman argues that stigma originates
from social interaction of the stigmatized person and how they perceive themselves. Through
his dramaturgical theory, Goffman argues that individuals engage in impression management.

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They may pretend to be well yet they are sick so as to lower the chances of humiliation or other
problems. One particular is covering where people will engage in most normal activities, but
will seek to minimize the impact of stigma.

Furthermore, management of the situation is perhaps especially important during a

gynecological exam, as first discussed in Chapter 12 “Work and the Economy”. When the
physician is a man, this situation is fraught with potential embarrassment and uneasiness
because a man is examining and touching a woman’s genital area. Under these circumstances,
the physician must act in a purely professional manner. He must indicate no personal interest in
the woman’s body and must instead treat the exam no differently from any other type of exam.
To further “desex” the situation and reduce any potential uneasiness, a female nurse is often
present during the exam.

Critics have criticized the symbolic interactionist approach for implying that no illnesses have
objective reality. Many serious health conditions do exist and put people at risk for their health
regardless of what they or their society thinks. Critics also say the approach neglects the effects
of social inequality for health and illness. Despite these possible faults, the symbolic
interactionist approach reminds us that health and illness do have a subjective as well as an
objective reality.

For Your Review

Which approach—functionalist, conflict, or symbolic interactionist—do you most favor

regarding how you understand health and health care? Explain your answer.

Take away

The functionalist approach emphasizes that good health and effective health care are essential
for a society’s ability to function, and it views the physician-patient relationship as hierarchical.

The conflict approach emphasizes inequality in the quality of health and in the quality of health
care.

The interactionist approach emphasizes that health and illness are social constructions; physical
and mental conditions have little or no objective reality but instead are considered healthy or ill
conditions only if they are defined as such by a society and its members.

The functionalist approach emphasizes that good health and effective health care are essential
for a society’s ability to function, and it views the physician-patient relationship as hierarchical.

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The conflict approach emphasizes inequality in the quality of health and in the quality of health
care.

The interactionist approach emphasizes that health and illness are social constructions; physical
and mental conditions have little or no objective reality but instead are considered healthy or ill
conditions only if they are defined as such by a society and its members.

Think of the last time you visited a physician or another health-care professional. In what
ways did this person come across as an authority figure possessing medical knowledge? In
formulating your answer, think about the person’s clothing, body position and body language,
and other aspects of nonverbal communication.

Health care system in Zimbabwe.

.

The Zimbabwe health delivery system is built on the constitutional right to health care in
Section 76, sub-section 1-4, of the Zimbabwe Constitution, which states that:

 Every citizen and permanent resident of Zimbabwe has the right to have access to basic
health care services, including reproductive health
 Every person living with a chronic illness has the right to have access to basic healthcare
services for the illness
 No person may be refused emergency medical treatment in any healthcare institution
and
 The state must be take reasonable legislative and other measures within the limits of
the resources available to it, to achieve the progressive realization of the rights set out
in this section.
The health care system in Zimbabwe can be grouped into four categories namely primary

Primary health care system

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PHC as indicated by Shoultz & Hatcher encompasses primary care, sickness prevention, health
promotion, public health, and community development within a holistic framework, with the
aim of providing critical people focused health care. The Institute of Medicine describes PHC as
the provision of integrated, accessible health care services by professionals who are liable for
addressing a number of personal health care needs, developing a continuous relationship with
patients, and practicing in the context of family and society.

Primary health care (PHC) is essential health care made universally accessible to individuals and
acceptable to them, through full participation and at a cost the community and country can
afford.

The Zimbabwean National Health Strategy of 2009-2013 says that the Primary Health Care
Approach will steer the country towards attainment of Millennium Development Goals that
were adopted in 2004 which represent human needs and basic rights that every individual
around the world should be able to enjoy freedom from extreme poverty, hunger good health
and shelter. The public PHC workforce is largely nurse-led, with PHC nurses in rural clinics and
nurses, midwives and clinical officers in urban municipality clinics, hospital outpatients and
inpatients.

Functions of Primary Health Care Centers

All primary health care centers should function in line with the seven aspects of PHC that were
stated in Alma- Alta which mainly are: teaching about existing health problems and ways of
preventing and controlling them; the promotion of food supply and appropriate nutrition;
enough provision of safe water and basic sanitation; maternal and infant health care; including
family planning and care of high risk groups. Also, immunization against the major contagious
diseases; prevention of locally common illness and finally, the provision of vital drug.
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Case study of Mt Darwin district

Sharon Muzvidziwa and Alouis Chilunjika (2020)

This study was carried out by muzvidziwa and Mulunjika in Mt Darwin to assess the functions
and challenges being faced by primary healthcare system in Zimbabwe. Below are the functions
and challenges being faced in accessing primary health care.

1. Health education

The study found out that village healthcare workers are very useful, as they have managed to
equip the people in their communities with knowledge to reduce resistance to prevailing
sicknesses such as Malaria and diarrhea that could infect and affect them badly.
Sensitization meetings are done in primary care centers targeting community leaders such as
headmen and church leaders and the agenda differs from time to time depending on new
developments in relation to preventions.

Key Terms

DMO: District medical officer

PHC: Primary Health Care
DNO: District Nursing Officer

For example, when Rota Vaccine was introduced in 2013 as the new drug for treating diarrhea
in infants. As observed by the study, he DMO stated that Village Health Workers are also vital
tools in mobilizing the community to attend and participate in health education campaigns and
commemorations that are held at district level which include World AIDS Day, World TB Day
and Malaria Day. Community participation has witnessed tremendous increase and
improvement in diseases prevention and control as they would have acquired information
required in regard to what to do and what not to do for example, most mothers can now
prepare the salt and sugar solution to cure diarrhoea.

However, the study identified a number of problems in relation to health education;

 Most people still do not attend public meetings in great numbers to get health
education, which is given free of charge. This might be attributed to the fact that they

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 do not attach much value to these campaigns as they regard them to be of less value
since there are no tangible benefits attached thereto.
 Moreover, most of the campaigns are donor funded and most times the funds come late
or never come hence undermining the success of this element of PHC.
 Moreover, inadequate funds result in the production of few Information Education
Communication (IEC) materials such as t-shirts, pamphlets, banners and posters, which
are used, communicate important information to the public after and before campaigns
and commemorations.
 as a result of the serious scarcity and disruption of transport and telecommunications,
several programmes including patient transfers, malaria indoor residual spraying have
been slowed down.
2. Promotion of food supply and appropriate nutrition

It can be concluded that promotion of nutrition is function of PHC. Community Management of

Acute Malnutrition (CMAM) - introduced in 2010 and has been functioning averagely since then.
This programe was introduced to eradicate malnutrition in rural areas like Mt Darwin
characterized by food insecurity. A case study conducted in Mt Darwin by Muzvidziwa et al
(2021) reported that, According to Primary Care Nurses who were interviewed; the high
numbers of malnutrition cases are also a result of poor quality of complementary food given to
children, and also early weaning which has resulted in Kwashiorkor.

However, the study found out that malnutrition in rural areas would remain a challenge as long
as the community continues in poor food production due to drought and so on.
Murisa argued that the Department of Nutrition in the Ministry of Health and Child Welfare has
never gained status compared to other departments in the same Ministry. It has remained
undersized with limited staff, finances and outreach capacity. As a result, nutrition promotion
activities have remained marginalized hence; the current institutional setup in the country
should effectively promote human nutritional issues.

3. Maternal and Child Care Services

The Primary Health Care programme in Rural areas offers maternal and infant health care
services including family planning and care of high risk groups. It has been emphasized that
maternal and childcare is one of the most effective and fruitful service in the district, especially
because the Mt Darwin PHC was first introduced with this feature due to the woes of maternal
and child mortality which were severe (Muzvidziwa et al, 2020). The programme has been
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perceived as successful as the health of mothers and their babies has improved remarkably
with approximately 63.2 (mean) success record from 2009-2012, as against 28% in 2007-2008.
Statistical reviews from clinics show that the rate of haphazard bearing of children as well as
unnecessary pregnancies have been reduced as family planning services are now accessible to
most women in different parts of the district.

However, irregular attendance to the clinics by mothers poses threats to the success of the
programme as most of them do not show up at health centers on specific dates for frequent
check-ups, which in turn leads to poor health.

Despite the removal of user fees in rural areas by the government, there were numerous
complaints from the village health care workers that apostolic sect delivers women at home.

In this vein, hospital records reveal that in December 2012, 14 women died from such
unhealthy practices despite police interventions to stop them. Similarly, a report by the
Portfolio Committee on Health and Child Welfare in 2010 indicated that many Zimbabwean
women are opting to give birth at home despite the obvious dangers hence undermining
government efforts to eradicate maternal mortality. Such challenges pose problems to the
success of this aspect of the PHC approach in the area.

4. Immunization to Children and Women

Immunization against the major in Immunization Programme is implemented under the

Zimbabwe’s Expanded Programme on Immunization (EPI). To this effect, the rural areas have
set up a permanent EPI team which moves around the district every month immunizing
children and this has reduced the burden on both health workers and the community as they
do not have to wait long lines to be served and also overwork.

Mothers also benefit from immunization as they are dosed with tetanus toxoid during
pregnancy to protect themselves and their unborn babies from tetanus.

However, studies observed that husbands are not supportive of their wives as most of them
are not actively involved in health issues, for example, bringing their babies to be immunized,
weighed and also to review appointments during pregnancy. Such behavior by males
undermines proper use of hospital services by females leading to poor child and female health

5. Sanitation Woes and Provision of Safe Water

The provision of suitable sanitation and safe water services to a community is a basic right.

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Basing on the case study of MT Darwin, Sanitation is still a huge challenge; many households in
villages like Musoki, Nowedza and Madzikana are still lacking proper sanitation and safe water
(MUZVIDZIWA et al, 2021)). According to records compiled by a village health care workers in
Nowedza, one village Nowedza 1A with a population of 200 has two standard toilets, that is,
the ventilated improved pit-toilet. Another village Madzikana 3C with a population of 150 has
no toilet buildings meaning they are still using bushes as toilets. Village health care workers and
the communities in these areas are concerned with the frequent diarrheoral outbreaks that
occur as a result of poor water and sanitation services (Muzvidziwa and Chilunjika, 2020).
According to them, Villagers in these areas pointed out that they have no money to build toilets
as they have no access to the hard currency used in the country and were wishing for the
government to come to their rescue.

However, as noted by the Alma-Ata Declaration taking consideration of the financial state of
the government of Zimbabwe this might not be possible and therefore the community should
make efforts on their own to build toilets with the little they have whereby promoting a spirit of
self-reliance. In most villages mentioned above there are also no clean water sources and some
of the villagers depend on water curing tablets to treat the water they drink. However
sometimes they fail to access these tablets as they are sold or as they will be out of stock since
they are donated.

6. Provision of Essential Drugs and Treatment of Common Diseases

The Primary Health Care programme also provides essential drugs required to treat illness to
better the lives of the residents in the area. The provision of essential drugs and the subsequent
treatment of common diseases in rural clinics in Dombwe, Msengezi IN Chegutu bhas not been
running smoothly, due to a number of factors, which include drug shortages, delays by the
government to deliver drugs, delays by the district to attend to proposals and reports from
clinics and Village Health Workers. As observed by the study, The DNO and DMO highlighted
that there is a huge challenge of drugs that expire in large quantities due to lack of proper
facilities to store them, especially those that require specific conditions and temperatures.

This is a result of shortages of refrigeration facilities and power cuts that are intense in rural
areas. Despite attempts to use gas refrigerators to help store the drugs money to purchase the
gas is still a challenge.
It is also alleged that some drugs are being sold illegally by nurses at both clinical and district
level and this has contributed to the poor functionality of drug distribution.

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Secondary health care

Hospitals and outpatient specialist clinics to which people go, after referral from primary health
care services. These services are generally more specialized and further from where people live.
They often include a greater range of diagnostic services such as X-ray and pathological
laboratory services; they may also include specialized treatment, such as operating theaters,
radiotherapy, and certain drug therapies not normally available in primary care.

The principal difference between primary and secondary services is in the range and
specialization of the staff available. There are about 63 District and 49 Mission hospitals in
Zimbabwe. Government Medical Officers (GMOs), nurses, laboratory scientists, environmental
health officers, pharmacists, health information assistants, nutritionists and health promotion
officers, staff these facilities. Additional services offered at this level include surgical procedures
(caesarean section, safe blood transfusion), comprehensive emergency obstetric and newborn
care, and comprehensive management of illness including emergency care.

Secondary Health Care is the specialist treatment and support provided by doctors and other
health professionals for patients who have been referred to them for specific expert care, most
often provided in hospitals.

Secondary care services are usually based in a hospital or clinic, though some services may be
community-based. They may include planned operations, specialist clinics such as cardiology or
renal clinics, or rehabilitation services such as physiotherapy. Secondary healthcare includes a
wide range of specialists such as psychiatrists, cardiologists, obstetricians, dermatologists,
paediatricians and gynaecologists.

Secondary care is more specialized and focuses on helping patients who are struggling with
more severe or complex health conditions requiring the support of a specialist. Secondary care
simply means you will be taken care of by someone who has more specific expertise about your
condition. Examples of medical situations needing secondary care services include cancer
treatment, medical care for pneumonia and other severe and sudden infections, and care for
broken bones.

Depending on the policies of the national health system, patients may be required to see a
primary care provider for a referral prior to being able to access secondary care, while in some
health systems, medical specialists may see patients without a referral, and patients can self-
refer to the service

Tertiary healthcare

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Tertiary care is a level above secondary health care, that has been defined as highly specialized
medical care, usually provided over an extended period of time, that involves advanced and
complex diagnostics, procedures and treatments performed by medical specialists in state-of-
the-art facilities. As such, Consultants in tertiary care centres have access to more specialized
equipment and expertise.

Tertiary care can be available either at a Regional or National level, dependent on the size and
resources available in the country. As result, most people may have to travel to reach a tertiary
care centre, which may result in delayed diagnosis and treatment and increase the costs for
health care. [8][9] Referral for tertiary care services can come from both primary and secondary
care health professionals and care is generally provided as an inpatient based service, although
there are elements of care that can also be performed on an outpatient basis.

Examples of tertiary care services include specialist cancer management, neurosurgery, cardiac
surgery, transplant services, plastic surgery, and treatment for severe burns, advanced
neonatology services, palliative, and other complex medical and surgical interventions.

 This is the care that appears as a referral to patients by the primary and healthcare
providers.
 The individuals may require advanced medical procedures such as major surgeries,
transplants, replacements and long-term medical care management for diseases such as
cancer, neurological disorders.
 Specialized consultive medical care is the highest form of healthcare practice and
performs all the major medical procedures.
 Advanced diagnostic centres, specialized intensive care units and modern medical
facilities are the key features in Tertiary Medical Care.
 The practices that provide tertiary medical care could be part of the government or a
within the broader health system, there are various levels or domains of health care
practice. They are often described as a pyramidal structure, with three or sometimes
four tiers of health care representing increasing degrees of specialization and technical
sophistication, generally with increasing costs of care. The greatest number of patients
are seen at the first level of primary care that is typically their first contact with the
healthcare system, with diminishing numbers of patients seen as they are filtered out of
this first level into higher levels of specialized care at secondary, tertiary and now even
quaternary care.

Primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary care refer to the complexity and severity of health
challenges that are addressed, as well as the nature of the patient-provider relationship. The
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healthcare providers who are part of these four levels of healthcare, together provide medical
services such as evaluation, diagnostics, and provision of treatment or onward referrals to the
next level of care based on the specific health needs.

Quaternary Care

Quaternary care has been defined as an extension of tertiary care in reference to advanced
levels of medicine which are highly specialized and not widely accessed, and usually only
offered in a very limited number of national or international centers. Experimental medicine
and some types of uncommon diagnostic or surgical procedures are considered quaternary care.

Like tertiary care, quaternary care also tends to have large catchment areas, often catering for
individuals, not only countrywide but worldwide, particularly when providing care for very rare
health conditions with small numbers of patients globally. This may have significant impacts for
the patient with large distances delaying diagnosis and treatment with complications in the
coordination of care between all healthcare providers involved in the patient's care, particularly
after discharge when the responsibility for care typically returns to the patient’s primary care
physician. Given the complexity or rarity in conditions of patients attending quaternary centers
longer hospital stays and increased mortality may also be seen at this level of care.

Other challenges to healthcare delivery in Zimbabwe

Sanctions. These had a catalytic effect on the deterioration of health services in Zimbabwe. As
an example, after the imposition of sanctions in 2001 the DANIDA withdrew aid funding
towards various vertical health programmes to the tune of US$29, 7 million. This was followed
by the Swedish Government’s withdrawal of US$6, 4 million worth of grant towards supporting
HIV and AIDS, water and sanitation, alleviating disability and health education. Access to the
Global Fund grant was also turned down. Sanctions created a humanitarian crisis of gigantic
proportions, with a rise in infant mortality rate rising from 70/1 000 to 132/1 000 by 2005.

Deteriorating economic environment. This resulted in the failure by Government to

recapitalize hospital equipment, with available equipment breaking down more frequently due
to lack of technical support from manufacturers. Since Government could not raise adequate
foreign currency, the costs of procuring equipment and drugs/medicines also became
expensive, as it had to be done through intermediaries due to sanctions.

Shortage of enough qualified medical staff. In 2010, there were 1.6 physicians and 7.2 nurses
for every 10,000 people (Zimbabwe Ministry of Health and Child Welfare, Human Resources for
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Health information sheet, 2010). Lack of staff for medical education training, and high dropout
rates in public sector health care posts have resulted in vacancy rates of over 50% for doctors,
midwives, laboratory, and environmental health staff (National Health Strategy for Zimbabwe
2009-2013).
Shortages of drugs. VOA (Voice of America) News18 May 2016 reported that people pay a $5
fee for cards at clinics but there are no drugs. The clinic just writes a prescription and you are
supposed to purchase the drugs from a pharmacy.
Erratic strikes of doctors and nurses. In the past few years, doctors and nurses have repeatedly
gone on strike over wages. Many have joined the steady exodus of professionals from the
country, seeking employment in neighboring South Africa and further afield in Europe and the
United States: 10 000 Zimbabwean nurses are employed in Britain alone and 80% of medical
graduates are working abroad.

Deteriorating Infrastructure. Big city hospitals are still standing, but everything from the
plumbing to the paint needs replacing, doctors say. Blankets, sheets, and even beds have been
stolen from wards. “The central public hospitals are the most devastated. I think they need a
complete overhaul,” says Dr Gwatidzo (BMJ 2009; 338:b930). Most of the equipment has
outlived its lifespan, he says. “It needs replacement with state of the art, reliable equipment
with spares and technical back-up.”

End of unit 6:4 exercise questions

1. Discuss the concept of health and wellbeing (25)

2. Assess the biomedical model of health and illness (25)

3. Compare and contrast any two models of health and illness (25)

4. Discuss sociological perspectives on Health and illness (25)

5. Assess the view that 'patients play a passive role in relations to medical treatment' (25)

6. Analyze the view that illness is socially constructed (25)

7. Examine the success and failures of primary health care in Zimbabwe (25)

8. Discuss the relationship between traditional and scientific medicine (25)

9. Assess the assumption that the health care system of Zimbabwe is dead (25)

10. With the aid sociological perspectives, assess the effects of COVID 19 in Zimbabwe (25).

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11. using the case study of Mt Darwin District, examine the challenges surrounding the
implementation of primary health care approach in Zimbabwe s rural areas.

End of term questions

1. Discuss the current population trends and patterns in Zimbabwe (25)

2. Evaluate any two sociological approach on health and illness (25)
3. Compare and contrast any two models of health (25)

Summary

As noted by this topic, Sociologists approach the study of population by focusing on the social
processes and implications of demographic change. The sociology of health and wellness, or
health sociology examines the interaction between society and health. As a field of study it is
interested in all aspects of life, including contemporary as well as historical influences, that
impact and alter our health and wellbeing. In Zimbabwe, the government has been commented
its developing health care systems, however, the health care system of Zimbabwe is affected by
individuals and economic factors

Glossary

Bio medical model - It is a scientific model of health that focuses on biological determinants
and excludes social and psychological factors. It also holds the view that a human body
operates like machine

Brain drain- the emigration of highly trained or qualified people from a particular country

Birth rate - birth rate, frequency of live births in a given population, conventionally calculated
as the annual number of live births per 1000 inhabitants.

Culture - It is defined as all the ways of life including arts, beliefs and institutions of a
population that are passed down from generation to generation

Climate change - refers to long-term shifts in temperatures and weather patterns. These shifts
may be natural, but since the 1800s, human activities have been the main driver of climate
change, primarily due to the burning of fossil fuels (like coal, oil and gas), which produces heat-
trapping gases.

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Demography - the study of statistics such as births, deaths, income, or the incidence of disease,
which illustrate the changing structure of human populations.

Death rate - The death rate is the number of people per thousand who die in a particular area
during a particular period of time.

Demographic Transition Theory - It is a simplified way of looking at how population is changing

and has changed around the world

Environmental pollution - the contamination of the physical and biological components of the
earth/atmosphere system to such an extent that normal environmental processes are adversely
affected

Fertility - Fertility is the capability to produce offspring through reproduction following the
onset of sexual maturity

Health - according to the World Health Organization, is "a state of complete physical, mental
and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease.

Health care system - is the organization of people, institutions, and resources that deliver
health care services to meet the health needs of target populations.

Illness - A disease or period of sickness affecting the body or mind

Ill health - The state of being physically ill or having lots of health problems

International migration - The movement of persons away from their place of usual residence
and across an international border to a country of which they are not nationals.

Internal migration - human migration within a country. Internal migration tends to be travel for
education and for economic

Migration - Migration is the movement of either people or animals from one area to another

Mental wellbeing - is the state of thriving in various areas of life, such as in relationships, at
work, play, and more, despite ups and downs.

Natural increase - when the number of births is higher than the number of deaths and negative
when the number of deaths exceeds the number of births.

Population - is the complete set group of individuals, whether that group comprises a nation or
a group of people with a common characteristic.

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Primary health care system - is the first level of contact for individuals, the family, and the
community with the national health system and “addresses the main health problems in the
community, providing health promotion, preventive, curative and rehabilitative services
accordingly

Pollution - the introduction of harmful materials into the environment. These harmful materials
are called pollutants. Pollutants can be natural, such as volcanic ash. They can also be created
by human activity, such as trash or runoff produced by factories. Pollutants damage the quality
of air, water, and land.

Population explosion - sudden, large increase in the size of a population

Population momentum - is the situation where a population continues to grow despite falling
birth and fertility rates.

Quaternary care - has been defined as an extension of tertiary care in reference to advanced
levels of medicine which are highly specialized and not widely accessed, and usually only
offered in a very limited number of national or international centers.

salutogenic model - was originally concerned with the relationship between health, stress, and
coping strategies

Stress - feeling of emotional or physical tension. It can come from any event or thought that
makes you feel frustrated, angry, or nervous.

Secondary Health Care is the specialist treatment and support provided by doctors and other
health professionals for patients who have been referred to them for specific expert care by
primary health care most often provided in hospitals.

Tertiary Healthcare - Specialized care that offers a service to those referred from secondary
care for diagnosis or treatment, and which is not available in primary or secondary care.
Tertiary care has become a common feature in certain specialties for rare conditions, or where
the diagnostic or treatment facilities are scarce or require scarce combinations of resources

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End of term exercise questions

1. Discuss the usefulness of the Demographic Transition Model in the sociology of

population(25)
2. Discuss the role of migration in economic development (25)
3. Examine the models of health and illness (25)
4. Discuss sociological perspectives on health and illness (25)

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Topic 17 ; globalization and social change
Africa PRODUCES what it does NOT CONSUME and CONSUMES what it does NOT
PRODUCE (Ali Mazrui)

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Units covered

7.1 theories of globalization

7.2 effects of globalization
7.3 theories of social change

Introduction
The world has become more a global village. With the decline of world borders, the world has
been interconnected in recent years. There is also a strong sense that this may be bound up
with growing problems in the world such as inequality, military conflict, cultural clashes, and
economic crisis. However, though social and external interaction is characterized by conflict and
horse and rider relationship, globalization has painted the whole world with a new positive look.

Unit 7.1 theories of globalization

Objectives
Learners should be able to;
 identify theories of globalization
 discuss the theories of globalization

Introduction

There are a numerous theories of globalization and they differ along a number of dimensions.
The theories of globalization can be grouped into two major categories thus hyperglobalist and
sceptic theories. Readers should be able to comprehend the facts and arguments raised by two
approaches. Before we get into details, it is important to define globalization.

What is globalization?

There is no a single definition of globalization, but all sociologists and economist, have
something in common, thus, they have all agreed that nations have been connected together
although some doubt. Globalization is to operate all around the world. George Ritzer defines
globalization as a set of processes involving increasingly liquidity and the growing
Multidirectional flows of people, objects, places and information. O'Byrne (2014) defines
globalization as a process of becoming global. Steve Smith (2008) defines it as a process of
increasing interconnectedness between societies such that events in one part of the world
more and more have effects on people and societies far away.

Hyperglobalists theories

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This approach sees globalization positively and as in inevitable process that is real and
irreversible. The hyperglobalists argue that countries should go global, if not, they will die out.
Countries need to connect, if not they will suffer from being isolated. Let us look at the
hyperglobalist theories below,

1. The borderless world theory.

Fig 7:1Kenichi Ohmae

This theory was propounded by kenichi ohmae in 1994. Some of the main arguments raised by
this theory one should not miss out are as follows ;
a) Decline of world borders

Kenich ohmae (1994) argues that Globalization has led to the opening up of world borders and
countries are free to connect. He emphasized that globalization has led to one village, and any
country is free to join the family to become one or global citizens. This means that there is a
degree of one ness hence global peace, cooperation and development.

b) Interlinked economy

Ohmae (1994) argued that there is a strong relationship between globalization and global
economy. He saw nations forming one giant and interlinked economy. He maintains that the
interlinked economic has made traditional borders almost disappear. Ohmae sees such
developments as stemming from an opening up of World economy so that trade between
people in different states becomes easy. To him, an interlinked economy refers to economic
independence in which countries depend upon each other for survival. For example, through
trade, Zimbabwe has obtained foreign products and foreigners in turn, have obtained raw
materials leading to the growth and one giant economy.

Key term

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Interlinked economy: economic interdependency

Globalization Steve Smith (2008) defines it as a process of increasing interconnectedness

between societies such that events in one part of the world more and more have effects on
people and societies far away.

c) Developed the economy of poor country through investment

To ohmae, globalization can improve the economy of poor countries since it enables business
organization in developed countries to invest in developing countries. Technological
breakthrough has created developments such as internet connections and individuals are able
to see what other people consume in other countries. This has attracted investors to invest in
developing countries. There is a strong sense when this idea is applied to Zimbabwean situation.
The 2022 president of Zimbabwe has embraced globalization through the mantra, Zimbabwe '
is open for business' that has attracted Chinese to come and invest in Zimbabwe leading to the
building of the modern world parliament in Zimbabwe, thus leading to economic development.

d) Global citizens

Ohmae further argues that Individuals have become global citizens; they can buy the best and
cheapest products no matter where in the world they are produced with no restrictions. For
example, cross border traders, especially women, have occupied the space of globalization in
Zimbabwe since they are able to buy cheap products from nearby countries such as South
Africa for consumption or resale.
However,ohmae accepts that globalization has affected domestic industries due to foreign
competition and states have lost control and power over domestic industries.
Critics
He exaggerated the decline of borders and free trade and tends to ignore that world trade is far
from free. There is no guarantee that the local will been inward investment. For example, the
chines have pocketed themselves with raw materials as suggested by pessimist sociologist.

2. Liberal theory
Liberalism sees the process of globalization as of market led by modernization. Liberalist believe

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that globalization is a result of ‘natural ’human desires for economic welfare and political liberty.
To this theory, Individuals are linked together for the desire to connect and such a connectivity
is derived from human drives to maximize material well-being and to exercise basic freedom.
For example, international companies such as Coca -cola have gone beyond their borders in
order to maximize material well-being. These forces eventually interlink humanity across the
planet.

In Zimbabwe, the government was responsible for funding education and health sectors. The
government revised its spending and free educational polices were suspended. It introduced
economic structural and adjustment fund (ESAP) which encourages it to connect to a global
word for economic interdependence and material maximization. This is largely motivated by
technological advances, good road networks of transport, communications and information
processing, Suitable legal and institutional arrangement to enable markets and liberal
democracy to spread on a trans world scale e.g. Esap. Liberalists stress the necessity of
constructing institutional infrastructure to support globalization.

Critics

1. Liberalist ignored that globalization is controlled by the powerful groups. The powers who
control that economy are disproportionately Western - especially the big 7 (USA, Germany,
Japan Britain, France, Canada and Italy in that order of economic muscle).

2. The ideological systems of the world at the end of the 20th century are converging. Market
economies are triumphant. Liberalization is being embraced or enforced. Even China has
adopted market Marxism. Egypt is pushing the frontiers of Intifada. India is liberalizing. The
people who are orchestrating and sometimes enforcing marketization, liberalization and
privatization are Western economic gurus - reinforced by the power of the USA, the World Bank,
the IMF and the European Union. Indeed, Europe is the mother of all modern ideologies--good
and bad--Liberalism, Capitalism, Marxism, Fascism, and Nazism. Triumphant is Euro-liberal
Capitalism (Ali Mazrui).

3. Transformationist perspective
Transformation lists argue that the flow of culture is not one-way, from the west to the
developing world; it is a two-way exchange in which Western culture is also influenced,
changed and enriched by cultures in the developing world
Antony Giddens
He is not convinced by the arguments of sceptics theories rather he appreciated the positive
effects of globalization. Below are the main ideas presented by Giddens.

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a. Time, space distanciation
He talks about time space distanciation in which globalization has stretched interaction so that
people no longer have to physically present for interaction to take place. Technological
innovations such as the internet and satellite communications make this possible and reduce
the time it takes to communicate with people in other parts of the world. He believed that
through technological breakthrough, individuals no longer have to be physically present for
international to take place. For example, during COVID-19, Zoom meeting gained momentum.

b. Decline of national borders

Like ohmae, Giddens argued that globalization has made national boundaries less significant
and people are free to connect. He argues that world trade is more important and more open
to ever before. Giddens argues that states have to connect to globalization and attract investors
c. Global economic competition

To Giddens, globalization has a strong impact on national economies by increasing competition

between businesses in different nations. Giddens maintains that businesses have to compete
globally if they are to be successful. This is because they cannot rely upon monopolizing their
domestic markets. For example, Coca- cola companies and Pepsi soft drinks have a global
competition for their common good.

d. Globalization and strategic position

Giddens maintained that globalization has a strong impact on domestic economies. He Argued
that globalization is about positions, if a country is strategically positioned (located in an in
areas of the demanded goods) they will benefit and they have to increase the prices of the
products. For example, Africa, specifically Zimbabwe, was occupied due to its strategic value.
Historians have argued that Zimbabwe is located in an area with gold and Diamond in
Chiyadzwa, which is why many investors during colonial and post-colonial episodes invested in
Zimbabwe and Zimbabwe gained in terms of infrastructure and social development. Thus, the
value of Giddens is applicable to Zimbabwean context.

e. Globalization and world peace

Furthermore, Globalization has created a global family hence less war possibilities. To Giddens,
globalization has created a global family bound by mutual understanding and cooperation. For
example, after first world war, the league of nations, United Nations (UN) and Southern Africa
Development Cooperation (SADC) have a goal for world peace hence less war possibilities.

f. Globalization and democratic pressure

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Giddens argues that through globalization, there is a move toward democracy, globalization
pressure has led to more open and more democratic political processes within nations
(consider African state leaders who are violating the human rights and international norm, and
consider the position of the United Nations). A recent example is 2022 Ukraine and Russia
conflict. As reported by British Broadcasting cooperation (BBC), United Nations has strongly
opposed Russian aggressiveness.

Criticism of Giddens

1. Giddens exaggerated that globalization is all about strategic position, and those strategically
positioned will benefit and tends to ignore that those countries that are strategically positioned
were victims of colonialism and cultural genocide. E.g. Egypt and Morocco.

2. He also put much emphasis on the idea that world borders are now more open and free, and
tends to ignore that world borders are not free. For example, passport and Visa are pre
requisites for border crossing.

3. He exaggerated that those located in demanded products are pricing up their products, and
tends to ignore that the powerful countries have a monopoly
and the domestic economies of the developing countries.

5. Although Giddens celebrated internet technological

innovation, Ali mazrui is of the view that internet
technological innovation in centered and controlled in
Europe.
debate – in groups , discuss the view that countries should go global, if not, they will die out.

Sceptic theories

Sceptic theories differ from hyperglobalists in the sense that the see globalization as a myth of
reality. To them, globalization does not have positive benefits to the locals, rather; it is a new
term for exploitation and a new version of slavery. To sceptic theories, Those who used to lose
under colonialism are still losing under globalization and the local industry is suffocating. The
theories under this approach include:

Global theory

O'Byrne (2014)
O'Byrne (2014) defines globalization as a process of becoming global. For a process to be
defined as global it should reach all parts of the world, if not is not global
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a. Hybrid cultures
He argues that globalization can have a negative impact on societies far away. He argues that it
can lead to the development of hybrid cultures as a result of growing interconnectedness
between people from different parts of the world.

b). Globalization and increased inequality

To O'Byrne, globalization has created divisions leading to an increased inequality. He states
that globalization is driving the world in the polarization of nations where the gap between the
rich and the poor has increased. This means that globalization has led to the exploitation of
African resources hence under developing Africa. To him, Inequality between rich countries of
the global north and the poorer countries of global south has increased.

c). European influence

He accepts that globalization has led to inevitable European influence. This means that
globalization has led to cultural erosion and Europeans now have a direct influence on national
economies.

2. Luke Martell theory

He dismissed the arguments of hyperglobalist and argued that globalization has not yet taken
place. He is in agreement with O'Byrne that for phenomenon to be part of globalization, it
should reach all continents and parts of the world.

a). Globalization is a myth

He argues that a true globalization has not yet take place. To Martel, globalization does not
consist of one country or one part of the world shaping every part. (Why is it westerners are the
one only shaping non westerners). A true globalization would involve one Western areas of the
glob influencing western areas as well or vice versa. Every country of the world should be
influenced and influence as well thus globalization. Globalization has to create interdependency
rather than connection. To him, if the connections were to become disrupted we should notice
the effects if not then no globalization and interdependency.

b) Globalization takes place only when relations are regular

For globalization to take place relationship between countries should be stable and regular. A
temporary relationship would not be considered as part of globalization. (Consider the
relationship between Zimbabwe and US and sanctions.)

c) Globalization has promoted neo colonialism.

To Martel's theory, Africa is the only one that is influenced or copying European way of life. This
means that Africa is under neo colonialism or it is colonialized indirectly.

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d) Africans should disconnect from globalization.
To him, the current globalization is a horse and rider relationship, therefore, globalization can
be reversed and Africans should stop interacting with whites for their common good.
Critique

However, his analysis is far from perfect, tends to ignore that in the interaction process there is
horse and rider relationship. He Ignores that globalization can even take place even the
relationship between countries are sour

3. Cultural genocide theory

Ali Mazrui
Ali Mazrui developed this theory and raised the following arguments:

a) Cultural genocide
To Mazrui, African cultures have suffered from cultural genocide due to continuous attacks of
African cultural institutions, which started during the slavery colonial period and now through
globalization. Cultural Genocide means a complete destruction of the whole culture. To Ali
mazrui, areas of worships and cultural heritages have turned into mines and plantations. He
argued that there is westernization of African institutions for example; marriage practices are
no longer pure African practices.

Key term
Cultural genocide – it is the destruction of groups culture
How globalization has led to cultural genocide

 The dress, which is the same, is overwhelmingly Western dress.

 Those world languages at the end of the 20th century are disproportionately European -
especially English and French -although Arabic is putting forward a strong challenge as a
world language in a different sense.
 Those shared academic ranks, semesters and scholarly paradigms are
disproportionately drawn from the United States and Western Europe.
 Areas of worship and heritage sites have been turned into mines and plantations. He
further argues that globalization has opened floodgates for European imperialism and
Africa as a whole has stuffed. For example, heritage sites in Zimbabwe were invaded by
colonizers. Christianity is an example area of European practice that has led to the
ultimate genocide of traditional practices in Africa.
To this theory, Africans should disconnect from globalization and stop interacting with
Europeans.

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b). Most of Africa has lost its strategic value
The strategic value motivated the Big Powers to take it seriously. Contrary to Giddens, who
argued that those who are strategically positioned have gained from globalization, to Mazrui,
Africa has lost its strategic value.

C) Africa has developed Europe

The era of the labor imperative was when the labor of Africa's sons and daughters was what the
West needed for its industrial take-off. The slave ship helped to export millions to the Americas
to help in the agrarian revolution in the Americas and the industrial revolution in Europe
simultaneously. The enforced dispersal of Black people to serve Western capitalism was itself
part of the emerging globalization. Now, Africa is exporting raw materials through the current
globalization.

4. Smith and Baylis theory (2008)

According to Smith and Baylis, globalization has social, economic and political consequences on
African continent due to European influence. They argue that globalization has created a new
world politics and states no longer control themselves since other actors now have
considerable influence over national and domestic economies. Globalization has created a
monetary economy and local currency for poor countries is useless in a global market. Africans
now depending on foreigners for all most everything.
There is a move towards local cultures, globalization has eroded local cultures and people are
now forced to speak foreign languages.

4.Marxists theory
Marx himself argues that capitalism drives globalization since capitalists will always seek new
markets in order to attract customers. He argued that globalization operates in the interest of
powerful countries. To Marx and some neo Marxist such as David Harvey, have argued that
globalization is a new version of exploitation which encourages the exploitation of poor
countries through forced labor and exploitation of raw materials.
Neo Marxist like David Harvey argues neo liberalism drives globalization. Harvey argues that
capitalism is the driving force of globalization and shapes the form that globalization take. To
Marxist, there is no guarantee that wealth from inward investment would benefit the local

6. World network theory

Manuel Castelles (2012)

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 Global networking

He argued that globalization results in the creation of a new type of society. To him, all aspects
of human life have come to be dominated by networks. Network involves multiple links
between different nodes-nodes are centers within communication networks that can both
receive and send messages. To this theory, globalization has led to

Global Criminal Networks and Crime.

One of the downsides of the increasing interconnectedness between societies is theincrease in

global crime. Manuel Castells (1998) argues that there is now a global criminal economy worth
over one trillion per annum.

Four of the major forms of global crime, which he recognizes include.

1. The drugs trade

2. People Trafficking
3. Cybercrimes
4. International Terrorism
Global Criminal
Networks has a link with
the Global Criminal
Economy. Global
Criminal networks
involve complex
interconnections
between a rane of criminal networks which transcend national boundaries including the
American Mafia, Columbian drug cartels, the Russian Mafia and so on.

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Global criminal networks have developed because of the growth of an information age in which
knowledge as well as goods and people can move quickly and easily across national boundaries.

In addition these criminal networks also trade in weapons, pharmaceuticals, nuclear

materials ,body parts ,metals ,precious stones/natural resources, stolen cars, art, antiques, rare
animals and counterfeit goods; they Provide and control illicit services, most notably, gambling
and prostitution, they engage in cybercrime, robbery, kidnapping, extortion, corruption, and
piracy ,and finally there is terrorism.

UNIT EXERCISES

1. Discuss the arguments raised by hypaglobalist (25)

2. Examine the view that sceptic arguments sharply contradict hypaglobalist arguments
(25)
3. Assess the view that globalization and neo colonialism are two sides of the same coin
(25)
4. Examine a theory of globalization (25)
5. With the aid of sociological theories examine the effects of globalization in Zimbabwe
(25)
6. Discuss the theories of globalization [25]
7. Assess the view that globalization has promoted cultural genocide (25)
8. Discuss the link between globalization and economy (25)
9. Examine the view that ‘ horse and rider relationship is the main feature of
globalization’ (10)
10. Compare any two theories of globalization (25)
11. Examine the view that globalization is all about strategic position (25)

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Unit 7:2 effects of globalization

Objectives
Learners should be able to ;
 Identify the effects of globalization on modern society
 Explain the effects of globalization
Introduction
There are many effects of globalization, ranging from positive to negative effects.
Lerner’s may derive the effects of globalization from the above theories

Positive effects
1. Decline of world borders - according to Ohmae and Giddens, the world borders are no longer
significant and countries are free to connect and trade.

2. Interlinked and one giant economy - Ohmae accepted that globalization has created
economic interdependence through global trade.

3. Global citizens - Ohmae accepted that through globalization, individuals could go abroad and
buy cheaper goods no matter where in the world they are produced.
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4. Pressure on democracy - Giddens argues that globalization through united nations, has
crested democratic environment. For example, economic sanctions imposed on Zimbabwe by
the west are described as democratic aid.

5. Time, space distanciation - Giddens argues that through globalisation, fostered by

technological breakthrough, individuals no longer have to be physically present for interaction
to take place.

5. Boast the economy of developing countries - Ohmae argues that globalization has allowed
investors from developed countries to invest in developing countries.

6. Globalization and strategic value - Giddens argues that globalization has benefited those who
are strategically positioned, and this has made it countries to price up their products.

7. globalization and peace - to Giddens globalization has created a global family hence war

Possibilities.

8. Global family - countries through the World Bank have assisted each other in the event of
drought or diseases. For example, Zimbabwe received Bulger and beans in 2008 from US.

9. Improved health sectors - the opening up of world borders has made drugs available in
Zimbabwe from other countries. E.g. HIV and aid drugs.

Negative effects

Although globalization has more positive effects as suggested by hyperglobalists, negative

effects should not be ignored.

1. Cultural genocide - according to Ali Mazrui, Globalization has lead to the ultimate death of
African cultures

2. Global crimes - globalization has created a new network society, in which criminals now trade
in drugs and dangerous weapon's, and this has promoted disorder and terrorism.

3. Spread of disease - COVID-19 became a common pandemic due to the globalization. Also,
HIV and aids infections escalated due to migration and globalization.

4. Inequality - to Marxist, globalization has increased the gap between the rich and the poor,
and the poor has no potential to take off.

5. Decline of domestic economies - due to external global competition, local industry is

suffocating.
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End of unit 7.1 exercise questions

1. Discuss the effects of globalization (25)

2. Examine the view that globalization has helped to promote neo colonialism (25)
3. Assess the view that globalization has promoted economic development of African
countries (25)
4. Examine the view that globalization has helped in spreading world diseases (25)
5. Discuss the notion that globalization is a peace building strategy (25)
6. Examine the link between globalization and modern democracy (25)
7. Discuss how globalization has made local and domestic industries of African countries
suffocate (25)

Unit 1:2Social change

Objectives
Leaners should be able to
 Identify theories of social change
 Evaluate theories of social change

INTRODUCTION

The previous unit has highlighted different theories and perspectives on globalization. The
hyperglobalists argued that globalization is positive and countries should connect, if not they
will die out. On the other hand, sceptic theories, most of them, saw globalization negatively and
they have argued that globalization has helped to promote neocolonialism and they argue that
Africans should immediately disconnect from globalization. In this unit, will be discussing the
sociology of social change.

What is social change?

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Sociologists define social change as changes in human interactions and relationships that
transform cultural and social institutions. These changes occur over time and often have
profound and long-term consequences for society

Social change involves alteration of the social order of a society .It may include changes in social
institutions, social behaviors or social relations . Social change refers to the transformation of
culture , behavior , social institutions and social structure over time We are familiar with
"Social
Structure and
Social
interaction
"with the
basics types
of
society :hunti
ng and
gathering ,
horticultural
and pastoral , agricultural , industrial and postindustrial .In looking at all of these societies have
been how they differ in such dimensions as size , technology etc.

Theories of social change

1. Dependency theory

A. G Frank
Dependency theory developed
in late 1950s, it entails the
notion of resources flowing
from ‘periphery’ (poor and underdeveloped states) to ‘core’( wealthy states) enriching the
latter at the expense of former, by means of colonization or by various policies. A.G Frank, the
leading dependency theorist suggests that lack of development prevails in many countries
because western nations have deliberately underdeveloped them.

The unequal exchange relationship between developed and developing countries was viewed
as contributing to poor economic growth. To this theory, there is the core and the periphery
only in a global system. Horse and a ride relationship is the main feature of the global system.
To Frank, the core (rich) is the rider and the Periphery (poor) is the horse. Contrary to
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 Modernization theory, the theory
argues that the periphery should
disconnect and stop interacting with
the core .Africans are tested positive
to slavery in this system . According to
Frank, the activities of the world trade
organizations, international monetary
fund and the world Bank are seen as
operating in the interest of the core
and develop the core in the sense that
they have helped to promote neo
colonialism. Local industry of the periphery is suffocating thus hindering social change.

According to dependency theory, the people of less-developed countries are not to blame for
the failure of their societies to develop. Instead, he suggested that Western nations deliberately
failed to develop these countries.

2.Word systems theory

Immanuel Wallerstein
This theory is a brain child of dependency theory, or it heavily borrowed its ideas from
dependency theory

World system theory was woven by Immanuel wallerstein, having almost same explanation as
that of dependency with concepts of ‘core’ semi-periphery ‘and ‘periphery’. Semi-periphery are
the ones not that underdeveloped but are developing and are not that developed to be
qualified as core. Hence semi-periphery utilizing resources from periphery and core thriving
from semi-periphery. Countries like India, Brazil, China are semi-periphery according to
wallerstein. Therefore this theory focuses on a larger division of labor that takes place
nationally, regionally and internationally.He argues that the world is divided into the
core ,periphery and semi periphery .The core are rich countries such as Britain ,semi periphery
refers to better countries not really rich like Brazil and periphery refers to the poor countries
such as Zimbabwe.

It acknowledges the exploitative nature in capitalism but it also recognizes that world isn’t as
binary as rich country vs poor countries. Poor countries are exploited in a system that is well
organized. The periphery, which lacked strong central governments or was controlled by other
states, exported raw materials to the core and relied on coercive labour practices.
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Much of the capital surplus generated by the periphery was expropriated by the core through
unequal trade relations. The semi periphery had limited access to international banking and the
production of high-cost, high-quality manufactured goods but did not benefit from
international trade to the same extent as the core.

Poor countries are responsible for social change of rich countries and rich countries are
responsible for hindering social change of the periphery. Africa is responsible for producing raw
materials thus Africa is poor today not because it is poor but it was made to be poor by the
core . The core develops itself at the expense of Africans thus leaving Africa underdeveloped

3. Modernization theory of development

It was the first theory after second world war to explain development. Most European
countries recovered within 10 to 15 years. It gave Europeans reasons to apply the same model
to former colonies. The modernization theory was also influenced by studies of England’s
transformation from rural society to an Industrial society by W W Rostow. Modernization
theory originates in Western society and western experiences hence it is Eurocentric in nature.

It is a Eurocentric perspective as it says that those who are not developed must follow the
footsteps of western countries and their cultures. At some point, European countries were in
the same state the African countries finding themselves in . The theory blames African
countries for inhibitory economic development .To this theory, development is also about
technological advancement and economic growth. According to Rostow, in a bus of social
change, all societies go through a path of stages. Rostow identified five stages, which he said
are necessary for development

• 1) Traditional society (this is the starting point) - people live off the land, life is organized
around villages. This was a stage of poverty. There was high birth rate and high death rate.

2) Pre-condition of takeoff- change from agriculture to factory production and commercial

activity. People migrate from rural areas in search of better economic activities. This leads to
changes in land use in rural areas and urban

3)The take off stage - Application of modern technology in different sectors of the economy
leading to improved productivity and efficiency; this leads to profits which are ploughed back
into production activity and leads to more growth.

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4) The drive to maturity -extensive use of modern technology (mechanization and automation
across all sectors)

5) High consumption- mass production and mass consumption because of deep investments of
profits into production. People invest in leisure and recreation activities. Countries become
powerful due to their savings and influence other countries using their money, technical
expertise and technology.

APPLICATION OF MODENIZATION THEORY

i) it gives the impression is that westernization is desirable for social change.

To this theory, the west is the model to be followed. Furthermore development =

industrialization, urbanization and moving away from tradition, rurality so achieving modernity
are goals of development. Tradition and rural life seen as backward, difficult life while urbanity
and modernity are seen as a more efficient, better and easier life because of technology.

ii) Traditions and customs of non-western societies are seen as obstacles for development
(social change).

This is because according to modernization theory supporters, traditional customs lead to

resistance against modernity. For example, think of traditional religious beliefs about food,
causes of illness etc. Alternatively, the belief in sacredness of nature, for example hinders
development in the sense that resources in those areas cannot be exploited, because it is
considered as the inhabitants of spirits this lead to resistance to change where infrastructure,
nutrition and health education are concerned.
Furthermore, traditional beliefs and customs entail Fatalism- because of superstition people,
engage in behaviors that are harmful Superstition- people resist scientific explanation
preferring unknowns such as evil spirits, witchcraft to explain everyday events, illness, accidents,
success/failure, .

iii) Schooling is important for learning western technologies.

Clearly, an effective means of enculturation so that people learn western ways of life and are
incited into leaving their customs, into Westernization and its desirability. Schooling has
become an effective means of social change.
iv) Those pro-modernization theory claim that once modernization starts it is irreversible.

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That is once urbanization, industrialization and other aspects of development start, it is a one
way street. In Africa, we know that this is not the case (Nabudere 1997: 204)

v) Development aid is seen as a stimulant/catalyst for development.

Aid in the form of a) money (loans and grants) and b) technical experts in different sectors, and
c) material resources for use in different sectors (agriculture, health, education, infrastructure
development etc.). Zimbabwe For example, USAID supports the people of Zimbabwe to
strengthen health services, increase food security, support economic resilience, and Agriculture
and Food Security. USAID has provided more than $3.2 billion in development assistance to
Zimbabwe since its independence in 1980. Over the past three decades, the USAID Mission in
Zimbabwe has focused on strengthening Zimbabwe’s health systems, improving standards of
living, supporting democratic processes, and enabling economic growth (Jason Taylor,2020).
Early USAID contributions to the country’s development included: providing loans for home
construction for over 40,000 low-income households, investing over $170 million in factories
and farms to increase the productivity of industry and smallholder farmers, supporting
community-based natural resource and wildlife management, and funding thousands of
Zimbabweans to attend university in the United States

Key term

USAID - U.S. Agency for International Development

Agriculture and Food Security

USAID, through Food for Peace, is the largest donor of humanitarian assistance in Zimbabwe.
This emergency support complements development assistance to vulnerable populations to
help households build resilience to ongoing climatic shocks and economic stress and gradually
reduce the need for seasonal food assistance. During the 2019-2020 lean season over one
million Zimbabweans will benefit from U.S. Government emergency assistance.

Through Feed the Future, USAID has helped over 200,000 smallholder farmers since 2010 to
increase agricultural productivity, rural employment, and household incomes through improved
agricultural practices and strengthened commercial linkages to markets. USAID supports
farmers and micro, small, and medium-sized enterprises with improved access to finance
through private sector partnerships and risk-sharing agreements with Zimbabwean commercial
lenders.
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Democracy, Rights and Governance

USAID promotes democratic governance by supporting Zimbabwean efforts to improve

government accountability and responsiveness to citizens’ needs. USAID strengthens
accountability systems by assisting Parliament to increase their independence and effectiveness,
improves inclusive electoral processes to better reflect citizen voices, expands access to
information, and activates mechanisms for citizen advocacy and oversight. USAID builds social
cohesion by equipping citizens and communities with skills and tools to prevent, mitigate, and
manage conflicts and resulting negative impacts on individuals and society.

Also,UK aid support to Zimbabwe for 2019/20 is £113.5 million hence suggesting that
modernization theory is applicable to Zimbabwean society.

vi). Democratic aid is desirable

The theory believes that democratic aid through Economic Sanctions such as ZIDERA (2001) and
amended in 2018 ensures free and fair elections and multiple party are seen as necessary for
development.
key term

ZIDERA – Zimbabwe Democracy and Economic Recovery Amendment

Criticism of the Modernization theory

1. It is Eurocentric and tends to ignore that raw materials are exploited in Africa by rich
countries.

2. Culture is important in social change and Europeans changed not by copying foreign cultures .

3. It exaggerated development aid is a catalyst for change, The reality is that aid is complex and
has contradictory results. With hindsight, we know that it is not assistance to or for the
recipients. It benefits the givers and it leaves the recipient with a regression.

The term ‘foreign aid’ is at best ambiguous, disguising more than it reveals. Bilateral and
commercial loans, as well as loans from the international financial institutions (IFIs), require the
payment of principal and interest. Even if interest rates on IFI loans are lower than those of the
commercial banks, the onerous repayment conditions have had a devastating impact on policy-
making in developing countries.
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Milton Friedman (1982) condemn foreign aid because it is said to subsidize ‘statism’ and hinder
market forces that are better able to deal with economic and social problems. In the following,
we adopt the realist perspective that foreign loans and grants are a catalyst of ‘reverse aid’ —
designed to benefit the donor countries. In the context of widespread implementation of a
neo-liberal model of capitalist development, aid has contributed towards what could be termed
‘bad governance’ (neo-authoritarianism, large-scale chronic corruption and external
subordination), extending and deepening social inequalities, and generating conditions of
global poverty as well as economic stagnation and volatility in the international flows of capital.

Latin American enterprises. Aid, in other words, was the catalyst for the transfer of national
public to private foreign monopolies. In a three-year period, 1995–97, over US$ 157 billionn in
profits were repatriated, according to the Economic Commission for Latin America (Petras and
Veltmeyer, 1999). Thus, aid and the conditions imposed on aid recipients facilitate the takeover
of lucrative enterprises and the repatriation of billions of dollars to aid the global accumulation
process and the expansion of thus empire, Royalty payments and license fees are another
source of reverse aid. During the 1990s approximately US$ 13 billion was transferred from Latin
America to the US. Royalties are the fastest growing sector of US returns (Petras and Veltmeyer,
1999). Foreign aid is conditioned on Latin American regimes accepting the US definition of
‘intellectual property rights’ and supporting Washington’s battle to include ‘intellectual
property’ clauses in the GATT or World Trade Organization (from AfriCan Rights 1997)

4.developmental aid is decisive hence hindering development.

In Sudan for example, the government controlled areas where food aid was supposed to be
distributed. The army provided security to food convoys and indicated where food could be
delivered, citing security reasons. The army controlled food distribution too and decided who
received food. African Rights (1997) notes that in Sudan, the government by combatants to
feed their respective supporters. In refugee camps-those outside government control were
controlled by the rebels the Sudanese People’s Liberation Army (SPLA). The SPLA prevented
ordinary refugees from giving feedback to donors about the situation on the ground. The SPLA
exaggerated figures of people in need so that they could take excess food to feed their armies
and supporters.
a) Food aid was manipulated by elites and powerful to consolidate power and by trying to
starve dissenters/rivals. Thus despite aid, hunger was pervasive. Some poor and hungry people
went without food. This worsened internal displacements as people went looking for food and
created divisions hence slowing economic growth.

b) Also, food aid, though justified does not come with meaningful skills transfer. They were
supported by the US Christian Right. Aid to the South included Bibles and crosses. Thus
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observers have said religious zealotry is undemocratic and dangerous to the poor.
c) The Bibles and crosses have not solved underlying problems as the war in Sudan still
continues today in 2018 despite the Bibles and crosses.
d) The religious paraphernalia merely angered competing religions and believers who see the
aid as intended for evangelization rather than feeding the hungry. In fact, the North denies that
there is hunger or need for the aid

5. Many scholars increasingly see development and aid as an industry in itself. Through it, some
become wealthy while claiming to talk for the poor for non-western countries, aid does not
lead to development. It is not meant for development. Kanbur (2003) observed that as far back
as the 1960s the UK foreign office saw its colonies not merely as sources of raw materials but
also a means to solve its employment and other socio-economic problems.
Thus by giving aid, donors are helping themselves.(crating markets for their skills and also some
materials).

6. It ignores that Development has become pre-occupied with deleting/erasing rural life in
Africa and replacing it with urban life.
7. It also ignores the impact of modernization on environment (oil spills on the Niger Delta in
Nigeria, pollution of oceans or the air from industries, the impact of plastics on animals,
electronic waste etc. is so huge that in fact the costs outweigh the benefits. So scientific
progress has a downs.

6. Democratic aid is controversial because is said to be supporting regime change or agenda.

There is no agreement among scholars on whether or not democratic aid support development.
For example, China experienced economic growth but is not democratic, Russia too enjoyed
economic development some years back, but is not democratic.

4. Functionalist theory
To functionalist theorist, Society is in a stable state .However a sudden social change is
undesirable because it disrupts this equilibrium . To prevent this from happening, the other
parts of society must make appropriate adjustments if one part of society sees too sudden a
change. The functionalists understanding of social change is based on insights developed by
different generations of sociologists.

Early sociologists such as Hebert Spencer likened change in society to change in biological
organism’s .Taking a cue from the work of Charles Darwin, they said that societies evolved just
as organisms do from tiny simple forms to much larger and more complex structures.

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When societies are small and simple, there are few roles to perform and just about everyone
can perform all of these roles. As societies grow and evolve, many new roles develops and not
everyone has the time or skill to perform every role. People thus start to specialize their roles
and a division of labor begins

Gradual change is both necessary and desirable and typically stems from such things as
population growth , technological advances and interaction with other societies that brings new
ways of thinking and acting However ,any sudden social change disrupts this equilibrium .To
prevent this from happening .other parts of society must make appropriate adjustment.

Durkheim argues society moves from mechanical (traditional, rurality) to organic solidarity
(urban industrial) due to increased communication and transportation.

Aguste Comte

Comte argued that society has passes through three stages namely theological, metaphysical
and positive or scientific stage. In the theological stage, individuals were held together by
believes and supernatural powers and accepted the idea that these powers controlled our
social behavior. The stage was characterized by religious rituals as ways if solving problems.

During the second stage i.e. the metaphysical stage his ideas about supernatural powers
changes from god he came to abstraction and try to explain social behavior through abstraction.
There was reasoning and science weakened supernatural powers.

In the third stage which is called positive stage, everything is controlled by science. There is
replacement of priest by philosophers in the stage.

Critics

Functionalist theory assumes that sudden social change ,as by the protest depicted here ,is
highly undesirable ,whereas conflict theory assumes that sudden social change may be needed
to correct inequality and other deficiencies in the status quo.

The functionalist perspective has been criticized on a few grounds .The perspective generally
assumes that the change from simple to complex societies has been very positive ,when in
fact ,as we have seen this change has also proven costly in many ways. It might well have
weakened social bonds and it has certainly imperiled human existence of the status quo.

7) Marxist theory

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Whereas functionalist theory assumes that the status quo is generally good and sudden social
change is undesirable , conflict theory assumes the status quo is generally bad and sudden
change is generally good. It this views sudden social change in the form of protest or revolution
as both desirable and necessary to reduce or eliminate social inequality and to address other
social ills.

Another difference between the two approaches concerns industrialization, which functional
theory views as a positive development that helped make modern society possible.

In contrast , conflict theory following the views of Karl Marx ,says that industrialization
exploited workers and thus increased social inequality .In one other difference between the
two approaches, functionalist sociologists view social change as the result of certain natural
forces , such as science and reasoning

In this sense, social change is unplanned even though it happens anyway. Conflict theorists
however, recognize that social change often stems from efforts by social movements to bring
about fundamental changes in the social economic and political systems. In his sense, social
change is more "planned" or at least intended, than functional theory acknowledges.

Marx believe that economic forces drive society and society passes through 4 main stages thus
primitive communism ,feudalism ,capitalism and advanced communism society. One day
society will reach to the last stage through class consciousness.

Critics

It exaggerates the extent of social inequality and that it sometimes overemphasizes economic
conflict while neglecting conflict rooted in race / ethnicity, gender, religion and other sources .

Its Marxian version also erred in predicting that capitalist’s societies would inevitably undergo a
socialist -communist revolution. Critics believe that a classless society is a dream, which cannot
come true.

6. Cyclical theory

Many of our present day thinkers have put forward the cyclic theory of social change. Spengler
is of the view that like day and night, society too has a pre-determined course which includes
it's birth ,growth ,maturity and decline . Vilfredo Pareto is of the view that social change is due
to political circumstances. He feels that vigorous politicians try to capture power by disturbing
the existing social order but with the passage of time it becomes impossible to vigorously
pursue the change and they try to use their energies for maintaining status quo .This status quo
is tolerated till such time when new aristocracy does not come to the forefront to disturb the
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existing order. Therefore ,he believes that disturbing social order and maintaining status quo is
in a cyclical order and thus change is inevitable.

7. Weberian theory

Theory of Religion
There are many who refute Marx’s theory of economic determinism for social change. They feel
that no doubt economic considerations play a considerably important role but they feel that
there are many other considerations as well as according to them, more than economic
consideration are religious considerations. Max Weber contributes to the idea that religion is
responsible for bringing about social change.

From history, he quotes that emergence of Hinduism, Islam, Christianity or Judaism brought
considerable social changes and thus they give more importance to religion rather than to
economic aspects of life for change .He is credited for developing the correlation between
religion and capitalism. He argues that capitalism developed initially in areas where religion was
influential. Calvinst Protestantism originated in the work of John Calvin. Calvin thought that
there was a distinct group of the elect those chosen to go to heaven. Those who were not
among the elect could not gain a place in heaven .Making money was a concrete indication of
success in one's callings .The doctrine produced people who worked hard in their callings. It
attacked laziness and encouraged people to be engaged in speculative projects.

Critics

Some parts of the world were Calvinism was strong but capitalism did not develop until much
later e.g. in Switzerland, Scotland

End of unit 7.1 exercise questions

1. Assess the strength and weakness of word system theory of social change (25).

2. Discuss the factors that affect social change and development (25)

3. Discuss theories of social change (25)

4. Assess the modernization theory of social change (25)

5. Compare and contrast Marxist and functionalist theories of social change (25

6. Assess the view that 'westernization is desirable for social change in Africa' (25).
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7. In relation to globalization, assess the view that Europe is rich because of Africa, and Africa
is poor because of Europe (25)

8. Compare and contrast dependency theory and world system theory of social change (25)

9. Distinguish between Modernization theory and dependency the

10. Examine the view that developmental aid is a catalyst for development of Africans (25)

End of term questions

1. Discuss theories of globalization (25)

2. Assess the effects of globalization (25)
3. Analyze the modernization theory of development (25)

End of chapter 17 summery

Due to Globalization, the world has become almost a global village, with one language, dress
code and education. Hyper globalists have emphasized the importance of globalization in global
development and world peace, however, not all sociologist would agree, some see it as a way
of gaining a control on the part of the weak. Thus, sceptic theories have advocated for a
disconnection of a global connectivity while some believe that globalization is real and
irreversible. Globalization has promoted economic development of global community, but
there is still inequality considering that some are now rich because some are poor.

Glossary

Cultural genocide - the systematic destruction of traditions, values, language, and other
elements that make one group of people distinct from another.

Colonialism - the policy or practice of acquiring full or partial political control over another
country, occupying it with settlers, and exploiting it economically.

Core countries - are wealthy, developed and industrialized countries that middle- and low-
income countries, typically classified as semi-periphery and periphery countries, depend on for
economic assistance

Developmental aid - is a type of foreign/international/overseas aid given by governments and

other agencies to support the economic, environmental, social, and political development of
developing countries
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Democracy aid - can also be referred to as democracy assistance, democracy support, or
democracy building, is a strand of foreign policy adopted by governments and international
organizations that seek to support the spread of democracy as a political regime around the
world

Dependency Theory - it is of the notion that resources flow from a "periphery" of poor and
underdeveloped states to a "core" of wealthy states, enriching the latter at the expense of the
former

Democracy - it is system of government by the whole population or all the eligible members of
a state, typically through elected representatives.

Economic development - economic and social development is the process by which the
economic well-being and quality of life of a nation, region, local community, or an individual are
improved according to targeted goals and objectives.

Globalization - is the process of interaction and integration among people, companies, and
governments worldwide. Globalization has accelerated since the 18th century due to advances
in transportation and communications technology

Global family - Refers to the concept of a global village where different parts of the world are
seen as one community

Global citizens - the ability to travel by air and water, people can buy things from all over the
world.

Hypaglobalist - it is a perspective that holds the view that globalization is real and positive.

Hybrid cultures - culture that has been formed from two or more other cultures. One that has
much of both but not all of each.

Linked economy - refers to a system of economic interdependence.

Modernization theory - It suggests that traditional societies will develop as they adopt more
modern practices.

National borders - Borders are geographical boundaries, imposed either by geographic features
such as oceans, or by arbitrary groupings of political entities such as governments, sovereign
states, federated states, and other subnational entities.

Periphery countries - the periphery countries are those that are less developed than the semi-
periphery and core countries
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Sceptic theories - argue that the side effects of globalization are greater than the positive
effects and they advocate for a disconnection

Semi periphery countries - the semi-periphery countries are the industrializing, mostly
capitalist countries which are positioned between the periphery and core countries e.g Brazil,
Taiwan and so on

Social change - sociologist define social change as changes in human interactions and
relationships that transform cultural and social institutions. These changes occur over time and
often have profound and long-term consequences for society

Underdevelopment - refers to the low level of development characterized by low real per
capita income, wide-spread poverty, lower level of literacy, low life expectancy and
underutilization of resources etc.

World system theory - suggests that wealthy countries benefit from other countries and exploit
those countries' citizens.

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Topic 18 urbanization

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Units covered

8.1industrialization and urbanization

8.2 effects of urbanization
8.3 Government policies

Introduction
In this topic, the focus is on urbanization. The majority of people move to cities and towns
because they view rural areas as places with hardship and backward/primitive lifestyles.
Therefore, as populations move to more developed areas (towns and cities) the immediate
outcome is urbanization. Urbanization is a process whereby populations move from rural to
urban areas, enabling cities and towns to grow. It can also be termed as a progressive increase
in the number of people living in towns and cities. It is highly influenced by the notion that
cities and towns have achieved better economic, political, and social mileages compared to
rural areas.

Accordingly, urbanization is very common in developing and developed worlds as more and
more people have the tendency of moving closer to towns and cities to acquire “privileged”
social and economic services as well as benefits. These include social and economic advantages
such as better education, health care, sanitation, housing, business opportunities, and
transportation.

Unit 8.1 Industrialization and urbanization in Zimbabwe

Objectives
Learners should be able to;
 Explain industrialization and urbanization
 Discuss the links between industrialization and urbanization
 Evaluate the factors leading to industrialization and urbanization in Zimbabwe

Introduction

Urbanization (or urbanization) refers to the population shift from rural to urban areas, the
decrease in the proportion of people living in rural areas, and the ways in which societies adapt
to this change. It is predominantly the process by which towns and cities are formed and
become larger as more people begin living and working in central areas. Thus, urbanization and

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industrialization have a kindred relationship. Beside this link, urbanization is a process driven by
a combination of factors we are going to discuss in this unit.

THE LINK BETWEEN INDUSTRIALIZATION AND URBANIZATION

Industrialization is the process that takes an agricultural economy and transforms it into a
manufacturing one. Mass production and assembly lines replace manual and specialized
laborers. The process has historically led to urbanization by creating economic growth and job
opportunities that draw people to cities. Urbanization typically begins when a factory or
multiple factories are established within a region, which creates a high demand for factory
labor. Other businesses such as building manufacturers, retailers, and service providers then
follow the factories to meet the product demands of the workers. This creates even more jobs
and demands for housing, thus establishing an urban area.

In the modern era, manufacturing facilities like factories are often replaced by technology-
industry hubs. These technological hubs draw workers from other areas in the same way
factories used to, contributing to urbanization.

Brief History of Industrialization

As noted earlier, industrialization refers to the transition from a primarily agricultural economy
to one that mainly produces manufactured goods. The process is most commonly associated
with the Industrial revolution that took place during the 18th and 19th centuries in Europe. But
it occurred in the United States during the late 1800s. Many parts of the world also experienced
a great deal of industrialization after World War II.

What propelled the large shift from agriculture to industrialization?

There were a number of catalysts that led to this grand scale of industrial growth. The shift was
fueled by changes to and the availability of transportation and communication systems as well
as increases in mechanization. Another key driver was the fact that farmers were not just
looking at cultivation as a means of sustenance. Rather, agriculture became a business where
crops could now be taken to market for a profit. Many farmers began specializing in certain
crops, turning them into commodities.

Prior to industrialization, farms were family-run and individuals worked the land to sustain
themselves. But as machines took on many of the roles of human labor on farms, production
became faster and much more streamlined. This led to a decline in rural populations and a shift
to industrial.

The first was the construction of railroads, which led to a tremendous degree of social and
economic growth across the United States, not to mention accessibility. The expansion of
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railroads made traveling and the transport of goods easy and quick. The second was the
development of factories that began to shape urban areas.

Not only did industrialization help lead to shifts in rural populations (families did not need as
many hands since farming equipment replaced the need for human labor), but it also led to a
movement of people. The industrialization of farms ushered in an increase in the
unemployment of farm labor. These individuals, now jobless, moved to urban centers where
large factories were growing and in need of manual, skilled labor to work the machines.
Families often moved together as workers needed to be closer to their jobs.

Industrialization is one of the main catalysts to urbanization. When the wheels of the former
are put into place, the latter is sure to follow. Having said that, there are a few key factors that
come into play that are part of the process of urbanization. Here are a few of them:

Manufacturing: Urbanization generally begins with the establishment of at least one factory in a
certain region. In most cases, though, there are multiple plants that cater to specific needs,
such as the manufacturing, production, and processing of textiles, food, and natural resources.

Employment: The growth of an urban center is normally characterized by the development of

one or more production facilities. As such, it creates a demand for labor. Although machines are
able to ease the production process and make the output much faster, companies still need
humans to operate, manage, and maintain those machines. This comes through skilled labor.

Natural Population Growth: Once workers settle into their new locations and get to work, they
begin to plant roots and have families. Cities must respond by expanding to meet the needs of
this natural population growth.

Commercialization: With the onset of factory, production comes the opportunity for retailers
and other service providers to sell goods directly to the public.

Development of Infrastructure: This is a key part of the urbanization process. As populations

expand, the infrastructure of a city needs to grow. This means laying down roads and highways,
building schools and housing, installing systems (sewage, water, electrical), and communication
networks to name a few.

Factors leading to industrialization in Zimbabwe

Availability of natural resources-Abundance of forests lead to cheap resource for building

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material. Large supplies of water is vital source for human life, source for power for businesses.
Other minerals like coal at Hwange have led to development of thermal power industry.

Growing Population-Population growth will cause an increase of demand. More people creates
more needed goods and in turn lead to growth of industry.

Improved transportation-This increases demand, increased supply and in turn increase of

shipping needs. Railroad business booms as a result.

High Immigration-As people immigrate, some immigrants are skilled in trades that would help
industry grow. Unskilled workers provided cheap labor. More people results in more workers
e.g. the influx of people from Mozambique and Malawi in the 1980s and early 1990s.
Confident that they can invest in the economy and know that investments will be secure. A
stable political environment tends to lead to stable markets that help businesses and the
economy grow. In Zimbabwe a number political unrests have hampered

Various Causes of Urbanization

In the case of Zimbabwe, the country followed macroeconomic policies that paved way for
urbanization and Zimbabwe is no exception. Zimbabwe adopted a series of post-independence
policies that include the Statutory Instrument 216 of 1994 of the Regional Town and Country
Planning Act, which provided the impetus for the ascendance of the informal sector through
the reduction of regulatory holdups hence different players to enter into the production and
distribution of goods and services. This allowed activities such as hairdressing, wood and stone
carving, tailoring, book- binding, welding among others to be deregulated. The change to
majority rule in 1980 saw the lifting of decades of racial restrictions to the ―Right to the City‖,
(United Nations 2005).

The urban population of Zimbabwe rose rapidly from 23% in 1982 to 30% by the early 1990s.
This paved way for rural - urban migration as the rural entities, witness impoverishment
because many migrants to the city operate in the informal economy and population saw high-
income opportunities and access to social services. Due to these initiatives, the major cities of
Harare, Bulawayo, Mutare and Gweru in Zimbabwe reached population growth rates of over
5% per annum throughout the 1980s. However, cities as the major economic notwithstanding
their aid to the urban economy, they rarely pay taxes or fees in direct fraction to the services
they use leading thus straining local government capacity in terms of

1. Industrialization
Lewis Two Sector Model

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Industrialization with the support of specialization supports urbanization process. Lewis
presents two-sector model of development with high productivity of modern urban industrial
sectors. Lewis assumes that abundant labourer in agriculture can be absorbed in labour scarce
industrial units. However, agricultural migrants cannot always support and help these industries
to grow. Hence, the major limitation of Lewis model is the assumption that rural and
agricultural labourer are having skills and ability to get employment in urban industries.

Key term
industrialization refers to the transition from a primarily agricultural economy to one that
mainly produces manufactured goods.

Activity – in pairs , identify then factors that lead to urbanization in Zimbabwe (25)

Industrialization is a trend representing a shift from the old agricultural economics to a novel
non-agricultural economy, which creates a modernized society. Through the industrial
revolution, more people have been attracted to move from rural to urban areas on account of
improved employment opportunities. The industrialization has increased employment
opportunities by giving people the chance to work in modern sectors in job categories that aids
to stir economic developments.

Modernization Theory
This theory was prevalent and influential from the 1950s the 1970s. The theory asserts that
urbanization results from the introduction of new things and innovations within the society
through industrialization, technological application, information penetration and cultural
diffusion (Smith, 1996). Considering urbanization through the lens of modernization, first, it is
common to see elements of modernization (new things) in every society that has moved from
the primitive era (Stone Age) to a new or modern pattern of doing things.

Secondly, the importance of technology in social organization and shaping of the society is
obvious; as urbanization usually results afterwards. The present state of urbanization and
development in the world today cannot be separated from its initial state at the onset of
modernization (Kasarda and Crenshaw, 1991). Most developments are products of
technologically driven societies, which could boost or increase economic capabilities, provide
surplus food through improve agricultural system and the use of mechanical and electronic
tools or machines to reduce workload on citizen; yet increasing speed and efficiency of work
done (Lenski and Nolan, 1984; Nolan and Lens)

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2. Commercialization
Commerce and trade play a major role in urbanization. The distribution of goods and services
and commercial transactions in the modern era has developed modern marketing institutions
and exchange methods that have tremendously given rise to the growth of towns and cities.
Commercialization and trade come with the general perception that the towns and cities offer
better commercial opportunities and returns compared to the rural areas.

3. Social Benefits and Services

There are numerous social benefits attributed to life in cities and towns. Examples include
better educational facilities, better living standards, better sanitation and housing, better
health care, better recreation facilities, and better social life in general On this account, more
and more people are prompted to migrate into cities and towns to obtain a wide variety of
social benefits and services which are unavailable in rural areas.

Task – Ask your family members who are living in cities about the factors that pushed them to
migrate to urban areas

4. Employment Opportunities

Urbanization bias theory

The government is bias toward the rural settlement, as they pay special wage structures in
urban areas (Gibert and Gugler, 1982). Employment opportunities are believed to be surplus in
the cities with many industries offering high wages (Tadaro, 1979). There are more educational
institutions, health facilities, beautiful housing facilities, good road networks and bigger
markets for the residents to enjoy.

Most residents in the rural areas of the some of the poorest countries do not have electricity,
so they often desire the urban lifestyle with beautiful street lights at night; as compare to the
villages were they have rely on the moon‟ light at night. This factor also makes natural increase
more conspicuous in the cities. In Africa, it is believed that the number of children one has
determines the level of wealth

In cities and towns, there are ample job opportunities that continually draw people from rural
areas to seek a better livelihood. Therefore, the majority of people frequently migrate into
urban areas to access well-paying jobs as urban areas have countless employment
opportunities in all developmental sectors such as public health, education, transport, sports
and recreation, industries, and business enterprises. Services and industries generate and
increase higher value-added jobs, and this leads to more employment opportunities.

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Also, People move from the rural areas hoping that they can secure a better source of income
for example the rise of the informal sector in Zimbabwe has caused a lot of people to move into
major towns such as Harare, Gweru, Kwekwe, Bulawayo and Mutare. Migration from rural
areas on average accounts for about 60 per cent of the urban population and in exceptional
cases, as much as 75 per cent (Todaro 2000).

In addition, inter-urban movement of people also occurs, particularly from smaller towns to the
larger urban centres, and these movements affect the national urban hierarchy and national
integration. The increasing number of factories in urban areas created a need for labor. In
Zimbabwe, rural employment seekers moved to the cities to content this need. Often this need
was succeeded by the movement of others to provide various services for these employees.
However, rural—urban migration exceeds the absorptive capacity of the urban areas (Todaro
and Stilkind, 1981). The 5% urbanisation growth rate in Zimbabweis much faster than the
overall population, indicating continued rural migration. Much of this migration has been
dictated more by the lack of opportunities in these areas than by the presence of opportunities
in the urban areas.

5. Environmental causes

Another major cause of urbanization in Zimbabwe has been environmental factors due to
climate change and several aspects climate change such as drought and flooding for example
flooding in Muzarabani has forced people to relocate It is important to note that the tidal wave
of forced migration creates discontentedness in the poorest and most deprived parts of the
country. The recurrence and persistence of disasters in many rural parts of Zimbabwe has also
increased the migration of people to nearby towns. When the natural habitat of farming
families is destroyed due to deforestation, or other environmental destructions they are forced
to find somewhere else to live.

6. Modernization and Changes in the Mode of Living

Modernization plays a very important role in the process of urbanization. As urban areas
become technological advanced with highly sophisticated communication, infrastructure,
medical facilities, dressing code, enlightenment, liberalization, and other social amenities
availability, people believe they can lead a happy life in cities. In urban areas, people also
embrace changes in the modes of living namely residential habits, attitudes, dressing, food, and
beliefs. As a result, people migrate to cities and the cities grow by absorbing the growing
number of people day after day.

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7. Rural Urban Transformation

The process of urbanization affects all sizes of settlements, so villages gradually grow to
become small towns, smaller towns become larger towns, and large towns become cities.
This trend has led to the growth of mega-cities. It is possible that in some localities, residents
may not need to relocate or migrate to nearby cities for greener pastures, but may see the
opportunities they desire, come to them; as some rural settlements metamorphosed in to
urban settlements (Bodo, 2019).

Over time, the continuous inputs of scientific and technological knowledge in a small rural
settlement, can gradually transform it into a city. Incoming industries may begin to build up
commercial activities around their environment and beyond, due to the discovery of minerals,
resource exploitation and mechanized agricultural activities. With the prosperity of the rural
settlement, there will be increase in production and the availabilities of commercial goods and
services; which will accumulate to boost economic growth and providing more employment to
the locals. In most cases, the required skills for certain jobs in the industries may not be
available in such a rural settlement and may lead to the importation of specialized or skilled
persons to this rural settlement

As localities become more fruitful and prosperous due to the discovery of minerals, resource
exploitation, or agricultural activities, cities start emerging as the rural areas transform into
urbanism. The increase in productivity leads to economic growth and higher value-added
employment opportunities. This brings about the need to develop better infrastructure, better
education institutions, better health facilities, better transportation networks, and the
establishment of banking institutions, better governance, and better housing. As this takes
place, rural communities start to adopt the urban culture and ultimately become urban centers
that continue to grow as more people move to such locations in search of a better life.

End of unit 8.1 questions

1. Discuss the link between urbanization and industrialization (25)
2. Evaluate the factors leading to industrialization in Zimbabwe (25)
3. Discuss the factors leading to urbanization in Zimbabwe (25)
4. Assess the view that the motives behind urbanization in Zimbabwe are economic (25)

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Unit 8.2 Effects of Urbanization

Objectives
Learners should be able to
 Identify effects of urbanization
 Discuss the effects of effects of urbanization
Introduction

Urbanization yields several effects ranging from negative to positive if it happens within the
appropriate limits. Some of the positive implications of urbanization, therefore, include the
creation of employment opportunities, technological and infrastructural advancements,
improved transportation and communication, quality educational and medical facilities, and
improved standards of living. However, extensive urbanization mostly results in adverse effects.
Below listed points are a few of them.

1. Housing Problems
Urbanization attracts people to cities and towns, which leads to a high population increase.
With the increase in the number of people living in urban centers, there is a continued scarcity
of houses. This is due to insufficient expansion space for housing and public utilities, poverty,
unemployment, and costly building materials, which can only be afforded by a few individuals.
Other citizens are expected to fend for themselves, and when they cannot afford the cost of
private accommodation, they fall back to outskirt of the town to build squatter structures for
settlement.
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Activity In groups, study your nearest town, observe and state the effects of urbanization

2. Poverty
Urbanization in Zimbabwe has also been characterized by rising levels of urban poverty. Poverty
is defined as a state of long term deprivation. Poverty has also been confirmed by the Minister
of Finance and Economic Development, Honorable Chinamasa in 2014 who stipulates that
about one third of the Zimbabwean population residing in urban areas live below the poverty
line. Also evidence from the Poverty Income Consumption Expenditure Survey (PICES) of 2012
show that almost 47 per cent of people living in cities in Zimbabwe were categorized as poor
(ZIMSTATS 2012).
Due to the obstinate nature of urban poverty in urban areas proved by the lack of access to
basic services, rapid weakening of the natural environment, unemployment, the rise of informal
economic activities, and the drive towards sustainable development in Harare appears to be
lost.

Significantly, the achievement of sustainable development continues to be an unrealistic goal

unless urban poverty is eradicated. Urban poverty in Harare as such has impeded the
attainment of sustainable goals such as the aim to achieve the seventh goal of the Millennium
Development goals (MDGs) to achieve environmental sustainability by the year 2015. However,
urban poverty has threatened the efficient use of environmental resources such as the cutting
down of trees for firewood and as a source of income due to urbanization.

3. Overcrowding
Overcrowding is a situation whereby a huge number of people live in a small space. This form of
congestion in urban areas is consistent because of overpopulation and it is an aspect that
increases day by day as more people and immigrants move into cities and towns in search of a
better life. Most people from rural or undeveloped areas always have the urge of migrating into
the city that normally leads to congestion of people within a small area.

This cost of living has led many to reside overcrowded in poor quality houses in areas such as
Mbare, Hopley and Highfields in Harare where family houses are exceeding their intended
carrying capacity. The urban poor also find consolation in the construction of temporary
shelters. In 2005 almost half of the population in urban areas resided in temporary structures
such that the situation went out of hand. Eventually, it drove the government embark on the
internationally condemned Operation Murambatsvina. The Operation was intended to destroy
all illegal

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4. Unemployment
The problem of joblessness is highest in urban areas and it is even higher among educated
people. It is estimated that more than half of unemployed youths around the globe live in
metropolitan cities. And, as much as income in urban areas is high, the costs of living make the
incomes seem horribly low. The increasing relocation of people from rural or developing areas
to urban areas is the leading cause of urban unemployment.

5. Development of Slums
The cost of living in urban areas is very high. When this is combined with random and
unexpected growth as well as unemployment, there is the spread of unlawful resident
settlements represented by slums and squatters. The growth of slums and squatters in urban
areas is even further exacerbated by fast-paced industrialization, lack of developed land for
housing, a large influx of rural immigrants to the cities in search of a better life, and the
elevated prices of land beyond the reach of the urban poor.

6. Water and Sanitation Problems

Because of overpopulation and rapid population increase in most urban centers, it is common
to find there are inadequate sewage facilities. Municipalities and local governments are faced
with serious resource crisis in the management of sewage facilities. As a result, sanitation
becomes poor and sewages flow chaotically, and they are drained into neighboring streams,
rivers, lakes, or seas. Eventually, communicable diseases such as typhoid, dysentery, plague,
and diarrhea spread very fast leading to suffering and even deaths. Overcrowding also highly
contributes to water scarcity as supply falls short of demand.

7. Poor Health and Spread of Diseases

The social, economic and living conditions in congested urban areas affects access and
utilization of public health care services. Slum areas in particular experience poor sanitation and
insufficient water supply, which generally make slum populations susceptible to communicable
diseases.

Environmental problems such as urban pollution also cause many health problems namely
allergies, asthma, infertility, food poisoning, cancer and even premature deaths. Diseases like
Diarrhea and dysentery have become the norm in local clinics and hospitals, specifically to
children below 5 years of age. It can be said therefore that challenges of water and sanitation in
Harare City are evidently matters of the present and future that will affect the realization of
sustainable development goals.

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8. Traffic Congestion
When more people move to towns and cities, one of the major challenges posed is in the
transport system. More people means an increased number of vehicles, which leads to traffic
congestion and vehicular pollution. Many people in urban areas drive to work and this creates a
severe traffic problem, especially during rush hours. In addition, as the cities grow in dimension,
people will move to shop and access other social needs/wants, which often cause traffic
congestion and blockage.

9. Urban Crime
Issues of lack of resources, overcrowding, unemployment, poverty, and lack of social services
and education habitually lead to many social problems including violence, drug abuse, and
crime. Most of the crimes such as murder, rape, kidnapping, riots, assault, theft, robbery, and
hijacking are reported to be more prominent in the urban vicinities. Besides, poverty-related
crimes are the highest in fast-growing urban regions. These acts of urban crime normally upset
the peace and tranquility of cities/towns.

10. Wastes and pollution

Urbanization affects land, water, air and wildlife because of the number of people, the amount
of buildings and the increased demands on the available resources in the cities. The lack of
sanitation and sewerage systems has led to the blockage of the drainage system, causing
flooding of the city. Toxic wastes from the industries are often deposited into rivers. This results
in contamination of rivers, which makes the water unsafe for drinking and irrigation, as well as
harming the fishes. The environment is often contaminated from the emissions from the
industries and cars in the cities, which affect the health of city residents (Bodo and David, 2018)

11. Poor education

Research has shown that the aspects of quality education and learning services in Harare have
deteriorated due to urbanization thereby affecting efforts to achieve sustainable development.
Education is one of the guarantees of quality education in that it builds future human capacity
well equipped to improve the society. Nevertheless, cities in Harare have become too
populated leading to pressure on educational resources. This scenario is best explained by the
pupil to teacher ratio in Highfield and Hopley.

The teacher to pupil ratio has been used as an indicator of quality education. However,
questions rise when evidence in the two cities indicated that the ratio was between 35 and 55
in schools such as Harare High, Chirodzo Primary School, Mbare High School, Chitsere Primary
School and Shingirai Primary School in Mbare. Highfield High 1 and 2, Kwayedza High School,

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Chengu Primary School and Rusvingo Primary School in Highfield thus affecting the
dissemination of information between the teacher and the students effectively.

A case study of Chinhoyi town on the impact of urbanization by Gerald Munyoro (2016)

The study identified the impact of urbanization in Zimbabwean local authorities. These include
overload on existing infrastructure resulting in a mismatch between service provided by the
local authority and the number of people in that area as noted by Morgan (2009).

Poor service delivery is evidenced by shortage of portable water, poor solid waste management,
persistent sewer blockages and high rates of social illegal activities like crime and prostitution.
From the research all this was attributed to high population growth in urban areas.

Munyoro found out that in Zimbabwe the economy is not performing well and there are hardly
any employment opportunities. This is resulting in many people staying in urban areas without
formal employment; hence, they cannot pay for services rendered to them by local authorities.

Urban population is increasing but local authorities are not upgrading their infrastructure like
water and sewer. Whenever there are new residential developments coming up they continue
to connect from existing infrastructure, and this causes a lot of pressure on existing
infrastructure resulting in persistent sewer blockages and water shortages as noted by Morgan
(2009). In Chinhoyi, Council has been producing 16 mega litres of water per day since 2005.
However, from that time, many new suburbs like Rusununguko, Mapako and Rujeko were
created and they are still sharing the same 16mega litres of water being produced per day
(Munyoro, 2016). To him, Council is failing to upgrade its water treatment plant because of
unavailability of resources. No funds are coming from the government like what used to obtain
in the past when local authorities received grants and later capital development loans under
the Public Sector Investment.

Marxist perspective on the effects urbanization

Marx and Engels condemned the consequences of urbanization under capitalism. They viewed
the concentration and misery of the mass of workers in the new urban agglomerations as a
necessary stage in the creation of a revolutionary force. For them pauperization and material
degradation was one aspect of urbanization but equally important was the destruction of the
social nexus of the traditional community and its replacement by the utilitarian world of the city.
Both for theory and practice communism depended on urbanism.

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Mumford in his book 'The city in history' sees cities as enlarging all dimensions of life as the
scattered as the scattered activities of society are brought together so releasing the energies of
mankind in a tremendous explosion of creativity. The city has augmented capabilities for
participation and widened the basis of personal experience.

In the writings of Neo-Marxists like Mills, Marcuse, there is a consensus that conditions of
capitalist urbanization are mutilate of the personality, inhibitive of community formation,
destructive of social engagement or involvement and conducive to apathy, alienation and
anomie. Class-consciousness is inhibited and diverted in mass movements, unreason and not
reason typifies social response.

However, Sociologists from Tonnies to Wirth developed counter-theory to Marxism for the
explication of social change led to acceptance of a fundamental cleavage between rural and
urban, tradition and modernism, which was in sharp opposition to any variant on Marxist
theories of development. The urban is accepted as a frame of reference and the urban society
as a specific mode of social organization becomes the object of scientific study.

Feminist on the effects of urbanization

Feminist hold idea that cities are fundamentally unsafe for women, and that women migrating
to cities are turning their backs on domesticated safe areas, is not new. Kern writes that in
Victorian London, many people were concerned about the rubbing of shoulders across gender
and class lines that was a core part of urban life. Thus, “women’s gradually expanding freedoms
were thus met with moral panic over everything from sex work to bicycles”. “Public woman”
was synonymous with sex worker, for instance, driving home the message that women’s sphere
was rightly the private home or the country space. In Paris in the 1870s, one compromise was
the department store, which was created explicitly as a public space intended for (affluent)
women. Gendered moral panics have taken different forms since then.

Urban planners and policymakers tend to be male, and their blind spots about gendered urban
obstacles means that those obstacles are perpetuated. Even navigating a city without expecting
to be harassed is an experience generally only available to (some) men. The inaccessibility of
many London Underground stations for prams (or wheelchairs), Toronto’s guidelines for wind
effects that are based on a male “standard person”, and Delhi’s long queues for scarce
women’s toilets are other examples of men's constructed position as the default urban dwellers.

End of unit 8.2 exercise questions

1. Discuss the effects of urbanization (25)
2. Examine the view that the effects of urbanization are destructive (25)
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 3. Assess the link between urbanization and crime (25)
4. Discuss the effects of urbanization on culture in Zimbabwe (25)
5. Discuss the social benefits of urbanization in Zimbabwe (25)
6. Examine the view that the negative effects of urbanization are inevitable (25)
7. Discuss the link between urbanization and economic development (25)
8. Assess the view that urbanization is male biased (25)
9. Discuss the notion that urban areas a dangerous hotspot to women (25)
10. Examine the view that urbanization has promoted both good and bad social services
in Zimbabwe (25)

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Unit 8.3 Government policies
Objectives

Learners should be able to

 Identify government policies on urbanization
 Evaluate government policies on urbanization

Introduction
In Zimbabwe, urban policy comprises a blend of historically established laws by the government
with the efforts to address problems associated with urbanization. However, the policies
introduced have their strengths and weaknesses. Thus, in this unit, we are going to discuss the
Zimbabwean government policies in motion.

(a) The Growth Point Policy

An industrial decentralization policy was adopted in Zimbabwe in the first five-year
development plan introduced in 1980 (after independence). Industrialist were encouraged to
locate their industries outside Harare, Bulawayo and other urban industrial cores, and locate at
designated centres or growth points in the rural areas. This strategy saw the establishment of
Chisumbanje, Wedza, Murewa, Nkayi, Jerera, Sanyati, Mataga, Mushumbi, Maphisa and Gutu
as the focal points for this programme (Rambanapasi 1990).
These growth points were to act as centers of economic development, with the intention that
they will eventually become natural centers of economic growth in the disadvantaged areas
and as a result would reduce urbanization, as they would limit the flooding of people into urban
areas (Carr 1997; Perroux, 1958).
However, scholars like (Conyers, 2001) point out that this strategy failed to produce the
intended result and curb urbanization. This is largely because the growth points lacked a strong
economic base, poor investment levels, inadequate infrastructure, unsatisfactory government
support and financial incentives, like tax concessions among other things. To make matters
worse, cuts in government expenditure under the auspices of economic reforms in the 1990‘s
came into being before the programme of infrastructure development and service provision
was accomplished.

(b) Operation Restore Order 2005 (Murambatsvina)

Rapid urbanization in the major cities of Zimbabwe brought with it the challenge of not only
unemployment but also came with it the accommodation challenges. As decent houses
Population resorted to squatting and the development of shanty houses. By the year 2005, the
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situation had become worse resulting in government embarking on an internationally
condemned Operation Murambatsvina/ Restore Order. The operation demolished cabins,
illegal structures and informal productions (Vambe 2008, Tibaijuka 2005).

However, although some people relocated to the rural areas, the so called Operation Restore
Order did not yield the intended results. This is because the process attracted severe criticism
nationally and internationally. It is interesting to note critics like (Chirisa 2007) lamenting the
action by the government as ―the hen that eats her own eggs. From a human rights
perspective, it is argued that the campaign followed gross human rights violations as people
were used to their own houses without due notice, process or compensation (Sachikonye 2006).
Internationally, critics believed that this operation was a stance by the government to punish
the so called opposition cohorts alleged to be residing in urban areas (ICG 2005, Tibaijuka 2005).
Above all, Murambatsvina made people desperate to such an extent that they started settling
at any open space in makeshift homes thus paving way to another government campaign
Operation Settle and Prosper of 2006.

(c) Operation Garikai/ Hlalani Kuhle/ Settle and Prosper

This movement was a property ownership scheme aimed at offering decent housing to those
affected by Operation Murambatsvina. However, this also failed because it failed to meet the
shelter needs of the evictions. Qualification to this scheme was based on proof of formal
employment and a specified salary, which made it unaffordable to the homeless especially
those who were employed in the informal sector. It also failed because it failed to prioritize the
victims of the operation (Chikuwa). About 700,000 people were left deserted after the
demolition of houses, as well as informal traders when their goods were confiscated. The
failure of the campaign can be noticed in that in less than a decade the informal sector had
resuscitated, taking new shapes in scope, dimension and variations. This gave a clear picture
that the bulldozer was a temporary solution, as it could not deal with the informal sector. A
good example of this is Harare today, plagued by informal actions such as vending, illegal
transport operators, moneychangers, informal settlements, urban agricultural activities,
educational informality and small enterprises
(d) The Toll Gate System

This was in a bid to limit the number of people moving

into towns. The tollgate system saw the building of
tollgates on major roads such as the Harare- Bulawayo

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road, the Harare-Masvingo road and lastly but not least, the Harare- Mutare road. This system
also saw the increase in the tollgate fee to a double of the usual amount.
However, this strategy worked to a lesser extent as it only increased the revenue of the
transport authority, (ZINARA) and did not necessarily fulfill what it was intended to.
This failure was because, public transport operators as a response strategy created their own
escape routes to flee from the tollgates as well as increased the passenger travelling fee so that
they can balance their profit as they pay for the tollgates. This generally meant that the tollgate
system has failed to reduce urbanization in Harare.

(e) The New National Housing Policy (2012)

The new housing policy of 2012 focuses on the promotion of Community Based organization to
meet housing needs in Zimbabwe.
However, the policy is crippled by the lack of financial support and most importantly due to
bureaucracy in land administration; this macro-economic blueprint is aimed at achieving
sustainable development and socio equity through indigenization, empowerment and
employment creation.
The programme is expected delivery to deliver 125,000 housing units and/or serviced stands
whilst, the ZANU PF Party‘s manifesto targets 250,000 units and/or serviced stands, by the end
of the ZIM-ASSET plan period, December 2018 (Ministry of Local Governance, Public Works and
National Housing).
However, the programme is yet to bring any results as the shortage of housing and
unemployment is still on the rise due to urbanization. Many urban dwellers still reside in poor
housing conditions, and cases of job losses are on the rise. It also important to note that the
majority of the people in need of housing in Zimbabwe fall within the low-income bracket
hence the Programme is yet to reflect any

f)The Informal Sector

The loss of formal employment has witnessed the rise of the informal sector in Zimbabwe.
Informal activities have created a volatile situation in the country‘s Central Business Districts
(CBDs) since it has increased the urban population share. Informal activities in Zimbabwe have
in recent times come in a different manner ranging from the selling of groceries, handsets,
fruits and vegetables, second hand clothes, pesticides among others along every street in the
Central Business District. This vending activity has not been appreciated since it has threatened
the sustainability of cities in Zimbabwe and if not addressed would result in serious
consequences.

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The city fathers have tried to respond to this situation through the creation of market places for
these vendors to go but however, the vendors prefer to remain on the streets which they
believe have more business that in the designated areas. Also the city of Harare has tried to
confiscate the vendors ‘goods and charge them a find for remaining on the streets but still a
more effective strategy has to be sought to deal with this scenario.

Furthermore, the government has tried to prohibit the flow of second hand clothes since it is
the major informal activity but the issue has become a threat of national security. Research has
shown that the informal sector in Zimbabwe has become the source of livelihood in Zimbabwe
and this means that any efforts by the government would result from violence from informal
operators. The thinking was that if all these strategies would keep people off the streets, many
had no option but to go back to the rural areas hence reducing pressure in urban areas but
however, all these efforts have failed to achieve the intended result.

g) The Barning of Second Hand Vehicles

The Transport Authority in Zimbabwe also tried to deal with urbanization by decongesting cities.
This was to be done by barning entrance of second hand vehicles into the country.

End of unit 8.3 exercise questions

1. Describe government policies on urbanization (25)

2. Discuss Zimbabwean government on urbanization (25)
3. To what extent did the tollgate system manage to curb urbanization problems (25)
4. Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of Zimbabwean government policies on
urbanization (250
5. Despite the efforts taken by the Zimbabwean government, examine why the
urbanization problems are still in persistence (25)

Summary

The sociology of urbanization as discussed earlier has focused on the relationship between
economic changes and the movement of people where there are some prospects. Thus, the
changes in the modes of production, which is sometime referred to as industrialization has
attracted people, families and individuals to urban cities. However, such a movement has some
problems if not properly managed; these problems are cultural and economical among others.
However, in response, the government of Zimbabwe came up with pieces of policies to contain
the situation though some of the policies have imo0lemantiton problems.

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Glossary

Employment opportunities - refers to a high probability of getting a job, or being employed.

Industrialization - Industrialization is the process of transforming the economy of a nation or

region from a focus on agriculture to a reliance on manufacturing. Mechanized methods of
mass production are an essential component of this transition.

Operation Murambatsvina - Operation Murambatsvina (Move the Rubbish), also officially

known as Operation Restore Order, was a large-scale Zimbabwean government campaign to
forcibly clear slum areas across the country.

Over crowding - is the condition where more people are located within a given space than is
considered tolerable from a safety and health.

Poverty- about not having enough money to meet basic needs including food, clothing and
shelter.

Swatter camps - Settlements with shacks made of wood, cardboard, tin and other scrap
material.

Shanty settlements - is a settlement of improvised buildings known as shanties or shacks,

typically made of materials such as mud and wood.

Traffic congestion - Traffic congestion is a condition in transport that is characterized by slower

speeds, longer trip times, and increased vehicular queueing.

Toll gate system - A toll road, also known as a turnpike or tollway, is a public or private road for
which a fee (or toll) is assessed for passage.

Urbanization - Urbanization refers to the mass movement of populations from rural to urban
settings and the consequent physical changes to urban settings.

End of term exercise

1. Discuss the link between urbanization (25)

2. Examine the causes of urbanization (25)
3. Assess government policies on urbanization (25)

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Topic 19 : GOVERNANCE

AND

CITIZENSHIP

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Units covered
9.1 types of government
9.2 constitutionalism
9.3 Power and authority
9.4 Role of the state
9.5 Citizenry

Introduction

In this topic, we are going to focus on the governance and power relations. The state
determines who is a citizen and who is not. Numerous institutions make up the state, including
the government, the legal system, the police, and the military. Governance is commonly
defined as the exercise of power or authority by political leaders for the well-being of their
country’s citizens or subjects. Governance has been defined to refer to structures and
processes that are designed to ensure accountability, transparency, responsiveness, rule of law,
stability, equity and inclusiveness, empowerment, and broad-based participation. Governance
also represents the norms, values and rules of the game through which public affairs are
managed in a manner that is transparent, participatory, inclusive and responsive. Governance
therefore can be subtle and may not be easily observable. The term state refers to the
organized system of power and authority in society. The state is an abstract concept that
includes the institutions that represent official power in society, including the government, the
legal system (law, courts, and the prison system), the police, and the military (Andersen et al
2017).

Unit 9.1 TYPES OF GOVERNMENT

Objectives
Learners should be able to ;
 Discuss types of governments
 Examine the types of government
Introduction

Governance is a very important issue in sociology considering the fact that each government
has an impact on the economies, political systems and social activities of the country. Thus in
this unit, we are going to di9scuss various types of governments. Below , are the most common
types of governments,

Monarchy
A monarchy is a government in which a single person (a monarch) rules until he or she dies or
abdicates the throne. Usually, a monarch claims the rights to the title by way of hereditary

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succession or as a result of some sort of divine appointment (divine right) or calling.Monarchy is
commonly found in the ancient agrarian societies; the Bible, for example, tells of great kings
such as David and Solomon. Today, claims of divine right are rare, although monarchs in a
number of nations—including Saudi Arabia and Oman—still exercise almost absolute control
over their people (Macionis 2012) .

A few nations today, however, are run by governments wherein a monarch has absolute or
unmitigated power. Such nations are called absolute monarchies.
In today’s global political climate, monarchies far more often take the form of constitutional
monarchies, governments of nations that recognize monarchs but require these figures to
abide by the laws of a greater constitution. Many countries that are now constitutional
monarchies evolved from governments that were once considered absolute monarchies. In
most cases, constitutional monarchies, such as Great Britain and Canada, feature elected prime
ministers whose leadership role is far more involved and significant than that of its titled
monarchs.

Democracy
A democracy is a form of government that strives to provide all citizens with an equal voice, or
vote, in determining state policy, regardless of their level of socioeconomic status. It is a
political system that gives power to the people as a whole. In a literal sense, democracy means
government by the people. The word democracy originated in two Greek roots—demos,
meaning “the populace” or “the common people,” and kratia, meaning “rule.” Democracies, in
general, ensure certain basic rights for their citizens. First and foremost, citizens are free to
organize political parties and hold elections. Leaders, once elected, must abide by the terms of
the given nation’s constitution and are limited in the powers they can exercise, as well as in the
length of the duration of their terms. Most democratic societies also champion freedom of
individual speech, the press, and assembly, and they prohibit unlawful imprisonment. The term
representative democracy, which is virtually synonymous with republic, can also be used to
describe a government in which citizens elect representatives to promote policies that favor
their interests.
Authoritarianism government
In authoritarian states, popular participation is denied or severely curtailed. It is a political
system that denies the people participation in government In such societies, the needs and
interests of the state are prioritized over those of average citizens The absolute monarchies in
Saudi Arabia and Oman are authoritarian, as is the military junta in Ethiopia (Macionis 2012).

Totalitarian government

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It involves virtually complete government control and surveillance over all aspects of a society’s
social and political life. Germany during Hitler’s reign, the Soviet Union in the 1930s, and North
Korea today are classified as totalitarian states. Hitler organized a ruthless secret police force,
the Gestapo, which searched for any sign of dissent. Spies even watched how moviegoers
reacted to newsreels, reporting those who did not respond “appropriately” (Hippler 1987).
Saddam Hussein acted just as ruthlessly toward Iraqis. The lucky ones who opposed Hussein
were shot; the unlucky ones had their eyes gouged out, were bled to death, or were buried
alive (Amnesty International 2005). The punishment for telling a joke about Hussein was to
have your tongue cut out.

In the broadest sense, totalitarianism is characterized by strong central rule that attempts to
control and direct all aspects of individual life through coercion and repression. It also
characterized by single-party government. As the term itself implies, such governments have a
total concentration of power, allowing no organized opposition. Denying the people the right to
assemble and controlling access to information, these governments create an atmosphere of
personal isolation and fear.
Socialization in totalitarian societies is intensely political with the goal of obedience and
commitment to the system. In North Korea, pictures of leaders and political messages are
everywhere, reminding citizens that they owe total allegiance to the state.
Theocracy
Government leaders are members of the clergy (church officials), and the legal system is based
on the religious law Leaders are “divinely guided” (chosen and lead by a supreme being) e.g.
the Vatican (pope) and Iran
Dictatorship

It is a government in which one person has nearly total power to make and enforce laws.
Dictators rule primarily through the use of coercion, which often includes torture and
executions. Typically, they seize power rather than being freely elected (as in a democracy) or
inheriting power (as in a monarchy). If a small group seizes power, the government is called an
oligarchy. The occasional coups in Central, South America, and Africa, in which military leaders
seize control of a country, are often oligarchies. Although one individual may be named
president, often it is military officers, working behind the scenes, who make the decisions. If
their designated president becomes uncooperative, they remove him from office and appoint
another.

Some dictators are quite charismatic and manage to achieve a certain popularity, though their
supporters’ enthusiasm is almost certainly tinged with fear.

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Other dictators are bitterly hated by the people over whom they rule. Dictatorship is
substituted by known terms such as autocracy, military junta, authoritarianism, totalitarianism
or fascism. Examples include Joseph Stalin, Adolf Hitler, Saddam Hussein, Cambodia’s Pol Pot.

End of unit 9.1 exercise questions

1. Discuss various types of governments (25)
2. Analyze the view that a democratic government is the best government (25)
3. Examine the strength of a monarchy as a government (25)

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Unit 9.2 CONSTITUTIONALISM
Objectives
Learners should be able to;
 To discuss the importance of constitution of Zimbabwe
 Analyze the constitution of Zimbabwe

Introduction
In this unit we are going to discuss the constitution of Zimbabwe by examining its main
functions. Today, constitutionalism has become as important an issue as that of good
governance. In ordinary parlance, constitutionalism may be defined as a belief in constitutional
government. The vast majority of contemporary constitutions describe the basic principles of
the state, the structures and processes of government and the fundamental rights of citizens in
a higher law that cannot be unilaterally changed by an ordinary legislative act. This higher law is
usually referred to as a constitution. A constitution can be defined as basic principles and laws
of a nation, state or social group that determine the powers and duties of the government and
guarantee certain rights to the people in it.
Key Terms

Constitutionalism: It can be defined as the doctrine that governs the legitimacy of government
action, and it implies something far more important than the idea of legality that requires
official conduct to be in accordance with pre-fixed legal rules. In other words, constitutionalism
checks whether the act of a government is legitimate and whether officials conduct their public
duties in accordance with laws pre-fixed/ pre-determined in advance.

The functions of a constitution

1. Constitutions can declare and define the boundaries of the political community. These
boundaries can be territorial (the geographical borders of a state, as well as its claims to any
other territory or extra-territorial rights) and personal (the definition of citizenship). Thus, a
constitution often distinguishes between those inside and outside the polity.

2. Constitutions can declare and define the nature and authority of the
political community. They often declare the state’s fundamental principles and assumptions, as
well as where its sovereignty lies.

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For example, the French Constitution declares that ‘France is an indivisible,
secular, democratic and social Republic’ and that ‘National sovereignty belongs to the people,
who exercise it through their representatives and by
means of referendums’. The Constitution of Ghana (1992) states that ‘The Sovereignty of Ghana
resides in the people of Ghana in whose name and
for whose welfare the powers of government are to be exercised’.

3. Constitutions can express the identity and values of a national community. As nation-building
instruments, constitutions may define the national flag, anthem and other symbols, and may
make proclamations about the values, history and identity of the nation.

4. Constitutions can declare and define the rights and duties of citizens. Most constitutions
include a declaration of fundamental rights applicable to citizens. At a minimum, these will
include the basic civil liberties that are necessary for an open and democratic society (e.g. the
freedoms of thought, speech, association and assembly; due process of law and freedom from
arbitrary arrest or unlawful punishment). Many constitutions go beyond this minimum to
include social, economic and cultural rights or the specific collective rights of minority
communities. In addition, some rights may apply to both citizens and non-citizens, such as the
right to be free from torture or physical abuse.

5. Constitutions can establish and regulate the political institutions of

the community. Constitutions define the various institutions of government; prescribe their
composition, powers and functions; and regulate relations between them. Almost all
constitutions establish legislative, executive and judicial branches of government. In addition,
there may be a symbolic head of state, institutions to ensure the integrity of the political
process (e.g. an electoral commission), and institutions to ensure the accountability and
transparency of those in power (e.g. an ombudsman). The institutional provisions typically
provide mechanisms for the democratic allocation and peaceful transfer of power (e.g.
elections) and for the restraint and removal of those who abuse power or who have lost the
confidence of the people (e.g. impeachment procedures).

6. Constitutions can divide or share power between different layers of government or sub-
state communities. Many constitutions establish federal, quasi-federal or decentralized
processes for the sharing of power between provinces, regions or other sub-state communities.
These may be geographically defined (as in most federations, such as Argentina, Canada or
India), or they may be defined by cultural or linguistic communities (e.g. the 1994 Constitution
of Belgium, which establishes autonomous linguistic communities in addition to geographical
regions).

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7. Constitutions can declare the official religious identity of the state and
demarcate relationships between sacred and secular authorities. This is particularly important
in societies where religious and national identities are interrelated, or where religious law has
traditionally determined matters of personal status or the arbitration of disputes between
citizens.

8. Constitutions can commit states to particular social, economic or developmental goals. This
may take the form of judicially enforceable socio-economic rights, directive principles that are
politically binding on the government, or other expressions of commitment or intent.

9) it ensures free and basic compulsory education as a right - the constitution States that the
state must take all practical measures to promote free and basic education for children. The
government introduced education for all and Basic Education Assistance Module what has
made parents to realize the global goal of education. Basic Education Assistance Module (BEAM)
has paid tuition and examination fees for the disadvantaged groups hence the government can
be credited for following the objectives of its constitution.

10) It ensures gender equality and balance

The constitution States that the state must take all measures to promote the full participation
of women in all spheres of Zimbabwe society on the basis of equality with men. Both genders
must be fully represented in all intuitions and agencies of government at every level. For
example, Joyce Mujuru was the first woman vice president in Zimbabwe hence, gender equality.

Challenges, which reduces the importance of the constitution

1) Economic problems

The government is facing a number of problems due to sanctions and drought hence policies
like free education might appear as an aspiration and dream.

2) Patriarchy

Many Feminist specifically the radicals believe that the most laws in patriarchal societies are
patriarchal hence Zimbabwe still have a long way to achieve gender equality.

3) Political power and class position

Marxists perspective has argued that the law is a reflection of ruling class ideology hence the
law might largely apply to the working class not ruling class.

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4) Implementation problems

The Zimbabwean constitution has a problem of implementation, for example, freedom of

speech was prohibited during the time of President Mugabe. The state Television is still biased.

5. Constitutional crisis

Constitutional crisis has reduced the importance of a constitution. Zimbabwe is facing a

constitutional crisis considering the developments, which took place during the land reform.
There was such a constitutional crisis in 2000 when the courts issued orders for people who had
occupied the then white-owned commercial farms to vacate but the government-withheld
enforcement of those orders (Whitser, 2014). The standoff led to the escalation of tensions
between the executive and the judiciary, a deadlock that could only be resolved by one of them
backing down.

After an unprecedented invasion of the Supreme Court building by rogue war veterans, Patrick
Chinamasa, who was the Minister of Justice, Legal and Parliamentary Affairs told the Chief
Justice that his safety could no longer be guaranteed. Thereafter, the judiciary backed down. As
if that was not enough, Chief Justice Anthony Gubbay was forced to take early retirement before
a mass exodus of judges followed soon afterward. The constitutional crisis ended with the
judiciary’s fundamental complete reconstituting, which resulted in a more executive-friendly
bench. Thus, one may say that apparent capture of the judiciary might also be regarded as a
manifestation of a constitutional crisis.

End of unit 9:2 exercise questions

1. Describe any four functions of Zimbabwean constitution (25)

2. Examine the advantages of a democratic government (25)
3. Assess the importance the rule of law in Zimbabwe (25)
4. Discuss the role of a constitution in promoting democracy (25)
5. Examine the view that there is constitutional crisis in Zimbabwe (25)

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Unit 9:3 Power and Authority

Objectives
Learners should be able to;
 Identify forms of power and authority in Zimbabwe
 Evaluate the forms of p[power and authority

Introduction

The words power and authority are used interchangeably but they have different meanings.
Does the Pastor has power or authority from God? It is obvious that the Pastor possesses
authority from God. Such an answer will make you understand the differences between power
and authority. German sociologist Max Weber defined power, as the ability to exercise ones
will over others (Weber 1922). Henslin (2012) defines power as the ability to carry out your will,
even over the resistance of others. To Weber, power is about getting your own way, even
against the opposition of others. According to Schaefer (2012), there are three basic sources of
power within any political system: force, influence, and authority.

Force is the actual or threatened use of coercion to impose one’s will on others. When leaders
imprison or even execute political dissidents, they are applying force; so, too, are terrorists
when they seize or bomb an embassy or assassinate a political leader. Influence, on the other
hand, refers to the exercise of power through a process of persuasion E.g. what election
candidates do to voters at a rally. Weber has also defined the concept of authority as power
that people perceive as legitimate rather than coercive. According to Henslin (2012), legitimate
power is called authority. People accept this power as right. In contrast, illegitimate power—
called coercion—is power that people do not accept as just
A person’s authority is often limited. Thus, a referee has the authority to decide whether a
penalty should be called during a football game, but has no authority over the price of tickets to
the game
Background Five Forms of Power

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Social psychologists John R. P. French and Bertram H. Raven conducted a remarkable study
about power in 1959. They stated that power is divided into five separate and different forms.
As we know, power and leadership are closely linked. The concept shows how the different
forms of power affect a person’s leadership and success.

This concept is often used in an organization-wide communication. The French-Raven’s five

forms of power are introduced with observance of the level of observability, and the extent to
which the power is dependent on structural conditions. Dependency refers to the degree of
internalization that occurs among individuals subject to social control. On the basis of these
considerations, it is possible to link personal processes to structural conditions.

What are the Five Forms of Power?

John French and Bertram Raven introduced the following forms of power:

 Coercive Power
 Reward Power
 Legitimate Power
 Referent Power
 Expert Power

1. Coercive Power - This form of power is based upon the idea of coercion. This means that
someone is forced to do something against his or her will. The main objective of coercion is
compliance. This form of power illustrates what happens when compliance is not obtained.
According to French and Raven there are also other forms of power that can be used in a
coercive manner such as withholding rewards or expertise or using referent power to threaten
social exclusion. The force of power is also associated positively with punitive behaviour and
negatively associated with conditional reward behaviour. This form of power often leads to
problems. In many cases, this form of power is abused. Coercive power can lead to unhealthy
behavior and dissatisfaction at work. Leaders who use this leadership style rely on threats in
their management styles. Often these threats relate to dismissal or demotion.

2. Reward Power - This type of power involves the ability of individuals to delegate matters they
do not wish to do to other people and to reward them for this. For managers in an organization
it is a perceived possibility to value or reward their subordinates’ good results in a positive
manner. This form of power is based on the idea that as a society we are more inclined to do
things well when we are getting something in return for this. The most popular forms are raises,
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promotions or compliments. The problem with this form of power is that when the reward does
not have enough perceived value to others, the power is weakened. One of the frustrations
when using rewards is that they often need to be bigger than the last time if they are to have the
same effect. Even then, when they are given regularly, employees can become satiated by the
rewards and as a result, they will lose their effectiveness.

3. Legitimate Power - This form of power gives the ability to link certain feelings of obligation or
notion of responsibility to the management. Rewarding and punishing employees can be seen as
a legitimate part of the formal or appointed leadership role. Most managers in organizations
execute a certain degree of reward and punishment. Legitimate power is usually based on a role.
People always run with the pack and traditionally obey the one person with power which is
solely based on their position or title. This form of power can easily be overcome as soon as
someone loses their position or title. This power is a weak form to persuade and convince other
people.

4. Referent Power - This form of power is about management based on the ability to administer
to someone a sense of personal acceptance or approval. The leader in this form of power is
often seen as a role model. Their power is often treated with admiration or charm. This power
emanates from a person that is highly liked and people identify strongly with them in some way.
A leader who has referent power often has a good appreciation of their environment and
therefore tends to have a lot of influence. Responsibility in this form of power is heavy and one
can easily lose oneself in this. In combination with other forms of power, it can be very useful.
Celebrities often have this form of power in society, but also lose a lot of power because of
certain circumstances.

5. Expert Power - This form of power is based on in-depth information, knowledge or expertise.
These leaders are often highly intelligent and they trust in their power to fulfil several
organizational roles and responsibilities. This ability enables them to combine the power of
reward in the right mode. The fact is that if someone has a particular expertise within an
organization, they can often persuade employees, who trust and respect them, to do things for
them. This expertise is greatly appreciated and forms the basis of this type of leadership.

6 charismatic power- Charismatic power similarly, charismatic leaders have the ability to
influence others. While they may or may not have an established network of contacts, they
usually have a natural ability to persuade or inspire others. It also includes one’s personal traits
like good looks, bravery, exceptional talent like singing, playing soccer etc. Thus, one wields
power over those who want to be identified with his/her charisma

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Forms of authority
Max Weber ([1947) developed a classification system for authority that has become one of the
most useful and frequently cited contributions of early sociology. He identified three ideal types
of authority: traditional, rational-legal, and charismatic. Ideal type does not refer to what is
ideal or desirable, but to a composite of characteristics found in many real-life examples. A
particular leader, then, may show a combination of characteristics. Weber did not insist that
only one type applies to a given society or organization. All can be present, but their relative
importance will vary. Sociologists have found Weber’s typology valuable in understanding
different manifestations of legitimate power within a society

1. Traditional Authority

It is power legitimized by respect for long-established cultural patterns. Woven into a

population’s collective memory, traditional authority means that people accept a system,
usually one of hereditary leadership, simply because it has always been that way. Preindustrial
societies, said Weber, rely on traditional authority. A monarchy is an example of a traditional
system of authority. Within a monarchy, kings and queens rule, not necessarily because they
have won elections, but because of longstanding tradition e.g. village heads in most rural areas
of Zimbabwe.

Traditional authority declines as societies industrialize. Hannah Arendt (1963) pointed out that
traditional authority remains strong only as long as everyone shares the same beliefs and way
of life. The advantage of traditional authority is that it promotes social solidarity and social
order as people are united by customs and tradition behind their leader. Coups and social
unrests are very uncommon under such authority
However, traditional authority is also a source of strength for patriarchy, the domination of
women by men. This traditional form of power is still widespread, although it is increasingly
challenged.

2. Rational-Legal Authority
Weber defined rational-legal authority (sometimes-called bureaucratic authority) as power
legitimized by legally enacted rules and regulations. Rational-legal authority is power
legitimized in the operation of lawful government People obey not because national leaders are
charismatic or because of social traditions, but because there is a legal system of authority
established by formalized rules and regulation.

3.Rational–legal authority

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 is based not on custom but on written rules. Rational means reasonable and legal means part
of law. Thus, rational–legal refers to matters that have been agreed to by reasonable people
and written into law (or regulations of some sort). The matters that are agreed to may be as
broad as a constitution that specifies the rights of all members of a society or as narrow as a
contract between two individuals. Because bureaucracies are based on written rules, rational–
legal authority is sometimes called bureaucratic authority.
Bureaucracy is a formal organization characterized by an authority hierarchy, a clear division of
labor, explicit rules, and impersonality. In contrast to traditional authority, rational-legal
authority comes not from family background but from a position in government organization. A
traditional monarch rules for life, but a modern president like in Zimbabwe accepts and gives
up power according to law, which shows that presidential authority lies in the office, not in the
person. The advantage of this type of authority is that it promotes constitutionalism in a
country.

Leaders will be ruling guided by set rules. Officials are guided by the prescribed rules, policies
and practices rather than by patronage or other privileged treatment.
The other advantage is predictability. The rules, regulations, specialization, structure and
training import predictability and thereby ensure stability in the society. Conformity to rules
and roles in the structural framework bring about order to cope with complexity
However the disadvantage is that bureaucratic authority is sometimes characterized by rigidity.
Rules and regulations in a bureaucracy are often rigid and inflexible. Rigid compliance with rules
and regulations discourages initiative and creativity. It may also provide the cover to avoid
responsibility for failures.

3. Charismatic Authority
Finally, Weber claimed that power can turn into authority through charisma. Charismatic
authority is power legitimized by extraordinary personal abilities that inspire devotion and
obedience. Unlike traditional and rational-legal authority, charismatic authority depends less on
a person’s ancestry or office and more on personality. It is derived from the personal appeal of
a leader. Charismatic leaders are often believed to have special gifts, even magical powers, and
their presumed personal attributes inspire devotion and obedience. E.g. Prophet Walter
Magaya of PHD Ministries

Because charismatic authority flows from a single individual, the leader’s death creates a crisis.
Survival of a charismatic movement, Weber explained, requires the reutilization of charisma,
the transformation of charismatic authority into some combination of traditional and
bureaucratic authority (Macionis 2012).

Advantages of charismatic authority

It is a leadership style which creates an emotional appeal. People are inspired by charismatic
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leaders because they see a chance to reach their own dreams. These leaders give them a
chance to do something that feels bigger than themselves. They want to follow these people
because they feel like there is an emotional connection between themselves and the leader

Functions/ the role of the state

1) Legislative role. The state make a positive legislative environment and policy framework that
enables various arms of the state to explore and achieve their potential while maintaining a
high standard of operations to protect public interest. In making laws, the state decrees which
actions are or are not legitimate. Punishments for illegitimate actions are enforced, and
systems for administering punishment are maintained
2) Meeting social needs. The functionalist Talcott Parsons (1967) sees the state as an
authoritative being. It is regarded as legitimate as long as it achieves what he calls ‘collective
goal’, which are to care for the society.
3) Maintaining law and order. Protest movements that challenge state authority or disrupt
society may be repressed through state action, such as through police or military force. Even in
democratic societies, social control can be exercised in multiple ways, including electronic
surveillance.
4). Mediating between different groups. Pluralists see the state as an honest broker, which
takes account of all the conflicting demands made on it by different sections of society. It
makes sure none gets its own way all the time e.g. the government can make a decision, which
favors informal sector such

, the state as permitting small-scale mining. On the other it might decide against such a move in
order to take account of the protests of environmentalists

5) Raise and maintain a strong army - according to Machiavelli the role of state is to raise
powerful army and defend the borders. To himshould ensure military preparedness for the
preservation of the state. Prince should organize a strong army to meet any internal and
external threat to his power. Strong and regular army was must for a state for its own defense.
The state try to build up its own independent, regular and faithful army. Such an army should
consist of its own citizens and be prepared not only to defend its national borders but also to
expand.

6. Protect the property and rights of individuals. According to Hobbes, the state is a contract
with the citizens. The state was cr afted to protect the interest and properties of citizens.

The role of the state in modern contemporary societies or ‘Human Community’ is to address
the current issues of its people regardless of geographical region, identity and culture. The
features of the state interconnects the idealist, functionalist and organization perspectives as it
acts in unison in relation to its sovergnity, private and public sectors, legitimating, domination
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and territorial aspects. This involvement is characterized by at least three fundamentals;
increasing human interconnection (networking globally), examining the pace and depth of
human evolution (history) and linking the scale of anthropological and ecological
transformation (social, cultural, economic and technological).

However, Marxist have argued that through force and coercion (the police, the prisons and the
army as state run institutions to repress the exploited members of society)he state could also
be manipulated by the bourgeoisie. The state often relied upon borrowing money from the
bourgeoisie in order to meet its debts hence the bourgeoisie could withhold loans if the policies
are not beneficial to them

Ralph Miliband argued that the state could sometimes act as ‘the direct tool or instrument of
those who possess economic power’. They used it to preserve their economic dominance and
preventing threats to their position.

End of unit 9.3

1. Discuss forms of power and authority in Zimbabwe (25)

2. Distinguish between power and authority (25)

3. Discuss the functions of charismatic authority (25)

4. Describe forms of power (25)

5. Examine the view that power is legitimate (25)

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Unit 9.4 The role of the state

OBJECTIVES
Learners should be able to ;
 Explain the functions of the state
 Assess the functions of the state

Introduction
In this unit, we are going to discuss the functions of state. In this unit we focus on the
realization, which the state carries out a targeted management impact on various spheres of
public life. These functions manifest national characteristics of the country, because the state is
obliged t6o provide the geo-political interest of citizens.

1) Legislative role. The state make a positive legislative environment and policy framework that
enables various arms of the state to explore and achieve their potential while maintaining a
high standard of operations to protect public interest. In making laws, the state decrees which
actions are or are not legitimate. Punishments for illegitimate actions are enforced, and
systems for administering punishment are maintained
2) Meeting social needs. The functionalist Talcott Parsons (1967) sees the state as an
authoritative being. It is regarded as legitimate as long as it achieves what he calls ‘collective
goal’, which are to care for the society.
3) Maintaining law and order. Protest movements that challenge state authority or disrupt
society may be repressed through state action, such as through police or military force. Even in
democratic societies, social control can be exercised in multiple ways, including electronic
surveillance.
4). Mediating between different groups. Pluralists see the state as an honest broker, which
takes account of all the conflicting demands made on it by different sections of society. It
makes sure none gets its own way all the time e.g. the government can make a decision, which
favors informal sector such

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, the state as permitting small-scale mining. On the other it might decide against such a move in
order to take account of the protests of environmentalists

5) Raise and maintain a strong army - according to Machiavelli the role of state is to raise
powerful army and defend the borders. To himshould ensure military preparedness for the
preservation of the state. Prince should organize a strong army to meet any internal and
external threat to his power. Strong and regular army was must for a state for its own defense.
The state try to build up its own independent, regular and faithful army. Such an army should
consist of its own citizens and be prepared not only to defend its national borders but also to
expand.

6. Protect the property and rights of individuals. According to Hobbes, the state is a contract
with the citizens. The state was cr afted to protect the interest and properties of citizens.

The role of the state in modern contemporary societies or ‘Human Community’ is to address
the current issues of its people regardless of geographical region, identity and culture. The
features of the state interconnects the idealist, functionalist and organization perspectives as it
acts in unison in relation to its sovergnity, private and public sectors, legitimating, domination
and territorial aspects. This involvement is characterized by at least three fundamentals;
increasing human interconnection (networking globally), examining the pace and depth of
human evolution (history) and linking the scale of anthropological and ecological
transformation (social, cultural, economic and technological).

However, Marxist have argued that through force and coercion (the police, the prisons and the
army as state run institutions to repress the exploited members of society)he state could also
be manipulated by the bourgeoisie. The state often relied upon borrowing money from the
bourgeoisie in order to meet its debts hence the bourgeoisie could withhold loans if the policies
are not beneficial to them
Ralph Miliband argued that the state could sometimes act as ‘the direct tool or instrument of
those who possess economic power’. They used it to preserve their economic dominance and
preventing threats to their position.

End of unit 9.4 exercise questions

1. Explain the role of the state (10)

2. Outline the functions of state (25)
3. Examine the functions of the state (25)
4. Examine the view that the role of the state is to maintain ruling class interest (25)
5. Discuss the view that state is a social contract (25)
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Unit 9.5 citizenry

Objectives
Learners should be able to ;
 Explain the concept of citizenry
 Examine the contribution of citizens towards patriotism and nation building in
Zimbabwe

Introduction

This unit discusses the concept of Citizenry. Thus, citizenry1 refers to a whole body of citizens
active citizenry are members of society who take charge of their future and are the agents of
what they want to happen in their communities. It requires inspirational leadership at all levels
and every aspect of life. Below is an article on the true meaning of patriotism.

Patriotism

A true meaning of patriotism in Zimbabwe

An article by Charles Moyo describes patriotism as a word used to describe the great love for
one’s country. Charles Moyo in his article says it prudent and compulsory for every citizens in
Zimbabwe to love their country but the term patriotism has been abused in Zimbabwe. To him,
the term patriotism has been used to achieve selfish goals. For example, the Gukurahundi
genocide was committed in the name of patriotism which left close to 20 000 dead. According
to Corry Booker, a leader cannot call himself a patriot if he does not love his citizens. To booked,

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patriotism is the love of you country but a leader cannot claim that he loves his country without
loving his countrymen and county women. A patriotic leader as suggested by Moyo, is the one
who suffers with his citizens during the time of crisis. Those corrupt leaders are not patriotic. If
Jonathan Moyo truly loved Zimbabwe, he would not have stolen the money from ZIMDEF.

Contributions of citizens towards patriotism and nation building in Zimbabwe

Citizens should possess the following qualities:

Empowered – They understand that rights must be exercised with the responsibilities and are
not shy to assert these. They have access to accurate, up to date information about
government and its activities

Thus, the government is obliged to provide information so that citizens can know what they are
entitled to.

Help fight corruption - President Mnangagwa can be described as patriotic leader who

established anti-corruption committee to fight corruption hence nation building.

Obeying the rule of law - Patriotism is shown when individuals obey the laws. This might

promote peace and order leading to democracy hence nation building.

Paying taxes and public bills - Payment of Taxes - The administration of a country involves a

certain amount of expenditure. This expenditure cannot be met without raising certain taxes.
Citizens in their own interest, should, therefore willingly and honestly make payment of their
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taxes a good citizen is the one who pays taxes bills such as sanitation, water supply and sewer

system bills in time for the betterment of the nation.

Obedience - All the citizens should willingly and habitually obey the laws of the state. A

democratic government is a government of the people themselves. Laws reflect their own will.

There should not be, therefore, any hesitation in the obedience of laws.

Public Spirit - Every citizen should be public-spirited. He should not seek his self-interest and

should always be ready to contribute his mite to the welfare of society.

Honest exercise of Franchise - Vote is a sacred trust in the hands of the citizens. It should

always be used judiciously. Suitable

Attend community events and gatherings – keep your eyes open for events that are happening
in your area such as festivals and funerals Participate in a community-driven cleanup projects
e.g. the national clean up campaigns of every first Friday of the month in Zimbabwe.
A good citizenry also love their country and show patriotism. Patriotism is having and showing
devotion for your country. It means having an attachment to certain national cultural values
and showing critical loyalty to your nation. Patriotism should not be confused with nationalism.
Nationalism is thinking of your nation as being superior to others, and worthy of dominance.
Patriots are proud of their country, but they understand that other people are also rightly
proud of theirs.
A good citizenry shows courtesy and respect for the rights of each other. They respect each
other and their property. They listen to the views of each other and thinks about what they
have to say.

End of unit 9.5 exercise questions

1. Discuss the concept of citizenry (25)
2. Examine the qualities of a patriotic leader (25)
3. Discuss the role of patriotism in nation building (25)
4, discuss the reasons why individuals are not patriotic (25)

End of topic summary

Power and authority have been linked to leadership in different types of government. Each
government has got its own strength and limitations as it shapes all spheres of life in a given
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boundary. Political philosophers have contended that a constitutional go9vernment is the most
suitable and ideal in contemporary societies. Constitution has been identified as important in
defining the rights of citizens. On the other hand, citizens are expected to be patriotic hence
nation building.

End of term questions

1. Discuss the role of a state (25)

2. Discuss the contribution of patriotic citizens in nation building (25)
3. Discuss various forms of authority (25)

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Glossary

Authority - In the fields of sociology and political science, authority is the legitimate power of a
person or group over other people. In a civil state, authority is practiced in ways such a judicial
branch or an executive branch of government.

Constitution - the basic principles and laws of a nation, state, or social group that determine
the powers and duties of the government and guarantee certain rights to the people in it.

Constitutionalism - a compound of ideas, attitudes, and patterns of behavior elaborating the

principle that the authority of government derives from and is limited by a body of fundamental
law"

Constitutional crisis - constitutional crisis is a problem or conflict in the function of a

government that the political constitution or other fundamental governing law is perceived to
be unable to resolve. It might mean the violation of the constitution.

Citizenry - The people living in a country, state, or city can be referred to as the citizenry

Democracy - system of government by the whole population or all the eligible members of a
state, typically through elected representatives.

Democratic government - government by the people especially: rule of the majority. a

government in which the supreme power is vested in the people and exercised by them directly
or indirectly through a system of representation usually involving periodically held free
elections.

Elections - election, the formal process of selecting a person for public office or of accepting or
rejecting a political proposition by voting.

Government - A government is the system or group of people governing an organized

community, generally a state.

Governance - Governance is the process of interactions through the laws, norms, power or
language of an organized society over a social system. It is done by the government of a state,
by a market, or by a network

Legitimate authority - legitimate authority is one which is entitled to have its decisions and
rules accepted and followed by others.

Power - the capacity or ability to direct or influence the behaviour of others or the course of
events.
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Patriotism - Patriotism is the feeling of love, devotion, and sense of attachment to one's
country. This attachment can be a combination of many different feelings, language relating to
one's own homeland, including ethnic, cultural, political or historical aspects.

State - refers to a nation or territory considered as an organized political community under one
government.

Traditional authority - Traditional authority is a form of leadership in which the authority of an

organization or a regime is largely tied to tradition or custom. The main reason for the given
state of affairs is that "things have always been that way".

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Topic 20 crime, deviance and social control

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units covered

10.1 theories of crime and deviance

10.2 methods of social control

10.3 Measurement crime
10.4 Distribution of crime

Introduction

crime has become a normal aspect of social life. A crime is an illegal act that is punishable by
law. If a person commits a crime and is detected, they could be arrested, charged and
prosecuted. If found guilty, they will receive a sentence such as a community order, fine or
imprisonment. Crime is a public wrong. It is an act strongly disapproved by society. Crime
includes murder, dacoities, fraud, rape, etc. the criminal law committed without defense or
excuse, and penalized by the state (Lanier and Henry, 2001). Garafalo defines crime as an
immoral or harmful act that is regarded as criminal Each society has its own perspective of
defining crime. Crime is an intentional act in violation of by public opinion because it is an injury
to so much of the moral sense as possessed by the community. According to clinard (1974),
crime refers to those acts that are break the law of the land and are subject to punishment.

unit 10.1 theories of crime and deviance

Objectives

learners should be able to;

 identify types of crime and deviance in Zimbabwe

 distinguish between crime and deviance
 evaluate the theories of crime and deviance
Introduction
Individuals or groups do not commit same crimes. Individuals are p-laced in different positions
in a stratification hence; each stratification position motivates individuals to commit different
crimes. Since individuals are ranked differently in society, each individual uses what the
stratification provides to get what they can. Thus this unit, seeks to discuss various types of
crimes

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Types of crimes
Below are some of the types of crimes found in society.

Activity - In pairs, identify and explain types of crimes that are common in Zimbabwe

White-Collar Crime -Refers to criminal activities by people of high social status who commit
crime in the context of their occupation (Sutherland and Cressey 1978). White-collar crime
includes activities such as embezzlement (stealing funds from one’s employer), involvement in
illegal stock manipulations (insider trading). This is the crime committed by state officials. For
example, the former Minister of Health and childcare was dismissed from his post in 2021 due
to corruption allegations.

Hate Crimes. A criminal offense that is motivated in whole or part by bias against a “race,
religion, disability, ethnic origin, or sexual orientation” (www.fbi.gov)

Black crime - this was the crime committed by blacks in India. Those who were out of
employment turned to hustling for money, using petty street crime, drug dealing and
prostitution to earn a living (Hall et Al).

Corporate crime - includes crimes that results from joint actions by joint organizations. For
example, the Church and state.

State crime - it involves States themselves or either leaders committing acta against
international laws or violating human rights. For example, Russia in 2022, has committed a
state crime by attacking Ukraine. The Monthlande commission also concluded that the
Zimbabwean state used its military to kill civilians in first august 2018 after harmonized
elections.

Green crime - crime that is committed against the environment. For example, poisoning the soil,
veiled fires. In Zimbabwe, Environmental Management Agency (EMA) usually monitors such
criminal activities.

The pink-collar crime - The term pink-collar crime was popularized by Dr. Kathleen Daly during
the 1980s to describe embezzlement type crimes that typically were committed by females
based on limited opportunity. In this context, women were more likely to have committed low

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level crimes such as check kiting and book-keeping fraud from positions of less power
compared to men who had engaged in acts of white-collar crime.

Cybercrimes - These are ICT related crimes. Advances in technology have provided exciting new
opportunities and benefits, but they also heighten vulnerability to crime. P. N. Grabosky and
Russell Smith (1998) identified some types of technology-based crime: Electronic vandalism and
terrorism such as interference with computerized systems e.g. hacking or computer viruses.

Crime and deviance

The terms crimes and deviance are used interchangeably but they possess different meanings,
thus learners should be able to distinguish the two as indicated below.

What is deviance?

Refers to behavior that does not conform to a society’s norms or rules. If a person behaves in a
way that is seen as deviant and this is discovered, it could lead to negative sanctions such as
being told off, ignored or ridiculed. Some, but not all, deviant. Idris et al. (2017) defined
deviance as any behavior that does not follow expected rules, beliefs, and norms according to
the established standard of the society. Deviant is an act, which is against cultural norms and
values and is not usually punishable. For example, failing to remove hats when greeting elder in
Zimbabwe can be considered as a deviant act. Deviance is behavior that may not necessarily
break the law but falls
outside the scope of
accepted norms and
values.

What is crime

Crime includes murder,

dacoities, fraud, rape, etc.
the criminal law
committed without
defense or excuse, and penalized by the state (Lanier and Henry, 2001). Garafalo defines crime
as an immoral or harmful act that is regarded as criminal Each society has its own perspective
of defining crime. Crime is an intentional act in violation of by public opinion because it is an
injury to so much of the moral sense as possessed by the community. According to clinard
(1974), crime refers to those acts that are break the law of the land and are subject to
punishment

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Differences between crime and deviance

Task - In groups, discuss the differences between crime and deviance (25)

While the words “crime” and “deviance” are often used interchangeably, there are subtle
differences. For the above two definitions in this context we can already see that all crimes are
deviances, but not all deviances are crimes. This means that many deviant acts that are
disapproved of are not defined as criminal but crimes are as result of deviant act. Deviances can
be used to describe behaviors that are socially and morally 'unacceptable'. Social and moral
values differ according to individuals and their cultures. This means that deviant differs
according to ethnicity. Crime is a universal phenomenon, which is applicable to all ethnic
groups within a geographical location.

According to Haralambos and Holborn (2014] deviance is relative, there is no absolute way of
defining a deviant act. Deviance can only be defined in relation to particular standards. Thus,
deviance varies from time to time and society to society. However, most criminal acts are
universal and do not constantly change with time.

Deviance Crime

Meaning Deviance is when there is a Crime implies any illegal act or

non-conformity concerning omission, which amounts to
the well-established social the violation of the law, often
and cultural norms and prosecuted by the state and
principles. punishable by law.

Documentation Not written or documented Well written and documented

e.g. almost all criminal codes
are documented in the
Zimbabwean 2013
constitution

Control Informal methods of social Formal methods of social

control. E.g. peers, Church, control. E.g. Police, judiciary

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 family, education

Results Negative social reactions. For Punishment or imprisonment

example, disowned by
Parents, rejected by peers

Change Deviance differs from society Crime and law are the same
to society and universally applied to the
whole society and in global
community at some point.
E.g. murder

Severity Less or not harmful to society Very harmful and distractive.

E.g. robbery, murder etc.

Table 10:1 the differences between crime and deviance

Theories of crime and deviance

Sociological theories of crime seek to explain observed criminal activity through the societal
conditions in which they occur. They believe that crime is produced and reproduced by social
forces. In this case, crime is said to be socially constructed rather than biologically based.

Functionalist perspective/ theories

A functionalist analysis of deviance begins with society as a whole. It looks for the source of
deviance in the nature of society rather than the individual. To them, deviance is an action that
breaks the norms and values of society. All functionalist believe that social control mechanisms,
such as police and the courts are necessary to keep deviance in check and to protect social
order.

Emile Durkheim (1938)

Crime as an inevitable part of society

He argued that crime is an inevitable and normal aspect of social life. Crime is present in all
types of society. According to Durkheim, crime is an integral part of all healthy societies. It is
inevitable because not every member of society can be equally committed to collective
sentiments - the shared values of society. Since individuals are exposed to different influences
and circumstances, it is impossible to all be alike.

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Crime as functional/ functions of crime
According to Durkheim, crime is an inevitable and functional aspect of society. He said it only
becomes dysfunctional (harmful to society) if its rate is too low or high. Durkheim identifies
four functions of crime

1. Crime promotes social change - Durkheim argued that society generates deviance for its own
wellbeing. He argued that all Social change begins with some form of deviance. In order for
change to occur, yesterday’s deviance must become today’s normality. Thus, social change
comes through deviance and Social change is health to society. If the collective sentiments are
too strong, there will be little deviance and they will not be social change. For example, French
revolution, French citizen's committed a crime of revolting and this gave France and Europe a
new look of democracy.

2. Expressive role - Durkheim argued that the collective sentiments must not be so powerful
that the block the expression of such people as Jesus, William Wilberforce (who was
instrumental in the abolition of slave trade. Martin Luther king (civil rights campaigner) or
Nelson Mandela who helped end apartheid in South Africa.

3. Boundary setting - for example, if someone misses the class, is punished, and this helps other
learners not to do the same.

4. Social solidarity - To Durkheim, crime promotes social solidarity by bringing people together
in outrage, alarm and in uniting against a shared public enemy. By reacting to deviants, groups
develop "we" feeling and collectively fight the enemy.

The strain/ anomie Theory

This is a theory under functionalism based on the ideas of Merton

Robert k. Merton

He did not believe that there is something biological about crime rather he saw crime resulting
from the structure and culture of society itself. He believed that members of society share the
same values e.g. cultural goals such as the need to build a beautiful House. However, members
are placed in different class positions hence they do not have the same opportunity of realizing
collective values and this situation can generate deviance.

Cultural goals and deviance

Members of society share several goals e.g the goal of success, for which they all strive. The
American dream states that all the members of society have equal opportunity to achieve the
goals, thus there are instituted means of achieving the cultural goals e.g. through educational

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qualifications, hard work, talent . However, not all individuals are in a position to have
educational qualifications thus, they turn to deviant means to achieve the goals of society.
When rules cease to operate, a situation of normlessness or anomie results. In this situation,
norms no longer direct behavior and deviance is encouraged. In Merton's theory, anomie
involves putting much emphasis on the cultural goals of success and not enough emphasis on
the instituted means of achieving the goal.

To Merton, individuals respond to cultural goals in different ways and Merton outlined five
ways in which individuals respond to successive goals.

1. Conformity - conform to the instituted means of achieving goals, they strive for success
through proper channels e g going to school first, then work and finally purchase what is
expected by society.

2. Innovation - reject the proper channels and turn to deviant ways . They can achieve the goals
through robbery this is because their Educational qualifications are low or they don't have.

3. Ritualism - giving up on cultural goals of success, but clinging to the other rules of society.
(Never be rich and won't be deviant).

4. Retreatism - they abandon the goals of society, drop out of society, defeated. For example,
drug addicts, they spend some time abusing drugs to escape the pressure of goals.

5. Rebellion - they reject both the success goals and institutionalized means and it replaces
them with different goals and means. They wish to create a new society. For example, artist
working not for financial gains but for recognition

Functionalism criticisms
Critics of Durkheim

Durkheim over exaggerated that crime is functional and tends to ignore that not all crimes are
functional. For example, almost all forms of crime promotes social disorder rather than order.
Furthermore, some groups may harness or respond to deviance in such a way that restricts civil
freedom hence inhibiting social change.

Evaluation of Merton

Taylor (1971) criticized Merton for failing to consider who makes the laws and who benefits
from them. In Taylors words, laws are made by the powerful groups that guarantee their
success.

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Furthermore, some critics believe that Merton's theory over emphases working class crime and
pays no attention to white-collar crimes or crimes committed by the middle and upper class.

In addition, Taylor and Young (1973) believe that Merton's theory cannot account for
politically motivated criminals such as freedom fighters who break the law because of
commitment to their cause rather than the effects of anomie.

Cohen (1955) argued that Merton failed to account for crimes, which does not produce
monitory rewards e g murder, vandalism.

Subcultural theory

Albert K. Cohen
The theory of Cohen is almost similar to Merton’s theory, the major different is that Merton's
theory is a structural theory (explains deviance in terms of the position of individuals or groups
in the social structure) and Cohen theory is subcultural (explain deviance in terms of subculture
of the group). According to Cohen, lower working class boys hold the success goals of the
mainstream culture, but due to Educational failure and dead end jobs that results from this,
they have little opportunity to attain those goals.

Cohen believed that the development of this culture is due to social stratification. They are
stuck at the bottom of the stratification system, and this blocks the chance of getting successive
goals. They suffer from status frustration and solve their frustration not by turning to a criminal
path (as suggested by Merton) but they reject the success goals of the mainstream culture.
They replace them with an alternative set of norms and values in terms of which they can
achieve success and prestige. The result is delinquent subculture. This is seen as a collective
solution to their problems.

In Cohen's words, the delinquent subculture reverses the mainstream culture and a high value
is placed in stealing, robbery etch as a way of achieving success. Thus, to Cohen, crime is a
collective response rather than an individual response as suggested by Merton.

Marxists perspective on deviance

Why break the law?

Marxist theories have claimed that all deviances derive from capitalism and inequalities. Many
Marxists have rejected attempts to link crime to biology rather they see crime as a natural
outgrowth of capitalist society. They argued that capitalist system generate crime due greedy,
personal gain, and imbalances in the ownership of the means of production. Chambliss (1976)
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argues that the greed, self-interest and hostility by the capitalist system motivate many crimes
are all levels within the society, thus members of each stratum use whatever means and
opportunities their class position provide to commit crime. Thus, the working class the petty
thief, prostitute etc. use what they have to get what they can.

In addition, the capitalist system generate deviance and crime through unemployment and
poverty. For capitalism to proceed, they have to make more profits by paying workers low
wages and salaries hence poverty and crime.

Deviance is therefore a reflection is social inequality in which the underclass feel deprived,
suppressed because they do not own the means of production. According to Laureen Snider
(1993), there is nothing biological about crime, this is because the law is an instrument of the
ruling class, and the state passes the law to serve its own interests. According to Marx,
superstructure is determined by infrastructure, this therefore implies that the ruling class
controls all agents of social control / superstructures such as Police, courts and these
superstructures serve the interest of the ruling class.

From this point of view, laws are made by the state, which represents the Interests of the ruling
class (David Gordon, 1976). Furthermore, Marxist have dismissed the view that there is a value
consensus in law making but they argued that laws reflect the interest of the ruling class.

There is so much truth in this assertion in that if the law is agreed upon then the question is why
then people break the law?.

To Marxist, the there is a social space between lawmakers and recipients of the law which is
why the law is violated. To show that the ruling class, in many African countries, make laws, the
ruling class can use their influence to avoid consequences of the law and they are lenient
punishments for white-collar crimes no matter economic cost it is

According to Snider (1993), the ruling class commit more crimes than working class. She argues
that many of the most serious anti - social and predatory acts committed in modern countries
are corporate crimes. Snider claims that corporate crime does more harm that street crimes
such as burglary and murder, which are usually seen as the most serious types of crime.
She pointed out that figures suggest that corporate crime costs more, in terms of both money
and lives, than street crime. For example, according to Snider, street crime involves losses of
around $4 billion each year in the USA. However, losses from corporate crime are more than 20
times in greater. For example, in most African countries like Zimbabwe, the figures from Anti-
Corruption committee shows that the ruling class commit more crimes than working class.

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 In 2017, it was discussed in Zimbabwean parliament that the there was a US 15 billion missing.
In terms of population, 2012 census reported that Zimbabwe has around 15 million people. In
this case, it can be greatly appreciated that Marxist has made a great contribution in
understanding crime.

Furthermore, Marxists theory helps in understanding crime as it argues that the values of the
capitalist system filter down to the rest of a society’s culture. Merton and Nightingale (1906)
have pointed out that for some the desire to achieve the success goals of society outweigh the
pressure to obey the law, advertising only adds to this strain between the legitimate means and
the goal of material success. The burglars, the robbers, and the thieves are seeking personal
gain without caring for the individual victims.

Capitalism encourages people to want things they do not need and cannot afford. For instance,
companies such as Coca Cola and McDonalds spend billions of dollars every year on advertising,
morphing their products into fantastical images that in no way resemble the grim reality of the
products or the even grimmer reality of the productive processes that lie behind making their
products. Advertising is a long way beyond merely providing people with information about a
product; it has arguably become the art of disinformation (Beirne, 1979).

It is doubtless that corporations benefit through advertising, and modern Capitalism could not
exist without the culture of consumerism that the advertising industry perpetuates, and
activities have pointed to many downsides. Thus, Marxists argue that crime is only inevitable in
capitalist societies and that capitalism by its very nature is criminogenic.

Moreover, Marxist have argued that the law is oppressive because is suppresses basic freedoms
of the underclass. In reality, those defined by the law as deviant are not the biological
dangerous members of society but the weakest. They are defined as deviant if they have
threatened the position of the powerful.

Marxists have argued that the permanent solution to crime and deviance lies in the abolition
movement of capitalism with its replacement by an advanced communism society that will
herald inequalities

Evaluation

Marxist theories have received counter criticism due to a number of weaknesses

1. Feminists sociologists have argued that Marxists theories put undue emphasis upon class
inequality. From their point of view, Marxist theories ignore the role of patriarchy in influencing
crime.

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2. Marxist have accused for ignoring the importance of racism in enforcing law

3. They have also ignored that a law might be a reflection of value consensus in democratic
societies. For example, the proposal of the law is voted by people to be turned in a law. The
case in point is the New York 'law by popular vote' legislative representation is harder to
interpret. As it raised the old issue of control of the state by New York City or by the rest of the
state and the citizens voted against the proposal. They also voted for the 85% contribution to
the city council to maintain sewer system and voted for low rentals in 1937

4. Marxists are criticized for assuming that the Communist society will end crime. For example,
before the end of the Soviet Union in Eastern European countries, crime had not been
eradicated.

Feminist’s theory

Feminist’s sociologists focus on the influences of gender inequalities of the opportunities to

commit crime and deviance of women. Liberal feminists have argued that society is patriarchal
hence; women are channeled to domestic duties that are not paid for. Marxist feminists have
argued that capitalism system and urbanization largely employs males hence women are
subjected to poverty, which results in shoplifting and prostitution.

This assumption has made feminists sociologists to say that women are not biologically prone
to crime but inequalities force them. Smart (1976) argued that sociology is patriarchal and the
crimes committed against women were ignored by the justice systems. Most feminist have
applied the strain theory as they argued that women have low opportunities to Educational
qualifications hence they are likely to miss the legal means of achieving goals hence they turn
to deviant means.

Radical feminists believe that woman’s deviance results from their biological make up or
sexuality. Women are sexually raped by males, which is likely to lead to unwanted pregnancies,
thus abortion is necessary in this event, but it is considered as a crime. Radical feminists blame
males for women's deviance. For example, in the event of divorce, women are compelled to
commit crimes to take care of children.

Symbolic interactionist theory

According to symbolic interactionist, crime derives from social interaction.

Theory of deferential association

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The theory was propounded by Edwin Sutherland. Sutherland studied deviance from the
symbolic interactionist perspective. The basic tenet of this theory of differential association is
that deviance is a learned behavior -people learn it from different groups with which they
associate. This theory counters arguments that deviant behavior is biological or due to
personality. According to Sutherland, people commit deviant acts because they associate with
individuals who act in a deviant manner. He said that the future deviant learns values different
from those of the dominant culture as well as techniques for committing deviance. The closer
the relationship, the more likely someone is to be influenced

Labeling theory

Howard Becker (1963)

Becker (1963) argued that there is no such thing as a deviant act; an act only becomes deviant
when others define it as such. This means that deviant is a matter of place, definition and time.
For example, in Holiday beaches, the participants would see nudity in the presence of strangers
as perfectly normal thus the act only becomes deviant when one considers when and where it
is committed. Thus, Becker has argued that crime and deviance are contextual. To Becker the
act is the same but meanings given to it by audience differ. Thus t the meanings attached to an
act depends with place.

Origins of deviance

He argued that deviant behavior originates from labeling. He believed that if an individual is
publicly labeled as deviant, the individual would see themselves as deviant for the first time.
Becker argued that deviance is not biologically constructed in the sense that it derives from
social interactions and agents of social control like the police.

He argued that crime derives from labeling which leads to self-fulfilling prophecy. A label acts
as a master status in the sense that it colors the individual. For example, Becker argued that if
an individual is labelled as a criminal, mentally ill, or sexually deviant such label override their
status. In addition, others see them, respond to them in terms of the label, and tend to assume
they have the negative characteristics associated with such labels. Following the dramaturgical
theory or looking glass self-theory, our sense of self derives from the responses of others hence
this may result in self-fulfilling prophecy where the prophecy made has to come true. He
outline a number of effects upon an individual is publicly labelled as deviant.

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1. Becker argued that, once the individual is publicly labeled as deviant, this may lead to self-
fulfilling prophecy since others will see the individual in terms of the label.

2. Labelling may lead to rejection from many social groups. For example, they may be rejected
by peers since they are seen as junkie, trouble markers. He/ she may be rejected by family and
friends or forced out of the neighborhood.

3. May lose his or he job which might leads to further deviance

4. This may encourage further deviance. For example, drug addicts may turn to crime to
support their habit since respectable employers refuse to give them a job

5. The official treatment of deviance may have similar effects. Ex-convicts may have some
difficulties in finding a job. This is because employers are not prepared to employ someone with
criminal records hence they are forced to return to crime for their livelihood.

6. The deviant career is completed when individuals join an organized deviant group. In this
context, they confirm and accept their deviant identity. They are surrounded by others in
similar situation who provide them with support and similar understanding.

Labelling a process of attaching a descriptive word or a phrase to someone.

7. Labelling leads to the development of a deviant subculture. The subculture often justifies and
support deviant intensities and activities. The young thief, socialized into this delinquent
criminal culture, can learn various ways of avoiding arrest from older and more experienced
members of the group.

Edwin Lemert (1972)

Agreed with Becker that crime derives from labeling and the reactions of the public or societal
reactions. He distinguished two types of deviance thus primary and secondary deviation.
Primary deviation consist of deviance acts before they are publicly labelled. To him, it is not
necessary to enquire the causes of primary deviance. Secondary deviation is the deviant career
after the label. Secondary deviation is the response of an individual to the group of societal
reactions. Thus, social reaction is a major cause of deviance.

Case study of the marijuana users

The value of Becker's approach to labeling of deviance can be seen from its application by Jork
Young (1971) in his Study of 'hippie' marijuana users in Notting hill in London. Young examined
how the police labelled the hippies, which led to further deviance. The police tended to see
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hippies as dirty, scruffy, unstable, good for nothing drug addicts. Young argued that such a
labeling tended to unite the hippies and make them feel different. Thus, Young concluded that
labeling leads to deviance.

Criticisms of the labeling theory and interactionist approach

1. Taylor (1973) dismissed the interactionist view that social groups who define acts as deviant
created deviance, rather Taylor argued that deviant could be defined in terms of actions of
those who break social rules rather than in terms of the label or reactions of society. For
example, killing another person can be a matter of self-defense not labelling.

2. It failed to explain the causes of primary deviance before the label. Lemert who claimed that
it was not necessary to explain primary deviance shows this. Many sociologist do not accept
this, perhaps, the person was more a deviant actor before the label thus crime and deviance do
not only results from labeling.

3. Labeling theory is too deterministic. It assumes that once a person is labelled, their deviance
will become worse. Thus, Ronald Ackers argued that individuals could just choose to be deviant
regardless of whether they have been labelled or not. Thus, the labelling does not cause most
terrorists to turn to crime; rather they are motivated by political beliefs to break the law.

4. Alvin Gouldner (1975) notes that labelling theory tends to portray the individuals as people
who can be controlled by man on his back, in some circumstances, individuals may decide to
ignore the label

5. It also ignored the influence of biology, gender, race, class position etc. in influencing crime
and deviance.

Biological theories
Biological theories of deviants sees crime as a form of illness caused by pathological factors that
are specific to certain types of individuals. The under lying logic is that these individuals have a
mental and physical inferiority which causes an inability to learn and follow the rules. This in
turn led to criminal behavior.

Neurotransmitters and deviance behavior

The argument is that an abnormal level's of certain neurotransmitter leads to offensive

behavior. There is an indication that the offenders have an abnormal brain as compared to non-
offenders. Price (2008) found a link between Lobe dysfunctional and violent Behavior. It is
argued that the brain of offenders are slowed and perhaps they are unable to make swift
decisions and responses to react to certain situations. For example, the frontal lobe of the brain

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is linked to planning behavior therefore, perhaps the decreased in the functioning of this brain
may indicate that offenders are unable to consider the consequences of their actions and
control their behavior

Furthermore, the Dopamine neurotransmitter has been identified as it is linked to dopamine

pathways, which results in pleasure, which is a rewarding feeling and a desire to repeat certain
behaviors. Therefore, this is linked to addiction and substance abuse hence through this; it has
an indirect link to crime

Couppies (2008) argued that some individuals engage in criminal activities due to increased
Dopamine neurotransmitter, which is likely to increase the likelihood of committing the same
crime due to the pleasure of the rewarding

Cesare Lombroso
Criminal genes

He was one of the founding fathers of the biological theory of criminology, which says that
criminals are biologically different from non-criminals. This theory was explored in two major
areas i.e. genetics and neuroscience. Lombroso’s theory states that a person’s body
constitution indicates whether an individual is born a criminal. Those born criminals are
throwbacks to an earlier stage of human evolution with the physical make up, mental
capabilities and instincts of primitive man. In developing his theory, Lombroso observed the
physical characteristics of Italian prisoners and compared them to those of Italian soldiers. He
concluded that the criminals are physically different.

The physical characteristics that he used to identify prisoners included an asymmetry of the
face or hand, large monkey like ears, large lips, a twisted nose, excessive cheekbones, long arms
and excessive wrinkles in the skin. Lombroso argued that man with five or more of these
characteristics could be marked as born criminals. Females on the other hand only needed
about three of these characteristics to be born criminals. Lombroso also believed that tattoos
are markings of born criminals because they stood as evidence of both immortality and
insensitivity to physical pain.

Patricia Jacobs
The Chromosome theory and mechanical imbalance

The Y chromosome theory is the belief that criminals have an extra Y chromosome giving them
an XYY chromosome makeup rather than the XY makeup that creates a strong compulsion
within them to commit crimes. According to Jacobs, a normal man has XY and those with extra
Y are unstable and immature, without feeling or remorse, unable to construct adequate
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personal relationships, showing a tendency to abscond from institutions and committing
apparently motiveless crimes, mostly against property. Thus, such a chemical imbalance lead to
crime.

William Sheldon

Criminality and body structure

He suggested that general body structure might predict criminality. He crosschecked hundreds
of young men for body type and criminal history and concluded that criminality was most likely
among boys with muscular, athletic builds. According to Sheldon (1949), muscular active types
(mesomorphs), tend to be more aggressive and physical, and therefore more likely to become
delinquent than those of thin physique (ectomorphs) or more round fleshy people
(endomorphs).

Psychological theory
Theories under this category give similar explanations with biologist; however, they linked the
causes of crime to mental processes. Some of their arguments are presented below.

A) Crime and psychological problems

Psychological theories say that criminal behavior is a result of individual differences in thinking
process. The theory state that it is the person’s thoughts and feelings that dictate their actions.
As such, problems in thinking can lead to criminal behavior. Failures in psychological
development. Some people run into trouble because they did not develop or grow the way that
others normally do. That’s some people just do what they want and does not think about right
or wrong because he/she has a psychological problem.

B, Inherent personality traits

There are some characteristics that criminals tend to share with each other, and some
psychologist believe that there are certain personality traits that predispose someone towards
criminal behavior. Psychologist Eysenck suggested that abnormal mental states are inherited;
these can either predispose an individual to crime or create some problems during the process
of socialization

C, Relationship of criminality to mental illness

Some people with psychological disorders end up committing crimes. Psychological theories of
deviance can be likened to the notion of possession by evil spirits. In African societies, it is
strongly believed that alien spirits actually play a role in deviant behavior e.g. among the Shona

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or Ndebele peoples in Zimbabwe, it is believed that there are some deviants who have a ‘Shavi’
or ‘Idhozi’ that lead them in deviant behavior especially thieving, prostitution etc.

Criticism

Critical thinking

Lombroso's theory and research had clear implications for justice

system. If offenders are, as Lombroso argues, not responsible for
their crimes then how and why should they be punished,
particularly if they cannot control their actions due to their
physical makeup?

1. Both biological and psychological approaches to criminality presume that deviance is a sign of
something wrong with the individual rather than the society. They see crime as caused by
factors outside an individual’s control, embedded in either the body or the mind. Sociologists
dismiss the psychological explanations of deviance. Firstly, they argue such theories neglect
social and cultural factors in the explanations, they argue that values are learned rather than
being genetically being determined.

2. Again, to say that a deviant is mentally ill is not valid at all because there is little agreement
amongst psychologists about what constitute abnormality or mental health and how to
measure personality characteristics,

4 Sociologists also dismiss the submission that the individual is the captive of his or her early
experience or conditioning, which is simply acted in later life. This approach ignores a vast
number of social factors, which influence behavior during a person’s life.

End of unit 10:1 exercise

1. Distinguish between crime and deviance (25)
2. Examine the theories of crime and deviance (25)
3. Evaluate two sociological theories of crime and deviance (25)
4. Examine the view that crime is an inevitable and functional party of society (25)
5. Assess the contribution of Marxist theory the understanding of crime and deviance in
Zimbabwe (25)
6. examine the view that crime is contextual (25)
7. assess the relevance of labelling theory in understanding crime and deviance (25)
8. Examine the view that crime derives from social interaction (25)
9. Assess the view that crime is socially constructed (25)
10. Discuss the view that deviance is an illness (25)
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 11. Describe any five types of crimes in Zimbabwe (25)
12. Examine the view that criminals are not to be blamed for their crimes (25)

UNIT 10.2 METHODES OF SOCIAL CONTROL

Objectives

Learners should be able to;

 Identify methods of social control in Zimbabwe
 Examine the methods of social control

Introduction
The term social control refers to the techniques and strategies for preventing deviant human
behavior in any society. Social control occurs on all levels of society. Methods of social control
can be grouped into formal and informal methods.

Informal methods of social control

Informal sanctions emerge in face-to-face social interactions. For example, wearing flip-flops to
an opera or swearing loudly in church may draw disapproving looks or even verbal reprimands,
whereas behavior that is seen as positive—such as helping an old man carry

The family— family members, particularly your parents, are very effective at discouraging
“deviant” behaviour. This is especially true when it comes to promoting or forbidding gender

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specific behaviour- parents manipulate their children into behaving appropriately (eg it may be
acceptable for a boy to do things a girl would not be permitted to do). In the family individuals,
receive positive sanctions if they have obeyed norms and values e.g. smile. Deviant behavior is
followed by negative sanctions. E.g. informal punishment
The education system— teachers employ many informal sanctions to discourage certain
behavior. This can range from a “look” to a more formal punishment such as a detention for not
completing work. This also found in Hidden curriculum, which fosters respect and obedience.
Peer groups— we all have a need to “fit in” with others and join a “cultural comfort zone.” The
peer group is very effective in discouraging inappropriate behavior as those members of the
group who do not conform are ostracized from the group. Informal sanctions such as gossip
serves as an effectual means of social control. In BaTonga tribe of Binga, gossip is still one of the
tools used to control anti-social behavior largely among women. In cases of deviant behavior, a
song can be composed that is sung on traditional events; hence this will instill fear of being
sung in songs.
The workplace— certain standards of behavior are expected from certain occupations. The
work place provides formal sanctions to those who do not conform to this behavior.
The mass media— the media presents images, perhaps in the form of stereotypes, of how
individuals and groups are expected to behave. The media informally sanctions deviance by
broadcasting acceptable and unacceptable standards. For example, Dr Chisamba shows teaches
specific aspects of unhu.
Religion—this is a very powerful form of social control to people who believe. According to
Functionalist theorist such as Parsons, the role of religion is to reinforce the norms and values
of society by the threat of being sent to hell. This is still a powerful motivator for good
behaviour for many.

Formal agents of social control

Police

The role of the police force is to enforce the law and to investigate crimes. To enable them to
do this, the police have rights that all very citizens do not; they can arrest people, tell them to
disperse (move on), and use reasonable force if they are not obeyed. All functionalist theorists
have argued that the police plays an important role of making sure that individuals are
conforming to the norms and values of society. Marxist sociologists see society as deeply
divided they view the police as one of the ways in which the ruling class maintains its power
and wealth. The police are servants of the ruling class. They enforce laws the ruling class has
passed, and make sure that the working class does not threaten the system.

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 The judiciary

This refers to the courts, which try those accused of crimes, convict, and sentence those who
are found guilty. Most serious cases are dealt with by High court, with a judge and jury while
Magistrates Courts, which are presided over by a magistrate, deal with minor offences.

The courts have a variety of sanctions (or sentences) available to them when someone is found
À guilty of breaking the law –
Fine-- the offender has to pay a sum of money. A fine is the punishment for about three
quarters of all those found guilty.

Community service order-- the offender has to do work which is helpful to the community
without being paid. Sentences are for some hours of community service
Prison-- this is reserved for the most serious offences.

Prisons and jails - This refers to the people and organizations that deal with offenders. These
include prisons and probation service. Their role is to deal with people who have been found
guilty of offences. The penal system has several purposes:

1. To punish individuals who have been found guilty and provide retribution for the victims of
crime.

2. To rehabilitate offenders, to try to ensure that they will not commit further crimes. To
achieve this, prisons may offer training and education, teaching skills so that offenders will have
a chance to get a job and “go straight.”

3. To protect members of the public from potentially dangerous individuals. Recently there has
been much debate about whether or not the penal system is effective in achieving these aims.

However, Formal social control in Zimbabwe has been heavily affected by lack of resources e.g.
for police and prisons, corruption in various institutions.

End of unit 10.2 exercise questions

1. Examine the view that informal methods of social control are more effective that
informal methods (25)
2. Examine the view that formal methods of social control are a reaction to the
weaknesses of informal methods (25)
3. Discuss the weaknesses of formal methods of social control (25)
4. Examine the role of police force as a method of social control (25)
5. Discuss the agents of social control on crime (25)

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UNIT 10.3 MEASUREMENT OF CRIME
Objectives
Learners should be able to;
 Discuss the methods of measuring crime in Zimbabwe
 Assess the methods of measuring crime

Introduction
In this unit, we are going to discuss methods of measuring crime. There is the need for
sociologists and others who have interest in crimes to measure the amount of crimes in order
to explain why some individuals are more criminal than others. This also helps the government
to control crime rate. To understand crime, social scientist have relied on the below ways of
measuring crime;

Ways of measuring crime

To understand crime, social scientist have relied on the below ways of measuring crime;

1. Official statistics
Many theories of crime are bases in part on official statistics provided by the police, the courts
and other government agencies involve in law enforcement. These statistics are uses to
measure crime and constantly show that some groups are more involved in crime than others
are. Sociologist have taken these figures and used them to explain why such groups should be
so criminal. Although the official statistics are useful in measuring crime, their reliability and
validity is questionable.

Strength

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1. shows that working class commit more crimes than the upper classes - Official statistics
have indicated that the working class group commit more crimes than the upper class due to
poverty and status frustration. This is supported by Merton and Cohen who assumed that
working class men are more offenders than other groups in society due to lack of the means of
achieving cultural goals. This is also supported by another chance and Crime watch television
programs in Zimbabwe, which show that the main prisons such as Chikurubi have more lower
class offenders than upper class.

2. Official statistics on crime are also useful because they are produced annually. They provide
the public, criminologist, the police, the courts, the media and anyone else who is interested,
with crime data. This may help the government and the police to take action.

3. Show types of crimes - with official statistics, police and the public have been provided
information on the types of crimes committed in society such as rape, assault etc. This
information is often taken as an accurate measure of total amount of crime.

4. Data shows trends and patterns of crime - The data allows comparisons to be made
between crimes and with previous years (Mike Maguire, 2012). For example, before or after a
new law has been introduced e.g. domestic violence act (2007). Often the figures receive
widespread publicity through media, particularly if they show increases in crime, this can lead
to concern that the country is being engulfed in a crime wave.

Zimbabwe has recorded a notable rise in crime, with housebreaking, robbery and theft
increasing by close to 50% over the past two years, as economic conditions have worsened,
official statistics show. Data prepared by the Zimbabwe National Statistics Agency (Zimstat)
shows that, between 2017 and 11 months of 2018, murder cases rose 19%, while
housebreaking cases increased by 46%. Car theft rose by 37%, robberies by 34% and other
thefts were up 49%.The crime statistics, supplied by the Zimbabwe Republic Police and carried
in Zimstat’s latest quarterly report, are up to November 2018.

The report also shows significant increases in fraud, up 13% over the period, armed robbery
(11%), illegal possession of firearms (8%), and theft from cars (8%). Amid fears over rising crime,
the police, which introduced 24-hour patrols in the capital, says it is responding to the situation

5. Show the background and characteristics of offenders - official statistics on crime provide
information on social characteristics of those who have been convicted of offenses such as their
age, location and gender. Through official statistics, it now common that crime rate is high in
high density areas.

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6. Data is easy to access and they save time - official statistical data on crime is easy to access
and cheap as well as saving time because information is already available. Thus according to
Maguire official statistics save the police time and money.

However, official statistics are not 100% valid and reliable in the sense that they do not show all
types of crimes.

1. Marxist have argued that official statistics serve the interest of those who produce them. To
Snider, ruling class commit more crimes than the working class but there is no way they can
record their involvement in crime since all agents of social control such as police and courts are
superstructures that are controlled by the ruling class.

2. Official statistics do not show a full picture of social reality, this is because do not show
crimes that are not reported to the police. Official statistical data represent reported cases to
the police. It is obvious that police record not all crimes that take place. For example, victims of
rape are likely not to report the case to the police due to different reasons, and official statistics
will record zero percent rape cases.

Why individuals do not report

 Lack of faith in police investigation and solutions.

 They have been intimidated by the perpetrator.

 Shock, fear and embarrassment of the victim.

 Seeing the crime as trivial or fear police see the crime as trivial.

 Rape is particularly known to be vastly underreported. Victims may be reluctant to

report for a variety of reasons, including that the police will not take the rape seriously,
especially if the victim knew the assailant.

 The victim may not want to undergo the continued stress of an investigation and trial.
Proof of penetration, the identity of the rapist and the fact that the act occurred
without the woman's consent all have to be forthcoming.

 A woman may feel that she is the one on trial, particularly if her own sexual history is
examined publicly, as often happens in such cases.

Police do not record all crime that is reported to them because:

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  Officers use their own discretion to consider crime worth recording. Research finds that
the police are less likely to “count” some rapes, such as those in which the victim is a
prostitute, was drunk at the time of the assault, or had a previous relationship with the
assailant.

 Officers may want to run away from crime that has a lot of paper work.

 Cases that do not have enough evidence may not be taken as crime.

 Official rules on defining what constitutes crime worth recording change from time to
time. The police define, classify, and record certain behaviors as falling into the category
of crime— or not. Labeling theorists think that official rates of crime (and deviance) do
not necessarily reflect the actual commission of crime; instead, the official rates reflect
social judgments. In an interesting example, in the aftermath of the terrorist attacks on
the World Trade Center in 2001, officials debated whether to count the deaths of
thousands as murder or as a separate category of terrorism. The decision would change
the official murder rate in New York City that year. In the end, these deaths were not
counted in the murder rate (Andersen 2017).

Unrecorded crime

The above discussion has provided an insight that not all crimes that are committed are
reported to the police, thus official statistics cannot measure unreported cases. Thus there are
two ways of measuring dark figure thus victimization studies and self-report studies. These
measures complement the weaknesses of office statistics on crime.

Victim surveys:

These are surveys of asking individuals about crimes that have been committed against them.
Victims are asked whether if they have been victims of crimes or not in the previous 12 months.
They are also asked about whether the crime was reported to the police or not. They are more
representative than police records as they include figures of reported and unreported crimes.
There are also done annually. For example, British crime survey of England published results in
2029

Case study

For example the British crime survey which was conducted in 1981 and completed in 2000. The
study used questionnaires that included a variety of questions about the victims of crime. They
also tend to use a large sample and have a high response rate. Thus, victim surveys identify
unreported cases.
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A victim crime survey by UNAFRI (The United Nations African Institute for the Prevention of
Crime and the Treatment of Offenders)

It was carrire out in Africa in 1996. . As South Africa, Zimbabwe and Uganda used the same
face-to-face questionnaire, statistical analysis, sampling and fieldwork methods developed by
UNICRI in their main cities for the 1996 survey, valuable information was provided with regard
to crime victimisation trends in these African countries which are all in a process of
transformation after a long history of political instability and liberation wars. The sample found
out that robbery and violence crimes were common and some were not reported to the police.
Zimbabwe was found to be having a burglary rate which was slightly higher with 10,2 percent
than South Africa and Uganda.

However, Neburn (2007) points out a number of problems with crime surveys citing British
crime survey as an example

1. It does not include some crimes, such as murder, or victimless crime such as drug offenses.

2. Most types of corporate crime, environmental crime, and offenses which are regulated by
organizations other than police are not recorded.

3. People live outside households, such as the homeless, those in hostels, hospital and those in
prison, are not part of the sample, and yet they are likely to have high rates of crimes.

4. Respondents may not be aware of all the crimes committed against them and the incidents in
a household.

5. Poor memory may result in them forgetting incidents

6. Hawthorne effect - the presence of the researcher, the characteristics of the interviewer and
the use of computers to record results might influence the responses.

2. Self-report studies
They use questionnaires or interviews to collect information about individuals and ask them to
admit to a number of crimes they have committed. For example, Steven Box (1981) reviewed
such studies on delinquency, conducted in a number of different countries. On the bases of
such evidence, Box rejected the view presented in the official statistics that working class youth
are more likely to engage in delinquency than middle class youth. Thus, these studies can be
used for comparison purposes. These studies are probably more reliable than official statistics
because about 80 % of those replying tell the truth (Box, 1981).

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However, it is possible that those replying to questionnaires or interviews will not be truthful
about the amount of crimes they have committed.

End of unit 10.3 exercise questions

1. Discuss the usefulness of official crime statistics in understanding crime in Zimbabwe

(25)
2. Examine the usefulness of dark figure methods of crime (25)
3. Discuss the view that victim surveys play a complementary role in understanding
crime (25)
4. Discuss the relevance of victim surveys in measuring crime (25)
5. Assess the validity of official statistics in measuring crime (25)
6. Assess the view that official statistics on crime are biased (25)
7. Examine the view that official statistics are a reflection of those who produce them
(25)

UNIT 10.4 distribution of crime and deviance

Objectives
Learners should be able to
 Discuss the distribution of crime in Zimbabwe
 Analyze the distribution of crime in Zimbabwe

INTRODUCTION
Understanding the distribution of crime is important in order to facilitate the development of
investigation and solutions. In Zimbabwe, there are so many groups such as youth, women,
men, working, middle and ruling classes. These groups have different levels of crimes
associated with their identity. Therefore, this unit focuses on the distribution of crime along
these lines.

1. Gender and crime

Men commit more crimes than women do

According to official statistics, men commit far more crimes than women do. Overall, nearly five
times as many men as women found guilty or cautioned. A publication by state owned
newspaper The Herald 16 march 2022 indicated that women have proved to be law abiding
than their counterparts with official statistics showing that females in country’s prisons
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countrywide constituting 2. 1 percentage of the country population of 20 898 inmates.
Zimbabwe Prisons and correctional service (ZPCS) national Spokesperson Chief Superintendent
Meya Khanyezi was reported in Herald praising women for being law abiding than their
counterparts. Thus, this shows that men commit more crimes than women do.

Women are said to be committing pink-collar crimes such as book keeping fraud and and
other petty crimes.
Why men commit more crimes?
Socialization - Boys and girls are socialized differently. Girls are expected to be more passive,
while boys are encouraged to be more active and also to be tough and be able to fight when
necessary. These differences may make it more likely that boys will get into trouble with the
police later.
Opportunity - Females often have less opportunity to commit crimes than men do. As children
and teenagers, girls are usually more closely supervised; parents will want to know where they
are, what they are doing and when they will be home. Boys are often given (or take) more
freedom. Later, women are usually responsible for looking after children. This also restricts
opportunities for crime. Women are much more likely to commit theft, usually from shops,
than violent crime.
Patriarchy - Men might commit more crime than women to ‘prove they are in control of
women’. From a radical feminist perspective this is largely what explains domestic violence that
happens across all class groups. Heidensohn (1996) suggests that it is because of the ways in
which women are doubly controlled—by ideologies of appropriate behavior for women in
society and by their role in the family. Being controlled in both the public and the private
spheres ensures that they are likely to be more conformist than men are. In fact, all over the
world, the greatest gender differences in crime rates occur in societies that most severely limit
the opportunities of women.

Biological determinism - men are more aggressive because of hormonal differences (in
particular, the presence of testosterone).Arguments based on biological determinism assume
that differences between women and men are “natural” and, presumably, resistant to change.
Women are also preoccupied with reproduction.

Breadwinner role - Men might commit more crime than women might because they believe
that they need to be financially successful to prove they are a ‘real man’. The most obvious way
a man can ‘act out’ this ‘traditional breadwinner’ aspect of his masculinity is to get a well-paid
job. However, according to Merton’s Strain theory, not all men can achieve this goal through
the legitimate means of getting a high paid job, as there are relatively few of these available,
and as a result some will turn to crime in order ‘show they are successful’.

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However, other social scientists have argued that women commit more crimes but it is the
justice system that is biased. The below theories offer an amazing argument.

Chivalry theory
According to this theory, law enforcement agents are gender biased. Even though women are
members of a socially weak group, several studies have demonstrated that female offenders
tend to receive more lenient treatment than male offenders who have committed the same
crimes (Daly, 1989). Chivalry theory has arisen as the primary theoretical framework for
understanding these findings, suggesting that protective and benevolent societal attitudes
toward women lead (predominantly male) decision makers throughout the criminal justice
system to take a relatively lenient approach toward female offenders. The criminal justice
system tends to see rape as a crime committed by men because women are too weak to fight.

According to this theory, Studies have shown that wherever discretionary decisions are made,
women are usually less likely than men to be detected, arrested, charged, convicted, and
sentenced. The theory suggests that patriarchal cultures tend to identify women as weak,
submissive, childlike, and defenseless, and as not being fully responsible for their actions. In this
context, ‘‘well’’-socialized individuals come to believe that female offenders need to be
protected rather than punished. In Zimbabwe, it is obvious that most domestic violence crimes
committed against men by women are less likely to be taken seriously.

Gender bias and criminal justice theory

Otto Pollak (1950)

The masked female offender

According to Pollack argued that official statistics on gender are gender biased and misleading.
He claimed that statistics seriously underestimate the extent of female criminality. He argued
that not nearly all offences of committed by women such as shop lifting, abortion etc are not
recorded. He argued that women are more offenders but their crime is masked off. For
example, he claimed that domestic roles give women the opportunity to hide crimes such as
poisoning relative's and sexually abusing their children.

He argued that those crimes are not recorded because the police, magistrates and other law
enforcement officials tend to be men hence they are usually lenient with female offenders thus
few women appear in statistics.

3. Age and crime

Official crime rates rise sharply during adolescence, peak in the late teens, and then fall as
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people get older. This is also supported by the subcultural theory by Cohen who points out that
the working class are more likely to be involved in crime due to status frustration.

Juvenile delinquency

Delinquency refers to the undesirable antisocial behavior of young people. It may include some
crime, but it also covers deviant behavior that is not criminal, such as defying authority, mini
sexual activities, and drug offenses in school and so on. It can cover staying out late, wearing,
outrageous dress or tattoos and body piercing. For girls, sexual activity under the age of 16 may
be a cause for concern.
Self-report studies and other research tend to confirm that young people commit a lot of
offences, though usually fairly minor ones

Explanations of delinquency

Some of the factors linked to delinquency are:

 Family problems such as the breakdown of the parents’ marriage

 failure at school

 Use of alcohol and drugs.

 Availability of time because young people are least likely to be tied down with a job and
a family. Matza has called youth a period of drift, when young people do not feel totally
committed to society.

In addition, Peer groups and subcultures may encourage delinquent behavior. Sometimes the
peer groups they have clear norms and values that indicate the existence of a subculture.

3. Ethnic group, race and crime

Both race and ethnicity are strongly linked to crime rates. Law enforcement is concentrated
inlower-income and minority areas. People who are better off are further removed from police
scrutiny and better able to hide their crimes.

4 Social class and crime

According to Merton and strain, theory there is a strong link between a people positions a
social class. According to official statistics on crime, the working class commit more crimes than
the upper classes. Marxist theorist have argued that capitalism and inequalities are linked to
crime. In Zimbabwe for example, crime rates are higher in high-density areas in Zimbabwe than
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low-density areas. According to Cohen, working-class young people have the crime rate that is
higher than the upper classes due to status frustration. When looking at crime watch and
another chance Television programs in Zimbabwe, the prison population dominated by working
class offenders.

However, many sociologist disagree that working class commit more crimes than the upper
classes, according to Snider a Marxist, ruling class commit more crimes than working class, it is
just the judiciary system that is class biased, biased because they are controlled by the state.

5. Geographical location and crime

Crime rates are higher in urban areas than in rural areas. This so because, in urban areas there
are greater opportunities for criminal activity with presence of shops, warehouses etc. In urban
areas there is far less informal social control. People do not know each other and are therefore
less likely to be inhibited in stealing from another locally. According to Durkheim, society in
urban areas had moved from mechanical to organic solidarity thus, there is a high degree of
anomie. Crime in Urban areas can be linked to unemployment, overcrowding, poverty and so
on.

However, these statistics can be criticized on the grounds that policing in rural areas is different
from those in urban areas. In rural areas police officer are less likely to arrest offender,
preferring merely to warn them. Some know offenders in person thereby affecting crime
statistics.

End of unit 10.4 exercise questions

1. Discuss the distribution of crime in Zimbabwe (25)

2. Examine the distribution of crime on the bases of age and gender (25)
3. Examine the view that men commit more crime than women (25)
4. Assess the view that law enforcement agency are gender biased (25)
5. Examine the view that law enforcement agency target the working class offenders (250
6. Discuss the notion that working class are more offenders that ruling class (25)
7. Analyze the view that law enforcement agency mask women crimes (25)
8. Why youth are now more involved in crimes than other age groups (25)
9. Examine the view that women are usually less likely than men to be detected, arrested,
charged, convicted, and sentenced (25)
10. React to the view that working class is not a dangerous group, they are only regarded as
criminals if they question the position of the ruling class (25)
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End of terms questions

1. Distinguish between crime and deviance (25)

2. Examine the view that deviance is socially constructed (25)

3. Analyze the view that deviant is like ' a beauty in the eyes of beholder' (25)

4. Discuss the notion that crime is a matter of place, time and location (25)

5. 'Crime is an inevitable and functional aspect of society' Discuss ( 25)

Summary

The chapter has examined one of the broadest and most complex areas in sociology.
Sociological perspectives have pictured that crime is motivated by social forces such as
inequalities and cultural goals as well as social interaction. On the other hand, Biological
theories do not accept such an explanation. They linked crime to biology rather than social
system. More importantly, official statistics, as suggested by some sociologists, are useful in
measuring all types of crimes, however, some have argued that self-report studies and victim
surveys are more reliable and useful than official statisticsGlossary

glossary
Crime - crime is an unlawful act punishable by a state or other authority.

corporate crime - also called organizational crime, type of white-collar crime committed by
individuals within their legitimate occupations, for the benefit of their employing organization.
Such individuals generally do not think of themselves as criminals, nor do they consider their
activities criminal.

Dacoities - robbery by an armed gang of not less than five men.

Deviance - actions and/or behaviors that violate social norms across formally enacted rules
(e.g., crime) as well as informal violations of social norms (e.g., rejecting folkways and mores).

Gender bias - refers to a person receiving different treatment based on the person's real or
perceived gender identity.
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Green crime - Crimes that are committed directly against the environment or acts that cause
harm to the environment, e.g: Pollution. Animal cruelty

Hate crime - refer to crimes where the motive for the crime is discrimination against individuals
because of certain characteristics such as ethnicity, race or religion.

Law- is a set of rules that are created and are enforceable by social or governmental
institutions to regulate behavior

law enforcement agency (LEA)- is any government agency responsible for the enforcement of
the laws

Judiciary system - is the system of courts that adjudicates legal disputes/disagreements and
interprets, defends, and applies the law in legal cases.

Police - The police are a constituted body of persons empowered by a state, with the aim to
enforce the law, to ensure the safety, health and possessions of citizens, and to prevent crime
and civil disorder

Prison - an institution for the confinement of persons who have been remanded (held) in
custody by a judicial authority or who have been deprived of their liberty following conviction
for a crime.

Pink collar crime - refers to female office workers in low- to mid-level positions — bookkeepers,
managers, clerks — who steal money from their employers.

Social control - Social control is described as certain set of rules and standards in society that
keep individuals bound to conventional standards as well as to the use of formalized
mechanisms

Y-chromosome - is one of a pair of chromosomes that determine the genetic sex of individuals

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 Topic 21 mass media

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Those who own and control mass media have more power than those who own and control other sectors of industry and commerce,
because media organizations have the power to shape and influence public opinion (Doyle, 2002).
Units covered

11.1 Perspectives on mass media

11.2 ownership and control of mass media

11.3 Media content

11.4 media effects

Introduction

Doyle (2002) argues that it is important to study trends in media ownership and control,
because there is a need for societies to have a diverse provision of media output in order to
ensure that all points of view can be heard and potential abuses of power and influence by elite
can be avoided. The key issue on this topic is to discuss who really controls media content or
what is broadcasted or who directs what to broadcast and what not to broadcast. Therefore,
there is no a single perspective that has provided adequate analysis on who controls media
hence having different and a variety of theories is something that is celebrated in sociology
because it allows learners to broaden up their scope.

Unit 11.1 Perspectives on the media

Objectives
Learners should be able to;
 Identify perspectives on the mass media
 Evaluate the perspectives on the mass media

Introduction
In this unit, view focus on sociological perspectives on mass media. They all attempt to make
explanations as to how mass media influences the actions of society through media content.
Whereas functionalists believe that societal govern human behavior, Marxist argue that the
controlling factor is the economic system in which media is shaped in a way of shaping the ways
working class think, thuds, let us examine these perspectives in detail.

Functionalist perspective

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Functionalist sociologists such as Talcott Parsons and Robert k Merton view society as a system
shaping human behavior. Functionalism makes certain assumptions, including the need for
stability, and examines the origin and maintenance of order and stability in society (Haralambos
and Holborn, 2004).

Functionalism suggests that the mass media’s common perspective and shared common
experience bind society together. Parsons (1964) sees media as an instrument of society, thus,
media is beneficial to society as a whole. To him, the role of media is to transmit the norms and
values of society to large audience. Parsons believes that the institutions of society functions to
meet the basic needs of society such as culture. Therefore, Parsons would see mass media
transmitting the norms and values of society, which provides the guidelines for behavior.
Parsons further argues that societal behavior is governed by shared values that become societal
norms, a value consensus which enables society to function effetely.. For example in Zimbabwe,
the National television is used to transmit the culture of society through Mai Chisamba shows
(teaches basic aspects of unhu such as language, the way we communicate with parents).

Functionalism also believes that media offers videos, pictures of people being punished for
violating the norms and values of society. For example, programs like crime watch and another
chance show the negative consequences of breaking the norms and values. The prison and
police officers are shown urging members of the public to respect societal laws in order to
avoid arrests. Therefore, this clearly shows that media does not only transmit norms and values
but it reinforces them.

In addition, media is seen as promoting social solidarity at micro and macro level. For example,
individuals are brought together by television in a perspective of watching football match,
movie or main news. Media can be also used for gratification purposes and entertainment. It is
a form of relief from the stresses in society.
Critics

Bagdikian (2004) believes that media does not benefits society as a whole but only powerful
groups. This is also supported by Marxists who saw media as transmitting capitalist values.

Pluralist perspective
According to this perspective, Media is a component of democratic idea, thus the public
controls it. To this perspective, the interest of all groups whether they are the right or left wing
are given a platform to express views in media. For example in Zimbabwe, before 2018
elections the ruling part, the main opposition party Movement for Democratic Change Alliance
(MDC - A) and other opposition political parties were given a platform to present their

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manifesto before elections on national television in Zimbabwe. The hard talk program were
MDC A candidate was the guest was also broadcasted. Thus, this shows that media is
democratic and serve the interest of groups. In this case, pluralists have argued that media
owners are objective and responsible facilitators of the political process.

Public service broadcasting

According to pluralist, the role of media is to provide broadcasting services. The British
Broadcasting Cooperation (BBC) is the most obvious example of this. The BBC was set up by a
Royal Charter in 1926 which clearly states that the BBC has a legal obligation to provide specific
services that is to inform, to educate and entertain the full Audience spectrum. In other words,
it is assumed that all groups are carterd for.

In 1999, the Government outlined what it saw as the functions of BBC

 To accurately and impartially report news

 To educate audiences
 To protect consumers , especially children from harmful materials
 To provide entertainment
Marxist perspective

Marxists have sharply contradicted pluralism. Marxists believe that the media is the means by
which the ideas of the ruling maintain their dominance. Marxists further argues that the
capitalist class uses ideology that is a, a false but influential set of idea , values and norms to
make sure that working class accept capitalism and do not threaten it's stability. To Engels,
media is a superstructure designed to transmit ruling class ideologies, for example, to persuade
people that capitalism is fair and just and society is meritocratic. Working class people
experience false class-consciousness.

The main function of media is to convince the public that ruling class ideological beliefs are
truth and facts. According to Miliband (1973), the role of media is to shape how people think
and about the world, they live. Marxist further argues that media is happy to transmit ruling
class ideologies through newspapers and television because media are part or ruling class
minorities. In Zimbabwe, it is a fact that The Herald (state owned Newspaper) and Zimbabwe
Broadcasting Cooperation (ZBC) are used to transmit ruling class ideologies.
ZBC and Herald are used to praise and glorify the ruling class and the dark side is less likely to
be shown. In Marxist terms, media is used to provide hope to lower classes hence minimizing
critics, thus in Zimbabwe, vision 2030, seems like it is now a television software program you
cannot run away from when turning on ZBC station designed to give hope to disbanded working

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class. In addition, media platforms from Marxist view point, they are used to manipulate voting
turn out, thus, political indoctrination, hence the working class will vote for the elite.

Neo- Marxism - The Glasgow University Media Group

Neo- Marxist arguments place less emphasis than the Marxist does on the logic of capitalism to
explain the content and effects of mass media rather they talk about cultural hegemony - the
domination of the ideas of dominant ideas over others. It is associated with the work of
Antonio Gramsci and Louis Althusser. Neo- Marxist believe that most media professionals - such
as Journalists, editors, television producers etc. genuinely shape media content in professional
ways in order to maximize their audiences. However, unconsciously they produce a culture
industry, which reflects their class position and which ideologically benefits the powerful.
The Glasgow University Media Group (GUMG) supports the neo Marxist view that media
content generally supports the interest of those who run the capitalist system, but GUMG notes
that this is an accidental by product of social background of journalists and broadcasters.
According to Sutton Trust, the majority of journalists are not independently educated and most
journalist tend to be middle class hence this might reflect the interest of the dominant at large.

Feminist perspective

The role, control and representation of gender in Media

Feminist perspectives have argued that the media content is controlled by men in the sense
that media is patriarchal. According to Marxists feminists, the media owners are male
capitalists who represent themselves positively while the powerless (women) are represented
negatively.

Bob Connell (1995)

Connell argues that the mass media, a secondary agent of socialization, is a playing a key role in
teaching and reinforcing these cultural expectations about how each gender is supposed to be
operate in social world, hence leading to gender inequality.
Apart from television, the most popular type of media that women access is women's
magazines. These magazines have strongly encouraged women to conform to patriarchal ideals
that confirm their subordinate position compared to men.

Portrayal / representation of women in mass media

The negative portrayal and representation of women in Media has led to gender inequality in
societies.
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Negative portrayal

Tuchman et Al (1978)
1. Symbolic Annihilation

Tuchman et Al used the term symbolic annihilation to describe the way in which women's
achievements are often not reported in media, or they are condemned and trivialized by mass
media. Often their achievements are presented as less important than their looks and sex
appeal.

Tunstall (2002)

2. Women are presented as sex objects.

According to Tunstall (2002), the presentation of women in media is biased because media
emphasizes sexual appearance of women. Media does not represent men as nude but women.
Press reporting is seen as excessively objectifies women and reduces them to sexual
commodities. Radical feminists have argued that such a sex representation has made women to
believe into the 'beauty myth'. In other words, women are strongly encouraged by media to see
beauty as their personal goals for happiness in media, rather than competing with men for
positions of power.

In the Tabloid newspaper (2012,PG 10).the report paints a damage picture of gendered
relations in which men are portrayed as active in suits and sportswear and women as trivial
decoration who exist to look sexy for a male audience.

3. Women are portrayed as housewives

According to Tunstall (2000), women are depicted as busy housewives. This socializes the whole
society that the role of women is to be homemakers only for example; Mai Chisamba is
portrayed advertising Fluffy rice on national television thussocializing women to accept their
position as homemakers in society hence gender inequality.
4. Women are portrayed as victims of violence who cannot fight for themselves

Sociologist have argued that the violence against women is often presented in a sexist way by
newspapers and television and is partly responsible for the emergency of a 'rape culture" that
trivializes the abuse and harm suffered by women. This sends message to the whole world that
women are weak hence leading to women's subordination.

5. Women are portrayed as individuals who are not intelligent and resourceful.

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However, basing on my informal observation media especially new media, does not portray
women as sex objects, rather, they portray themselves as sex objects in media. For example,
most women take half-naked pictures of themselves to get more followers on Instagram.

Debate – discuss the view that media does not portray women as sex objects, rather, women
portray themselves as sex objects in media

Only handful sociologists have accepted the negative portrayal of women in mass media, some
have argued that the situation has changed, leading to the positive portrayal of women in mass
media.

Positive portrayal

1. Positive role models

According to Gauntlett (2008) from a postmodern perspective, several recent movies have
featured self-confident, tough, intelligent female lead characters. For example, comedian's such
as Mai Titi in Zimbabwe through her Maititi diaries Facebook page, Ruth Makandiwa, Dr Mai
Chisamba have built positive messages that have a significant impact on the way Young women
construct their identities. For example, women Followers of prophetess Ruth Makandiwa have
taken a short hair identity of Ruth Makandiwa and have carried out charity work today.

2. Women are now represented as people who are intelligent. A number of movies and
television programs portray women as intelligent leading men, for example, Mai Chisamba TV
program that represents her taking the lead in educating the nation, reviving the under threat
norms and values of Zimbabwean society, in which the majority of men cannot do.

3. Women are no portrayed as strong as men. Most TV movies now show women actress as
fighters . For example, the girl fight and Nikita movies.

4. Liberal feminists have argued that the Media such as television is dominated by women.
Liberal feminists, have accepted that media has made some progress (though little) in the sense
that most news reporters, presenters and journalist are now Women. For example,
Zimbabwean Broadcasting Cooperation is dominated by women and the 2022 CEO is a
woman.this shows that media content is controlled by the journalist.

Postmodernist perspective

Postmodernist perspective points out the public opinion success in controlling media content.
Postmodernists argue that power is not concentrated in few hands; rather, power circulates in

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a fluid way. For example, Levene (2007) argues that public opinion triumphed over corporate
interest e g through new media such as Facebook. From this viewpoint, audience have the
power to determine media content through comment section. In the event of strikes, e.g. 2018
shut down in Zimbabwe, social media platforms were used to organize the effected members of
the public.

Through social media platforms, individuals contribute through comment sections to influence
media content.

End of unit 11.1 exercise questions

1. Examine sociological perspectives on mass media (25)

2. Assess any two sociological perspectives on mass media (25)
3. Using sociological perspectives, examine the role of mass media (25)
4. Assess the Marxist perspective on mass media (25)
5. Examine the role of mass media in perpetuating gender inequality (25)
6. Discuss the view that mass media benefits society as a whole (25)
7. Discuss the view that women are portrayed as sex objects in media (25)

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Unit 11.2 ownership and control of the mass media
Objectives
Learners should be able to;
 Discuss media ownership
 Analyze media control in society
Introduction
Sociologists have mixed views on the ownership and control of mass media. Marxist saw ruling
class controlling media and this is rejected by other perspectives as they argues that media is a
public order. In this unit, we are going to discuss media ownership and control.

1. Media is controlled by public opinion

Pluralist perspective
According to this perspective, Media is a component of democratic idea, thus the public
controls it Zimbabwe. Thus, this shows that media is democratic and serve the interest of
groups. In this case, pluralists have argues that media owners are objective and responsible
facilitators of the political process.

Moreover, pluralists point out that media content is controlled by the public. To this
perspective, the behavior of media owners is constrained by the market (consumers or
audience). They argue that media owners compete against each other in order to attract
customers for their products. Linking to Zimbabwean context, this is also relevant and
applicable in the sense that newspaper companies such as Observer based in kwekwe, News-
day, Zimpapapers, The Herald, The Sunday Mail, Financial Gazette and so on compete for
customers. From pluralist viewpoint, this shows that readers, viewers and listeners are real
power holders because they exercise the right to buy or not. As notes by Haralambos and
Holborn (2013), audience have a freedom of choice as to which newspaper to buy or channel to
view or subscribe.

If readers suspects that the media product is biased, readers respond by not buying or
unfollowing the page and the media company would go out of business. In order to be relevant

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in the market, media owners have to give what the audience want rather what the media
owners decide. Power, then, according to pluralist thinkers, lies with the consumer or audience
rather than with owners. From this perspective, it can be therefore argued that media.

In addition, The globalization of media and conglomerates that have resulted from this are also
merely attempts at finding new audiences in order to increase profits Rather than some sort of
cultural imperialism. According to whale (1977), it is impossible for owners to interfere in media
content because they have global problems of trade and investments to occupy their minds
hence they have no time to think about day to day detailed of running their media businesses
or the everyday content of their newspapers or television programs.

Media diversity

Pluralists argue that the range of media products available is extremely diverse and that, as a
result, all points of view in democratic societies are catered for. Media mirrors therefore
mirrors what the audience want or see as important. For example, if a newspaper focus on
elections or machete gangs (Mashurugwi ) in Zimbabwe, it is because this is what the majority
of Zimbabweans want to read about. Furthermore, media diversity is also an indication that
media content is controlled by public demand. Such a media diversity Carters for public interest.
For example, in Zimbabwe there are The Mirror in Masvingo, H-Metro in Bulawayo and Harare
and observe in kwekwe.

State controls

Pluralists argue that the state does not control media content rather; it restricts media owners
from owning too many televisions.

Postmodernist perspective

Postmodernist perspective points out the public opinion success in controlling media content.
Postmodernists argue that power is not concentrated in few hands; rather, power circulates in
a fluid way. For example, Levene (2007) argues that public opinion triumphed over corporate
interest e g through new media such as Facebook. From this viewpoint, audience have the
power to determine media content through comment section. In the event of strikes, e.g. 2018
shut down in Zimbabwe, social media platforms were used to organize the effected members of
the public.

Through social media platforms, individuals contribute through comment sections to influence
media content.

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Furthermore the content of Radio Zimbabwe ZTV (ZBC) and Power FM stations in Zimbabwe is
determined by the public through request shows. For example, audience through 'Hello DJ can
you please play me this song' and Kwaziso program on radio Zimbabwe can be used as evidence
to show that the content of media is controlled by the public.

News, for example in Zimbabwe, journalist interview members of the public about their
opinions over a certain issue e.g the reintroduction of Zupco buses by the state which is later
broadcasted as a video interview, hence media content is controlled by public.

Citizen journalism theory

According to Drudge, media content is determined and controlled by citizens in the sense that,
with the new media such as WhatsApp, Facebook, everyone is now a journalist (Citizen
Journalism). To Drudge, this allows every citizen to be a reporter and have his or her voice
equated with that of rich and powerful. For example, in Zimbabwe, in the event of a political
violent or abduction, citizens play a greater role to take a video and upload it and they give
their opinion, at some point, the video will go viral to all social media platforms and other forms
of media. Thus, through citizen journalism, it can be argued that the public opinion succeed in
influencing media content.

However, this view has been questioned by Keen, who argues that professional journalists
acquire their craft through education. In contrast, citizen journalists have no formal training and
they give personal opinion as a fact and report rumors. Couldry argues that citizen journalism
has little impact on main news thus; media is controlled by the state itself. For example,
anything that is not reported on ZBC is regarded as false and fake news.

2. Media is controlled and owned by the state

The Marxist perspective

Marxist perspective has pointed that media is controlled by the ruling class and the capitalist.
According to Engels, all superstructures are like media, and ideologies in media are controlled
by Media. Marxists perspective have argued that, the owners of Media, are part of the elite
hence media reflects the interest of the elite.

Media is controlled by the ruling class in the sense that it does not transmit the ideas of society
as a whole, but ruling class ideologies. The state has the power to decide which ideas to
broadcast and ideas not to. Journalist have no autonomy from the state, but they receive a
directive and play a passive role. Thus ownership and control of mass media by the dominant
group, makes the media content to serve the interest of the powerful. For example, in 2018,

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the Zimbabwean government switched off all social media platforms in an attempt to control
planned political violence.

Furthermore, in Zimbabwe, the state regulates what is said and how it is said through media
and radio broadcasting. The content of ZBC in Zimbabwe is determined by its license, and the
license is regulated by the state. ZBC has no government critic hence this shows that media
content is by the state.

Moreover, almost all government and ruling part events such as campaign rallies are
broadcasted live on ZBC, thus suggesting media is controlled by the state.

The main function of media is to convince the public that ruling class ideological beliefs are
truth and facts. According to Miliband (1973), the role of media is to shape how people think
and about the world, they live. Marxist further argues that media is happy to transmit ruling
class ideologies through newspapers and television because media are part or ruling class
minorities. In Zimbabwe, it is a fact that The Herald (state owned Newspaper) and Zimbabwe
Broadcasting Cooperation (ZBC) are used to transmit ruling class ideologies.

ZBC and Herald are used to praise and glorify the ruling class and the dark side is less likely to
be shown. In Marxist terms, media is used to provide hope to lower classes hence minimizing
critics, thus in Zimbabwe, vision 2030, seems like it is now a television software program you
cannot run away from when turning on ZBC station designed to give hope to disbanded working
class. In addition, media platforms from Marxist view point, they are used to manipulate voting
turn out, thus, political indoctrination, hence the working class will vote for the elite.

Evaluation,

Tunstall and Palmer (1991) argue that governments are no longer interested in controlling the
activities of media owners. Thus, the government is aimed at preventing media owners from
gaining too much poor. Pluralists believe that media is objective and balanced with no single
individual controlling media. To Postmodernist, power is not concentrated in the hands of
ruling class only, it circulates in a fluid way.

Neo- Marxism - The Glasgow University Media Group

Neo- Marxist arguments place less emphasis than the Marxist does on the logic of capitalism to
explain the content and effects of mass media rather they talk about cultural hegemony - the
domination of the ideas of dominant ideas over others. It is associated with the work of
Antonio Gramsci and Louis Althusser. Neo- Marxist believe that most media professionals - such
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as Journalists, editors, television producers etc. genuinely shape media content in professional
ways in order to maximize their audiences. However, unconsciously they produce a culture
industry, which reflects their class position and which ideologically benefits the powerful.
The Glasgow University Media Group (GUMG) supports the neo Marxist view that media
content generally supports the interest of those who run the capitalist system, but GUMG notes
that this is an accidental by product of social background of journalists and broadcasters.
According to Sutton Trust, the majority of journalists are not independently educated and most
journalist tend to be middle class hence this might reflect the interest of the dominant at large.

The propaganda model of media

According to this Model, media content is controlled by the elite not by the public. According to
Herman and Chomsky (1988), media participates in propaganda campaigns that are helpful to
elite interest. They suggest that media performance is largely shaped by market forces or
capitalism. They note that media businesses are profit seeking, owned by wealthy companies
and the government. They are given license by the government and the government threatens
to withdraw licenses if its interest is not reported. Thus, the powerful and government are able
to control the flow of information. In this respect, media is shaped and constrained by
dominant by politically conservative ideology. McChesney (2000) notes that the media sees
official sources of information as legitimate and propaganda is used. For example, if the
government is responsible for genocide, the media company will just ignore and distort
information, if not license will be withdrew.

3. Media is controlled by journalist

The agenda-setting model

According to this model, there is a journalistic consensus on the basis of what issues should be
discussed by society and which ones should be avoided. What is broadcasted is what is
discussed by the public, thus journalist give audience an agenda/ topic to discuss. Therefore,
this shows that media content is controlled by the journalist.

4. Media is controlled by males

Feminist perspective

The role, control and representation of gender in Media

Feminist perspectives have argued that the media content is controlled by men in the sense
that media is patriarchal. According to Marxists feminists, the media owners are male

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capitalists who represent themselves positively while the powerless (women) are represented
negatively.

Bob Connell (1995)

Connell argues that the mass media, a secondary agent of socialization, is a playing a key role in
teaching and reinforcing these cultural expectations about how each gender is supposed to be
operate in social world, hence leading to gender inequality.
Apart from television, the most popular type of media that women access is women's
magazines. These magazines have strongly encouraged women to conform to patriarchal ideals
that confirm their subordinate position compared to men.

5. Media is controlled by the able bodied

The second view, held by many disabled sociologists, suggests that the disabled are actually
disabled by society, particularly media. Media disables them through prejudicial stereotypes
and attitudes; this results in discriminatory practices that reinforce the notion that the disabled
should be dependent upon able bodied or that they should be segregated from the rest of
society.

Disabled sociologists such as Colin Barnes see Mass media as partly responsible for the
dissemination of these stereotypes and prejudices. As Hevey (quoted in Barnes, 1992) suggest:
The history of the portrayal of disabled people is the history of oppressive and negative
representation (Haralambos and Holborn, 2013). This has means that disabled people have
been presented as socially flawed able bodied people, not as disabled people with their own
identities.

Haller and Zhang (2010) conducted a survey of people with disabilities from a range of
countries, about Media representations of disability and concluded that the news media were
regarded by the disabled as doing a poor job in terms of covering disability issues.

End of unit 11.2 exercise questions

1. Discuss the ownership and control of media in zimbabwe (25)
2. Examine the view that media content is dertemined by the public opinion (25)
3. Assess the view that the ruling class shape what to and what not to broadcast (250
4. Examine the view that media content is shaped by the able bodied
5. To what extent is media content determined by gate keepers (25)

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Unit 11. 3 media content

Objectives
Learners should be able to
 Identify media products

 Assess various forms of media content

Identify Media products

Introduction

The different types of media industries Specialist providers operate within specific media
sectors. The main media products sectors are film, television, video games, print, publishing
and the internet. Here are examples of production companies that work within each sector and
some of the successful products and technologies they produce.

KEY TERMS

Production – This is the making of a media product and includes the full production process
from preproduction to post-production.
Specialist providers – These are media companies that produce and distribute products within a
specific medium such as film, television and video games.

Film
This sector includes companies that produce all blockbuster and small-scale fi lm productions
that you see at the cinema, on the internet and on television. For example, Warner Brothers –
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Harry Potter franchise
Television and radio
This sector includes all companies that work to produce and distribute television and radio
programmes that are broadcast across digital television and radio channels, including the
internet.
For example, BBC – Strictly Come Dancing
Video games
This sector includes all the games production companies, and the software and hardware
development companies who produce the consoles that the games are played on. For example,
Ubisoft – Assassin’s Creed
Print and publishing
This sector includes producers and distributors of books, newspapers and magazines. For
example, Hachette Publishing – Twilight series Web and online technologies. This sector
includes all internet- and app-based products and services that run using internet and
communication technology. For example, Facebook and Instagram

Music
This sector includes record labels that are part of conglomerate companies. For example,
Universal Music Publishing Group – Robbie Williams back catalogue

Public service ownership

In the UK the largest public service broadcaster is the BBC. The BBC’s original aim, as set out by
the fi rst Director General, Lord Reith, was to produce output that informs, educates and
entertains, and that commitment still exists today. The BBC, however, is still a conglomerate
and is in fact one of the largest cross media organizations in Europe.
Other companies that operate in the UK and have a duty to provide some public service
broadcasting output owing to their roots as traditional terrestrial broadcast channels are
Channel 4 (which is a public corporation but is self-funded by advertising), Channel 3 (owned by
ITV plc) and Channel 5 (owned by Viacom). Channel 3 and Channel 5 are fully commercial and
funded by advertising.

No matter what media industry you are investigating, all products are made within the
production process. The first stage of the production process of any media text or product cycle
includes three main parts

● Pre-production – This includes all the planning and drafting stages of a media product (for
example, scheduling, funding, casting, designing, storyboarding, scriptwriting).

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● Production – This includes all the actual making of a media product (for example, filming,
photographing, writing, inking graphics, recording sound).

● Post-production – This includes any ways in which the media product is edited (for example,
use of CGI and special effects, digital manipulation, sub-editing processes, audio editing
technique

Different types of advertising in media industries

GETTING STARTED

(10 minutes)
Choose a media product within a sector of your choice and write down as many ways as you
can think of that the product is advertised to audiences.

Traditional methods of advertising

a media product Methods of traditional advertising have long been used to create awareness of
a product, and throughout the twentieth century, advertising developed as a global industry in
its own right. In particular, print media, radio and television technologies were used in
combination to create international campaigns.

Print media
Print media advertising includes:

 Newspapers

 Magazines

 Billboards

 Flyers, brochures and leafl ets

Print media advertising is a form of advertising that uses physically printed media, such as
billboards, magazines and newspapers. It is one of the oldest methods of advertising, and while
there has been a decline in revenue in newspaper and magazine advertising, owing to
advancements in technology, it is still one of the most successful and powerful above�the-line
methods to reach a mass audience.
Marketing campaigns for global media products feature billboards that display high production
values. Film posters such as those from the James Bond franchise are an essential part of the fi

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lm’s teaser trailers and marketing material.

Radio
Radio advertising includes:

 Local advertising on commercial channels

 Use of idents and jingles

 Sponsorship of a station or show

 Placing an advertisement on local radio in Zimbabwe is still an effective way to reach an

audience.

Key term

Traditional advertising – Methods of advertising that have been used by media producers
to promote products for many years before the digital age. These include print media
advertising (for example, billboards, newspapers, magazines, flyers, direct mail marketing,
television adverts and film trailers)

How products fulfil audience needs

Uses and gratifications While research can be undertaken to ask audiences whether they feel
that they have enjoyed interacting with and using a media product or brand. Why audiences
use media products can be looked at from a theoretical point of view. Denis McQuail (1987)
identified four categories under the broader heading ‘uses and gratifications’ that often insight
into why audiences use and interact with certain media products.

The categories are:

1 Escapism – People use media products to get away from reality.
2 Surveillance – People use media products to find out information.
3 Personal relationships – People use media products as talking points.

4 Personal identity – People use media products as a means of shaping their own ‘subcultural
identities’ (Dick Hebdige, 1979).

Reality TV shows and soap operas are often cited as being escapist texts and, as we have
previously seen, primetime shows such as The X Factor pull in large viewing figures. Social
media and online forums have also contributed to such shows acting as talking points, with
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Facebook, Digital Spy and Twitter acting as ways in which people can communicate their
thoughts and views. Music artists and celebrities/actors on TV programmes and films act as
‘ideal selves’ (Carl Rogers, 1980) and opinion leaders or fashion icons. Indeed, magazines such
as Heat and Now often feature spreads based on ‘copying’ the look of a celebrity.

Critical and theoretical analysis of forms of media content

What is the content of the media?

Content is the information contained within communication media. This includes internet,
cinema, television, radio, audio CDs, books, magazines, physical art, and live event content. It's
directed at an end-user or audience in the sectors of publishing, art, and communication.

Theories of representation

For representation to be meaningful to audiences there needs to be a shared recognition of

people, situations, ideas and so on, such as stereotypes (Walter Lippmann, 1922). All
representations therefore have ideologies behind them. This means that the representations
stand for a wider set of ideas, beliefs or principles.

Laura Mulvey (1975) – Objectification of women in the media

Mulvey suggested that women are presented as sex objects in all media texts, but she focused
her research on fi lm in particular. She believed that women are positioned so that the female
body is objectifi ed in order to provide erotic pleasure for heterosexual men and this is known
as the ‘male gaze’. Mulvey suggested that women also accept the male gaze owing to the fact
that it is constantly reinforced across media texts. Judith Williamson (1978) also investigated
gender roles and stereotyping, but instead focused on advertising

Narrative theories
Narrative theory is concerned with analyzing the ways in which stories are put together and
how audiences understand them.

Tzvetan Todorov (1969) – 5-step narrative formula

Tzvetan Todorov suggested that all films follow the same five-stage narrative pattern:

1 A story begins with the state of equilibrium (all is as it should be/state of affairs is normal).

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2 There is a disruption of that equilibrium by an event (this is a negative event that will impact
on the main characters in the story).

3 A recognition that the disorder has occurred (the main characters realize that their lives are in
a state of disruption).

4 There is a recognized attempt to repair the damage of the disruption (the characters fight to
‘save the day’, usually in a battle).
5 A return or restoration of a new equilibrium (normality will return but the main characters
will have changed in some w

Rick Altman (1999) – Audience pleasures

Rick Altman argues that genre offers audiences ‘a set of pleasures’, such as:
1 Emotional pleasures: does the text make the audience happy, sad, nostalgic, and so on?
2 Visceral pleasures: ‘gut’ responses, such as excitement, fear, laughter.
3 Intellectual puzzles: Does the text make the audience think?
Altman’s theory suggests that many of the texts we use every day have a specific c set of codes
and conventions that not only provide us with familiarity but also fulfil a specific need as a
result of interacting with the product.
If you think about a genre such as horror, this will offer audiences visceral pleasure of both
excitement and fear, whereas crime or thrillers may offer an intellectual puzzle.

The media effects debate

20 minutes)
Working in pairs, make a list of at least five films that you consider to include violent content.
● Research each of these films online and find the age certification.
● Write a sentence that describes whether you think the age certificate is appropriate or not.
Explain why you think this.
● Feed back to the class

There has long been a debate about the impact that media products have on their audiences
and this is commonly known as the ‘media effects debate’. Building on ideas that derived from
the 1930s Hypodermic Syringe model, Vance Packard (1957) discussed the negative impact of
mass media products with reference to persuasive advertising across print and broadcast media.
The passive audience theory, which references Packard’s idea of the mass media being able to
inject ideas into people’s heads like a ‘hypodermic syringe’, reinforces the idea that audiences
have limited resistance to media messages.

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 Main concerns were about the idea of ‘copycat’ effects, and this assumes the audience will
copy whatever they see on screen. Ideas about copycat behaviour also stem from Gerbner and
Gross’ (1978) cultivation theory, which suggests that over time, repetition of viewing violent
acts allows certain ideas and values to become normalised.

By repetitive viewing of violent images, for example in TV, fi lm and video games the audience
may become immune towards negative and/or violent representations, as per ideas about
desensitization.

Moral panic

KEY TERMS
Media effects debate – The academic and social debate as to whether media has a negative
impact on audience members.

Passive audience theory – A collection of academic viewpoints that stress that audiences are
unable to reject media messages and are subject to negative effects from the media they
consume.

Desensitisation – The idea that prolonged exposure to violent images numbs the effect of
them. The more you become accustomed to violent images, the less likely they are to have an
impact on the audience.

Moral panic – An instance of public concern or ‘panic’ in response to a media product that is
regarded as threatening to certain groups or debasing agreed moral standards within society.

Stanley Cohen’s (1972) theory has been revisited many times since his original work on how the
press created a moral panic about the subcultures of mods and rockers and the way that the
music and fashion of both had a negative impact on the teenagers that followed their fashion
and lifestyle. However, since then, films, teen magazines, video games and, more recently,
social media and online technologies have been blamed for causing problems in society. The
main concern and focus has been the negative impact or effect that watching or using such
media has on vulnerable members of society, such as children.

Some of the more famous case studies include the following:

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● The 1987 Hungerford massacre, which was blamed on the fi lm Rambo.
● in 1992, the murder of two-year-old James Bulger by two 10-year-old boys was blamed on
their exposure to the fi lm Child’s Play 3.

● In 1999, the Columbine High School massacre was blamed on the video games Doom and 3D
Wolfenstein.
● In 2007, the video game Manhunt was banned owing to the fact that it was likely to incite
violent behaviour in teenagers.
● In 2014, the video game Hatred was banned from the Steam service for its violent and
pornographic content.

GROUP ACTIVITY
Do video games make you violent? (10 minutes)

Media regulators
The media industries are subject to regulators of various types. Some are government-
appointed (state regulation or statutory regulation). This means that the media can be
controlled by laws set out in Parliament

Keys terms

Media regulation – The control or guidance of media content by governments and other bodies.
This means media production and consumption are monitored.
Censorship – Keeping material from an audience. Such material includes graphic images, speech
or ideas which may be considered harmful, sensitive or offensive to audience members. Such
material and levels of censorship are determined by governments, media outlets and regulatory
bodies.
Classification – The decision made about the suitability of a media text for a particular age
range after the content has been viewed by regulators. The classification will be in the form of
an age certificate (film and video games), warning signs (music, video games) or broadcast time
(TV, film

Unit end questions

1. Discuss the view that that media content is stereotyped (25)

2. Discuss the view that media content is gendered (25)

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3. Discuss the importance of media censorship (25)

4. Examine the ways through which media products are distributed to audience (25)

6. Assess the view that violence media content leads to violence behavior (25)

7. Discuss the assumption that media content satisfies the interest of audience (25)

8. Analysis various forms of media products (25)

Unit 11.4 Media Effects

Objectives
Learners should be able to;
 Identify the effects of media on human behavior
 Discuss the theories on the effects of mass media on society
Introduction

Media effects are the intended or unintended consequences of what the mass media does
(Mcqual, 2010). Many of the key theories in mass media has effects on audience members.
Thus, the degree and type of effect varies depending on the theory. Let us examine the
submissions below;

Key term
Media effects - Zillmann defined media effects as "the social, cultural, and psychological impact
of communicating via the mass media". Perse stated that media effects researchers study "how
to control, enhance, or mitigate the impact of the mass media on individuals and society".

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Influential psychologists, pressure groups, religious leaders and politicians have suggested that
there is a direct causal link between violence in films, television programmes and computer
games and violent real-life crime. It is argued that such media content exerts an
overwhelmingly negative effect on impressionable young audiences. These beliefs have led to
increased state control over and censorship of the media in Britain.

KEY POINT - Sociologists have argued that media content can have a direct effect upon their
audiences and trigger particular social responses in terms of behaviour and attitudes.

Media leads to eating disorders

Orbach (1991) and Wolf (1990) argue that there is a causal link between representation of (US)
size zero models in magazines and eating disorders.

Media influences voting behavior

Norris (1996), claims that media coverage of political issues can influence voting behaviour.
media platforms from Marxist view point, they are used to manipulate voting turn out, thus,
political indoctrination, hence the working class will vote for the elite.

Some early Marxist commentators, particularly those belonging to the Frankfurt School, such as
Marcuse (1964), believed that the media transmitted a mass culture which was directly injected
into the hearts and minds of the population making them more vulnerable to ruling class
propaganda.

Cultural effects

The cultural effects model

The Marxist cultural effects model sees the media as a very powerful ideological influence that
is mainly concerned with transmitting capitalist values and norms. Marxists argue that media
content contains strong ideological messages that reflect the values of those who own, control
and produce the media. They argue that the long-term effect of such media content is that the
values of the rich and powerful come to be unconsciously shared by most people – people
come to believe in values such as ‘happiness is about possessions and money’, ‘being a celebrity
is really important’, etc. Marxists believe that television content, in particular, has been
deliberately dumbed down and this has resulted in a decline in serious programmes such as
news, documentaries and drama that might make audiences think critically about the state of
the world. Consequently, there is little serious debate about the organisation of capitalism and
the social inequalities and problems that it generates.

However, in criticism of the cultural effects model, these ‘cause’ and ‘effects’ are very difficult
to operationalise and measure. It also implies that Marxists are the only ones who can see the
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‘true’ ideological interpretation of media content, which suggests that most members of society
are ‘cultural dopes’.

Media shapes identities

The post-modernist model

Strinati (1995) argues that the media today are the most influential shapers of identity and
offer a greater range of consumption choices in terms of identities and lifestyles. Moreover, in
the post-modern world, the media transmit the idea that the consumption of signs and symbols
for their own sake is more important than the goods they represent. In other words, the media
encourages the consumption of logos, designer labels and brands, and these become more
important to people’s sense of identity than the physical clothes and goods themselves.

Enriches local cultures

Other post-modernists have noted that, since 2000, the globalization of communication has
become more intensive and extensive, and this has had great significance for local cultures, in
that all consumers of the global media are both citizens of the world and of their locality.
Seeing other global experience allows people to think critically about their own place in the
world.

However, Thompson notes that the interaction between global media and local cultures can
also create tensions and hostilities, e.g. the Chinese authorities have attempted to control and
limit the contact that the Chinese people have with global media, whilst some Islamic
commentators have used global media to convince their local populations of the view that
Western culture is decadent and corrupt

Key Words:

Media, Society, Relationship, audience, effects, functions

Stimulate racial conflicts

Paul Hartmann and Charles Husband (1971) studied the effects of mass media on racial conflicts
indicated that the way the race-related material is handled by the mass media serves both to
perpetuate negative perceptions of the blacks to define the situation as one of the inter-group
conflict. They also found that in communities with a conflict (e.g. competition for housing), the
media will reinforce the thinking of blacks versus whites about the situation, and the existing
social strains will be amplified. Therefore, in communities with diverse ethnic groups, where

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there is no objective basis for conflict, a conflict may be created, because people come to think
in terms of conflict after exposed to certain messages on media.

Media have a mediating role

Media have a mediating role between objective social reality and personal experience. The
mass media are intermediate and mediating in several senses. It is a kind of link between real
life and what we fantasize about other lives. This is done when mass media makes messages,
entertains us with programs. In other words, they often lie between us (as receivers) and that
part of potential experience, which is outside our direct perception or contact. They may stand
between ourselves and other institutions with which we have dealings – law, industry, the state,
etc. They may provide a link between these different institutions; the media are also channels
for others to contact us, or for us to contact them; they often provide the material for us to
form perceptions of other groups, organizations and events

Media work as Information Provider and Interpreter.

The media provide people with important information about their environment (e.g. political,
cultural, social issues) and respond to more imminent problems (weather, traffic, natural
catastrophes, etc.). At least in part, people make decisions about whether to dress for warm or
cold, choose political leaders to vote for in elections, and judge other groups in society based
on the media.

Harold Lasswell (1949), a political scientist, who has done pioneering research in mass
communication, has noted three major functions of the media.

A. Surveillance of environment

This means collection and distribution of information concerning events in the environment,
both outside and within a particular society. To some extent, it corresponds to what is
popularly conceived as the ‘handling of news’.

b.Correlation of part of society in responding to the environment

Correlation here includes interpretation of information about the environment and prescription
for conduct in reaction to these events. In past, this activity has been popularly defined as
‘editorial propaganda’.

Transmission of social heritage from one generation to another

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 Lasswell says that the transmission of culture focuses on the communication of information,
values, and social norms from one generation to another or from members of a group to
newcomers. Commonly, it is identified as ‘educational activity’.

Media leads to disability stereotypes and prejudices.

There are essentially two broad sociological ways of viewing disability. The first suggests that
disabled people are disabled by their physical impairments. This view suggest that they need
constant care from both medical practitioners and their families. In other words, the disabled
are dependent upon the able bodied. The second view, held by many disabled sociologists,
suggests that the disabled are actually disabled by society, particularly media. Media disables
them through prejudicial stereotypes and attitudes; this results in discriminatory practices that
reinforce the notion that the disabled should be dependent upon able bodied or that they
should be segregated from the rest of society.

Disabled sociologists such as Colin Barnes see Mass media as partly responsible for the
dissemination of these stereotypes and prejudices. As Hevey (quoted in Barnes, 1992) suggest:
The history of the portrayal of disabled people is the history of oppressive and negative
representation (Haralambos and Holborn, 2013). This has means that disabled people have
been presented as socially flawed able-bodied people, not as disabled people with their own
identities.

Barnes (qouted in Haralambos and Holborn, 2013) identified a number of recurring stereotypes
of disabled people. In media, disabled people are presented as

 As sinister and evil - Disabled people are often portrayed as criminals or monsters.
Morris (1992) notes that disability often becomes a metaphor in drama. For example,
portraying a character with a humped back, with a missing leg , will evoke certain
feelings.
 As super cripples - Barnes notes that the disabled are often portrayed as having special
powers - for example, the blind people might be viewed as visionaries with sixth sense
or super hearing. Ross (1996) notes that for disability issues to be reported, they have to
be sensational, unexpected or heroic to be interpreted by journalist as newsworthy. In
Zimbabwe, their talent is commonly referred to as 'a lost talent'.
 As incapable of participating fully in community life. Disabled people are really shown
as integral and productive members of the community.
 Not as ordinary or normal. Barnes argues that media rarely portrays people as normal.
Furthermore, many disabled sociologists have argued that media portrays disabled people as
objects charity in the following ways:

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Offering Charity services - in Zimbabwe for example, radio Zimbabwe and Star FM (Tete
/Auntie Tilder) have programs in which the appeal to the public or well-wishers to provide help
of any kind

Seeking for instant miracles - Most channels of religious organizations portray people with
disabilities as individuals who are not normal but seeking for a Religious help. E g Christ and
Yadah Tv in Zimbabwe. As observed by Morris (1992) disability is used to convey feelings
certain feelings so as to draw public or viewers’ attention.

Depending on able bodied - Media such as newspapers, television and so on portray disabled
people as individuals who always seek for help inform of pushing wheelchair and so on.

Charity interview - journalist are usually shown interviewing the disabled asking them to say
what is on their minds , or what the government and other organization should do to meet
their needs.

Media, deviance and violence

Moral panic theory

Key word

Moral panic - The term moral panic was popularised by Cohen (1972) in his classic work Folk
Devils and Moral Panics. It refers to media reactions to particular social groups and activities
that are defined as threatening social consensus

Media leads to moral panic

The term moral panic was popularized by Stanley Cohen (1972). It refers to media reactions to
particular social groups or activities that are defined as threatening societal values and which
therefore create anxiety and moral panick anomg the population. This anxiety or Panic puts
pressure on the authorities to control the problem or discipline the responsible group. To
Cohen, media headlines label certain groups as dangerous. He argued that the law abiding
members share a common belief about general decline in morality. Goode and Ben - Yehuda
(1994) note that moral panics often produce a 'falk devil' - stereotype of deviance which
suggest that the perpetrators are immoral, selfish and evil.

The Media further adopts a disaster mentality and predict more problems if the group is not
punished. The Punic, usually create some more lasting effects.

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 The public and social reactions to panic create the potential for further crime and
deviance in future hence creating self-fulfilling prophecy. Thornton, for example, notes
that the 'just say no' anti-drug campaign of the early ,1990s probably attracted more
young people to use more drugs once realized adult society disapproved it.
 The media report on a particular activity/ incident or social group using exaggerated
language and headlines lead to deviance and violence. For example, in Zimbabwe on
first august 2018 after harmonized elections, the main opposition political leaders using
their social media platforms exaggerated that the delay for the release of the elections
was due to the attempts by the ruling part to rig elections. This resulted in moral panic
leading to august one riots in Harare. The youth and some elders and putting on
opposition regalia used WhatsApp, Facebook and so on to mobilize their age-mates,
they blocked the streets, burned tires, and confronted the police leading to the death of
at least 9 civilians in Harare. The Monthante commission of inquiry concluded that social
media played a part on the 01 august riot.
 Moral entrepreneurs - for example, politicians, religious leaders etc react to media
reports and make statements condemning the group or activity or any news headlines
and encourage the government or group to take action. For example, the president of
Zimbabwe in 2018 announced new fuel pump prices. Opposition leaders condemned
the statement, leading to shut down of the capital hence deviance behavior.
 Media can identify a group as the problem and the stereotypes lead to violence. For
example, in South Africa, foreigners are labeled by media as the problem, hence leading
to moral panics, scapegoat and xenophobia.
However, moral panics can lead to social change, policing and effective social control.

Critics of moral panic theory

The appearance of new media, according to MCrobbie and Thornton (1995), has radically
changed the relationship between the media and its audience. Competition between different
types of media in society means that audience are exposed to a variety of media platforms
hence they are now aware of biased media outlets, hence are more sceptical of their moral
panics status.

Social learning and crime

Some sociologists and psychologists have suggested that images of crime and violence
promoted by the media may act as a form of social learning and encourage crime by imitation.
For example, the Bobodoll experiment by Bandura, concluded that media has an impact on
human violence. (See methodology notes).

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The hypodermic model of media violence
The model suggests that there is a direct connection between violence and antisocial or
deviance behavior portrayed in films, on television, in computer games, in rap lyrics etc. The
models assumes that audience are passive and they are injected with media messages, images
and behaviors. To this model, individuals follow media messages as they are directed to them.
Individuals are said not to be questioning media messages but they just follow them. The model
suggests that children and teenagers are vulnerable to media content because they are still in
early stages of socialization therefore very impressionable.

For example, if you take your time to observe children watching violent movies. After the movie,
observe their actions you are likely to see a behavior linked to the violent movies they consume.

Believers in this hypodermic syringe model point to a number of films that they claim have
resulted in young people using extreme violence. The most notorious examples cited in recent
years are the Columbine High School massacre and the killing of the Liverpool toddler James
Bulger by two young boys

In April 199, two students took guns and bombs into their school Columbine in Colorado and
killed 13 people. Thus, the model has shown a relationship between media and violence.

Imitation or copycat violence- The model has further suggested that violence can be as a result
of imitation. For example, Bandura et Al (1963) looked for a direct cause - and - effect
relationship between media content and violence. They showed three groups of children real
film and cartoon (Bobodoll) being attacked with mallets. The fourth group (control group) saw
no violent activity. All groups where then place in a room full of bobo doll. The Three groups
that have been shown the movie depicted violent and aggressive behavior. The control group
did not show such a violent behavior, hence Bandura et Al concluded that media leads to
violence and deviance behavior through imitation

Violence through Disinhibition effect - it convinces children that in some social situations, the
'normal' rules that govern conflict and differences can be suspended - that is, discussion and
negotiation can be replaced with violence.

Violence through Desensitization - According to Elizabeth Newson, who was commissioned to

investigate the effect of violent films and videos. She concluded that violence images in films
were too easily available and that films tended to encourage viewers to identify with violent
perpetrators. She suggested that such prolonged exposure to media violence may have a drip
effect on young people over the course of their childhood and result in their desensitized to
violence - they become socialized into accepting violence behavior as normal, especially as
problem solving device.
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Criticism of the hypodermic model

The model has received counter criticism. Some media sociologists have claimed that media
violence can actually prevent real life violence in a number of ways

1. Sensitization - Jock Young, argues that seeing the effects of violence and especially the pain
and suffering that it causes to victims and their families may make us more aware of its
consequences and so less inclined to commit violence crimes

2. Media itself is against violence - watching wrestling for example has a warning effect 'do not
try this at home '. Hence suggesting that media is against violence behavior.

3. Media socializes the public to be law-abiding citizens. Mai chisamba shows (teaches basic
aspect of unhu) and crime watch as well as ' Another Chance' TV programs in Zimbabwe are all
against deviance behaviour.

4. Some sociologists believe that people are not as vulnerable as the hypodermic syringe model
implies. For example, research by Buckingham (1993) indicates that most children can
distinguish between fictional / cartoon violence and real violence from a very early age hence
there is no link between screen and real behaviour.

5. The model is accused for scapegoating media - it places the blame on media for social ills,
and tends to ignore the social and psychological factors that may be causing violent and anti-
social behavior such as drugs, peer pressure, waithood periods and so on.

Gratification model and the uses of media

The gratification model suggests that people use the media in order to satisfy particular needs
that they have. Blumler and Mcquail argue that these needs may be biological, psychological or
social.

Moreover, these needs are relative - the way the audience use the media to gratify their needs
will depend upon influences such as social position, age, gender, and ethnicity and so on. For
example, Wood (1996) illustrated how teenagers may use horror films to gratify their needs for
excitement.

To this model, media is used for

1. People use media to obtain information and news about social world in order to help them
make up their minds on particular issues

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2. Rational - according to Mcquail (1995) media is used as currency of communication, that is, it
gives people, especially families, something to talk to each other about

3. Avoidance - people may use media to escape from others.

4. Social learning - people may use the Media to solve problems, to seek guidance, to access
information and learning and to find role models

5. Competence dominance - members of the families, usually the father, may demonstrate
their power by controlling the family access to television. For example, by taking charge of
remote control.

Consumption of pornography encourages sexual violence

Some feminist sociologists for example, Dworkin and Morgan (1980) and so on have suggested
that the consumption of pornography , which is easily accessed through newspapers and
Magazines and particularly through internet, is harmful in terms of encouraging sexual violence
and negative attitudes towards women.

Promotes gender inequality

According to Tunstall (2002), the presentation of women in media is biased because media
emphasizes sexual appearance of women. Media does not represent men as nude but women.
Press reporting is seen as excessively objectifies women and reduces them to sexual
commodities. Radical feminists have argued that such a sex representation has made women to
believe into the 'beauty myth'. In other words, women are strongly encouraged by media to see
beauty as their personal goals for happiness in media, rather than competing with men for
positions of power.

End of unit 4.1 questions

1. Discuss the cultural effects of mass media (25)

2. With the aid of sociological theories, examine the effects of mass media on society (25)
3. Discuss the notion that there is a strong link between medi8a and human behavior (25)
4. Assess the role of media in amplifying deviance behavior (25)
5. Examine the moral panic theory on the effects of mass media (25)
6. Assess the view that audience play a passive role to media (25)
7. Examine the view that mass media leads to disability stereotypes (25)

SUMMARY

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Sociology of mass media has focused on the role of mass media with conflicts theories
questioning the role of media. The role media is widely accepted for the proliferation of a
healthy democratic Society (Peterson, Jenson, and Rivers (1966). Freedom of media guarantees
freedom in a democratic society, which in turn, is obliged to perform certain essential functions
for society. John S. Mill has emphasized the instrumentality of mass media in protecting civil
liberties. The purpose of the media is to help discover the truth, to assist in the successful
working of the society by presenting all evidence and opinion equally necessary to safeguard
the civil liberties of the people.

Glossary

Citizen journalism - Is known as collaborative media,participatory journalism, democratic

journalism, guerrilla journalism or street journalism based upon public citizens "playing an
active role in the process of collecting, reporting, analyzing, and disseminating news and
information."

Desensitisation - The idea that prolonged exposure to violent images numbs the effect of them.
The more you become accustomed to violent images, the less likely they are to have an impact
on the audience.

Disinhibition effect -

Hypodermic syringe model - The hypodermic needle model (known as the hypodermic-syringe
model, transmission-belt model, or magic bullet theory) is a model of communication
suggesting that an intended message is directly received and wholly accepted by the receiver

Imitation - Copying behaviour of others

Mass media - refers to a diverse array of media technologies that reach a large audience via
mass communication.

Media - The main means of mass communication (broadcasting, publishing, and the internet)
regarded collectively.

Media content - Content is the information contained within communication media e.g audio

Media censorship - Refers to the suppression of words, images, or ideas that are "offensive," in
media.

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Media products - refers to any book, magazine or other publication, sound recording, video
recording, software product, computer game, videogame, and/or other media product in any
format, including any subscription and description.

Media control - deciding what you are able to watch, listen to, read and share. And runaway
media

Media effects - media influence and media effects are topics relating to mass media and media
culture's effects on individual or an audience's thoughts, attitudes, and behavior.

Moral panic - . An instance of public concern or panic in response to a media product that is
regarded as threatening to certain groups or debasing agreed moral standards within society.

Passive audience theory – A collection of academic viewpoints that stress that audiences are
unable to reject media messages and are subject to negative effects from the media they
consume.

Social learning - learning process social behavior which proposes that new behaviors can be
acquired by observing and imitating others.

End of term

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This section will cover a final year sample question paper, examination tips and index

Examination and essay writing tips

Once you are through with the form 6 syllabus, it therefore means that final year ZIMSEC
examinations date are now closer than the appear. To be better equipped for the tests that the
year will bring read this textbook with understanding and practice. Don't rely on getting easy
questions. Practice for the hard ones too.

Study while others are sleeping; work while others are loafing; prepare while others are playing;
and dream while others are wishing (William A. Ward).If you fail an examination, it means you
have not yet mastered the subject.

Exam tests your mind and memory and this gives us the picture that strength of mind is
exercise, not rest. Therefore, this section gives you advice to help you do as well as you can.
Some of the tips are general advice and some are based on the common mistakes that learners
make in exams.

General advice

Read each question carefully and make sure you know what it is asking, and what you have to
do, before you begin your answer. Focus your answer on the question – do not write about
something else. For longer questions, check every so often to make sure that you are answering
the question correctly. Look at the command (directive) words in the question. These tell you
what skills are being assessed and what the examiner is looking for. What is meant by: give a
brief statement which explains the meaning of a sociological term or topic, e.g. discuss relative
and absolute poverty.

Describe: provide a more detailed account, qualifying your answer, e.g. describe two problems
with using laboratory experiments in sociological research.

Explain: show how (description) or why (give reasons) something is the way it is, e.g. Explain
why women commit less crimes than men.

Do not write out the question; this is a waste of time. Just make sure that you write the number
of the question, and the sub-part, so that the examiner knows which question you have
answered. Always begin a new question on a fresh page, this makes your work neat and easier
for the examiner to follow.

Manage your time carefully. Don’t spend too long on some questions and leave yourself
without enough time to finish the paper. You should also try to leave time to read through your

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answer and correct any mistakes and/or add anything that you feel is missing. Your paper is
3hrs, therefore spend at least 45 minutes per question. Make sure you know how many
questions you have to answer. On Paper 2, for example, you are required to answer four 25
marks questions each year.

Points to avoid in the exam

1.Avoid evidence from non-sociological sources or material - For example, the question might
ask you to discuss the causes of unemployment using sociological perspectives or theories. Thus,
applying economic theories is a big mistake because information is not sociological.

2. You should not ignore sociological theories - Whether you have been asked a question on
sociological theories or not, try by all means to apply sociological theories. For example, given a
question 'Discuss the effects of COVID 19 in Zimbabwe'. The question shows appears to be
general but it is not, application of sociological theories shows that you are well versed with
Sociological knowledge. For example, a candidate can argue that COVID 19 led to the escalation
of moral degradation and teen pregnancies. To functionalism, society is a system with
interconnected parts which work in harmony for the whole, thus the family produces members
of society and education provides secondary education. Talcott Parsons emphasized that if the
this network is disturbed, they will be social disorders and social problems. In the comfort of
Parsons, COVID 19 led to the closure of schools in Zimbabwe in 2020 leading to moral
degradation due to the disturbances of the social system network.

3. Unnecessary use of jargon and Verbose – Be simple and straightforward, never use
concepts and terms which you don’t understand or for which you are unable to offer clear
definitions. Using Jargons may be confusing the examiner and some Jargons do not answer the
questions. For example, you lose nothing by just saying Melvin Timing criticized Talcott Parsons
ideas citing that .... It is really not necessary for candidates to say that Parsons was vehemently
criticized by Melvin Tumin up to an extent of running out of ink in his Sociological pen

3. Over-use of non-sociological explanations and theories; for example, in an essay on

sociological theories of crime, it would be inappropriate to devote more than just a few lines to
theories which focus primarily on the biological and/or psychological profiles of offenders, as
these are not sociological theories.

4. Lengthy descriptions of a study or studies with little or no analysis and evaluation.

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5. Assertion, i.e. statements which are not backed up by evidence from relevant studiesor by
reasoned argument.

6. Imbalance; for example, answering only one part of a question. For example, question might
ask you to discuss how crime is an inevitable and functional aspect of society. Inevitable and
functional are two different aspects and must be treated separately.

7. Over-generalization – avoid sweeping statements, such as ‘the old sexual inequalities have
now disappeared and women are equal with men’. Clearly, the situation with regard to gender
divisions today and in the past is much more complex than this simplistic statement suggests.
Aim to make your comments more precise by using qualifying clauses. The words in italic in the
following example are qualifying words and clauses: ‘Many of the inequalities which existed
between the sexes in the first half of the twentieth century have been reduced and, in some
cases, overcome altogether, although most commentators would agree that complete equality
in this area has still to be achieved.

8. Common sense answers – these are usually highly personal answers, i.e. where the
candidate writes ‘what I think the answer is’, rather than drawing on information and ideas
from relevant sociological sources. For example, if the question asks you to write about the
causes of racial discrimination, the examiner is not really interested in reading what you
personally think the causes are. What the examiner wants to read is an account of the different
explanations which sociologists have developed together with your assessment of the relative
strengths and weaknesses of each explanation.

9. Don not abuse the word 'criticize' - If scholarly ideas or ideas of X and Y clash, this does not
mean that the two criticized each other. For example, Tatenda Chihota wrote a book and
published it in 2021 and Bridget Chikakano wrote a book after Chihota but ideas clash, so saying
Chihota Criticized Chikakano does not make sense in this respect, rather, it is better to say the
ideas of Chihota can be used to go against that of Chikakano.

11. Do not ignore sources or scholars - your points should be supported and pregnant with
scholars. Ignorance of scholars showed an element of academic immaturity.

12. Avoid self-contradiction - take your time to contradict scholar’s ideas rather than yourself.
An example of self-contradiction is when a candidate says ' criminals are born then on the other
side you say they are not born'.

13. Don't panic during examination. Breath in and out, don't be disturbed by what your
examination mate is doing because not everyone who takes extra paper during exams write
extra sense.
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14. Do not go to exam room with one pen - Prepare well! Take two inks; you may never know
when one pen will stop writing.

The end

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