A Brief Outline of the Major Indian Languages

1. Indo-Aryan and Dravidian Families:

o Example: Indian literature is diverse, primarily written in languages that fall
into two major families - Indo-Aryan and Dravidian.
2. Dravidian Family:
o Example: The Dravidian family is rooted in the Tamil language, which has a
literary tradition dating back to the tenth century B.C. Other Dravidian
languages include Kannada (emerged around the fourth century A.D.),
Malayalam (from the eleventh century), and Telugu (from the fourteenth
century).
3. Indo-Aryan Family:
o Example: The Indo-Aryan family is a result of the synthesis of Sanskrit with
various offshoots (apabhransh) and older local dialects.
4. Languages in the North-East:
o Example: Sanskrit gave rise to Bangla and Assamiya in the eleventh century,
and Criya in the thirteenth or fourteenth century. Despite linguistic and racial
conflicts in the region, these languages share a common historical influence.
5. Languages in the North-West:
o Example: Sanskrit led to the development of Punjabi in the fifteenth century,
Kashmiri in the eleventh, and Sindhi in the fifteenth.
6. Languages in Central India:
o Example: The central parts of India saw the evolution of Hindi from the
thirteenth century onwards, as dialects of Sanskrit developed into a more
common language.
7. Languages in the West:
o Example: In the West, Sanskrit gave rise to Rajasthani in the fifteenth century,
and prior to that, it split into Marathi and Gujarati in the eleventh century.
8. English in Indian Universities:
o Example: The establishment of the first universities in 1857 marked a
significant shift, with English practically becoming an Indian language. It
started playing a crucial role in education and administration.

These examples illustrate the linguistic diversity and historical development of major Indian
languages, showcasing the rich tapestry of literary traditions in the country.

Indian Literature in English Translation

1. Importance of Indian Literature in English Translation (ILET):

o Example: ILET is essential for literary and cultural studies in India, given the
country's multilingual composition. The Sahitya Akademi and the National
Book Trust, as state-funded agencies, actively support ILET.
2. Role of Education in the Growth of ILET:
 o Example: The phenomenal growth of education in the last fifty years, with
around one thousand universities and over fifty thousand colleges, has led to a
surge in literary works in Indian languages. English becomes crucial for
instructing students in Indian myths and narratives.
3. Historical Context of Translation in India:
o Example: Translation played a vital role in India around a thousand years ago
when modern Indo-Aryan languages started developing. Translations from
Sanskrit, such as the epics Ramayana and Mahabharata, were instrumental in
initiating literary traditions.
4. Sociological Changes Impacting ILET:
o Example: Modern means of communication and a shift from agrarian society
have resulted in inter-state migration, undermining traditional language
loyalties. Translation serves as a compromise for those who cannot access the
original text in their mother tongue.
5. Evolution of Indian-English Literature:
o Example: Indian-English literature has grappled with anxieties over "betrayal"
of the mother tongue. However, ILET includes works from all periods and
genres, making it representative of India's rich literary tradition.
6. Changing Perspectives in English Studies:
o Example: The transition from the term "Commonwealth literature" to a more
nuanced understanding of different national identities indicates a changing
perception of Indian-English literature as an integral part of the mosaic of
Indian literatures.
7. Global Significance of ILET:
o Example: English, once considered India's window to the world, is now the
world's window on India. ILET gains importance internationally, especially as
the tradition of learning Indian languages by European Indologists has
declined.
8. Challenges Faced by ILET:
o Example: Despite support from Sahitya Akademi and the National Book
Trust, ILET lacks sufficient institutional backing. Critical and historical
material related to ILET is limited, and more scholarship in this area is
needed.
9. Notable Contributors to ILET Scholarship:
o Example: Scholars like Tejaswini Niranjana, Meenakshi Mukherjee, Krishna
Rayan, and Jatindra Mohan Mohanty have made valuable contributions to the
study of ILET through works, bibliographies, and critical analyses.
10. Scope and Complexity of ILET:
o Example: ILET covers a wide range of literary styles and genres, as evident
from Jatindra Mohan Mohanty's bibliography listing about seventeen hundred
titles translated from various Indian languages.
Thus, ILET serves as a bridge between different linguistic and cultural landscapes in India,
encompassing diverse literary traditions and contributing to a more comprehensive
understanding of the country's rich heritage.

The Four Phases of ILET

The four phases of Indian Literature in English Translation (ILET), along with relevant
examples:

1. Colonial Phase (1776-1910):

 Characteristics:

o Philological and Anthropological Focus: Translations during this phase

were primarily driven by a philological and anthropological interest. The main
languages translated were Sanskrit and Persian.

o Limited Scope: Modern Indian languages were largely neglected, and the
focus remained on ancient texts.

 Example:

o Works by Sir William Jones: His translation of Kalidasa’s

"Abhignanshakuntala" contributed to Kalidasa's fame in Europe but reflected a
limited interest in literature beyond the eleventh century.

Colonial Phase (1776-1910):

Focus: Primarily on philological and anthropological exploration.

Languages: Sanskrit and Persian were the main languages translated.

Limitations: Modern Indian languages were neglected.

Example: Sir William Jones' translation of Kalidasa's "Abhignanshakuntala."

2. Revivalist Phase (1876-1950):

 Characteristics:

o Recovery of Treatises: Scholars aimed to recover treatises on poetry, drama,

and language that had been neglected for centuries.

o Indian Scholars' Involvement: Indian scholars, like Ananda

Coomaraswamy, actively participated in translating works, often performing
similar tasks as their colonial counterparts.

 Example:
 o Translation of Ancient Indian Theorists: Works by Panini, Bhartrihari,
Bharata, Abhinavagupta, Vishwanatha, etc., were translated, contributing to
the revival of these texts.

Revivalist Phase (1876-1950):

Objective: Recovery of treatises on poetry, drama, and language.

Involvement: Indian scholars actively participated in translations.

Example: Ananda Coomaraswamy's translations of ancient Indian theorists.

3. Nationalist Phase (1902-1929):

 Characteristics:

o Aimed at Indian Readership: Translations during this phase were intended

for a general Indian readership rather than experts or overseas readers.

o Awareness of Selfhood: Influential figures like Sri Aurobindo, Tagore, and

Gandhi actively participated, displaying a strong awareness of selfhood and
native traditions.

 Examples:

o Tagore’s "Gitanjali" (1912): This translation, along with translations of

works by Gandhi and Sri Aurobindo, aimed to connect with Indian readers and
contributed to the Nobel Prize awarded to Tagore in 1913.

Nationalist Phase (1902-1929):

Audience: Translations aimed at a general Indian readership.

Awareness: Displayed an awareness of selfhood and native traditions.

Example: Tagore's translation of his own verses in "Gitanjali."

4. Formalist Phase (1912 to the present):

 Characteristics:

o Translation as Art: Translation in this phase is viewed as an art form, with a

focus on literary exploration and appreciation.

o Contemporary Indian Works: Translations now extend to contemporary

Indian works, marking a departure from earlier phases.

 Examples:
 o Tagore’s Works: Following the success of "Gitanjali," Tagore actively
translated his other works, setting the stage for translations of contemporary
Indian literature.

o Contributions of Indian-English Literature: Creative writers like G.V.

Desani, Raja Rao, Salman Rushdie, and others contributed to the creation of a
language suitable for translation.

Formalist Phase (1912 to the present):

View: Translation seen as an art form with a focus on literary exploration.

Scope: Extends to contemporary Indian works.

Examples: Tagore's translations of his own works; contributions of Indian-English

literature.

Overall Contributions:

 Language Evolution: The phases, especially the formalist phase, have contributed to
the evolution of English in an Indian context, incorporating nuances of Indian speech,
feelings, and social manners.

 Indian-English Literature Impact: The growth of Indian-English literature has

significantly influenced ILET, providing a language register that translators can use
seamlessly.

 Notable Indian Translator-Writers:

o Sri Aurobindo, R.C. Dutt, Nissim Ezekiel, Raja Rao, R.K. Narayan, A.K.
Ramanujan, Gauri Deshpande, Kamala Das, etc.

In summary, these phases represent the dynamic evolution of ILET, from its colonial roots to
a more formalist and contemporary approach, reflecting changes in perspectives, readership,
and literary exploration over the centuries.

Fiction

The section discusses the translation of Indian works into English, particularly focusing on
fiction, the key points are:

1. Majority of Translations in Fiction:

o The passage highlights that the predominant category of Indian works
translated into English over the last seventy-five years has been fiction. This
includes a wide range of literary forms within the fiction genre.
2. Historical Context:
o The translation efforts are traced back to N.M. Penzer's ten-volume translation
of Somadeva’s Kathasaritsagar and continue to contemporary initiatives such
 as Katha India, an annual collection of the best Indian stories translated into
English since 1991.
3. Representation of Indian Writers:
o The translations aim to make the important works of Indian writers accessible
to a broader audience. Notable authors mentioned include Tagore, Bankim
Chandra Chatterjee, Sarat Chandra, T.S. Pillai, U.R. Anantha Murthy,
Premchand, Suresh Joshi, Raoji Patel, Nirmal Verma, and more.
4. Widening Formal Range:
o The passage notes the expansion of the formal range in translations. It
mentions recent translations encompassing detective fiction, fantasy, short
fiction, and philosophical prose. This reflects a diversification beyond
traditional literary forms.
5. Film Adaptations:
o A notable trend mentioned is the frequency with which regional films based
on novels are winning national awards. This suggests a cross-media influence
and the impact of literature on cinema.

Examples:

 Example of a classic translation: N.M. Penzer's translation of Somadeva’s

Kathasaritsagar.
 Example of a contemporary initiative: Katha India, an annual collection of best Indian
stories translated into English.
 Mentioned Indian authors: Tagore, Bankim Chandra Chatterjee, Sarat Chandra, T.S.
Pillai, U.R. Anantha Murthy, Premchand, Suresh Joshi, Raoji Patel, Nirmal Verma.

The section underscores the significance of fiction in the translation landscape of Indian
literature into English. It provides a historical context, highlights the representation of
renowned Indian authors, notes the widening formal range, and points out the influence of
translated novels on regional films. This reflects the dynamic and evolving nature of literary
translation, capturing a diverse array of genres and forms from the rich tapestry of Indian
literature.

Drama

The passage discusses the underrepresentation of drama in English translation in contrast to

fiction within the landscape of Indian literary translation. Here are the key points :

1. Poor Representation of Drama:

o Drama is noted to be poorly represented in English translation compared to
fiction. The passage suggests that fewer ancient plays have been translated in
the twentieth century compared to the nineteenth.
2. Notable Translations:
 Mention is made of Manmohan Ghosh's translation of Rajashekhara’s
o
Karpurmanjiri, a tenth-century prakrit play. Ghosh's translation is
acknowledged for its cultural and linguistic understanding and has seen
multiple editions.
o J.A.B. van Buitenen is recognized for his translations of classical Sanskrit
plays, such as Mricchakatika and Mudrarakshasa, providing insights into
ancient Indian society, conflicts between Buddhism and Hinduism, and
intellectual and emotional trials.
o P. Lal’s translations, particularly of Harsha’s Ratnavali, are highlighted for
their readability as modern renderings. The passage emphasizes the need for a
revised bibliography of Sanskrit plays in English translation.
o The publication of "Three Modern Indian Plays" in 1989 by Oxford University
Press is noted as a positive development, featuring translations of works by
Badal Sircar, Girish Karnad, and Vijay Tendulkar.
3. Contemporary Playwrights and Challenges:
o The passage expresses hope for future translations of works by contemporary
playwrights such as Habib Tanvir, Chandrashekhar Kambar, Satish Alekar,
Mahesh Elkunchwar, Bhupen Khakar, and Sitanshu Yashaschandra, who
innovate with folk traditions.
o Safdar Hashmi's contributions to street theatre are acknowledged, and his
works are being made available by the Hashmi Trust. His tragic death in 1989
is mentioned.
4. Challenges in English Theatre Audience in India:
o The passage notes the almost non-existent audience for English theatre in
India, despite a large readership for printed English. The potential growth in
the translation of plays might depend on English becoming a more widely
spoken language in India or a surge in interest in Indian theatre abroad.

Examples:

 Manmohan Ghosh's translation of Rajashekhara’s Karpurmanjiri.

 J.A.B. van Buitenen's translations of Mricchakatika and Mudrarakshasa.
 P. Lal’s translations, particularly of Harsha’s Ratnavali.
 "Three Modern Indian Plays" anthology by Oxford University Press.

The passage sheds light on the challenges and opportunities in the translation of Indian drama
into English. It highlights notable translations from classical and modern Indian plays,
expresses hope for future translations of contemporary works, and discusses the challenges
faced by English theatre in India. The examples provided illustrate the efforts made in
translating Indian plays into English and the potential for growth in this branch of Indian
Literary English Translation (ILET).

Poetry
This section delves into the landscape of poetry translations in Indian literary translation,
emphasizing various aspects and providing notable examples.

1. Classical Epics:
o The Mahabharata and the Ramayana have received numerous translations,
including prose renditions by C. Rajagopalachari and R.K. Narayan.
2. Sanskrit Classics:
o P. Lal has been actively translating Sanskrit classics for the last two decades,
contributing to the accessibility of ancient Indian literary treasures.
3. Tamil and Kannada Lyrics:
o A.K. Ramanujan has modernized ancient Tamil lyrics, and he has also
ventured into translating medieval Kannada lyrics by the radical Lingayata
saints.
4. Medieval Poets:
o Translations of works by Meera, Kabir, Tulsidas, Surdas, Nanak, Tukaram,
Chandidas, Dnyanadev, and the non-Hindu Amir Khushrau showcase the
diversity of poets from different regions and traditions.
5. Ghalib's Influence:
o Ghalib, a nineteenth-century poet, has been translated multiple times. Vikram
Seth's poem inspired by a translation of Ghalib’s letters in "All You Who
Sleep Tonight" is mentioned as an example of Ghalib's enduring impact on
Indian English poetry.
6. Contemporary Indian Poets:
o Collections and anthologies of contemporary Indian poets in English
translation have been published. Notable editors include Adil Jussawalla,
Amritjit Singh, David Ray, and Nissim Ezekiel, among others.
7. Women's Writing:
o Two significant collections are highlighted. "Truth Tales: Contemporary
Writing by Indian Women," edited by Kali for Women, features stories by
authors like Mahasveta Devi, Ismat Chugtai, and others in translation.
"Women Writing in India," a two-volume work by Susie Tharu and K. Lalita,
covers various languages and spans over two thousand and six hundred years.
8. Influence on Theoretical Approaches:
o The mention of Tharu and Lalita's work indicates that these volumes are
expected to influence theoretical approaches to women’s studies. They mark a
departure from earlier translations, eliminating the perceived distance between
readers and the original works.

Examples:

 Translations of classical epics: C. Rajagopalachari and R.K. Narayan.

 A.K. Ramanujan's translations of Tamil and Kannada lyrics.
 Translations of medieval poets: Meera, Kabir, etc.
 Ghalib's influence on Vikram Seth's poetry.
  Anthologies of contemporary poets: Adil Jussawalla, Nissim Ezekiel.
 Women's writing collections: "Truth Tales" and "Women Writing in India."

This section provides a comprehensive overview of poetry translations in Indian literary

translation, highlighting the translation efforts across classical epics, Sanskrit classics,
regional lyrics, medieval poets, and contemporary poets. It emphasizes the influence of
translations on theoretical approaches, particularly in the context of women’s studies, and
showcases the evolution from diachronic translations to a more aesthetic and accessible
approach.

Variations in ILET

This section addresses the potential confusion that overseas readers might encounter when
exploring Indian Literary English Translation (ILET). It highlights the diverse nature of
ILET, encompassing various literary periods, genres, and language traditions, each with its
specific local histories. The key points are:

1. Variety in Themes and Sources:

o Examples are given from plays by Karnad and Tendulkar, highlighting how
they draw from traditional characters and folk drama styles. Karnad's use of
akara and makara in "Tughlaq" or Tendulkar's character in "Sakharam Binder"
following the tamasha form demonstrates the diversity of sources and themes.
2. Cultural Specificity:
o Instances like the narrator in Shrilal Shukla's "Rag Darbari" sleeping on the
roof, reflecting a central Indian social practice, showcase the cultural
specificity present in Indian literature. The mention of the slanting roofs in
Kerala emphasizes how details can vary based on regional characteristics.
3. Recommendation for New Readers:
o The passage advises new readers to start with translations from a single
language or a group of associated languages to better understand the stylistic
and structural strategies within a specific literary tradition.
4. Continuity in Indian Languages:
o The continuity in Indian languages is illustrated by the presence of a proverb,
"you don’t need a mirror to see your own bracelets," found both in
Karpurmanjiri (tenth-century Marathi) and The Wild Bapu of Garambi
(twentieth-century work). This continuity emphasizes the enduring nature of
certain expressions across different periods.
5. Variations in Style:
o The passage notes that, despite continuity, there can be significant variations
in style among languages belonging to the same chronological period. This
highlights the rich diversity in literary expression across different linguistic
traditions in India.

Examples:
  Traditional Characters: Akara and makara in Karnad’s "Tughlaq."
 Folk Drama Style: Tendulkar's "Sakharam Binder" following the tamasha form.
 Cultural Practices: Sleeping on the roof in Shrilal Shukla's "Rag Darbari."
 Proverb Continuity: "You don’t need a mirror to see your own bracelets" in
Karpurmanjiri and The Wild Bapu of Garambi.
 Regional Specificity: Contrasting house roofs in central India and Kerala.

Therefore, this section underscores the intricate nature of ILET, urging readers to appreciate
the diversity by focusing on specific languages or traditions initially. It provides examples to
illustrate how cultural practices, traditional characters, and linguistic expressions contribute
to the richness and variation within Indian literature in translation.

Some Problems in ILET

This section discusses various challenges and issues within Indian Literary English
Translation (ILET). Below are the key points with relevant examples:

1. Unequal Representation:
o Some languages and writers are repeatedly translated, while others are
overlooked. For instance, Malayalam fiction is represented more by novellas
than full-length novels.
2. Challenges Faced by Indian Translators:
o Indian translators, especially when translating from an Indian language into
English, face challenges related to idiom, syntax, and tone. There is a constant
need for improvement in English language skills, and the shadow of potential
errors looms over their work.
3. Need for Assistance:
o Indian translators require the assistance of native English speakers to improve
language control. The passage emphasizes the importance of consulting living
authors when possible to ensure accurate translations.
4. Reader Expectations:
o Translations are primarily meant for readers who don't have access to the
original. Readers familiar with the original work may not be wholly satisfied
with translations, emphasizing the significance of maintaining fidelity to the
original.
5. Classroom Dynamics:
o The passage notes that the quality of translation works chosen for a classroom
course may not be effectively discussed in a classroom setting. This discussion
is deemed more suitable for a dedicated course on translation, where both
teachers and students can read the original works.
6. Terms for Translation:
o The terms "rupantar" and "anuvad" are mentioned as commonly understood
senses of translation in India, with neither demanding strict fidelity to the
 original. The Urdu term "tarjuma" is discussed, sometimes used as translation
and sometimes as paraphrase.
7. Notion of 'Transcreation':
o The passage acknowledges criticism of the term "transcreation," suggesting
that it allows excessive divergence from the original, potentially leading to a
significant departure from the author's intended meaning.
8. Author as Translator:
o The passage warns against authors who translate their own work, suggesting
they may take undue liberties with the original, hoping to improve upon it.
Rabindranath Tagore's case is cited as an example.
9. Recognition for Translators:
o The passage highlights that translators often go unrecognized, with some
publishers neglecting to acknowledge them. There is a perception that those
who cannot write resort to translation, diminishing the perceived value of
translation as a literary activity.
10. Role of Translators in Different Genres:

 Translators of poetry are suggested to be more highly regarded than those translating
fiction, who may not receive due credit for good work while facing criticism for their
mistakes.

11. Unpublished Efforts:

 The passage notes that many individuals in India undertake the significant effort of
translating full-length novels without considering whether or not their work will be
published.

Examples:

 Unequal Representation: Malayalam fiction represented more by novellas than full-

length novels.
 Challenges Faced: Errors of idiom, syntax, and tone in communication.
 Author as Translator: Rabindranath Tagore as an example of an author translating
his own work.
 Recognition for Translators: Many publishers not acknowledging translators; the
belief that translation is an inferior activity.

Thus, this section sheds light on the complexities and challenges faced by Indian translators,
emphasizing issues related to language nuances, recognition, and the varied dynamics within
the field of translation. It encourages a nuanced understanding of the difficulties inherent in
translating diverse literary works from Indian languages into English.
Present Scenario

The section discusses the present scenario of opportunities and growth in the publication of
literature in English translation in modern India. The key points and examples are as
follows:-

1. Increasing Opportunities:
o Opportunities for publishing literature in English translation have grown in
modern India. Indian periodicals, such as Vagartha and Setu, have provided
dedicated space for translations.
2. Prominent Periodicals:
o Vagartha, edited by Meenakshi Mukherjee, gave significant importance to
translations. Setu, edited by Suresh Joshi, was exclusively devoted to the
translation of Indian literatures.
3. Journals Supporting Translations:
o Present-day journals like Kavyabharati (edited by R.P. Nair) and Bombay
Literary Review (edited by Vilas Sarang) regularly feature translations. Other
journals like The Commonwealth Quarterly, Indian Literary Review, and New
Quest are also hospitable to translated works.
4. Role of Indian Literature Journal:
o Indian Literature, published by the Sahitya Akademi, plays a crucial role in
translating literature from Indian languages. The Sahitya Akademi is
committed to promoting translations and has introduced a Translation Prize for
every language.
5. Publishers and Initiatives:
o Several publishers, including Bharat Bhavan (Bhopal), Katha-India (Delhi),
and Garutman (Lucknow), are making spirited efforts in the field of Indian
Literary English Translation (ILET).
6. Commercial Boost by Penguin India:
o Penguin India, at a commercially ambitious scale, has contributed significantly
to the growth of ILET. The publishing house has played a role in boosting the
representation of Indian literature in English.
7. Author Initiatives:
o Many writers are eager to be represented in English, leading them to
encourage or sponsor translators to render their works into English. This
reflects a proactive approach by authors in ensuring their works reach a wider
English-speaking audience.

Examples:

 Prominent Periodicals: Vagartha, Setu

 Journals Supporting Translations: Kavyabharati, Bombay Literary Review, The
Commonwealth Quarterly, Indian Literary Review, New Quest
 Sahitya Akademi Initiatives: Translation Prize, commitment to translating literature
  Publishers and Initiatives: Bharat Bhavan, Katha-India, Garutman
 Commercial Boost by Penguin India: Significant contribution to ILET

Thus, this section illustrates the positive developments in the field of Indian Literary English
Translation, highlighting the role of influential periodicals, journals, publishers, and
initiatives by organizations like the Sahitya Akademi and Penguin India. It also emphasizes
the proactive role of writers in ensuring their works are translated into English for a broader
readership.

Future

The passage highlights a historical shift in the pattern of literary translation between English
and Indian languages, emphasizing the current promising outlook for Indian Literary English
Translation (ILET).The key points along with examples:-

1. Historical Disparity:
o In the nineteenth century, there was a notable disproportion where the number
of works translated from English literature into Indian languages significantly
surpassed the translations from Indian languages into English.
2. Contemporary Reversal:
o The situation has reversed over time. In the present day, there are more Indian
works being translated into English than works from English literature being
translated into Indian languages. This signifies a shift in focus and a growing
interest in making Indian literature accessible to a wider, global audience.
3. ILET Represents a Fraction:
o The passage acknowledges that what ILET currently represents is merely a
fraction or "the tip of the iceberg" concerning the vast and diverse landscape
of Indian literatures. This suggests that there is an extensive body of Indian
literary works yet to be explored and translated into English.
4. Promising Future:
o Despite ILET capturing only a portion of Indian literatures, the passage
expresses optimism about its future, indicating that it holds promise. This
optimism may stem from the increasing trend of translating Indian works into
English, showcasing a growing recognition and interest in Indian literature on
the global stage.

Relevant Examples:

 Historical Period (19th Century): During the colonial era, works of English
literature, ranging from classics to contemporary pieces, were often translated into
various Indian languages. For instance, the works of Shakespeare, Dickens, and other
English authors found their way into translations in languages like Bengali, Hindi, or
Tamil.
  Contemporary Shift (21st Century): In recent times, notable examples include the
translation of Indian literary giants like Arundhati Roy, Jhumpa Lahiri, or Vikram
Seth into English. These translations have gained international acclaim and
contributed to the global recognition of Indian literature.

The promising future of ILET lies in the ongoing efforts to bridge cultural and linguistic
gaps, making the rich tapestry of Indian literature more accessible and appreciated
worldwide.