CHM !.J I !

i ( IN OHfi ANI C CH£ MJSTl{Y)

COUl{SJ.~ U UTL lNE

1) Electronic structure and basic arrangement of elements in the periodic

table and general trends of properties down a particular group and across

the period .

2) Periodicity of physical properties : i. the variation in physical properties

with atomic number across the second and third period (Lithium, Neon,

Sodium and Argon). ii. Variation in first ionization energy, atomic radii,

melting point and explanation to the terms of structure and bonding.

3) The relevance of ionization energy and electronic structure or

configuration.

4) GroL'P chemistry of alkali metals, alkali earth metals, halogens and noble

gases.

5) Definition of ions, atoms, functional group (i.e the reactive site of the

compound).
 l'I IUODI C 1 Hl~NIJS

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1n tht' p~1 1mi11 tnbl1' til 1•l1•1111·11t-.. Mnj1 11 p1•1 lutlk l1 t·11<I,, lnch1rlc;

' t lt'cll\)l lt '1).l l t\11 l y

, 10 111: .111,,11 1'lll't 1l\
' l li..)Cl l\)1 1 ,ll ltl\ll y
, Ato1111r 111d11
, h 'l llt' 1,Hfiu~;
, l'ldJllic c h ::1 1,1rt t.:1
" Chcni irnl 10t1ctlvlty

These trends cfflsc fr 0111 11 H, an il11gcmcnt of the elements In the periodic table, and
provide chenibt with m1 ir wuluc1b le Looi lo quickly predict and element properties.

ELETRONEGATIVITY TREND

~ctroru~.gativity_ increases as you move from le~ to rigbLac..fOS§ a perjof!.-OJLt~e

p,griodic table. -1his is because, even though there are same number of energy levels, there
are more positive µrotons in the nucleus, creating n stronger pull on the negative electrons
in the outer shell .

.Electrnneg_~l!Y..Js a_cbernicaLR£QPe - rty that describes the tendency _of .an atom or a
~

functionaj_group attract electrons

tQ..._........, -
towards_itself.
....
The electronegativity is affected by both
-=-- - ~

atomic number and the distance that its valence electrons reside from the charge nuclei.

IONIZATION ENERGY TREND

pn ~~~ to ~ in a- period or upward within a _g ~ tt,__e___fk,st

ionization energy generally increases. As the atomic radius decreases, it becomes harder or
difficult to-;.emove an-·el~ ctron· that is closer to a more positively charged nucleus.

I onization energy, also called Ionization Potential in Chemist~y, is the amount of

... ~nergy req uired ~ rer!!_Qy__e an electroll from a~ ~- atom or molecule. Or Ionization
Energy is also defined as the amount of energy taken for all the atoms in a molecule to lose
1
one electron . The energy is usually expressed in Kjmo1·- . .. -

ELECTRON AFFINITY

The t rends in electron affinity across ~ ___eri_od and down the group, is that it
increases across the period a~d decreases down the group. The chemical rationale for
=cnanges · in electron affinity across the periodic table is the increase in effective nuclear
 charge across a period and up a group. Although, electron affinity varies greatly across the
periodic table, some patterns emerge. Generally, non-metals have more positive electron
affinities than metals. Atoms of group VII (7) elements whose anions are more stable than
their neutral atoms, tends to have higher electron affinity. Electron affinity of the noble
gases have not been conclusively measured, so they may or may not have slightly negative
values.

Electron affinity generally increases across a period due to the filling of the balanced
shell of the atom . For instance, within the same period, a group VII atom releases more
energy than a group I atom upon gaining an electron, because the added electron creates
a filled valence shell and therefore becomes more stable.

A trend of decreasing ionization energy down the group in the periodic table will be
expected since additional electron is entering an orbital farther away, it should be less
attracted to the nucleus and releases energy when added. However, these trends applies
only to group I atoms. Therefore, electron affinity follows the trends of electronegativity.
Fluorine (2, 7) has higher electron affinity than Oxygen (2,6) .

Electron affinity is defined as the amount ~ eoeray released when a □ electron is

_ added to form negative ion. Electron
~ -=-
affinity is meas, ired far atoms and molecules in
4

~ gaseous states q,nly. Since in the solld or liquid state, their energy levels will be changed by i> '
contact with other atoms or molecules.
Ionizat i on e nerg y and ele ctron affi nity
Atomic radius

, .. ,,,
-
0
He
18

.F ...
I 1 1J 17

11lr.. < k
11 p l 1 ,(•1 l o,
--.--- 0 T
•0
B ..C ..
,.·~Np ..
:i,

- u ~
'-"°~l>!-, ~-~
,: l i l o: k I hh1< l-: ,,
··s i ,. "Cl ' Ar
,. ') Al .§ .
" ,.
10
~--·····- ,, ,, ,.. ,~ ,.
"' . ..
=~ :o
"
-
ll
Co Ni Cu ?.:1 Ga Ge... As Se ..,. ,..Br ,___ Kr
, ....
•· .. ·---
.......
·"
Rh. Pd A~ Cd i In sn ...., .. .. •,-e
-
"'-'
...._....... I ~xe 'sb -~
·w
,. " Ir P t Au , ' .,.Tl "pb "
1•

••
•• ••
....
Cs Ba ',7 71
Hf ·Ta Re ... .~ .9 ....·~ .. B i "po At °F~n
,,. ~-·
~•" . , .., . ..........
,...., ..Rf Ob ..
Fr Ra ' ·s~ Bh

I La ·ce Pr ~Nd 'p m Sm 0

Eu .Gd ]~b ' Dy o·

Ho "'Er.. Tn1
.,.
Yb ·Lu
'pa .., ,,, •1•, vs ,,
).:..,c T t1 u .~P Pu An1 Crn
... Bk
.. Cf "Es
I ,:

... Fn, Md J'-!?

I : ~

Lr
:.u :.111 t.1 ..._ : ..,I , ·. 1. .111,-:.-i:;.11 th ~ r1r11 IY', .. L1I .Noll m-c-t~I
H.J IC..lJ••n • , un i• • G ,l!lo L , t t\ l h , , 1 u rl, • .-\ r. lh t lt l , •
 VARIATION OF PPHYSICAL PROPERTIES ACROSS THE PERIOD
1_his de~jg~.!Ltlli?~ation J,rwhysical pro_perlies a_cm ss a _row of the perio_d.i.c.J.able.
As you move from left to right across the period, the physical pr6pe°rties of the element
changes.

~ OQ.?~trend is the tendc~_ncy for elemental state ~ o _!!'om ~~lid to liquid to gas
across a period. In extreme cases, group one (1) and group eight (VIII) can be observed to
have. Group I elements are all solid (metallic in nature) while group VIII elements are all
gases (non-metallic).

t1_,gny of the changes in physical properties across the period are due to nature of the
bonding irueraction that th'refements undergo. I[e.ineo,Ls oo-Jb.e l~ and side of the
periodic table Lends to form rnore ionic bonds while Lhose on lhe right hand side forms more
~ = - · ·- -
. covalent bond .

The periodic table of elements have a total of 118 elements. Elements are arranged
._.-.c:::;_--· . .
in the series of rows (_pg_riod) in order of atomicnumber so that those_e!ements with similar
properties appears i[l_V~rtkafcolum n. Elerrie";;ts in the5amE: periodhave same number of
electron shell, moving across the period (progressing from one group to another), elements

--
g_ajn electroAS and protons and therefore become less metallic. These arrangements reflect
-
the periodic recurrence of similar properties as-the~
~.
atomic number increases. For example,
the alkali metals (group I elements) shares similar properties such as high reactivity,
tendency to lose one electron and arrive at noble gas electronic configuration.

However, in the Sand P block of the periodic table, element within the same period
generally do not exhibit trends and similarities in properties.

If we examine the physical properties of each element, we can notice that from the
left hand side of the periodic table, elements such as Litbium:-~d Beryllium are metallic
solid. Whereas elements on the right hand side of th~ ic ta ~ s Nitrogen,
Oxygen, Fluorine and Neon are all gases. Because Lithium and Beryllium from metallic bonds
whereas ei'ements to the right hand side of the periodic table from covalent compound with
little intermolecular forces holding them together.

Nacl - - - ► Na+ + Cl·

- -- - ►
Fe
2H+ + 0 2·

Therefore, we can sa_y thaUn gene_!:..al, elements tend !Q ~ m. solid to liquid to gas
·-- ====---
a
as you move across given period.
--
- -
 BONDING
As you move across a period in the periodic table, the types of commonly
encountered bonding interactions change. For example, at the beginning of period two (2),
elements·' such as Lithium and Beryllium from ionic bonds. However, moving across the
period, elements such as Boron, Carbon, Nitrogen and Oxygen tend to form ionic bonds
whereas some elements such as Argon and Neon does not form any bond at all.

FACTORS AFFECTING IONIZATION ENERGY

1. The change of the nucleus: Usually, ionization energy increases with increasing
number of protons in the nucleus, i.e with increasing positive nuclear charge.
2. The distance of the electrons from the nuclei i" lonization energy decreases as the
distance between the electrons and the nucleus increases.
3. Repulsion between electrons: Ionization energy decreases if the two negatively
charged electrons are in close proximity with each other.

GROUP CHEMISTRY OF ALKALI METALS

The alkali metals are Lithium, Sodium, Potassium, Rubidium, Cesium and Francium.
Each of these elements has a ground state of electronic configuration of ns 1 . The alkali
metals are so called because of their reaction with water (H2O) to form alkalis. These alkalis
are hydroxides of these elements.
OCCURRENCE, EXTRACTION AND USES

respectively). But do not -

Sodium (Na) and Potassium (K) are abundant in the biosphere (2.6% and 2.4%
~
occur naturally in the elemental state. The main sources of Sodium
and Potassium are rock salt (purely ~odium chloride, ~ I b.(iR§S and_1ea water, sy~s
[KCI]). In contrast to sodium and potassium, natural abundance' of Lithium (Li), Cesium (Cs)
and Rubidium (Rb) are small with their percentage in order of Rb>Li>Cs. These metals
occur as various silicate materials.
EXTRACTION

Sodium is economically much and most important in alkali metals, usually

manufactured b y ~ in which molten sodium chloride is electrolyzed.
co~

2Na+ + 2e- ---► 2Na (cathode)

2e1- ► Cl2 + 2e- (anode)

2Na+ + 2C1- ► 2Na + Cb

Lithium is extracted from Lithium Chloride (LiCI) in similar process. However, Lithium
is first obtained from Spodumene.lJ .iAISiOG) by heating Calcium Oxide to give Lithium Oxide
which is then conv-irted to chloride. Potassium can be obtained electronically from
 potassium chloride (KCI). Whereas Rubidium and Cesium are obtained from Rubidium
Chloride and Cesium Chloride. Small quantities of which can be produced as bye product
from spodument.

USES
✓
Sodium is far most important alkali metal in terms of industrial application. As a free
metal, it is used as a heat transfer fluid in some nuclear reactor.
✓
Potassium has considerably less use than sodium as a free metal. Potassium salt
however are consumed in tonnages in the manufacture of fertilizers.
✓ Lithium is used in making alloys and also as a reactant in organic synthesis. It is also
... I used in making batteries. _ r ru r \~ f / 6i HJlri-l-)ri ~ ,
1 i •
7
tt>J-:l--.\ L~ [..., (1'\~ ~ ~ l
v _5-4 iJ.W' P ...J l PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Alkali metalsbave silit@r-like histr~_b__d.u.ctillty and they have excellent conductivity
of heat and electricity. They relatively possess high aen"Sltywith Tithium been the lightest
metallic element.

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
Alkali metals have a low melting point ranging from 179°C (354°F) for Lithium to a
low temperature of 28.S°C~(8S.3°F) for Cesium. They react quickly with liquid atmospheric
oxygen and water vapour.

4Na + 02

K
They react vigorously and violently with water to release hydrogen gas.

2Na0H + H2
They react with non-metallic substance such as halogen and Sulphur to form metal
salt.

Na + Cl --- ► NaCl

2K + 5 ---- -►

REACTIVITY
Alkali metals are so reactive that they are generally found in nature combined with
other elements, simple minerals such as r~gs_salt--fN-aCI), Sylvite (KCI) . They are soluble in
water and therefore can be ea sily purified aod extracted_.., -
 I/ 1 ') 'J
J I\

ANOMALOUS PROPERTIES OF LITHIUM

. . Lilh_ium shows some similarities to Magnesium (diagonal relationship) which it

1 1 1
exhibits. Li , Be) and B ' ions have smaller sizes, as a result, their behaviors are different
from those of other members of the group.

. Lithium resembles Magnesium but differs from other members of group I element,
with the following respect;

1) Small atomic and ionic rad ii

2) Lithium burns in air to form normal oxides and nitrites.
4Li + O;,, ► 2Lii0
6Li + N2 ► 2LiJN
3) Lithium reacts very slowly with water
Li + H;,O ► LiOH -I 1/;,H;,

GROUP II ELEMENTS (ALKALI - EARTH METALS)

2
Group II elements are called alkali - earth metals, usually characterized by ns ;
possession of 2e· in their outermost shell ( electronic configuration). Members include
Beryllium (Be), Magnesium (Mg), Calcium (Ca), Strontium (Sr) and Barium (Ba).
OCCURRENCE

They occur in nature as compounds and are found widely as dispersed --- silicate in
- -:----- --' ---
igneq_ys__rock. Magnesium is cheaply sourced from sea wa~ r, underground brine and other

--
--=- -~
minerals (Magnesite (MgC0-3]).
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF GROUP II ELEMENTS

,.. All group II elements are harder than group I elements in the same period .
.,., They are less ionizing than the group I elements .
.,., Their melting and boiling point decreases down the group and higher than those of
group 1 elements.
.,., The hardness of group II elements decreases down the group.
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

❖ They react w ith water to form hydroxide except Beryllium (Be) .

Let X be Mg, C, Sr, Ba
X + H;,O ---- ► XOH;, + H2
❖ They r~act with Oxygen to form mono-oxide
2X + 0 2 ► 2XO (Be Form peroxide) ,

' I '
 ANOMALOUS PROPERTIES OF BERYLLIUM
B~ryl_lium shows similarities to aluminum ( diagonal relationship)
► Sm~ll ionic radius and ionic charge (i.e radii of Be and Al are similar).
► Their electronegativity's are the same.
► The hydroxide of both metals are amphoteric (neither acidic or basic neutral)
Be + 2H 20 ----► Be(OH)2
Al + 3H 20 Al(OH)J + H2 + ½ H2
► Both metals from an oxide film at room temperature, that prevents corrosion.
► They both form polymerized covalent halides.

/ Cl ~ Cl ~
Be Be / Be
~ c1 / ~ c1 /

USES OF GROUP II METALS

1) Beryllium is used in nuclear reactors and in making weapons.
2) Magnesium and Calcium are used as reducing agents.
3) Magnesium is used in large quantities to make Aluminium alloys.
4) Calcium is used biological system especially for the growth of bones.
5) Strontium is used in radioactive isotope.
6) Barium is used to make Barium Sulphate (BaS04), which is often used in medicine.
It is also used in making alloys.

THE NOBLE GASES

The elements in group XVIII (18) which include [Helium (He), Neon (Ne), Krypton
(Kr), Xenon (Xe) and Radon (R)] of the periodic table are called the noble gases. The di-
atomic molecules of the noble gases are unknown e.g. Ar2, Ne2, He2, Xe2, Kr2 and Ri and
this was explained using molecular orbital theory (M.0.T).

The mono-<glli>_ns of the noble gases exist but however they are not stablE; [He?i+
~ . _ J&i.-t. Although, Xenon mono-cati'?_!l [Xe3]+ is stable and th is has been characterized
by Roman's spectroscopy.

The noble gases form clathra te compounds ( compou nds formed when water is
frozen) in the presence of either Ar, Kr or Xe at higher pressure.
Ar:6H20 Kr.6H20 Xe.6H 20
 OCCURRENCE

ab t :fter Hydrogen, Helium is the most abundant element in the universe. It comprises
7 d this was obtained from sources in U.S_Q...nd C~ri_a~.
Th~su _ 1/a by vol~me_in ~ al ~
percentag e 1n volume came from the decay in heavier radioacfive elements.
238 234 . 4 .
92 Uranium - --- 90 Thorium + 2Hellum

.Argon is present_i ~the atmosphere up to about 0.94% by volume. While Neon and
.• Krypton are present to the extent of onlt._.1/ 65,000 and /i,ooo,ooo respectively. Xenon is even
1

rarer while Radium is formed by decay of heavier radioactive elements e.g. Uranium.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
a) Noble gases have the highest ionization energies of elements in their respective
periods but it decreases down the group.
b) They have weak van der Waal forces attractions between the atoms which result in
0
them having lo value of standard enthalpy change of vaporization fLH vap and
0
standard enthalpy change of fusion .6H russ,
c) Helium has a special property as it can diffuse through rubber and most glasses. At
a temperature below 2.18K, ordinary Helium liquid is transf~rred into liquid
completely.
USES OF NOBLE GASES

HELIUM
✓ Helium is used to provide inert atmosphere for welding.
✓ Helium is mixed with oxygen as a breathing gas of diverse.
✓ Helium gas is used in airships.
✓

NEON
► It is used in making lamps for reading.

ARGON
❖ Argon is used in making electric light bulbs to prevent oxidation of the filament.
❖ It is usecJ in Geiger-Counter tubes.

XENON
o It is used in light intensity photographic flash tubes.

KRYPTON
• It is also used in making electric light bulbs and in colored display lamps e.g.
Televisions, Laptops, Desktops etc.
RADON
• It is used in radio-therapy.
• It is also used in alpha emilter.