Fundamentals of Instruction Study Guide:

A few notes to consider before beginning:

1. This content is from FAA-H-8083-9B (Aviation Instructor’s Handbook). If you are using a
different version, page numbers and content may vary. Always use the most recent FAA
handbooks.
2. The handbook was last updated in June 2020. The PTS is still the current testing
standards that the FAA is using. The PTS was last updated in 2012. This means there will
be some discrepancies between the two. This study guide is designed to cover every
topic listed in the current PTS, so note there may be some disagreement between the
two sources (for example ‘student’ vs ‘learner’).
3. Page references are listed to guide you to further reading. While everything is covered
accurately in this study guide, there is more in depth reading you can do on each
subject, as well as some subjects that are not listed in the PTS.
4. If you see any errors, or have suggestions, contact AssistantChief@mtsu.edu.
Task A. Human Behavior and Effective Communication
• Definition of human behavior (AIH 2-1): A product of factors that cause people to act in
predictable ways. Also, the result of attempts to satisfy certain needs.
• Maslow’s hierarchy of needs (AIH 2-6):
o Physiological: Biological needs. Air, food, water, bodily maintenance. These must
be met before the student can learn effectively.
o Security: The need to feel safe. Must feel safe before learning takes place.
o Belonging: The need to overcome loneliness and alienation. Instructors must
help student’s feel at ease to reinforce the choice to pursue aviation.
o Esteem: The need for a stable, firmly based, high level of self-respect and respect
from others. Both internal (personal feelings about oneself) and external (social
approval, and reputation).
o Cognitive and aesthetic: Cognitive is the need to know and understand, the need
for eureka moments tied to successful learning. Aesthetic is the emotional
attraction to something.
o Self-actualization: Achieving one’s potential, and feeling as though they are
doing what they are born to do.
• Defense mechanisms (AIH 2-9):
o What is a defense mechanism? A subconscious response to the mind dealing
with anxiety. When “fight or flight” does not work, defense mechanisms may be
triggered.
o What are the eight common defense mechanisms?
 o Repression: A student places uncomfortable thoughts into inaccessible areas of
the unconscious mind. Things the student is unable to cope with now are pushed
away, to be dealt with at another time, or never. EX: a student pilot may have a
repressed fear of flying that inhibits his or her ability to learn how to fly.
o Rationalization: Justifying actions that otherwise would be unacceptable. EX: For
example, a student fails a test. He or she may justify the poor grade by claiming
there was not enough time to learn the required information.
o Reaction formation: Student fakes opposite belief to the true belief because the
true belief causes anxiety. EX: Student claims to love flying actual to cover up the
fact it actually scares them.
o Denial: A refusal to accept external reality because it is too threatening. EX:
Student refuses to accept the fact the left the cowl plugs in during the preflight.
Denies being in a hurry or distracted.
o Displacement: An unconscious shift of emotion, affect, or desire from the
original object to a more acceptable, less threatening substitute. EX: A student
that is angry at flight instructor for failing a stage check may go home and yell at
their spouse instead of confronting the flight instructor.
o Compensation: A process of psychologically counterbalancing perceived
weaknesses by emphasizing strength in other areas. EX: A student draws
attention away from poor steep turns by focusing on good chandelles.
o Fantasy: Fantasy occurs when a student engages in daydreams about how things
should be rather than doing anything about how things are. The student uses his
or her imagination to escape from reality into a fictitious world. EX: Student is
struggling with commercial maneuvers. Rather than face the reality that they
may not become an airline pilot, they escape into a daydream fantasy where
they are an airline pilot to ease themselves.
o Projection: An individual places his or her own unacceptable impulses onto
someone else. EX: Student blames a checkride failure on an unfair examiner.
• Student emotional reactions (AIH 2-12):
o Normal reactions to stress: Normal individuals begin to respond rapidly and
exactly, within the limits of their experience and training.
o Abnormal reactions to stress:
 Inappropriate reactions, such as extreme over-cooperation, painstaking
self-control, inappropriate laughter or singing, and very rapid changes in
emotions.
 Marked changes in mood on different lessons, such as excellent morale
followed by deep depression.
  Severe anger directed toward the flight instructor, service personnel, and
others.
• Basic elements of effective communication (AIH 4-2):
o Source: Sender, speaker, writer, encoder, transmitter, or instructor.
o Symbols: used in composing and transmitting the message (words or signs)
o Receiver: listener, reader, or student
• 4 barriers to effective communication (AIH 4-4):
o Confusion between the symbol and symbolized object: When a word is confused
with what it is meant to represent. EX: Using an expo marker to represent an
airplane fuselage, student may become confused on which direction the
“aircraft” is moving, orientation of fuselage and wings, etc.
o Overuse of abstractions: Using words or terms that do not call forth specific
mental images. Using vague language. EX: Did you see that animal? (could be any
animal).
o Interference: 2 Types:
 Physiological: Any biological problem, such as hearing loss, injury, or
illness.
 Environmental: Noise level in aircraft, people interrupting instruction,
etc.
o Lack of common experience: An individual’s past determines how the student
responds to what the instructor says. It is important to break speech down to the
most fundamental level when attempting to convey new topics to someone who
may not have the same knowledge level. Do not use technical jargon while
beginning with a student.
Task B. The Learning Process
• What is learning theory? (AIH 3-2): Learning theory is a body of principles advocated by
psychologists and educators to explain how people acquire skills, knowledge, and
attitudes.
• What is perception? (AIH 3-7): Where all learning begins and is directed by one or more
of the five senses. Perception gives meaning to those sensations.
• What is insight? (AIH 3-9): The grouping of perceptions into meaningful wholes. Mental
relating and grouping of associated perceptions.
• How can you acquire knowledge? (AIH 3-9):
o Memorization: Memorizing facts about steps in a procedure, the limitations of
memorization become apparent when a student is asked to solve a problem or
provide an explanation that has not been memorized.
 o Understanding: The ability to notice similarities and make associations between
the facts and procedural steps learned. At this stage, the learner begins to
organize knowledge in useful ways and a collection of memorized facts gives way
to understanding.
o Concept Learning: The grouping and categorization of objects, events, ideas,
people etc. By grouping into concepts, humans reduce the complexities and
create manageable categories.
• Thorndike’s laws of learning (AIH 3-11):
o Readiness: A student must want to learn the task being presented and must
possess the requisite knowledge and skill. Student’s best acquire new knowledge
when they see a clear reason for doing so. Capitalize on teaching moments to
promote readiness.
o Exercise: Connections are strengthened with practice and weakened when
practice is discontinued, which reflects the adage “use it or lose it.” The learner
needs to practice what has been learned in order to understand and remember
the learning.
o Effect: Learning is strengthened when accompanied by a pleasant or satisfying
feeling, and weakened when associated with an unpleasant feeling.
o Primacy: the state of being first, often creates a strong, almost unshakable
impression and underlies the reason an instructor must teach correctly the first
time and the student must learn correctly the first time.
o Intensity: Immediate, exciting, or dramatic learning connected to a real situation
teaches a learner more than a routine or boring experience.
o Recency: things most recently learned are best remembered. Conversely, the
further a learner is removed in time from a new fact or understanding, the more
difficult it is to remember.
• What are the domains of learning (AIH 3-13):
o Cognitive (thinking):
 Four practical learning levels:
• Rote: The ability to repeat something which one has been taught,
without understanding or being able to apply what has been
learned.
• Understanding: To comprehend or grasp the nature or meaning of
something.
• Application: The act of putting something to use that has been
learned and understood.
 • Correlation: Associating what has been learned, understood, and
applied with previous or subsequent learning.
o Affective (feeling): The affective domain addresses a learner’s emotions toward
the learning experience. It includes feelings, values, enthusiasms, motivations,
and attitudes.
o Psychomotor (doing): Skill based and includes physical movement, coordination,
and use of the motor-skill areas. Development of these skills requires repetitive
practice and is measured in terms of speed, precision, distance, and techniques.
• Characteristics of learning (AIH 3-19):
o Purposeful: Each student is a unique individual whose past experiences affect
readiness to learn and understanding of the requirements involved. Students
learn from any activity that tends to further their goals.
o Result of an experience: Learning takes place due to individual experiences. The
student must use experiences and their responses to them in order to learn
effectively.
o Multifaceted: Learning will usually cover more than just one “learning type.”
Even though a student may be learning problem solving, it may help their verbal,
motor, and emotional learning simultaneously. Also, they may incidentally learn
other topics while focusing on another.
o Active process: Students do not soak up knowledge like a sponge absorbs water.
Just because the correct answer was repeated does not mean they can apply
what they learn. Students must have a correct active reaction or response either
inwardly, outwardly, emotionally, or intellectually.
• Acquiring skill knowledge (AIH 3-23):
o Cognitive: Cognitive learning has a basis in factual knowledge. Since the learner
has no prior knowledge of flying, the instructor first introduces him or her to a
basic skill. The learner then memorizes the steps required to perform the skill.
o Associative: Demonstrating how to do something does not result in the learner
learning the skill. Practice is necessary in order for the learner to learn how to
coordinate muscles with visual and tactile senses. As the storage of a skill via
practice continues, the learner understands how to associate individual steps in
performance with likely outcomes. The learner no longer performs a series of
memorized steps, but is able to assess his or her progress along the way and
make adjustments in performance.
o Automatic Resopnse: Automaticity is one of the by-products of practice. As
procedures become automatic, less attention is required to carry them out, so it
is possible to do other things simultaneously, or at least do other things more
comfortably. By this stage, learner performance of the skill is rapid and smooth.
 The learner devotes much less deliberate attention to performance, and may be
able to carry on a conversation or perform other tasks while performing the skill.
• Types of practice (AIH 3-26):
o Deliberate: Aimed at a particular goal. Student practices specific areas for
improvement and receives specific feedback after the practice. It points out
discrepancies between actual performance and the goal performance.
o Blocked: Practicing the same drill until the movement becomes automatic.
Repeating the same task over and over enhances current performance, but does
not improve long term performance. It can fool an instructor or student into
believing the information was well taught.
o Random: Mixes up the skills throughout the practice session. Leads to better
retention due to the student recognizing the similarities and differences of each
skill.
• Scenario-based training (AIH 3-31): Introducing situations for a student to think about
and work through. These should be realistic scenarios that have a clear objective,
tailored to the needs of the student, capitalize on the nuances of the local environment.
• Errors (AIH 3-33):
o Slip: A person plans to do one thing but inadvertently does something else. An
error in action. EX: Student knows they should say “Shelbyville traffic” but
accidentally, out of habit, says “Murfreesboro traffic” while approaching SYI.
o Mistake: A person plans to do the wrong thing and is successful. An error in
thought. EX: Student has only made radio calls in Murfreesboro, so when they fly
to Shelbyville they believe the correct thing to say is still “Murfreesboro traffic”
and does.
o Reducing errors:
 Learning and practicing.
 Taking your time.
 Checking for errors.
 Using reminders.
 Developing routines.
 Raising awareness.
• Memory and forgetting (AIH 3-35)
o Memory: The link between a student learning and retaining information.
o 3 types:
 Sensory: Receives initial stimuli from the environment and processes
them according to the individual’s perception of what is important. The
 more senses that are impacted the more vivid the impression on the
mind.
 Short-term: The portion of memory where things are stored for roughly
30 seconds. After that it will either be stored in long term or rapidly fade.
Usually about 7 bits of information is all that can be stored in STM.
Scratch pad memory.
 Long-term: Relatively permanent storage. These memories usually has
some significance attached to them. Repetition may also contribute into
LTM storage.
o Forgetting: Loss of memory usually caused by failure in retrieval.
 Retrieval failure: Inability to retrieve information, the tip of the tongue
sensation.
 Fading: A person forgets information that has not been used in a while.
People will usually erase data that is no longer pertinent.
 Interference: People forget things because a certain situation
overshadows it, or similarly learned things intervened.
 Repression or suppression: A memory is pushed out of reach because the
individual does not want to remember the feelings associated with it.
• Retention of learning (AIH 3-38): When a person forgets something, it is not actually
lost. Rather, it is simply unavailable for recall. Material thoroughly learned is highly
resistant to forgetting.
o Praise stimulates remembering: Responses that give a pleasurable return tend to
be repeated.
o Recall is promoted by association: Each bit of information or action, which is
associated with something to be learned, tends to facilitate its later recall by the
student.
o Favorable attitudes aid retention: People learn and remember only what they
wish to know. Without motivation there is little chance for recall.
o Learning with all senses is most effective: Although people generally receive
what is learned through the eyes and ears, other senses also contribute to most
perceptions. When several senses respond together, a fuller understanding and
greater chance of recall is achieved.
o Meaningful repetition aids recall: Each repetition gives a student an opportunity
to gain a clearer and more accurate perception of the subject, but mere
repetition does not guarantee retention. If you continue to repeat over and over,
it may move into blocked practice, which can fool an instructor or student.
o Mnemonics: A mnemonic uses a pattern of letters, ideas, visual images, or
associations to assist in remembering information. It is a memory enhancing
 strategy that involves teaching learners to link new information to information
they already know. EX: AIM = Aeronautical Information Manual.
• Transfer of learning (AIH 3-39):
o Positive transfer of learning: Learning Skill A helps a student learn Skill B. EX:
Slow flight helps a student in an approach to landing at Vref.
o Negative transfer of learning: Learning Skill A hinders a student attempting to
learn Skill B. EX: Trying to land a tailwheel aircraft like you would a tricycle gear.
Task C. The Teaching Process
• Preparation of a lesson (AIH 5-5): An instructor must first determine objectives and
standards.
o Objectives: 2 Types: Performance Based and Decision Based. Performance is
defining exactly what needs to be done and how it is done during each lesson.
Decision allow for a more dynamic training environment and are suited well for
scenario type training.
o Standards: When a student is able to perform according to well-defined
standards, evidence of learning is apparent.

• Organization of material (AIH 5-9):

o Introduction: Sets the stage for everything to come. 3 elements: attention,
motivation, and an overview of what is to be covered.
 Attention: Focus the student’s attention on the lesson. Gain attention
and concentrate on the subject. May be done through a story, video clip,
a question or joke.
 Motivation: Gives the student specific reasons why the lesson content is
important to know. Should appeal to each student personally, create a
desire to learn the material.
 Overview: tells the group what is to be covered during the period. A
clear, concise presentation of the objective and the key ideas gives the
students a road map of the route to be followed.
o Development: The main part of the lesson. Here, the instructor develops the
subject matter in a manner that helps the students achieve the desired learning
outcomes. Done in one of the following ways.
 Past to present: Subject matter is arranged chronologically. Helpful when
describing the history of a subject.
 Simple to complex: Helps the instructor lead the student from simple
facts or ideas to an understanding of the phenomena or concepts
 involved. In studying jet propulsion, for example, the student might begin
by considering the action involved in releasing air from a toy balloon.
 Known to unknown: Building off of what a student already knows to lead
to new ideas and concepts.
 Most frequently used to least used: The basics need to be taught before
the tricks and tips should be taught. Build a good foundation before
giving the students the easy work around.
o Conclusion: An effective conclusion retraces the important elements of the
lesson and relates them to the objectives. This reinforces learning and improves
retention.
• Training delivery methods (AIH 5-10): Ways to present instructional material. In a
typical lesson, an effective instructor normally uses a combination of methods.
o Lecture method: The instructor delivers the knowledge via lectures to students
who are more or less silent participants. Lectures are a good way to instruct
large groups, and introduce new ideas and convey a general understanding.
However the students attention drops off after the first 10-15 minutes of a
lecture, and the instructor may find it difficult to estimate the students
understanding and retention of knowledge.
o Discussion / guided discussion method: In the discussion method, the instructor
provides a short lecture, no more than 20 minutes in length, which gives basic
knowledge to the students. This short lecture is followed by instructor-student
and student-student discussion. It may be necessary for the instructor to ask
guided questions or referee the discussion. It is a good way to draw out what the
student knows.
o Computer-assisted leaning method: Software that is used as a training device.
Such as training programs to teach aircraft systems. It can be used by instructors
as a study tool for knowledge tests, flight simulation devices, etc. When using
this, an instructor still needs to remain actively involved.
o Demonstration-performance method: Students observe the skill and then try to
reproduce it. 5 phases:
 Explanation phase: The instructor describes the specific steps they are to
perform, the end result of all of the steps, and encourage the student to
ask about anything they do not understand.
 Demonstration phase: The instructor displays the actions necessary to
perform the skill. Try to use only the steps you described before to
reduce confusion. If something is performed incorrectly by the instructor
it must be immediately acknowledged and explained.
 Student performance and instructor supervision phases: As soon as the
demonstration ends, the students should perform the task. Let the
 student independently perform the task to completion if possible while
providing supervision and coaching if necessary.
 Evaluation phase: The instructor is able to determine the effectiveness of
the instruction by measuring the demonstrated competence.
o Drill and practice method: Relates to the law of exercise. Connections are
strengthened with practice, and the things most often repeated are best
remembered.
• Problem based learning (AIH 5-16): The type of learning environment in which lessons
are structured in such a way as to confront students with problems encountered in real
life that force them to reach real world solutions. This happens with a carefully
constructed problem to which there is no single solution. The benefit of PBL lies in
helping the learner gain a deeper understanding of the information and in the learner
improving his or her ability to recall the information.
o Scenario-based training (SBT): Highly structured script of real-world experiences
to address aviation training objectives in an operational environment. It is a
realistic situation that allows the student to rehearse mentally for a situation and
requires practical application of various bits of knowledge.
o Case study method: The instructor presents a real world situation to the
students who then analyze it, come to conclusions, and offer possible solutions.
o Collaborative problem-solving: Combines collaboration with problem solving
when the instructor provides a problem to a group who then solves it. The
instructor provides assistance when needed, but he or she needs to remember
that learning to solve the problem or task without assistance is part of the
learning process.
• Instruction aids and training technologies (AIH 5-23): Instructional aids are devices that
assist an instructor in the teaching-learning process. Instructional aids are not self-
supporting; they support, supplement, or reinforce what is being taught. When a
student learns with instructional aids, the sensory memory process is enhanced, and is
more likely to be retained. Some examples of instruction aids are: white board, photos,
diagrams, videos, interactive software, models etc.
• Characteristics of an effective question (AIH 5-14):
o Applies to the subject of instruction,
o Is brief and concise but also clear and definite,
o Is adapted to the learners’ ability, experience and stage of training,
o Centers on only one idea,
o Presents a challenge to learners.
Task D. Assessment and Critique
• Assessment (AIH 6-1):
o Purpose of an assessment: An effective assessment provides critical information
to both the instructor and the student. Both instructor and student need to
know how well the student is progressing. Assessments need to give specific
feedback, with guidance on how to perform better. It will also help develop ADM
and judgment skills in the student due to their ability to self-assess.
• General characteristics of effective assessment(COCOFATS, AIH 6-2):
o Comprehensive: Covers strengths as well as weaknesses. A detailed description
of performance, although it does not have to be extremely lengthy.
o Objective: An honest assessment based on the performance as it was, not as it
could have been. Solely based on student performance, and does not reflect the
personal opinions, likes, dislikes, or biases of the instructor. Instructors must not
permit judgment of student performance to be influenced by their personal
views of the student, favorable or unfavorable. Sympathy or over-identification
with a student, to such a degree that it influences objectivity, is known as “halo
error.”
o Constructive: Must be beneficial for the student. Praise the student when it is
earned to reinforce good performance. When identifying mistakes or
weaknesses, the instructor must give positive guidance for correction.
o Organized: The assessment must logically make sense to a student. You may
organize your assessment in the chronological order it took place, you may want
to start at an error and back track the steps that led to the failure etc.
o Flexible: The instructor must fit the tone, technique, and content of the
assessment to the occasion as well as to the student. For example, during steep
turns, a poor student that improves to 100 feet off altitude after many attempts,
and a good student who uncharacteristically deviates to 100 feet off altitude
should be treated differently, although it is the same basic issue.
o Acceptable: The student must accept the instructor in order to accept his or her
assessment willingly. Students must have confidence in the instructor’s
qualifications, teaching ability, sincerity, competence, and authority.
Assessments must be presented fairly, with authority, conviction, sincerity, and
from a position of recognizable competence in order to establish themselves
with the student.
o Thoughtful: An effective assessment reflects the instructor’s thoughtfulness
toward the student’s need for self-esteem, recognition, and approval. The
instructor must not minimize the inherent dignity and importance of the
individual. Ridicule, anger, or fun at the expense of the student never has a place
in assessment. While being straightforward and honest, the instructor should
always respect the student’s personal feelings.
 o Specific: Students cannot act on recommendations unless they know specifically
what the recommendations are. At the conclusion of an assessment, students
should have no doubt about what they did well and what they did poorly and,
most importantly, specifically how they can improve. Remember “That was a
good flight see you next time” is equally as unacceptable as “Terrible flight, you
did awful, see you next time.”
• Traditional assessment (AIH6-3): Generally referred to as written testing such as
multiple choice matching, true false, etc.
o Characteristics of a good written assessment (test) (VURDOC):
 Validity: The extent to which a test measures what it is supposed to
measure, and it is the most important consideration in test evaluation.
Items that do not pertain directly to the objectives of the course should
be modified or eliminated.
 Usability: A usable written test is easy to give if it is printed in a type size
large enough for students to read easily. The wording of both the
directions for taking the test and of the test items needs to be clear and
concise. The test should be easily graded.
 Reliability: The degree to which test results are consistent with repeated
measurements. The reliability of a written test is judged by whether it
gives consistent measurement to a particular individual or group. Keep in
mind, though, that knowledge, skills, and understanding can improve
with subsequent attempts at taking the same test, because the first test
serves as a learning device.
 Discrimination: The degree to which a test distinguishes the difference
between students. A test constructed to identify the difference in the
achievement of students has three features: A wide range of scores, all
levels of difficulty, items that distinguish between students with differing
levels of achievement of the course objectives
 Objectivity: Describes singleness of scoring of a test. Essay questions
provide an example of this principle. It is nearly impossible to prevent an
instructor’s own knowledge and experience in the subject area, writing
style, or grammar from affecting the grade awarded. Selection-type test
items, such as true/false or multiple choice, are much easier to grade
objectively.
 Comprehensiveness: The degree to which a test measures the overall
objectives. The instructor has to make certain the evaluation includes a
representative and comprehensive sampling of the objectives of the
course.
• Authentic assessment (AIH 6-5): The student is asked to perform real-world tasks, and
demonstrate a meaningful application of skills and competencies.
o Collaborative assessment: The use of open-ended questions, a form of student
centered grading. Four-step series.
 Replay: Ask the student to verbally replay the flight or procedure. Listen
for areas in which the instructor’s perceptions differ from the student’s
perceptions, and discuss why they do not match.
 Reconstruct: Identifying the key things that he or she would have, could
have, or should have done differently during the flight or procedure.
 Reflect: Asking the student meaningful questions that require reflection,
such as the most important thing they learned, what was hardest, easiest
etc.
 Redirect: Apply what was learned in this lesson to help performance in
future lessons.
o Maneuver or procedure “grades”:
 Describe: at the completion of the scenario, the student is able to
describe the physical characteristics and cognitive elements of the
scenario activities, but needs assistance to execute the maneuver or
procedure successfully.
 Explain: At the completion of the scenario, the student is able to describe
the scenario activity and understand the underlying concepts, principles,
and procedures that comprise the activity, but needs assistance to
execute the maneuver or procedure successfully.
 Practice: At the completion of the scenario, the student is able to plan
and execute the scenario. Coaching, instruction, and/or assistance will
correct deviations and errors identified by the instructor.
 Perform: At the completion of the scenario, the student is able to
perform the activity without instructor assistance. The student will
identify and correct errors and deviations in an expeditious manner.
o Single-pilot resource management (SRM) “Grades”:
 Explain: The student can verbally identify, describe, and understand the
risks inherent in the flight scenario, but needs to be prompted to identify
risks and make decisions.
 Practice: The student is able to identify, understand, and apply SRM
principles to the actual flight situation. Instruction quickly corrects minor
deviations and errors identified by the instructor.
 Manage-Decide: The student can correctly gather the most important
data available both inside and outside the flight deck, identify possible
courses of action, evaluate the risk inherent in each course of action, and
 make the appropriate decision. Instructor intervention is not required for
the safe completion of the flight.
• Oral Assessment (AIH 6-11): Direct or indirect questioning of students by the instructor.
The questions can be fact questions which involves memory or recall that usually
concerns who, what, when, and where. Higher order thinking skills (HOTS) questions
concern the why or how of a subject matter. HOTS questions require the student to
combine knowledge and analyzation of situations to solve problems.
• Characteristics of effective questions (AIH 5-10):
o Apply to the subject of instruction.
o Be brief and concise, but also clear and definite.
o Be adapted to the ability, experience, and stage of training of the students.
o Center on only one idea (limited to who, what, when, where, how, or why, not a
combination).
o Present a challenge to the students.
• Types of questions to avoid (AIH 6-11) (BOTPIT):
o Bewilderment: “In reading the altimeter—you know you set a sensitive altimeter
for the nearest station pressure—if you take temperature into account, as when
flying from a cold air mass through a warm front, what precaution should you
take when in a mountainous area?”
o Oversize: “What do you do before beginning an engine overhaul?”
o Trick questions: These questions cause the students to develop the feeling that
they are engaged in a battle of wits with the instructor, and the whole
significance of the subject of the instruction involved is lost.
o Puzzle: “What is the first action you should take if a conventional gear airplane
with a weak right brake is swerving left in a right crosswind during a full flap,
power-on wheel landing?”
o Irrelevant questions: Diversions that introduce only unrelated facts and thoughts
and slow the student’s progress. Questions unrelated to the test topics are not
helpful in evaluating the student’s knowledge of the subject at hand.
o Toss-up: “In an emergency, should you squawk 7700 or pick a landing spot?”
• Critique (AIH 6-10): Effective critique considers good as well as bad performance, the
individual parts, relationships of the individual parts, and the overall performance. A
critique can and usually should be as varied in content as the performance being
evaluated.
o Instructor/student critique: The instructor leads a group discussion in an
instructor/ student critique in which members of the class are invited to offer
 criticism of a performance. This method should be controlled carefully and
directed with a clear purpose.
o Student-led critique: The instructor asks a student to lead the assessment in a
student-led critique. The instructor can specify the pattern of organization and
the techniques or can leave it to the discretion of the student leader.
o Small group critique: The class is divided into small groups, each assigned a
specific area to analyze. Each group must present its findings to the class. The
overall result is a comprehensive assessment.
o Individual student critique by another student: The instructor asks a number of
students questions about the manner and quality of performance. Discussion of
the performance and of the assessment can often allow the group to accept
more ownership of the ideas expressed.
o Self-critique: A student critiques personal performance in a self-critique. Like all
other methods, a self-critique must be controlled and supervised by the
instructor.
o Written critique: A critique that is written for the student. The instructor can
devote more time and thought into a written critique, students can keep that
critique for future reference.
Task E. Instructor Responsibilities and Professionalism
• Aviation Instructor Responsibilities (AIH 8-1):
o Helping students learn: Learning should be an enjoyable experience. By making
each lesson a pleasurable experience for the student, the instructor can maintain
a high level of student motivation. This does not mean everything needs to be
easy though. The student must also know the objective for each lesson.
o Providing adequate instruction: An instructor must analyze each student. Since
no two students are the same an instructor must spend time to get to know the
student. Learning to tailor instruction to each individual student is a key skill in
providing adequate instruction.
o Standards of performance: The instructor is responsible for training an applicant
to acceptable standards in all subject matter areas, procedures, and maneuvers
included in the tasks within each area of operation in the appropriate Practical
Test Standard (PTS). Explaining the standards and exactly how to perform the
maneuver is essential for student learning.
o Minimizing student frustrations: Instructors need to minimize student
frustrations whenever possible. This will create an environment that encourages
learning rather than discouraging it.
 Motivate students: More can be gained from wanting to learn than from
being forced to learn. When students can see the benefits and purpose of
the lesson or course, their enjoyment and their efforts increase.
  Keep students informed: Students feel insecure when they do not know
what is expected of them or what is going to happen to them. Instructors
can minimize feelings of insecurity by telling students what is expected of
them and what they can expect in return. Keep them updated on their
progress.
 Approach students as individuals: If you do not consider your students as
individuals you end up instructing to an average personality. Each student
is unique and must be constantly considered.
 Give credit when due: Students respond well to praise when they have
done well. It even can become an incentive to improve. However if you
give praise for no reason, it will become valueless.
 Criticize constructively: Students must be told when they have made
mistakes. You must tell a student when an error has occurred and
provide an explanation or they will get frustrated.
 Be consistent: The instructor’s philosophy and actions must be
consistent. If the same thing is acceptable one day and unacceptable the
next, the student becomes confused.
 Admit errors: No one expects instructors to be perfect, so acknowledging
errors when they are made can actually win respect of the student.
• Flight instructor responsibilities (AIH 8-5): Ensuring students are ready to solo.
Evaluation of student piloting ability. Pilot supervision. Practical test recommendations.
Flight instructor endorsements. Additional training and endorsements. Pilot proficiency.
See and avoid responsibility. Student’s pre-solo flight thought process.
o Physiological obstacles for flight students: students may react to unfamiliar
noises or vibrations, or experience unfamiliar sensations due to G-force, or an
uncomfortable feeling in the stomach. To teach effectively, instructors cannot
ignore the existence of these negative factors, nor should they ridicule students
who are adversely affected. These negative sensations can usually be overcome
by understanding the nature of their causes. Remember, a sick student does not
learn well.
o Ensuring student ability: You must ensure your student’s ability to perform well.
This usually means they can perform a flight with minimal assistance needed.
Instructors must also be up to date on the special emphasis areas, procedures,
certification, and safety.
• Professionalism (AIH 8-7): Strive to maintain the highest level of knowledge, training,
and currency in the field of aviation. To achieve this goal, instructors need to commit
themselves to continuous, lifelong learning and professional development through
study. Build a library of resources.
o Professionalism Do’s: Be professional at all times. Be sincere. Present a
professional appearance and personal habits. Maintain a calm demeanor.
 Practice safety and accident prevention at all times. Avoid profanity. Define
common terms. Continue professional development. Minimize student
frustration. Motivate the student. Keep the student informed. Approach each
student as an individual. Give credit when due. Criticize constructively. Be
consistent. Admit errors.
o Professionalism Don’ts: Ridicule the student’s performance. Use profanity.
Model irresponsible flight behaviors. Say one thing but do another. Forget
personal hygiene. Disrespect the student. Demand unreasonable progress.
Forget the student is new to aviation jargon. Set the student up for failure.
Correct errors without an explanation of what went wrong.
• Evaluation of student ability (AIH 8-9):
o Demonstrated ability: Considers the student’s master of the maneuver or
procedure. Based on established standards.
o Keeping the student informed: Covered above.
o Correction of student errors: You must let the student make errors in order to
learn from them. Safety permitting, let the student make errors and try to find
their way out of them. Furthermore, the student must understand the principles
behind maneuvers or procedures in order to successfully complete the revised
task.
• Aviation instructors and exams:
o Knowledge test: You are held accountable for a deficient instructional
performance. Do not sign students off that you have not trained. If your student
fails the knowledge test, you must give instruction on deficient items, and sign
an endorsement stating you have trained them on those items within the
preceding 60 days.
o Practical test: The instructor is responsible for ensuring all items in the ACS/PTS
can be completed successfully. You must also make sure your student has the
required endorsements to take the practical. Do not falsify records, and do not
omit any items of the ACS/PTS during training.
• Professional development (AIH 8-10): Once an instructor has passed the CFI practical,
they understand that is just the beginning. A good instructor will continue learning and
push his/her education further. This includes, ensuring they are staying current,
investing time in organizations that further skills, and keeping up to date with any
changes that may be occurring in the industry.
Task F. Techniques of Flight Instruction
• Obstacles in learning during flight instruction (AUDIAL):
o Apathy due to inadequate instruction: Students can become apathetic when
they recognize that the instructor has made inadequate preparations for the
instruction being given, or when the instruction appears to be deficient,
 contradictory, or insincere. Topics that are too elementary or too complicated
may lose student’s interest. Once the instructor loses student confidence, it is
difficult to regain, and the learning rate is unnecessarily diminished.
o Unfair treatment: Motivation declines when a student believes the instructor is
making unreasonable demands for performance and progress. You want to
assign difficult but reasonable goals for your student. If the motivation suffers,
the student may not learn no matter how intent they are on doing so.
o Discomfort, illness, fatigue, dehydration: Sick students do not learn well.
Students must be in good condition in order for learning to take place.
o Impatience: Your student may not build the requisite skills if they think it is
boring. If they want to move on to more interesting topics, they may miss out
on the foundational skills needed for mastery of future topics. Fight impatience
with giving the student defined objectives to reach in order to move on to the
next topics.
o Anxiety: The student must be comfortable, confident in the instructor and the
aircraft, and at ease if effective learning is to occur. This may be difficult for
students who are new to aviation. Usually it takes some time for the student to
fully trust the aircraft.
o Lack of interest or worry: A student may be distracted by situations not
pertaining to aviation. If a student has issues they are worried about outside of
flying it may present itself as lack of interest. It may be best to allow the student
to deal with these issues before resuming training.
• Demonstration-performance (AIH 9-5): Covered earlier, but will cover telling doing
technique.
o Telling-and-doing technique:
 Instructor tells – instructor does: Instructor gives a carefully planned
demonstration with a verbal explanation.
 Student tells – instructor does: Student has a chance to just focus on the
maneuver without the added pressure of handling the aircraft. The first
time the student takes the aircraft they will have a good grasp of the
maneuver.
 Student tells – student does: The instructor is alert to detect any errors,
but the student both explains and does.
• Positive exchange of flight controls (AIH 9-8): During flight training, there must always
be a clear understanding between students and flight instructors about who has control
of the aircraft.
o Process: 3 step positive exchange. “You have the flight controls.” “I have the
flight controls.” “You have the flight controls” or vice versa. A visual check is
also recommended to confirm the other person indeed gave up the controls.
• Sterile flight deck rule (AIH 9-9): Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR)
section 121.542 requires flight crewmembers to refrain from nonessential activities
during critical phases of flight. As defined in the regulation, critical phases of flight are
all ground operations involving taxi, takeoff, and landing, and all other flight operations
below 10,000 feet except cruise flight. Nonessential activities include such activities as
eating, reading a newspaper, or chatting.
• Use of distractions (AIH 9-9): Most spin/stall accidents occur when the crew is
distracted. To combat this, it is important that an instructor intentionally teach a
student to divide his or her attention while maintaining control of the aircraft. Become
familiar with some of the examples in the book on page 8-10.
• Integrated flight instruction (AIH 9-10): Students are taught to perform flight
maneuvers both by outside visual references and by reference to flight instruments.
Students who are introduced to this and train by both methods are developing proper
habits of instrument cross-check, control, and interpretation.
• Assessment of piloting ability (AIH 9-11): Covered earlier, but a bit more in depth in this
chapter.
• Aeronautical decision making: A systematic approach to the mental process used by
aircraft pilots to consistently determine the best course of action in response to a given
set of circumstances.
o Decision making process:
 Defining the problem: The first step in the decision-making process is to
define the problem. This begins with recognizing that a change has
occurred or that an expected change did not occur. One critical error that
can be made during the decision-making process is incorrectly defining
the problem.
 Choosing a course of action: After the problem has been identified, the
pilot evaluates the need to react to it and determines the actions that
may be taken to resolve the situation in the time available. The expected
outcome of each possible action should be considered and the risks
assessed before the pilot decides on a response to the situation.
 Implementing the decision and evaluating the outcome: It is important to
think ahead and determine how the decision could affect other phases of
the flight. As the flight progresses, the pilot must continue to evaluate
the outcome of the decision to ensure that it is producing the desired
result.
o Hazardous attitudes (RAIIM):
 Resignation: Pilots who think, “What’s the use?” do not see themselves
as being able to make a great deal of difference in what happens to them.
When things go well, the pilot is apt to think that it is good luck. When
 things go badly, the pilot may feel that “someone is out to get me,” or
attribute it to bad luck.
 Anti-authority: This attitude is found in people who do not like anyone
telling them what to do. In a sense, they are saying, “No one can tell me
what to do.”
 Impulsivity: This is the attitude of people who frequently feel the need to
do something—anything—immediately. They do not stop to think about
what they are about to do; they do not select the best alternative, and
they do the first thing that comes to mind.
 Invulnerability: Many people believe that accidents happen to others, but
never to them. They know accidents can happen, and they know that
anyone can be affected. They never really feel or believe that they will be
personally involved.
 Macho: Pilots who are always trying to prove that they are better than
anyone else are thinking, “I can do it, I’ll show them.” Pilots with this type
of attitude will try to prove themselves by taking risks in order to impress
others.
o Workload management: Effective workload management ensures that essential
operations are accomplished by planning, prioritizing, and sequencing tasks to
avoid work overload. To manage workload, items should be prioritized. This
concept should be emphasized to students and reinforced when training
procedures are performed.
Task G. Risk Management
• Risk management (AIH 1-2): A decision-making process designed to identify hazards
systematically, assess the degree of risk, and determine the best course of action. Key
terms are:
o Hazard: A present condition, event, object, or circumstance that could lead to or
contribute to an unplanned or undesired event, such as an accident. It is a source
of danger.
o Risk: The future impact of a hazard that is not controlled or eliminated. It is the
possibility of loss or injury. The level of risk is measured by the number of people
or resources affected (exposure); the extent of possible loss (severity); and
likelihood of loss (probability).
o Safety: Freedom from those conditions that can cause death, injury,
occupational illness, or damage to or loss of equipment or property, or damage
to the environment. Note that absolute safety is not possible because complete
freedom from all hazardous conditions is not possible. Therefore, safety is a
relative term that implies a level of risk that is both perceived and accepted.
• Principles of risk management (AIH 1-3):
 o Accept no unnecessary risk: Unnecessary risk is that which carries no
commensurate return in terms of benefits or opportunities.
o Make risk decisions at the appropriate level: The appropriate decision-maker is
the person who can develop and implement risk controls.
o Accept risk when benefits outweigh the costs: All identified benefits should be
compared against all identified costs. Even high-risk endeavors may be
undertaken when there is clear knowledge that the sum of the benefits exceeds
the sum of the costs.
o Integrate risk management into planning at all levels: Risks are more easily
assessed and managed in the planning stages of an operation. The later changes
are made in the process of planning and executing an operation, the more
expensive and time consuming they become.
• Risk management process (AIH 1-4):
o Identify the hazard: A hazard is defined as any real or potential condition that
can cause degradation, injury, illness, death, or damage to or loss of equipment
or property.
o Assess the risk: This process defines the probability and severity of an accident
that could result from the hazards based upon the exposure of humans or assets
to the hazards.
o Analyze risk control measures: Effective control measures reduce or eliminate
the probability or severity of the risk. The analysis must take into account the
overall costs and benefits of remedial actions, providing alternative choices if
possible.
o Make control decisions: Identify the appropriate decision-maker. That decision-
maker must choose the best control or combination of controls, based on the
analysis of steps 1 and 2.
o Implement risk controls: A plan for applying the selected controls must be
formulated, the time, materials, and personnel needed to put these measures in
place must be provided.
o Supervise and review: Once controls are in place, the process must be
reevaluated periodically to ensure their effectiveness. People at every level must
fulfill their respective roles to assure the controls are maintained over time.
• Level of risk (AIH 9-4): 3 ways risk is measured: Exposure - The number of people or
resources affected | Severity - Extent of possible loss | Probability - Likelihood that a
hazard will cause a loss.
• Assessing risk (AIH 1-8): Assessing risk is taking in all of the hazards and weighing the
probability vs the severity as well as possible gains and losses for a specific flight. The
risk matrix is a good risk assessment tool.
• Mitigating risk (1-11): After determining the level of risk, the pilot needs to mitigate the
risk. For example, the pilot flying from point A to point B (50 miles) in MVFR conditions
has several ways to reduce risk: Wait for the weather to improve to good visual flight
rules (VFR) conditions. Take a pilot who is rated as an IFR pilot. Delay the flight. Cancel
the flight. Drive.
• IMSAFE checklist (AIH 1-7): A way to determine physical and mental readiness for flying.
o Illness: Am I sick? Illness is an obvious pilot risk.
o Medication: Am I taking any medicines that might affect my judgment or make
me drowsy?
o Stress: Stress causes concentration and performance problems. While the
regulations list medical conditions that require grounding, stress is not among
them. The pilot should consider the effects of stress on performance.
o Alcohol: As little as one ounce of liquor, one bottle of beer, or four ounces of
wine can impair flying skills. Alcohol also renders a pilot more susceptible to
disorientation and hypoxia.
o Fatigue: Fatigue continues to be one of the most insidious hazards to flight
safety, as it may not be apparent to a pilot until serious errors are made.
o Eating: Have I eaten enough of the proper foods to keep adequately nourished
during the entire flight?