1a

Grammar summary
Present simple and present continuous
Affirmative Negative
I live in a small flat. You don’t like rock music.
She always plays tennis She doesn’t often go out.
on Saturdays.
We’re working at the I’m not eating lunch now.
moment.
He’s sleeping at the It isn’t raining at the
moment. moment.
Questions Short answers
Do you often go to bed Yes, I do.
late? No, I don’t.
Does she like fish? Yes, she does.
No, she doesn’t.
Are they cooking dinner? Yes, they are.
No, they aren’t.
Is he getting dressed? Yes, he is.
No, he isn’t.
Wh- questions
What do you usually do on Saturdays?
What is she doing at the moment?

Note
Use
• We use the present simple to talk about permanent
situations, routines and for timetabled events in the future.
They live in Greece.
• We use the present continuous to talk about things that are
happening now or around now.
My mum is cooking at the moment.
• We don’t usually use stative verbs in the present continuous,
e.g. like, love, hate, understand, know, want, believe.
I don’t believe in Santa Claus.
NOT I’m not believing in Santa Claus.

Question tags
I’m late, aren’t I?
You haven’t got any money, have you?
He doesn’t eat meat, does he?
Your parents are teachers, aren’t they?

Note
Use
• We use question tags to check or confirm information.
You’re in class 8C, aren’t you?
• When we use a rising intonation, it shows that we aren’t sure
of the answer. When we use a falling intonation, it shows that
we are simply checking something we already know.
 1b
Grammar summary
Present perfect and past simple
Affirmative Negative
I’ve seen that film three He hasn’t found a job
times. yet.
I saw that film last week. He didn’t find a job last
summer.
Questions Short answers
Have you ever acted in Yes, I have.
a play? No, I haven’t.
Did you act in a play Yes, I did.
last year? No, I didn’t.
Wh- questions
Where have you been?
Where did you go last night?

Note
Use
• We use the present perfect simple to connect past
events with the present.
– a past experience at an unstated time
I’ve lived in Madrid.
– recent actions with a present result
I’ve washed my dad’s car.
–  things which started in the past and are still true
now
I’ve known Mick for five years.
I’ve been here since two o’clock.
• We use the past simple to talk about events which are
finished.
I worked in a shop for three months. (I don’t work
there now.)

Present perfect simple with for and

since
I’ve had this for two years.
We’ve lived here for six months.
He’s worked here since September.
They’ve been married since 2007.

Note
Use
• We use the present perfect simple with for and since
to show how long an action or event has been in
progress. We use for with a period of time and since
with a point in time.
We’ve been here for three hours.
We’ve been here since three o’clock.
 1c
Grammar summary
Intensifiers much, far, a lot, a bit with
comparative adjectives and adverbs;
(not) as … as
Teaching is much more rewarding than office work.
Acting is far more stressful than writing.
Working in a factory is a lot duller than working in
an office.
Being a lawyer is a bit better-paid than being an
accountant.
We work a lot more quietly now than we used to.
My dad doesn’t explain things as clearly as my
mum does.

Note
Use
• We use intensifiers with comparative adjectives and
adverbs to show how similar or different two things are.
I work a bit harder than my sister.
I work a lot harder than my sister.
• We use (not) as … as to say that two things are or are
not the same. We often use not as … as to avoid using
a negative adjective.
I’m as clever as my sister.
My brother is not as clever as I am.
NOT My brother is more stupid than I am.
Common mistakes
I drive slower than my sister. ✗
I drive more slowly than my sister. ✓
Summer work isn’t as hard to find like normal work. ✗
Summer work isn’t as hard to find as normal work. ✓
 2a
Grammar summary
Past simple
Affirmative Negative
I dropped my phone They didn’t move house
yesterday. last year.
We went to the cinema He didn’t eat his pizza
last night. yesterday.
Questions Short answers
Did you work last Yes, I did.
summer? No, I didn’t.
Did she find her purse? Yes, she did.
No, she didn’t.
Wh- questions
Who did you talk to at the party?
What did you do last night?

Note
Use
• We use the past simple to talk about single, completed
actions in a completed time period in the past.
I went to a party last Friday.
• We can use the past simple without a time expression
when the speaker and listener both know what the
time period is.
Did you see the Real Madrid match? (on television last
night)

Prepositions: during and for

I met my friends during the summer holidays.
We went on holiday for two weeks.

Note
Use
• We use during to say when something happened and
for to say how long it lasted.
I felt ill during the exam.
I was in hospital for a week.
Common mistakes
My phone rang while the exam. ✗
My phone rang during the exam. ✓
 2b
Grammar summary
Past continuous and past simple with
when, while, as
While/As I was walking home, I saw an accident.
I saw an accident while/as I was walking home.
When I left home, my dad was eating breakfast.
My dad was eating breakfast when I left home.
Past simple + past simple with when
When Tom stood up, his bag fell on the floor.
Tom’s bag fell on the floor when he stood up.

Note
Use
• We use the past continuous and past simple together
to talk about an action that happened while another
action was in progress. We use the past continuous for
the longer action and the past simple for the shorter
finished action.
I was working when my friend arrived.
• We use while/as before the past continuous. We
use when before the past simple. When we start a
sentence with when, while or as, we separate the two
clauses with a comma.
While we were swimming, it started raining.
• Sometimes we can see the same activities as an
activity in progress or a single event. We can choose
which tense to use.
While I was cooking dinner, my friend did his
homework.
I cooked dinner while my friend was doing his
homework.
• We can use past simple + past simple with when if
two actions occur at the same time in the past.
I felt ill when I got up
Common mistakes
We were playing while the teacher came into the room. ✗
We were playing when the teacher came into the room. ✓
 2c
Grammar summary
Past simple and past perfect simple
By the time Jack arrived, his friends had left.
By the time Maria started university, she had
saved over £500.
I hadn’t heard any Jet songs until my friend gave
me their CD for my birthday.
A: Nick came home really late last night.
B: Really? Where had he been?

Note
Use
• We use the past perfect with the past simple to show
that one past action or event happened before another.
• We often use the past perfect when the order of the
events is not clear.
When I woke up, my parents went out. (They went out
after I woke up.)
When I woke up, my parents had gone out. (They
went out before I woke up.)
Common mistakes
I felt tired because I stayed up all night playing computer
games. ✗
I felt tired because I had stayed up all night playing
computer games. ✓

after/before + gerund (-ing form)

After finishing his homework, Ben wrote his blog.
Before buying a new computer, I looked at prices
on the internet.

Note
Use
• We can use after/before + -ing instead of the past
simple or past perfect.
After I had eaten, I went out.
After eating, I went out.
• We can only use after/before + -ing + past simple
when the subject is the same in both parts of the
sentence.
After failing my exams, I started working harder. ✓
After failing my exams, my mum was very angry. ✗
After I failed my exams, my mum was very angry. ✓
 3a
Grammar summary
Future tenses: will, going to, present continuous
Affirmative Negative
I’ll (will) meet you outside the He won’t (will not) travel by
cinema. plane.
They’re going to buy a new She isn’t going to study
computer this year. English.
We’re meeting Mark at three I’m not going to the cinema
o’clock. this week.
Questions Short answers
Will they travel by car? Yes, they will.
No, they won’t.
Are we going to watch a Yes, we are.
DVD? No, we aren’t.
Are you staying in a hotel in Yes, we are.
Spain? No, we aren’t.
Wh- questions
What will you do?
Where are you going to go?
Who are you meeting?

Note
Use
• We use will to talk about something we think, believe or know will
happen in the future. We can use will be for future facts.
I’ll be twenty-one in 2020.
• We can use will when we suddenly decide to do something.
The rain’s stopped. I think I’ll go out.
• We use going to for plans, intentions and predictions in the future
based on present evidence.
I’m going to eat more healthily from now on.
• We use the present continuous for fixed plans and arrangements in
the future.
I’m playing volleyball for the school tomorrow afternoon.
• We can often use more than one future form.
Prediction: You’ll have/You’re going to have a great time in Italy.
Arrangements: I’m meeting/I’m going to meet John later.
• When we use going to with the verb to go, we usually omit to go.
I’m going to go shopping later.

to be about to + infinitive
Quick! The film is about to start.
You can’t get a drink now. Our train is just about to leave.

Note
Use
• We use to be (just) about to + infinitive to talk about things that are
going to start very soon.
I can’t talk now, I’m just about to go out.
 3b
Grammar summary
Gerund (-ing form) as subject and object
Watching TV is a waste of time.

Note
Use
• We can use the gerund (-ing form) when the word is the subject of
a sentence.
Walking is healthy.
• We can sometimes use the gerund when the word is the object of
a sentence. We use it after certain verbs and prepositions.
I hate skiing.

must, mustn’t, should, ought to, have (got) to,

don’t have to, needn’t, had better (not)
Obligation
You must try harder next year.
You mustn’t be rude to your friends.
I have to be/’ve got to be at school at 8.30 tomorrow.
No obligation
We don’t have to/needn’t pay for the hotel until we arrive.
Advice
You should wear something smart to the interview.
You ought to do more exercise.
We’d better leave soon.
You’d better not be late for school again.

Note
Use
• We use must and have (got) to for obligations and things that are
necessary.
We have to wear a uniform.
• We often use must when an obligation comes from the speaker.
I must get my hair cut.
• We use mustn’t to talk about things that we can’t do and with
negative obligations.
You mustn’t eat here.
• must and have to have different meanings in negative sentences:
don’t have to = no obligation; mustn’t = it’s against the rules.
I don’t have to go to school today.
• We use should/shouldn’t and ought to/ought not to for giving
advice, making suggestions and saying what is right and wrong.
You ought to do more exercise.
• We use needn’t when something is not necessary.
You needn’t rush.
• We use had better (not) to give slightly stronger advice. It often
suggests that if you don’t follow the advice, there could be a
problem.
You’d better not be late again.
 3c
Grammar summary
make, let, allowed to
Affirmative
My dad makes me clean my shoes every day.
My parents let me watch TV for one hour a day.
I’m allowed to wear what I like at the weekend.
Negative
My parents don’t make me help with the cooking.
My mum doesn’t let me go out during the week.
I’m not allowed to eat fast food.

Note
Use
• We use make to talk about things we are told we have
to do.
My parents make me tidy my room.
• We use let and allowed to to talk about things that
someone says we can do.
Our teacher lets us go home early.
We are allowed to drink water in lessons.
Form
• We can use make and allowed to in the active and
passive forms.
 My parents make me go to bed at 10 p.m./
I am made to go to bed at 10 p.m.
My parents allow me to stay up late./
I am allowed to stay up late.
• Let doesn’t have a passive form.
My mum lets me stay out late. ✓
NOT I’m let stay out late.
Common mistakes
I’m not allowed wear jewellery. ✗
I’m not allowed to wear jewellery. ✓
My parents don’t let me to stay out late. ✗
My parents don’t let me stay out late. ✓
 4a
Grammar summary
Relative clauses
Defining relative clauses
people (who/that)
He’s the guitarist who/that played on Eminem’s
last album.
places (where)
This is the place where we first met.
things (which/that)
Is this the jumper which/that you wanted to buy?
possessions (whose)
This is the girl whose friends have made a CD.
Non-defining relative clauses
people (who)
My dad, who is a teacher, always checks my
homework.
places (where)
The hotel, where we stayed last summer, was in
the city centre.
things (which)
This CD, which I bought last week, is really good.
possessions (whose)
Jackie Dawes, whose mum sometimes appears on
TV, wants to be an actress.

Note
Use
• We use defining relative clauses with who/that, where,
which/that or whose to add essential information to a
clause so that it is clear what we are talking about.
These are the people whose house we rented last
summer.
• We use non-defining relative clauses with who,
where, which and whose to add extra information to
a sentence. This information is not essential to the
understanding of the sentence and the sentence still
makes sense if you remove the non-defining relative
clause.
Mr and Mrs Smith, whose house we rented last
summer, were very kind to us.
Form
• In defining relative clauses when who, which or that
refers to the object, we can miss it out.
This is the town (which) my dad was born in.
It is not possible to miss out whose or where.
I met a boy whose dad was an actor.
• A non-defining relative clause is separated from the
main information by a comma, or if it is in the middle
of a sentence, two commas.
Johnny Depp, who played Captain Jack Sparrow in
Pirates of the Caribbean, is a good guitarist.
 4b
Grammar summary
Present perfect simple with just,
already, before, never, ever, yet
Affirmative
I’ve just finished my exam.
We’ve seen this film already.
Negative
Mark hasn’t played the guitar in a concert before.
Tom has never failed an exam.
I haven’t phoned Beth yet.
Questions
Have you ever had an accident at school?
Has the concert started yet?

Note
Use
• We use the present perfect with
– just to show that something happened a very short
time ago.
– already in affirmative sentences to emphasise that
something has happened before.
– before in negative sentences to say that this is the
first time something has happened.
– never in affirmative sentences to mean ‘not ever’.
We often add before to emphasise the sentence.
– ever in questions when we ask Have you ever…?
to mean ‘at any time in your life’.
– yet at the end of questions and negatives to mean
‘until now’.
Form
See Unit 1, page 7
Common mistakes
I haven’t never seen so much food. ✗
I’ve never seen so much food. ✓

Superlatives with the present perfect

simple
This is the best present I’ve ever had.
What’s the hottest place you’ve been to?

Note
Use
• We use superlatives with the present perfect simple to
talk about the best/biggest/worst thing that has ever
happened to us.
 4c
Grammar summary
Present perfect simple and continuous
with for and since
Present perfect simple
I’ve known Maria for three years.
Have you known her for a long time?
Have you known her since you were children?
Present perfect continuous
Tim’s been playing the guitar since he was seven.
Have you been waiting here for a long time?
Has he been playing the guitar since he was a
young boy?

Note
Use
• We use the present perfect simple and continuous
with for and since to show the duration of an action or
event.
• We use for with a period of time up to the present.
I’ve been here for ten minutes.
We’ve been waiting for an hour.
• We use since to show the exact point of time in the
past when the action or event started.
Henry’s been going out with Jane since last year.
We’ve been studying for our exams since April.
Form
• To form the present perfect continuous we use
have/has + been + gerund (-ing form) of the verb.
I have been sitting here for ten minutes.
Common mistakes
How long have you been knowing your best friend? ✗
How long have you known your best friend? ✓
I’ve read this book for five days. ✗
I’ve been reading this book for five days. ✓

Present perfect simple for numbers and

amounts
Connie has won lots of prizes for her school work.
Matt has written three books.
How many exams have you taken so far this
week?

Note
Use
• We use the present perfect simple to answer the
question How much/many in unfinished time periods,
e.g. in your life, this week.
How many countries have you been to? (in your life)
 How many albums have you made? (since the band
started)
 5a
Grammar summary
First conditional with if, unless,
provided that, as long as
Affirmative
If we leave now, we’ll arrive on time.
They’ll have a picnic on the beach unless it rains.
She’ll let us have a party provided that we tidy up
after it.
I’ll go with you as long as the tickets are free.
Negative
If you don’t work hard, you won’t get a good mark
in your exams.
I won’t help you with your schoolwork unless you
try to do it yourself first.
Provided that students attend all lessons, they
won’t have problems in the exams.
You won’t have any problems with your exams as
long as you study hard.
Questions Short answers
Will it be a problem if Yes, it will.
we have a party? No, it won’t.

Note
Use
• We use
– the first conditional to talk about something that
may happen in the future as a result of something
else happening (or not happening).
– If it rains, I’ll stay at home.
– if/provided that/as long as for the result of an
action happening.
As long as it doesn’t finish too late, I’ll go to
the party.
– unless for the result of an action not happening.
unless has a similar meaning to if not.
I won’t go out unless I finish my homework.
Form
• There are two parts in a first conditional sentence.
We use if/unless/provided that/as soon as + present
simple for the condition. We use will + infinitive
without to for the result. We can write the two clauses
in either order. If the condition clause is first, we
separate the two clauses with a comma.
I’ll go climbing if there’s a guide with us.
If there’s a guide with us, I’ll go climbing.
Common mistakes
If it will be a nice day, I’ll go for a walk. ✗
If it is a nice day, I’ll go for a walk. ✓
I will finish unless you help me. ✗
I won’t finish unless you help me. ✓
 5b
Grammar summary
Future time clauses with when, until, as
soon as, by the time, before
I’ll go out with my friends when I finish my exams.
As soon as/When we hear the bell, we’ll leave the
room.
We won’t ring you until we arrive.
By the time John arrives, the film will be over.
I’ll finish my homework before I watch TV.

Note
Use
• We use will future with when, until, as soon as, by the
time, before to show that
– something will happen at a specific time in the
future.
– two future events will happen at almost the same
time or one immediately after the other.
– one thing will happen very quickly after the other.
I’ll talk to you when I arrive.
By the time you get this, I’ll be in Manchester.
As soon as we find a hotel, we’ll phone you.
Form
• There are two parts in a future time clause. We use
will + infinitive without to for the result. We use when,
until, as soon as, by the time, before + present simple
for what happens first. If the when, until, as soon as,
by the time, before clause is first, we use a comma.
I’ll decide what to do before I go to the meeting.
As soon as we’re ready, we’ll leave.
• The will clause can be affirmative or negative, the
when, until, as soon as, by the time, before clause is
usually affirmative.
We won’t know our exam results before we go on
holiday.
• We don’t usually use until at the start of a sentence.
I won’t stop reading until my mum tells me to go to
sleep.
Common mistakes
When I will see you, I’ll tell you what happened. ✗
When I see you, I’ll tell you what happened.✓
I was cycling while it started raining. ✗
I was cycling when it started raining. ✓
 5c
Grammar summary
in case + present simple
Take your mobile phone with you in case
you want to call us later.
Tom always has two alarm clocks on in
the morning in case one doesn’t work.

Note
Use
• We use in case + present simple to say
what we do now because something bad
might happen later.
I’ve got some sandwiches in case I get
hungry later on.
Common mistakes
Finish your homework now in case you will
want to go out later. ✗
Finish your homework now in case you want
to go out later. ✓
 6a
Grammar summary
Second conditional with would, might,
could
Affirmative
If I had more money, I would pay for your pizza.
If Tom worked harder, he might do better in his
exams.
If I understood French, I could translate this letter
for you.
Negative
If I lived nearer my school, I wouldn’t have to get
up so early.
If Sara had a computer, she might not go out so
often.
You couldn’t phone me if you didn’t have my
number.
Questions
What would you say if Natalie asked you out?
If you were me, what would you do?

Note
Use
• We use the second conditional to talk about unreal or
unlikely situations in the present or future.
If I had a million dollars, I could buy an island.
Form
• There are two parts in a second conditional sentence.
We use if + past simple for the unreal or unlikely
condition. We use would, might, could + infinitive
without to for the result.
If you were more careful, you might not lose your
phone so often.
• We can write the two clauses in either order. When
the if (condition) clause is first, we separate the two
clauses with a comma.
If we were older, I would ask you to marry me.
I would ask you to marry me if we were older.
be in the second conditional
• In informal written or spoken language, we say
If I/he/she/it was … .
If I was better at football, I could be in the school team.
• In formal written or spoken language, we say
If I/he/she/it were … .
If I were you, I’d use a different search engine.
 6b
Grammar summary
wish/if only + past simple
Affirmative
I wish/If only I was/were taller.
I wish/If only we had more money.
I wish/If only I could play the piano.
Negative
I wish/If only I wasn’t/weren’t so short.
I wish/If only I didn’t love her so much.
I wish/If only my little brother couldn’t open my
bedroom door!

Note
Use
• We use this verb pattern to talk about present wishes
or regrets when the present wish or regret is unlikely
or impossible.
I wish I could play the guitar.
If only we had more time.
Form
• We use the past simple with I wish or If only to talk
about a situation now or in the future.
I wish I had some money. (now)
I wish I could go on holiday with you. (this summer)
Common mistakes
I wish I have a motorbike. ✗
I wish I had a motorbike. ✓
If only I can speak Italian. ✗
If only I could speak Italian. ✓
 6c
Grammar summary
Verb with infinitive or gerund
Verb with infinitive
I want to go out.
Mark has decided to study German.
They really tried not to laugh.
Verb with gerund
Lisa can’t stand being late.
We fancy having pizza this evening.
Paolo doesn’t mind not getting the bus.
Verb with infinitive or gerund
I’ve started to learn/learning French.
We like to go/going into town on Saturdays.

Note
Use
• We use the infinitive after some verbs, e.g. agree,
decide, encourage, expect, forget, help, hope, manage,
offer, promise, refuse, seem, try, want, would like.
We managed to get to school on time.
• We use the gerund (-ing form) after some verbs, e.g.
admit, avoid, can’t stand, carry on, deny, enjoy, fancy,
finish, give up, keep, miss, not mind, practise, stop,
suggest.
Stephen denied using his computer after his bedtime.
• We can use the gerund or infinitive after some verbs
with little or no change in meaning, e.g. hate, like,
love, prefer, start.
We started to get ready.
We started getting ready.
• Some verbs can be followed by an object before the
infinitive.
My mum encouraged me to play tennis.
Form
• In negative sentences, we add not before the gerund
or the infinitive.
I promised not to be late again.
She doesn’t mind not having a phone.
Common mistakes
I tried to not make any mistakes. ✗
I tried not to make any mistakes. ✓
 7a
Grammar summary
Reported statements and questions
Direct statement Reported statement
‘I play computer games He said (that) he played
every day.’ computer games every
day.
‘I’m texting my friend.’ Mick said (that) he was
texting his friend.
‘We went to the cinema They said (that) they had
last night.’ been to the cinema the
previous night.
Reported questions

Wh- questions
Direct question Reported question
‘Where are you going?’ He asked me where I
was going.
‘When will you be She asked him when he
ready?’ would be ready.
Yes/No questions
Direct question Reported question
‘Can Steve swim?’ She asked us if/whether
Steve could swim.
‘Will you tell her?’ He asked me if/whether
I would tell her.

Note
Form
• When we change a direct statement/question to a
reported one, we make some changes to the structure.
– We move the tense ‘back’.
‘I don’t know the answer.’
‘He said he didn’t know the answer.’
– We change pronouns and possessive adjectives
where necessary.
‘I can’t find my camera.’
Dave said that he couldn’t find his camera.
– We change time and place references.
‘I saw Tom yesterday.’
She said that she had seen Tom the previous day.
• If we are reporting something immediate, we don’t
need to change the tense or other words.
It’s Tim on the phone. He says he’ll meet us at 6 p.m.
• In reported Wh- questions, we use:
asked + (object) + question word + subject + verb.
Where do you live?
He asked me where I lived.
• In reported Yes/No questions, we use:
asked + (object) + if/whether + subject + verb.
Have you got an invitation?
They asked me if I had got an invitation.
 7b
Grammar summary
Reported speech with verbs of
reporting
Followed by infinitive
She told us not to talk during the exam.
They asked us to leave.
He refused to eat his dinner.
Followed by gerund (-ing form)
Sara admitted losing my book.
I suggested going to the cinema.
Chris apologised for waking us up.
Followed by that and a clause
Harry explained that he had missed the bus.
Seth denied that he had broken the phone.
Nick suggested that we went home.

Note
Form
• There are different reporting verb forms.
– With verbs such as ask, tell, invite, persuade,
encourage, refuse, agree, promise and order we
use the structure:
reporting verb + (not ) + to + infinitive.
He invited us to go to his party.
They agreed not to tell anyone.
– With verbs such as admit, deny, suggest and
apologise we use the structure:
reporting verb + (not ) + gerund (-ing form).
Some verbs are followed by a preposition,
e.g. apologise for.
He suggested leaving early.
They apologised for making a lot of noise.
– With verbs such as deny, complain, explain,
suggest and admit we use the structure:
reporting verb + that + clause.
He explained that he had been busy.
– Some reporting verbs have more than one possible
structure with no change in meaning.
She denied being responsible.
She denied that she was responsible.
 7c
Grammar summary
Clauses and linkers of contrast
Although we were tired, we finished our work.
In spite of being tired, we finished our work.
Despite being tired, we finished our work.
We were tired. However, we finished our work.
We wanted to stop work. On the other hand, we
wanted to finish before we went to bed.

Note
Use
• We use these words and phrases to contrast two
ideas.
Although I enjoyed the film, I don’t want to see the
second part.
Form
• Although can come at the beginning of a sentence or
between the two ideas.
Although I was late, I didn’t get into trouble.
I didn’t get into trouble although I was late.
• Despite and in spite of are followed by the gerund (-ing
form) of the verb.
Despite having lots of arguments, they didn’t split up.
• We usually start a second sentence which contrasts
with the first with however or on the other hand.
We went out a few times. However, we were never
really in love.
She might say yes. On the other hand, she might not.
Common mistakes
Despite I am an only child, I’m never lonely. ✗
Despite being an only child, I’m never lonely. ✓
Although I am an only child, I’m never lonely. ✓
 8a
Grammar summary
should have/ought to have
Affirmative
He should have tried harder.
You ought to have known what would happen.
Negative
I shouldn’t have been so rude.
They oughtn’t to have shouted.

Note
Use
• We use should have or ought to have to
– talk about regrets about our own past actions.
I shouldn’t have worn that dress to the party.
– criticise or give advice about other people’s past
actions.
You should have finished that an hour ago.
 You ought to have seen the film when it was on at
the cinema.
Form
• We use should/ought to + have + past participle.
We should have left earlier.
• Oughtn’t is often replaced by ought not in negative
sentences.
You ought not to have bought that watch. ✓
You oughtn’t to have bought that watch. ✓
Common mistakes
You shouldn’t have went to bed so late. ✗
You shouldn’t have gone to bed so late. ✓
He ought have worked harder. ✗
He ought to have worked harder. ✓
 8b
Grammar summary
must/can’t/might/could for deductions
in the present
Certainty
I must be dreaming.
It must be his day off work.
She can’t go to this school. It’s a boys’ school!
Possibility
The burglar might be upstairs.
You might not win the competition.
We could be the youngest people here.

Note
Use
• We use must when we are very sure something is true,
although we don’t know for a fact.
He must be the new student. (I am sure, but I don’t
know for a fact.)
• We use can’t when we are sure that something is not
possible, although we don’t know for a fact.
The Loch Ness Monster can’t really exist. (I’m sure of
this, but I don’t know for a fact.)
• We use might or could when something is possible,
but we are not very sure.
They might/could be stuck in traffic. (It is a possibility,
but I’m not sure this is the reason they are late.)
Form
• We use must/can’t/might/could + infinitive without to.
He can’t be seventeen!
Common mistakes
They can be teachers. ✗
They might/could be teachers. ✓
He can’t has his own computer. ✗
He can’t have his own computer. ✓
 8c
Grammar summary
must have/can’t have/might have/could
have for deductions in the past
Certainty
They must have gone the wrong way.
You can’t have locked the door.
Possibility
I could have phoned the wrong number.
She might not have heard the phone.

Note
Use
• We use must have when we are very sure something
about the past is true, although we don’t know for a
fact.
He must have enjoyed the film. (I am sure, but I don’t
know for a fact.)
• We use can’t have when we are sure that something
didn’t happen in the past, although we don’t know for
a fact.
Max can’t have robbed the bank. (I’m sure of this, but
I don’t know for a fact.)
• We use might/could have when something about
the past is possible, but we are not very sure that it
happened.
They might/could have forgotten their phone. (It is
a possibility, but I’m not sure this is the reason they
haven’t phoned us.)
Form
• We use must have, can’t have, might/could have +
past participle.
She can’t have written this letter.
He might/could have gone home.
You must have upset him.
Common mistakes
They must have went home. ✗
They must have gone home. ✓
The burglar can have climbed through the window. ✗
The burglar might/could have climbed through the
window. ✓
 9a
Grammar summary
The passive: present simple, past
simple, present perfect, past perfect
Affirmative & Negative
I am (not) driven to school (by my parents).
We are (not) given lots of homework (by our
teacher).
He was (not) introduced to all the guests.
They were (not) shown a film.
You have (not) been told to clean up the mess.
She has (not) been sentenced to prison.
He had (not) been recognised.
Questions
Is this programme shown on satellite TV?
Was he followed by journalists?
Have we been given the wrong information?
Had you been informed?

Note
Use
• We use the passive to say what is, was or has been
done to a person.
• We use the passive when
– we don’t know the subject.
Our house was burgled.
– the action or the object is more important than the
subject.
 We had left the school when we were told to be
quiet.
– we want to avoid mentioning who did something.
 Mistakes have been made, but now everything is
all right.
Form
• We form the present and past passive with the correct
form of to be + the past participle of the verb.
We are given homework every day.
The criminal was sentenced to ten years in prison.
• If it is important to say who or what the agent
(= subject) is/was, we use by.
We are given homework every day by our teacher.
The burglar was sentenced by the judge.
• We form the present and past perfect passive by using
have/has been or had been + past participle.
We’ve been given the wrong map!
It was the first time I had been asked for my autograph.
 9b
Grammar summary
The passive: present
continuous, past continuous
and future simple
Affirmative
I am being followed.
They are being arrested.
He was being taken to the hospital.
We were being interviewed by a
journalist.
You will be given a part in the new
film.
Negative
We are not being interviewed today.
She isn’t being chased by a robber.
He wasn’t being shown around the
factory.
They weren’t being interviewed.
I won’t be seen in the new film.
Questions
Are they being questioned by police?
Is it being filmed in London?
Was she being told what to do?
Were you being asked lots of
questions?
Will we be shown the photographs?

Note
Use
• See Unit 9a page 69.
Form
• We form the present and past
continuous passive by using am/is/are
or was/were + being + past participle.
My baby brother is being fed at the
moment.
The police were being attacked by
angry workers.
• We form the future simple passive by
using will + be + past participle.
The students will be given their exam
results tomorrow.
Common mistakes
They were being telling what to do. ✗
They were being told what to do. ✓
 9c
Grammar summary
The passive: modals, gerund (-ing form)
and infinitive
Modals
I should be given the prize.
He must be stopped!
We ought to be told.
Gerund (-ing) form
She hates being laughed at.
They don’t mind being asked lots of questions.
Being photographed by the paparazzi is a
problem for some celebrities.
Infinitive
We want to be given more time.
Don’t wait to be asked.

Note
Use
• See Unit 9a page 69.
Form
• We form modal passives by using a modal verb + be +
past participle.
This project must be done tonight.
• We form the passive of verbs which are followed by
the -ing form in active sentences by using verb +
being + past participle.
I love being invited to parties.
• We form the passive of verbs which are followed by
the infinitive in active sentences by using verb + to be
+ past participle.
You have to be told twice before you do anything.
Common mistakes
I want to given a prize. ✗
I want to be given a prize. ✓
I don’t mind be asked for my autograph. ✗
I don’t mind being asked for my autograph. ✓
 10a
Grammar summary
Third conditional with would have
Affirmative
If you had arrived earlier, I would have made you
dinner.
We would have waited if you had phoned us.
She would have been happy if she had passed
her exams.
Negative
I would have been on time, if I hadn’t got lost.
If we had been quieter, they wouldn’t have heard
us.
If we hadn’t forgotten the map, we wouldn’t have
gone the wrong way.
Questions and short answers
Would she have asked Yes, she would (have).
you for help if she No, she wouldn’t
hadn’t known the (have).
answer?

Note
Use
• We use the third conditional to imagine what would
have happened if we had done something differently in
the past.
If I hadn’t been late, I would have seen the film.
Form
• We form the third conditional using two clauses:
If + past perfect and would + have + past participle.
We separate the two clauses with a comma.
If you had told the truth, you wouldn’t have got into
trouble.
We can write the two clauses in reverse order without
a comma.
You wouldn’t have got into trouble if you had told the
truth.
Common mistakes
If I didn’t go to school, I would have been in trouble. ✗
If I hadn’t gone to school, I would have been in trouble. ✓
If you hadn’t asked me to the party, I wouldn’t have went. ✗
If you hadn’t asked me to the party, I wouldn’t have gone. ✓
 10b
Grammar summary
wish/if only + past perfect
Affirmative
I wish/If only I had done more work.
I wish/If only they had phoned us.
Negative
I wish/If only we hadn’t forgotten the food.
I wish/If only I hadn’t missed the last train.

Note
Use
• We use wish/if only + past perfect to show that we
regret something that happened or didn’t happen in
the past and would have liked it to have been different.
I wish I hadn’t given up learning French.
If only we had asked for directions.
• We can use wish/if only + past perfect with the third
conditional to explain why we wish things had been
different.
I wish I had worked harder. If I had worked harder, I
would have done better in my exams.
If only I hadn’t spent all my money. If I hadn’t spent
all my money, I would go out tonight.
Common mistakes
If only I didn’t go to bed late last night. ✗
If only I hadn’t gone to bed late last night. ✓
I wish we had a video camera when the children were
young. ✗
I wish we had had a video camera when the children were
young. ✓
 10c
Grammar summary

Third conditional with might have

Affirmative
If I had learned French, I might have moved to
France.
If she had asked someone for help, she might
have arrived earlier.
Negative
They might have worked out the answer together
if they hadn’t had an argument.
We might not have missed the plane if you hadn’t
stopped to buy a drink.

Note
Use
• See Unit 10a page 77 for uses of the third conditional.
• We can use might instead of would to give a possible
past result of a past situation or event because it isn’t
always possible to say what would definitely have
happened.
If I had worn my black suit, I might have got the job.
If you hadn’t eaten chips just before your tennis
match, you might have won.
Form
• We form the third conditional with might using two
clauses:
If + past perfect and might + have + past participle.
We separate the two clauses with a comma.
If the test had been easier, I might have passed.
• We can write the two clauses in reverse order without
a comma.
I might have passed the test if it had been easier.
Common mistakes
If I didn’t finish my homework, the teacher might have
written to my parents. ✗
If I hadn’t finished my homework, the teacher might have
written to my parents. ✓
If I had had more time, I might have went out. ✗
If I had had more time, I might have gone out. ✓