NEW GENERATION UNIVERSITY COLLEGE

SCHOOL OF POSTGRADUATE STUDIES IN GIST

COURSE TITLE: SOCIAL RESEARCH METHOD

COURSE CODE: GSIR 613

INDIVIDUAL ASSIGNMENT

PORTFOLIO ASSESSMENT

PREPARED BY: ABDISSA TEFERA

ID NUMBER: NGU/2397/21

SUBMIT TO: BERHANU FIRISSA (Ph.D.)

SUBMISSION DATE 02/12 /2022

ADDIS ABABA

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Contents
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS....................................................................................................................VI
Abstract.................................................................................................................................................VII
1. Historical Overview....................................................................................................................2
1.1. The early years......................................................................................................................3
1.2. Forerunners of modern social research.....................................................................3
1.3. The nineteenth-century: The rise of positivism.......................................................4
1.4. The twentieth century: Research pluralism..............................................................5
1.4.1. The hegemony of positivism....................................................................................5
2. The State of Contemporary Research..................................................................................5
2.2. Classification of research by purpose........................................................................12
2.3. Guidelines for classification..........................................................................................13
2.4. The Ethics of research......................................................................................................13
Summery...............................................................................................................................................15
Chapter Two.........................................................................................................................................15
1. Research Paradigms.................................................................................................................15
1.1. Conflict of paradigms.......................................................................................................16
1.2. Macro theory and Micro theory....................................................................................16
1.3. Ethno paradigms methodology.....................................................................................17
1.3.1. Symbolic interactionism.........................................................................................17
1.3.2. Feminist Paradigms..................................................................................................18
Summery...............................................................................................................................................19
Chapter Three.....................................................................................................................................19
1. Choosing between qualitative and quantitative approaches.....................................19
2. Qualitative and Quantitative Research Methods...........................................................20
2.1. Quantitative Research Confirms..................................................................................21
2.2. Qualitative Research Explores......................................................................................22
Summery...............................................................................................................................................23
Chapter Four.......................................................................................................................................23
1. Research methods qualitative, quantitative, and Triangulation.....................................................23
2. Quantitative Methodology......................................................................................................25

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 2.1. Purpose of Social research methodology..............................................................25
2.2. Critique of Quantitative methodology....................................................................25
3. Qualitative Methodology.........................................................................................................25
3.1. Theory of qualitative methodology.........................................................................26
3.2. Central elements of qualitative research..............................................................26
3.2.1. Qualitative paradigm................................................................................................26
3.2.2. Features of Qualitative research..........................................................................27
3.2.3. Critique of qualitative research............................................................................27
4. Mixed Methods Research/ Triangulation/.......................................................................28
4.1. Types of Mixed Method Research Designs...............................................................28
4.1.1. The Qual–Quan Model.............................................................................................29
4.1.2. The Quan–Qual Model.............................................................................................29
4.1.3. The Quan–Qual Model.............................................................................................29
Summery...............................................................................................................................................30
Chapter Five.........................................................................................................................................31
1.1. Research design..................................................................................................................31
1.2. Purpose of research design............................................................................................32
Summery...............................................................................................................................................34
Chapter Six...........................................................................................................................................35
1. Measurement and scaling.......................................................................................................35
2. Measurement Scales and Variables:-.................................................................................36
3. Characteristics of measuring instrument........................................................................38
4. Types of measuring instruments.........................................................................................39
4.1. Cognitive Tests....................................................................................................................39
4.2. Aptitude Tests......................................................................................................................40
4.3. Affective Tests.....................................................................................................................40
4.4. Likert Scales........................................................................................................................40
4.5. Semantic Differential Scales.........................................................................................41
4.6. Rating Scales.......................................................................................................................41
4.7. Thurstone and Guttman Scales....................................................................................41
5. Criteria for good measuring instruments........................................................................42
Summery...............................................................................................................................................45
Chapter Seven.....................................................................................................................................45

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 1.1. Sampling procedure..........................................................................................................45
1.2. principles of sampling......................................................................................................46
1.3. Types of sampling..............................................................................................................46
2.1. Types of interview..............................................................................................................52
2.2. Interviews: key terms.......................................................................................................53
2.3. The Strengths and Limitations of Unstructured Interviews.............................54
2.3.1. The strengths of unstructured interviews............................................................54
2.3.2. The Limitations of unstructured interviews...........................................................55
Summery...............................................................................................................................................57
Reference..............................................................................................................................................58

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This portfolio essay, a collaborative piece has been assigned to work personally of first-year
GSIR students at New Generation University College (NGUC). I reviewed the full version of the
book which is the assignment given before it was spiral-bound for submission. The purpose of
this portfolio assignment is set to fulfill as part of the continuous assessment test for the course
of the Social research method. I compile an essay as per the order given by my instructor to do
“portfolio of the book which has written about Social Research Methods. I would like to
appreciate what I have comprehended during the process of compiling this assignment. More
importantly, I am truly thankful for the flexible inclusive classroom lessons we receive from Mr.
Birhanu F. (Ph.D.), my Social Research Methods instructor.

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Abstract
This essay aims to introduce in a clear, concise, and practical manner, that the methods
and techniques of social research as per my understanding.

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 Chapter one

Philosophical and theoretical underpinnings of research in

social sciences
The methods and techniques have been developed, modified, and practiced throughout
the history of social science and constitute the methodological heritage of modern
research. This element of history permeates not only the single methods and techniques
but also the whole body of methodology of social science we will be discussing in this
portfolio. I will explore the type, aim, and motives of research with parameters.

1. Historical Overview

Social Research purposive and rigorous investigation that aims to generate new
knowledge. It is the intellectual tool of social scientists which allows them to enter the
context of personal and/or public interests that are unknown to them and to search for
an answer to their questions. Social research is about discovery expanding the horizons
of the known of confidence, new idea, and new conclusions about all aspects of life.

As requests for knowledge, Social research has been the ultimate goal of social scientists,
who only together useful and valid knowledge, but also educate the community about
the status and validity of certain “sources” of knowledge. Academics end over to explore
society and the world, to shake the basis of superstitions, to answer questions all aspects
of life, from personal fate to physical disaster, and to inform the government how to
address relevant policies and practices.

The nature of this endeavor has by no means been unchanged. Early in the history of
social research, the dominant sources of knowledge varied significantly they include
common sense, intuition beliefs (Dimas, 2003; Schnadelbach, 2002; Wandmacher,
2002:5)but the majority of learned researchers the dominant sources of knowledge
were logic, reason, faith, speculation and See the listed below:

Source of truth and knowledge

 Common sense: everyone knows that it is so!
 Intuition: I just Know it (e.g. women’s intuition)
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  Beliefs: it is based on personal conviction
 Tenacity: Verification over the years, the time has given it validity
 Tradition: practice through the generation(it has always been so)
 Personal experience: personal testing and exercise(it works for me)
 Authority: the word of experts (it is true, professor X said so’)
 Divine and supernatural powers: e.g. the revelation of God and other
powers
 Reason and logic: the intellect can capture truth and knowledge
 Scientific methods: knowledge is derived through empirical procedures

The kind of research presently employed by most researchers, empirical research was
also practiced, but only by a majority of researchers, it was the exception and reflected a
revolutionary alternative to the practice of philosophers and theorists who were seen as
the legitimate gatekeepers of wisdom and knowledge and truth.

In empirical research, knowledge was acquired not through logic reason, faith, or
speculation but empirical evidence, namely through evidence-based gathered by the
researcher. As we shall see, empirical research was practiced by Greek philosophers
more than two and half thousand years ago, and grew slowly but steadily, particularly
after the mid-1800s.

1.1. The early years

Several Greek philosophers showed a strong interest in extracting knowledge
by empirical evidence. Thales (640-550BC), for instance, applied observation
of natural events and offered what could be termed an ‘empirical-scientific’
approach to the world. Hippocrates (c.450BC) was more involved in empirical
research than his contemporaries his experiment in health and illness
widened the basis of general knowledge and weaned public opinion away from
superstations such as belief in the powers of demons and bad spirits focusing
instead on the principles of empirical inquiry.
1.2. Forerunners of modern social research
The pioneering work of Greek philosophers influenced researchers
throughout Europe and was developed more profoundly, particularly during

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 the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, at the genesis of the scientific
revolution.
This dynamic approach to knowledge continued throughout this period, with
traditional philosophical methods being dominant. Closer to our time, during
the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, research was still dominated by
reason, tradition, religion, and rationalism, but the presence of empirical
models in social research became more evident. Examples are Francis Bacon
(1561-1626) and Isaac Newton (1643-1727) (introduce mathematics to
experiments as a research tool, and his perception of the process of research
led to the formulation of what we know today as the hypothetico-deductive
model. This model presents social research as an interaction between
empirical observation and reasoning or better between induction and
deduction, a notion not very different from what everyone takes for granted in
contemporary social science.) Who used experimentation to unlock the
mysteries of nature and to gather ‘truths’ about social life?
The emergence of political Arithmetic in England strengthened the image of
alternative research methods, to the extent that some writers take it to be the
forerunner of modern empirical research. Well known researchers
representatives of this movement are john Graunt (1620-1674), William Petty
(1623-1687), John Howard (1726-1790), and Edmund Halley (1656-1742)
Demographic studies analyses of business trends, poverty studies, and studies
in prisons employing interviews, and participant observation are a few
examples of the work they completed.
1.3. The nineteenth-century: The rise of positivism
The change in social and economic conditions of the late eighteenth and early
nineteenth centuries has a strong impact on the nature of research employed
at that time. An example is an increase in social problems in agriculture and
agrarian population caused by progressive industrialization and urbanization
which called for ‘realistic’, ‘specific’, and quantifiable data that could provide
direct information to the authorities and facilitate the introduction of relevant
policies. Four leading researchers of that time who deserve special attention
are Le play, Quetelet, Saint-Simon, and Comte.
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 Claude-Henri Saint Simon (1760-1825) is known as the Originator of
positivism although his name has not been used as much as that of Comte, the
father of positivism. Saint Simon used research to find evidence that could
strengthen his commitment to fairness and social quality. For him, the role of
social scientists was that of secular priests, and science was a new religion that
could help establish an egalitarian society.
Comte (1798-1857) introduces a positive method of social research. His theory
was positivism, the method he introduced was the scientific method of
experimentation and observation in Comte’s view knowledge was gained only
through sensory experience, hence only positive phenomena registered
through the sense. Were worth studying. By positive Comte meant
phenomena posited or given indirect experience and resulting from scientific
observation and the scientific method.
1.4. The twentieth century: Research pluralism
1.4.1. The hegemony of positivism
During the 19th century and 20th century’s research become not only more
popular but also more systematic and more scientific. Market research and
analyses found in empirical research the right tool to provide them with
insights into their domain, and Gallup and Crossley polls become as popular
as they are today.
The advent and the expansion of positivism had two major effects on the
theory and practice of research. The first was that social research separated
itself once and for all from philosophy and was established as a legitimate and
independent discipline. The second was that research become empirical and
quantitative and dominated by the social sciences almost entirely.
2. The State of Contemporary Research
The most relevant historical overview of diversity is the direct or indirect ideological
engagement of the researchers in the research and its purpose and some form of control
over the process of research. The diversity of research its political nature and research
controls (such as ethics) are discussed below:

2.1. CLASSIFICATION OF RESEARCH BY METHOD

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A research method comprises the overall strategy followed in collecting and analyzing
data. Although there is some overlap, most research studies follow a readily identifiable
strategy. The largest distinction we can make in classifying research by method is the
distinction between quantitative and qualitative research. Quantitative and qualitative
research, in turn, include several distinct types or methods, each designed to answer a
different kind of research question.
2.1.1. Quantitative Approaches
Quantitative research approaches are applied to describe current conditions, investigate
relations and study cause-effect phenomena. Survey research is often designed to
describe current conditions. Studies that investigate the relations between two or more
variables are correlational research. Experimental studies and causal-comparative
studies provide information about cause-effect outcomes. Studies that focus on the
behavior changes an individual exhibits as a result of some intervention fall under the
heading of single-subject research.

 Survey Research:-Survey research determines and reports the way things

are; it involves collecting numerical data to test hypotheses or answer
questions about the current status of the subject of study. One common type
of survey research involves assessing the preferences, attitudes, practices,
concerns, or interests of a group of people. A pre-election political poll and a
survey about community members’ perception of the quality of the local
schools are examples. Survey research data are mainly collected through
questionnaires, interviews, and observations. Although survey research
sounds very simple, there is considerably more to it than just asking questions
and reporting answers. Because researchers often ask questions that have not
been asked before, they usually have to develop their measuring instrument
for each survey study. Constructing questions for the intended respondents
requires clarity, consistency, and tact. Other major challenges facing survey
researchers are participants’ failure to return questionnaires, their willingness
to be surveyed over the phone, and their ability to attend scheduled
interviews. If the response rate is low, then valid, trustworthy conclusions
cannot be drawn. For example, suppose you are doing a study to determine
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 the attitudes of principals toward research in their schools. You send a
questionnaire to 100 principals and include the question “Do you usually
cooperate if your school is asked to participate in a research study?” Forty
principals respond, and they all answer “Yes.” It’s certainly a mistake to
conclude that principals in general cooperate. Although all those who
responded said yes, those 60 principals who did not respond may never
cooperate with researchers. After all, they didn’t cooperate with you! Without
more responses, it is not possible to make generalizations about how
principals feel about research in their schools.
 Correlational Research:- Correlational research involves collecting data
to determine whether, and to what degree, a relation exists between two or
more quantifiable variables. A variable is a placeholder that can assume any
one of a range of values; for example, intelligence, height, and test score are
variables. At a minimum, correlation research requires information about at
least two variables obtained from a single group of participants. The
purpose of a correlational study may be to establish relations or use existing
relations to make predictions. For example, a college admissions director
may be interested in answering the question “How do the SAT scores of high
school seniors correspond to the students’ first-semester college grades?” If
students’ SAT scores are strongly related to their first-semester grades, SAT
scores may be useful in predicting how students will perform in their first
year of college. On the other hand, if there is little or no correlation between
the two variables, SAT scores likely will not be useful as predictors.
Correlation refers to a quantitative measure of the degree of
correspondence. The degree to which two variables are related is expressed
as a correlation coefficient, which is a number between 1.00 and 1.00. Two
variables that are not related have a correlation coefficient near 0.00. Two
highly correlated variables will have a correlation coefficient near 1.00 or
1.00. A number near 1.00 indicates a positive correlation: As one variable
increases, the other variable also increases (e.g., students with high SAT
scores may also have high GPAs). A number near 1.00 indicates a negative

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 correlation: As one variable increases, the other variable decreases (e.g.,
high GPA may correlate negatively with a likelihood of dropping out).
Because very few pairs of variables are perfectly correlated, predictions
based on them are rarely 1.0 or 1.0.
It is very important to note that the results of correlational studies do not
suggest cause-effect relations among variables. Thus, a positive correlation
between, for example, self-concept and achievement does not imply that
self-concept causes achievement or that achievement causes self-concept.
The correlation indicates only that students with higher self-concepts tend
to have higher levels of achievement and that students with lower self-
concepts tend to have lower levels of achievement. We cannot conclude that
one variable is the cause of the other

 Causal-Comparative research:- research attempts to determine the

cause, or reason, for existing differences in the behavior or status of groups of
individuals. The cause is a behavior or characteristic believed to influence
some other behavior or characteristic and is known as the grouping variable.
The change or difference in behavior or characteristic that occurs as a result
—that is, the effect—is known as the dependent variable. Put simply, causal-
comparative research attempts to establish cause-effect relations among
groups. Following are examples of research questions tested with causal-
comparative studies (note that the word is causal, not casual).

■How does preschool attendance affect social maturity at the end of the
first grade? The grouping variable is preschool attendance (i.e., the
variable can take one of two values— students attending preschool and
students not attending); the dependent variable, or effect, is social
maturity at the end of the first grade. The researcher identifies a group of
first-graders who attended preschool and a group who did not, gathers
data about their social maturity, and then compares the two groups.

A weakness of causal-comparative studies is that, because the cause

understudy has already occurred, the researcher has no control over it. For

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 example, suppose a researcher wanted to investigate the effect of heavy
smoking on lung cancer and designs a study comparing the frequency of
lung cancer diagnoses in two groups, long-time smokers and nonsmokers.
Because the groups are preexisting, the researcher did not control the
conditions under which the participants smoked or did not smoke (this
lack of researcher control is why the variable is known as a grouping
variable, rather than an independent variable). Perhaps a large number of
the long-time smokers lived in a smoggy, urban environment, whereas
only a few of the nonsmokers were exposed to those conditions. In that
case, attempts to draw cause-effect conclusions in the study would be
tenuous and tentative at best. Is it smoking that causes higher rates of lung
cancer? Is it living in a smoggy, urban environment? Or is it some
unknown combination of smoking and the environment? A clear cause-
effect link cannot be obtained. Although causal-comparative research
produces limited cause-effect information, it is an important form of
educational research. True cause-effect relations can be determined only
through experimental research (discussed in the next section), in which
the researcher maintains control of an independent variable; but in many
cases, an experimental study is inappropriate or unethical. The causal-
comparative approach is chosen precisely because the grouping variable
either cannot be manipulated (e.g., as with gender, height, or year in
school) or should not be manipulated (e.g., as with smoking or prenatal
care).

 Experimental Research:- In experimental research, at least one

independent variable is manipulated, other relevant variables are controlled,
and the effect on one or more dependent variables is observed. True
experimental research provides the strongest result of the quantitative
research approaches because it provides clear evidence for linking variables.
As a result, it also offers generalizability or applicability of findings to
settings and contexts different from the ones in which they were obtained.
Unlike causal-comparative researchers, researchers conducting an

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 experimental study can control an independent variable. They can select the
participants for the study, divide the participants into two or more groups
that have similar characteristics at the start of the research experiment, and
then apply different treatments to the selected groups. They can also control
the conditions in the research setting, such as when the treatments will be
applied, by whom, for how long, and under what circumstances. Finally, the
researchers can select tests or measurements to collect data about any
changes in the research groups. The selection of participants from a single
pool of participants and the ability to apply different treatments or programs
to participants with similar initial characteristics permit experimental
researchers to conclude cause and effect. The essence of experimentation is
controlling, although in many education settings it is not possible or feasible
to meet the stringent control conditions required by experimental research.
 Single-Subject Research rather than compare the effects of different
treatments (or treatment versus no treatment) on two or more groups of
people, experimental researchers sometimes compare a single person’s
behavior before treatment to the behavior exhibited in the experiment. They
may also study several people together as one group, rather than as
individuals. Single-subject experimental designs are those used to study the
behavior change that an individual or group exhibits as a result of some
intervention or treatment. In these designs, the size of the sample—the
individuals selected from a population for a study—is said to be one.
2.1.2. Qualitative Approaches
Qualitative research seeks to probe deeply into the research setting to obtain
in-depth understandings about the way things are, why they are that way,
and how the participants in the context perceive them. To achieve the
detailed understandings they seek, qualitative researchers must undertake
sustained in-depth, in-context research that allows them to uncover subtle,
less overt, personal understandings.
 Narrative Research:- Narrative research is the study of how different
humans experience the world around them; it involves a methodology that

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 allows people to tell the stories of their “storied lives.” The researcher
typically focuses on a single person and gathers data by collecting stories
about the person’s life. The researcher and participant then construct a
written account, known as a narrative, about the individual’s experiences and
the meanings the individual attributes to the experiences. Because of the
collaborative nature of narrative research, the researcher and participant
need to establish a trust trusting respectful relationship. Another way to
think of narrative research is that the narrative is the story of the
phenomenon being investigated, and narrative is also the method of an
inquiry being used by the researcher. One of the goals of narrative research
in education is to increase understanding of central issues related to teaching
and learning through the telling and retelling of teachers’ stories.
 Ethnographic research, or ethnography, is the study of the cultural
patterns and perspectives of participants in their natural settings.
Ethnography focuses on a particular site or site that provides the researcher
with a context in which to study both the setting and the participants who
inhabit it. An ethnographic setting can be defined as anything from a bowling
alley to a neighborhood, from a nomadic group’s traveling range to an
elementary principal’s office. The participants are observed as they take part
in naturally occurring activities within the setting. The ethnographic
researcher avoids making interpretations and drawing conclusions too early
in the study. Instead, the researcher enters the setting slowly, learning how
to become accepted by the participants and gaining rapport with them. Then,
over time, the researcher collects data in waves, making initial observations
and interpretations about the context and participants, then collecting and
examining more data in a second wave of refining the initial interpretation,
then collecting another wave of data to further refine observations and
interpretation, and so on, until the researcher has obtained a deep
understanding of both the context and its participants’ roles in it. Lengthy
engagement in the setting is a key facet of ethnographic research. The
researcher organizes the data and undertakes a cultural interpretation. The

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 result of the ethnographic study is a holistic description and cultural
interpretation that represents the participants’ everyday activities, values,
and events. The study is written and presented as a narrative, which, like the
study from which it was produced, may also be referred to as an
ethnography.
 Case Study Research:- Case study research is a qualitative research
approach to conducting research or bounded systems (e.g., an individual
teacher, a classroom, or a school can be a case). Case study research is an all-
encompassing method covering design, data collection techniques, and
specific approaches to data analysis. 8 A case study is also the name for the
product of case study research, which is different from other field-oriented
research approaches such as narrative research and ethnographic research.

2.2. Classification of research by purpose

Research can also be classified by the degree of direct applicability of the research to
educational practice or settings. When the purpose is the classification criterion, all
research studies fall into one of two categories: basic research and applied research.
Applied research can be subdivided into evaluation research, research and development
(R&D), and action research.

Applied research as the name implies, is conducted for the purto apply or testo
determine its usefulness in solving practical problems. A teacher who asks, “Will the
theory of multiple intelligences helps improve my students’ learning?” is seeking an
answer to a practical classroom question.

Action research in education is any systematic inquiry conducted by teachers,

principals, school counselors, or other stakeholders in the teaching-learning
environment to gather information about how their particular, particular teaching, and
the students learn. Its purpose is to provide teacher-researchers with a method for
solving everyday problems in their settings. The use of the research is not characterized
by the same kind of control evident in other categories of research, however, study

XVIII
results cannot be applied to other settings. The primary goal of action research is the
solution of a given problem, not a contribution to science.

 Evaluation research is the systematic process of collecting and analyzing

data about the quality, effectiveness, merit, or value of programs, products,
or practices. Unlike other forms of research that seek new knowledge or
understanding, evaluation research focuses mainly on making decisions—
decisions
 Research and Development:- (R&D) Research and development (R&D)
is the process of researching consumer needs and then developing products
to fulfill those needs. The purpose of R&D efforts in education is not to
formulate or test theory but to develop effective products for use in schools.
Such products include teacher-training materials, learning materials, sets of
behavioral objectives, media materials, and management systems. R&D
efforts are generally quite extensive in terms of objectives, personnel, and
time to completion. Products are developed according to detailed
specifications. Once completed, products are field-tested and revised until a
pre-specified level of effectiveness is achieved. Although the R&D cycle is
expensive, it results in quality products designed to meet specific educational
needs. School personnel who are the consumers of R&D endeavors may for
the first time real really value educational research.
2.3. Guidelines for classification
Determining which approach to research is appropriate for a given study depends on the
way the research problem is defined. The same general problem can often be
investigated through several different types of research. Note that a research method
should be chosen after, not before, the topic or question to be studied. The problem
determines which approach is appropriate, and as you can see in the preceding
examples, clarifying the problem helps to narrow the choices. Classifying a study by its
method will also help you when you review and evaluate others’ research. If you identify
a study as correlational, for instance, you’ll be reminded to avoid making conclusions
about cause and effect. The information you have about a study, the easier it’ll be to
categorize it. If you have only the title, you may determine the research approach from

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words such as survey, comparison, relation, historical, descriptive, effect, and
qualitative. If you have a description of the research strategy, you’ll often be able to
classify the study based on features such as the number of participants, qualitative or
quantitative data, and statistical (e.g., correlational, descriptive, comparative) or non-
statistical (e.g., interpretive, participants’ viewpoint) analysis.
2.4. The Ethics of research
Ethical considerations play a role in all research studies, and all researchers must be
aware of and attend to the ethical considerations related to their studies. In research,
the ends do not justify the means, and researchers must not put the need or desire to
carry out a study above the responsibility to maintain the well-being of the study
participants. Research studies are built on trust between the researcher and the
participants, and researchers have a responsibility to behave in a trustworthy manner,
just as they expect participants to behave in the same manner (e.g., by providing
responses that can be trusted). The two overriding rules of ethics are that participants
should not be harmed in any way—physically, mentally, or socially—and that
researchers obtain the participants’ informed consent.
Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct provides guidelines and
contains specific ethical standards in 10 categories, which are not limited to research:

(1) Resolving Ethical Issues, (6) Record Keeping and Fees,

(2) Competence, (7) Education and Training,
(3) Human Relations, (8) Research and Publication,
(4) Privacy and Confidentiality, (9) Assessment, and
(5) Advertising and Other Public (10) Therapy.
Statements,

 Informed Consent and Protection from Harm

Perhaps the most basic and important ethical issues in research are concerned with the
protection of participants, broadly defined, which requires that research participants
not be harmed in any way (i.e., physically, mentally, or socially) and that they
participate only if they freely agree to do so (i.e., give informed consent). Researchers
obtain informed consent by making sure that research participants enter the research of

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their free will and with the understanding of the nature of the study and any possible
dangers that may arise as a result of participation. Furthermore, any information or data
that are collected, either from or about a person, should be strictly confidential,
especially if it is personal. In other research. An individual participant’s performance
should not be reported or made public using the participant’s name, even for a
seemingly innocuous measure such as an arithmetic test. The use of anonymity to
ensure confidentiality and avoid privacy invasion and potential harm is common. Study
participants have complete anonymity when their identities are kept hidden from the
researcher. It is often confused with confidentiality; researchers protect confidentiality
when they know the identities of study participants but do not disclose that information.

Summery
Social research is derived from social science studies, for ideas about how to formulate
research topics and issues and to interpret and draw implications from research
findings.

I understand how Social Research purposive and rigorous investigation that aims to
generate new knowledge. From the Early history of social research, the dominant
sources of knowledge varied significantly they include common sense, intuition beliefs
but for the majority of learned researchers, the dominant sources of knowledge were the
logic, reason, faith, speculation Social research theory gives us an orientation about the
thoughts and the difference of culture human being and philosophical changes from
time to time comes abstract. Concepts are an abstraction of reality.

Social research performs on the abstract level of concepts and the empirical level of
variables. When the purpose is the classification criterion, all research studies fall into
one of two categories: basic research and applied research. Applied research can be
subdivided into evaluation research, research and development (R&D), and action
research.

Social research helps acquire both qualitative and quantitative information, which is
used as a basis for making decisions. The most relevant historical overview of diversity
is the direct or indirect ideological engagement of the researchers in the research and its
purpose and some form of control over the process of research.

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Ethical considerations play a big role in all research studies, and all researchers must be
aware of and attend to the ethical considerations related to their studies

Chapter Two

1. Research Paradigms
It is the fundamental model or frame of reference we use to organize our observation
and reasoning. In social science, theoretical paradigms may gain or lose popularity but
they are seldom discarded altogether. The paradigm of social sciences offers a variety of
views, each of them which offers insight the others lacks and ignores aspects of social
life that the others reveal. However, many cultures in today’s world regard the Western
(and particularly the U.S.) commitment to the sanctity of the individual as bizarre.
Historically, it has decidedly been a minority viewpoint. The sanctity of the individual is
not an objective fact of nature; it is a point of view, a paradigm.

Ultimately paradigms are neither true nor false as ways of looking they are only more or
less useful. Each of the paradigms we are about to examine offers a different way of
looking at human social life. Each makes its assumptions about the nature of social
reality.

Ethical considerations play a role in all research paradigms, and all researchers must be
aware of and attend to the ethical considerations related to their studies. In research,
the ends do not justify the means, and researchers must not put the need or desire to
carry out a study above the responsibility to maintain the well-being of the study
participants

1.1. Conflict of paradigms

It is a paradigm that views human behavior as an attempt to dominate others or avoid

being dominated by others. The conflict paradigm proved to be fruitful outside the
realm of purely economic analysis. Example Conflict on a small scale in contrast to the
class struggle.

1.2. Macro theory and Micro theory

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Let’s begin with a difference concerning focus, a difference that stretches across many of
the paradigms we’ll discuss. Some social theorists focus their attention on society at
large, or at least on large portions of it. Topics of study for such macro theories include
the struggle between economic classes in a society, international relations, or the
interrelations among major institutions in society, such as government, religion, and
family.

The macro theory deals with large, aggregate entities of society or even whole
societies. (Note that some researchers prefer to limit the macro level to whole societies,
using the term mesotherapy for an intermediate level between macro and micro:
studying organizations, communities, and perhaps social categories such as gender.)
Some scholars have taken a more intimate view of social life.

The micro theory deals with issues of social life at the level of individuals and small
groups. Dating behavior, jury deliberations, and student-faculty interactions are apt
subjects for a micro theoretical perspective. Such studies often come close to the realm
of psychology, but whereas psychologists typically focus on what goes on inside humans,
social scientists study what goes on between them.

The basic distinction between macro-and micro theory cuts across the other paradigms
we’ll examine. Some of them, such as symbolic interactionism and ethnomethodology,
are often limited to the micro-level. Others, such as the conflict paradigm, can be
pursued at either the micro- or the macro level.

Conflict among members of o tightly knit group tends to be more intense than those
among people who did not share feelings of belongings and intimacy.

1.3. Ethno paradigms methodology

The social scientific paradigm emphasizes the impact of social structure on human
behavior that is the effect of norms, values, control agents, etc other paradigms do not.
Harold Garfinkel, a contemporary sociologist, claims that people are continually
creating social structure through their actions and interactions—that they are creating
their realities. Thus, when you and your instructor meet to discuss your term paper,
even though there are myriad expectations about how you both should act, your

XXIII
conversation will differ somewhat from any of those that have occurred before, and how
you each act will somewhat modify your expectations in the future. That is, discussing
your term paper will impact the interactions each of you has with other professors and
students in the future. Given the tentativeness of reality in this view, Garfinkel suggests
that people are continuously trying to make sense of the life they experience. In a sense,
he suggests that everyone is acting like a social scientist, hence the term
ethnomethodology, or “methodology of the people.”

1.3.1. Symbolic interactionism

A paradigm that views human behavior as the creation of meaning through social
interaction with those meaning conditions subsequent interaction. This paradigm can
lend insights into the nature of interactions in ordinary social life, but it can also help us
understand unusual forms of interaction, as in the following case. Robert Emerson,
Kerry Ferris, and Carol Gardner (1998) set out to understand the nature of “stalking.”
Through interviews with numerous stalking victims, they came to identify different
motivations among stalkers, stages in the development of a stalking scenario, how
people can recognize if they are being stalked, and what they can do about it. Here’s one
way you might apply the symbolic interactionism paradigm to an examination of your
own life. The next time you meet someone new, pay attention to how you get to know
each other. To begin, what assumptions do you make about the other person based
merely on appearances, how he or she talks, and the circumstances under which you’ve
met. (“What’s someone like you doing in a place like this?”) Then watch how your
knowledge of each other unfolds through the process of interaction. Notice also any
attempts you make to manage the image you are creating in the other person’s mind.

1.3.2. Feminist Paradigms

When Ralph Linton concluded his anthropological classic, The Study of Man (1937:
490), speaking of “a store of knowledge that promises to give a man a better life than
any he has known,” no one complained that he had left out women. Linton was using the
linguistic conventions of his time; he implicitly included women in all his references to
men. Or did he? When feminists first began questioning the use of masculine pronouns
and nouns whenever gender was ambiguous, their concerns were often viewed as petty,

XXIV
even silly. At most, many felt the issue was one of the women having their feelings hurt,
their egos bruised. But be honest: When you read Linton’s words, what did you picture?
An amorphous, genderless human being, a hermaphrodite at once male and female, or a
male persona?

Similarly, researchers looking at the social world from a feminist paradigm have called
attention to aspects of social life that other paradigms do not reveal. In part, feminist
theory and research have focused on gender differences and how they relate to the rest
of social organizations. These lines of inquiry have drawn attention to the oppression of
women in many societies, which in turn has shed light on oppression generally.
Feminist paradigms not only reveal the treatment of women or the experience of
oppression but often point to limitations in how other aspects of social life are examined
and understood.

Summery
Theories are paradigms the fundamental models or frames of reference we use to
organize our observation and reasoning. Paradigms are neither true nor false as ways of
looking they are only more or less useful. Ethical considerations play a role in all
research paradigms, and all researchers must be aware of and attend to the ethical
considerations related to their studies. The basic distinction between macro-and micro
theory cuts across the paradigms study for such macro theories includes the struggle
between economic classes in a society, international relations, or the interrelations
among major institutions in society, such as government, religion, and family.

In the conflict of paradigm that views human behavior as an attempt to dominate others
or avoid being dominated by others.

Symbolically the interaction of paradigm can lend insights into the nature of
interactions in ordinary social life, but it can also help us understand unusual forms of
interaction, as in the following case.

Chapter Three
1. Choosing between qualitative and quantitative approaches

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Quantitative and qualitative paradigms are two research approaches that look at the
world through different lenses. The quantitative approach is interested in objectivity
and generalization of results, while the qualitative approach wants to understand the
experience phenomena and dig deep, not concerning itself (as much) with making
generalizations and predictions.
A stereotypical quantitative researcher sees the world as a lab. They tend to have
functionalist views. He or she stays on the outside — separated from the object of the
research — measuring, calculating, and performing statistical analysis to establish
causal relationships between different variables and parameters and/or testing
hypotheses. Their reality is seen as constant and predictable, and if their study is
repeated, one should get the same results and reach the same conclusions.
A good qualitative researcher, on the other hand, becomes one of the tools of the
research (some refer to this as “self as instrument”). He or she immerses themselves in
the phenomenon under study to be able to understand it better. He or she listens, asks,
observes, and gathers the material and data that is then analyzed using different
qualitative methods. In the qualitative world, there is a notion of “multiple realities” that
are always changing and undergoing transitions. It is the context of the subject being
studied that matters and findings can only be tentatively generalized to situations with
similar contexts and circumstances. In short, if quantitative research is about numbers
and repeatable results, qualitative research is about words, descriptions, and refined
meanings

2. Qualitative and Quantitative Research Methods

How does a social researcher know when to use a qualitative approach and when to use
a quantitative approach to a study? Is one approach better than the other?
A choice between social research methods rests fundamentally on a set of decisions
about the questions a researcher wants to answer and the practicality of gathering the
kind of data that will answer those questions. The first step is to look for an obvious fit.
Although there are several soft differences between the two types of methods, there is
one very important distinction. Quantitative research is deductive and hinges on the

XXVI
presence of a hypothesis, which is identified before research begins. Qualitative research
is inductive and does not require a hypothesis to start the research process.
Let's take a closer look at this important difference, and dig a bit deeper into three key
terms that help define quantitative and qualitative research.

 Deductive research
 Hypothesis
 Inductive research

2.1. Quantitative Research Confirms

Quantitative research looks at the general case and moves toward the specific. This
deductive approach research approaches a potential cause of something and hopes to
verify its effect. Since the phrase cause and effect is part of nearly every child's history of
parental lectures, we are all familiar with the concept. In research, cause and effect are
all about the strength of the relationship. If a very strong relationship exists between
two variables, the cause and effect relationship may be said to be highly probable or
highly likely. There is still room to say that the effect does not occur as a result of the
cause, but this is considered not very probable.
The following is an example of a deductive market research approach that seeks to
measure differences in online purchasing behavior and use of website shopping carts:

General Cause

The purchasing behavior of internet shoppers who regularly place items in their online
shopping cart but do not complete many purchases differs from the purchasing behavior
of internet shoppers who do not use the cart to hold items they never buy.

Specific Effect

Internet shoppers who habitually place items in their online shopping carts but do not
complete the purchases are 75% more likely to return to the same websites and complete
a purchase within 7 days.

Research Finding

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Retaining the online shopping cart contents for 10 days when a consumer leaves a
website before completing a purchase is good business and means a high probability of
future purchases by that consumer on the visited website.

Hypothesis - A Tentative Assumption

A hypothesis is a tentative assumption in the form of a statement or a question that a

research effort is designed to answer. In quantitative research, there are two hypothesis
statements. One hypothesis is called the null hypothesis, or Ho. A researcher does not
expect the null hypothesis to be true. At the counter marc process, the researcher
will analyze the data collected, and then will either accept or reject the null hypothesis.
Researchers refer to the process of confirming a hypothesis -- the assumption -- as
testing the hypothesis.
The second hypothesis is called the alternative hypothesis, or Ha. The researcher
assumes the alternative hypothesis is true. Rejecting the null hypothesis suggests that
the alternative hypothesis may be true -- that is, the chance that there is an error in the
data that would make the alternative hypothesis not true is acceptably small, by
scientific standards. Hypothesis testing in quantitative research is never absolute.
For a study about online purchasing behavior, one example of a null hypothesis could
be:
Ho = Internet shoppers who place items in the cart before leaving the website are no
more likely to return and complete a purchase than internet shoppers who do not place
items in their cart but also return to the website.
An example of a corresponding alternative hypothesis could be:
Ha = Internet shoppers who leave a website before purchasing items they have placed in
their cart are more likely to complete a purchase on the same website shortly arch
Explores.

2.2. Qualitative Research Explores

Qualitative research begins with the specific and moves toward the general. The data
collecting process in qualitative research is personal, field-based, and iterative or
circular. As data are collected and organized during analysis, patterns emerge. These

XXVIII
data patterns can lead a researcher to pursue different questions or concepts, like rolling
a snowball downhill.
Throughout the data collecting process, researchers typically record their thoughts and
impressions about the emerging data patterns. Qualitative researchers gather data about
their research in several different ways or from many different sources. This expanded
view of relevant data is called triangulation and is a very important way of ensuring that
data can be verified. When the data set is considered large enough or deep enough, the
researcher will interpret the data.
The example below suggests several ways that a qualitative researcher might triangulate
data and move the research project from specific data to general themes, and ultimately
to a research conclusion or finding.

Summery
Quantitative and qualitative paradigms are mainly two research approaches that see the
world through different lenses. Choosing between qualitative and quantitative
approaches of research to which we used the most important issue to consider is:-what
are you specifically trying to learn about the topic, hypothesis, or predictions that you
want to test, to see the differences between specific groups of people on the variables of
interest? On the other hand, you might be more interested in finding out how or why a
particular phenomenon happens. Or perhaps you want to know what thoughts, feelings,
and experiences people have in regards to our topic. These aims are more in-line with
what kind of study is most feasible to conduct? In general, quantitative studies are easier
to conduct but require more participants than qualitative studies. Specifically, data
collection in quantitative studies tends to require less time commitment from
participants, and the data analysis can be conducted relatively quickly. However,
quantitative studies can require several hundred participants depending on the type of
analysis you plan to perform. If you have access to a large number of potential
participants, a quantitative study may be a good option for you.

Chapter Four
1. Research methods qualitative, quantitative, and Triangulation

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Diversity of research reflects the diversity A. The type of research subject B. The
standards and principles that guide research. The diversity and complexity of the
research methods will be explored in terms of epistemology ontological standards and
principles of social research.
Table 1.1. The foundation of Social Research

Ontology

Epistemology

Methodology

Design

Instrument

Table 1.2. Theoretical construction of research

Research strategy 1 Research strategy 2

Ontology Realism/observation constructionism
Epistemology Empirical Interpretivism
Methodology Qualitative Qualitative
Paradigm positivism Symbolic interactionism, phenomenology, etc.
Research Fixed design Fixed/Flexible design

Paradigm is a set of propositions that explain how the world is perceived it contains a
worldview, a way of breakdown the complexity of the real world telling researchers and
social scientists in general “what is important, what is legitimate, what is reasonable. A
philosophical stance that informs the methodology provides the arena in which the logic

XXX
and structure of research are embedded and guide the process of research. Examples of
such paradigms are:-
 Positivism
 Symbolic interactionism
 Ethno-methodology
 Phenomenology
.
2. Quantitative Methodology
It is an empiricist methodology and its methods are empirical methods. Its main
research parameters are presented below:-
 Perception of reality:-qualitative methodology perceives reality as objective,
simple, and fixed. Furthermore a) reality consists of sense impressions b) there is
one reality in nature and only the truth c) reality is dependent on human
consciousness and rests on order which is governed by strict natural and
unchangeable laws, d) Knowledge of the laws can help to predict and control the
outcomes of human action, e) all people define reality in the same way because of
Objects can generate the same meanings, people see and name them in the same
way.
 Perception of human beings:- human beings are individuals who are
governed by social laws, their behaviors, are learned through observation and
governed by external causes that produce consistent results.
2.1. Purpose of Social research methodology
Quantitative research perceives social research as instrumental. Research is seen as a
tool for studying social events and for learning about them and their
interconnections. So that general causal law can be discovered, explained, and
documented.
2.2. Critique of Quantitative methodology
Concerns with quantitative methodology expressed mostly by qualitative research
reflect the underlying positivist paradigm. Critics come from within and outside this
school of thought and raise questions about deep and fundamental aspects of
positivism in general and in particular

XXXI
 3. Qualitative Methodology
It is a procedure that operates within a naturalistic interpretive domain guided by the
standards and principles of a relativist orientation, a constructivist ontology, and an
inter-previous epistemology. Nonetheless, the structure of qualitative research is not
interpreted and practiced by the researchers the same way to the extent that some
writers argue that there is not one but many qualitative methodologies and that is no
common denominator in the various qualitative directions in social research. More
precisely it is argued that the field of qualitative research is defined by a series of
tensions, contradictions, and hesitations.
3.1. Theory of qualitative methodology

Its focus is on the firm that there is in practice neither objective reality nor objective
truth. Constructionism is about realities and relationships. Constructing realities means
making accounts of the world around us and gaining impressions based on culturally
defined historically situated interpretations and personal experiences. This means that
what people perceive as reality is not “the reality” but what they constructed through
experience and interpretation it was.

The reality people experience in everyday life is a constructed reality their reality based
on interpretation. Hence impressions of reality gained by researchers who listen to
respondents talking about their lives are constructions of the constructed reality of the
respondent they are impressions of a reconstructed reality.

3.2. Central elements of qualitative research

The brief reference to the main features of the theoretical foundations of qualitative
research highlights the nature of the research focus of this methodology as well as how
knowledge is constructed. In summary and contrasting qualitative research with
quantitative research, the following points are most relevant.
 Perception of reality
 Perception of human being
 The nature of science
 The purpose of social research

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 3.2.1. Qualitative paradigm
Qualitative methodology is diverse and this is evident not only in how research is
conducted but also in the variety of paradigms that are associated with the research
strategy. Given that paradigm contains ontological and epistemological principles and
since these principles have already been indicated above. There are two well-known and
popular qualitative paradigms. These are:
1. Symbolic interactionism
2. Phenomenological
3.2.2. Features of Qualitative research

The main research has been noted during the presentation of the theoretical foundation
of introduced. These features also represent the central strength of this research model
and its advantage over other forms of inquiry. Qualitative research features are listed
below:-

 Naturalistic 
 Dynamics  Small scale
 Subject center  reflexive
 Informative and detailed  open
 Normative  flexible
 Constructionist  empathetic
 Context-sensitive  communicative
 Holistic  subjective
 Inductive  into representative

A brief exploration of the features of qualitative research reveals that they represent the
opposite of quantitative research. Simply qualitative research is what quantitative
research is not, and is not meant to be, and vice versa.

3.2.3. Critique of qualitative research

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As noted above the main features of qualitative research are a reflection of its central
strengths and advantage over other models of inquiry. Nevertheless, qualitative research
has its weakness. Some of the most common criticisms to be following issues

 Efficacy  Interpretation
 Representativeness  Comparability
 Generalizability  Replicability
 Objectivity  Ethics
 Validity and reliability  Quality of data
 Time  Anything goes
 Cost

The common response to these criticisms is that first, these points are characteristic of
the qualitative nature of this research and should be seen in their context as a strength
and not as a weakness and second many of these aspects (representativeness, validity,
reliability, etc.) are different but not inferior. For instance, validity and reliability are
observed in qualitative research but in a way that is different from those employed in
quantitative research.

4. Mixed Methods Research/ Triangulation/

Mixed methods research designs combine quantitative and qualitative approaches by
including both quantitative and qualitative data in a single study. The purpose of mixed
methods research is to build on the synergy and strength that exists between
quantitative and qualitative research methods to understand a phenomenon more fully
than is possible using either quantitative or qualitative methods alone. Although this
research approach may appear obvious (i.e., of course, we want a complete
understanding of any phenomenon worthy of investigation), it requires a thorough
understanding of both quantitative and qualitative research. Few researchers possess all
the knowledge and skills to master the full range of research techniques encompassed in
quantitative and qualitative research approaches. Similarly, researchers who undertake
a mixed-methods study must have the considerable time and resources needed to
implement such a comprehensive research approach Dispute of Despitetial limitations,
mixed methods can be used to build on the findings of a qualitative study by pursuing a

XXXIV
quantitative phase of the research, or vice versa. Or perhaps you find yourself working in
a graduate program that is less receptive to qualitative research than quantitative
research, but you may be genuinely interested in questions best addressed with
qualitative data. A mixed-methods approach will enable you to achieve this goal.
4.1. Types of Mixed Method Research Designs
Three types of mixed methods research designs are common:
 the QUAL–quan model,

 the QUAN– qual model

 the QUAN–QUAL model.
In the names of the models, our use of uppercase and lowercase letters follows the
conventions presented by Creswell: The method in uppercase letters is weighted more
heavily than that in lowercase, and when both methods are in uppercase, they are in
balance.
4.1.1. The Qual–Quan Model
In the QUAL–quan model, also known as the exploratory mixed methods design,
qualitative data are collected first and are more heavily weighted than quantitative data.
A qualitative study (or phase in a study) comes first and is typically an exploratory study
in which observation and open-ended interviews with individuals or groups are
conducted and concepts and potential hypotheses are identified. In a second study or
phase, variables are identified from concepts derived from the qualitative analysis, and
hypotheses are tested with quantitative techniques. When qualitative methods are
dominant, qualitative researchers may decide to include survey, census, and Likert-scale
data along with narrative data; the validity of the qualitative results can be enhanced by
the quantitative results.
4.1.2. The Quan–Qual Model
In the QUAN–qual model, also known as the explanatory mixed methods design,
quantitative data are collected first and are more heavily weighted than qualitative data.
In the first study or phase, the researcher formulates a hypothesis, collects quantitative
data, and conducts data analysis. The findings of the quantitative study determine the
type of data collected in a second study or phase that includes qualitative data collection,

XXXV
analysis, and interpretation. The researcher can then use the qualitative analysis and
interpretation to help explain or elaborate on the quantitative results. When
quantitative methods are dominant, for example, researchers may enliven their
quantitative findings by collecting and writing case vignettes.
4.1.3. The Quan–Qual Model
In the QUAN–QUAL model, also known as the triangulation mixed methods design,
quantitative and qualitative data are equally weighted and are collected concurrently
throughout the same study—the data are not collected in separate studies or distinct
phases, as in the other two methods. The main advantage of this method is that the
strengths of the qualitative data (e.g., data about the context) offset the weaknesses of
the quantitative data (e.g., ecological validity), and the strengths of the quantitative data
(e.g., generalizability) offset the weaknesses of the qualitative data (e.g., context-
dependence). The fully integrated QUAN–QUAL approach is the most challenging type
of mixed methods research because it requires that the researcher equally value
concurrently collected quantitative and qualitative data and that the researcher looks
critically at the results of the quantitative and qualitative analysis to determine if the
sources revealed similar findings. To summarize, the basic differences among the
designs are related to the priority given to the type of data collected (i.e., qualitative and
quantitative data are of equal weight, or one type of data has greater weight than the
other), the sequence of data collection (i.e., both types of data are collected during the
same period, or period data is collected in each sequential phase of the project), and the
analysis techniques (i.e., either an analysis that combines the data or one that keeps the
two types of data separate), as discussed in the next section.
Summery

As per my review, the social research methodology about the structure has been
thinking about how the procedure of social research needs to be reoriented and revised
continuously. Study of problems with the traditional approaches indicated as per the
books I referred, big procedures and methods need to identify the matter scientifically.
The consequence of errors happened the credibility of the study has a big impact on the
success of the research.

XXXVI
Theories are the foundation to research methodology to indicate the last resort of the
study depending on the behavior of the participant, imposition of the vision of the
researcher which is indicated that argument and its approaches have an impact as
necessary matter than dogmatic approach than on the concept of the research informal
way to pursue on world plane.

This review aims to indicate factual situations in social research methodology that are
considered to be arguable under social science.

In this chapter le,arned more about the foundation of Social Research Theoretical
construction of research, Purpose of Social research methodology, Critique of
methodology, quantitative Methodology, Qualitative methodology and Types of Mixed
Method Theoretical foundation of methodology Central elements of research, Feature,s
and Critique of social research methodologies.it helps me to understand the
methodology how about to be concerned for my future work us a startup good
knowledge.

Chapter Five
1. What is a research design?

A research design provides a framework for the collection and analysis of data. A choice
of research design reflects decisions about the priority being given to a range of
dimensions of the research process. These include the importance attached to:

• Expressing causal connections between variables;

• Generalizing to larger groups of individuals than those forming part of the

investigation;

• Understanding behavior and the meaning of that behavior in its specific social context;

• Having a temporal (that is, over time) appreciation of social phenomena and their
interconnections.

1.1. Research design

XXXVII
It has two major stages:-One is t stage of planning and the other is the stage of
execution. During the first stage, researchers construct a design a plan of the research
and during the second, they collect data and analyze it. The former is conducted in the
researcher’s office the latter in the field.

The design explains in some detail how the researcher intends to conduct the work
namely how the questions asked in each research step will be addressed. This implies
the researcher will go through the research steps one by one and describe adequately the
activity to de undertaken in each step.

There are many forms of design. Some focus on the process of data collection only while
others extend their boundaries to cover data analysis. The steps of the research design
are listed below:-

Topic and methodology

Methodological construction of the topic
Sampling procedure
Data collection
Data analysis and interpretation
Reporting

1.2. Purpose of research design

The purpose of research design varies according to several factors such as the nature
and purpose of the study the type of population the structure of the research the number
of researchers and research assistants and the ideological affiliation of the researcher.
The under-listed notes describe a certain about the purpose of research design:-

 Offer a guide that directs the research activities and helps to rationalize the use of
time and resources and reduce cost
 Helps to introduce a systematic approach to the research operation thereby
quarantining that all aspects of the study will be addressed and that they will be
executed in the right sequence.
 Entails openness and accountability for research purposes and the contractor

XXXVIII
  Helps to control minimize or even eliminate eventual influences on data
collection and through this the quality of data
 Offer order and clarity in the process of study
 Make replication easier and more effective
 Enable accurate assessment of the validity and reliability of the study
 Enable accurate estimation of the cost of the study and the required personnel
 Encourages the effective organization and coordination of the project particularly
when it includes more than one researcher.
1.3. Types of research design
There are the most common types of social research are listed below
 experimental design and its variants,
 including quasi-experiments;
 cross-sectional or survey design;
 longitudinal design; case study design;
 Comparative design.
1.4. Criteria for research design
Three of the most prominent criteria for the evaluation of social research are
 Reliability,
 Replication,
 Validity.
Reliability is concerned with the question of whether the results of a study are
repeatable. The term is commonly used about the question of whether the measures that
are devised for concepts in the social sciences (such as poverty, racial prejudice,
deskilling, religious orthodoxy) are consistent.
Replication The idea of reliability is very close to another criterion of research—
replication and more especially replicable. It sometimes happens that researchers
choose to replicate the findings of others. There may be a host of different reasons for
doing so, such as a feeling that the original results do not match other evidence that is
relevant to the domain in question. For replication to take place, a study must be
capable of replication—it must be replicable. This is a very obvious point: if a researcher

XXXIX
does not spell out his or her procedures in great detail, replication is impossible.
Similarly, for us to assess the reliability of a measure of a concept, the procedures that
constitute that measure must be replicable by someone else. Ironically, replication in
social research is not common
Validity A further and in many ways the most important criterion of research is
validity. Validity is concerned with the integrity of the conclusions that are generated
from a piece of research. As we shall do for reliability, we will be examining the idea of
validity in greater detail in later chapters, but in the meantime, it is important to be
aware of.
1.5. The main types of validity

Measurement validity:- Measurement validity applies primarily to quantitative

research and the search for surest of social science concepts. Measurement validity is
also often referred to as construct validity. Essentially, it is to do with the question of
whether a measure that is devised of a concept does reflect the concept that it is
supposed to be denoting.

Internal validity:-Internal validity relates mainly to the issue of causality, which will
be dealt with in greater detail in Chapter 7. Internal validity is concerned with the
question of whether a conclusion that incorporates a causal relationship between two or
more variables holds water.
External validity:-External validity is concerned with the question of whether the
results of a study can be generalized beyond the specific research context.
1.6. The Ethics of Research Design
Designing a research project must include serious consideration of the ethical
dimension of social science research. To begin, if your study requires the participation of
human subjects, you must determine whether the likely benefits of the research will
justify the time and effort you’ll ask of them.

Summery

A research design provides the necessary information for the collection and analysis of
data. It has two major stages one is t stage of planning and the other is the stage of

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execution. During the first stage, researchers construct a design a plan of the research
and during the second, they collect data and analyze it. A choice of research design
reflects decisions about the priority being given to a range of dimensions of the research
process. The design explains in some detail how the researcher intends to conduct the
work namely how the questions asked in each research step will be addressed. The
purpose of research design varies according to several factors such as the nature and
purpose of the study the type of population the structure of the research the number of
researchers and research assistants and the ideological affiliation of the researcher.

Criteria for the evaluation of social research are Reliability is concerned with the
question of whether the results of a study are repeatable. Replication of the idea of
reliability is very close to another criterion of research—replication and more especially
replicable. Validity is concerned with the integrity of the conclusions that are generated
from a piece of research.

Designing research must include serious consideration of the ethical dimension of social
research.

Chapter Six
1. Measurement and scaling
Measurement:- meaning careful, deliberate observations of the real world to describe
objects and events in terms of the attributes composing a variable.

Conceptualization:-The mental process whereby fuzzy and imprecise notions

(concepts) are made more specific. So you want to study prejudice. What do you mean
by “prejudice”? Are there different kinds of prejudice? What are they?

The process through which we specify what we mean when we use particular terms in
research is called conceptualization. Conceptualization, then, produces a specific,
agreed-on meaning for a concept for research. This process of specifying exact meaning
involves describing the indicators we’ll be using to measure our concept and the
different aspects of the concept, called dimensions.

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Indicators and Dimensions:-indicator an observation is that we choose to consider
as a reflection of a variable we wish to study. Thus, for example, attending religious
services might be considered an indicator of religiosity
Constructs
Regardless of the type of research you conduct, you must collect data. Data are the
pieces of information you collect and use to examine your topic, hypotheses, or
observations. The scientific method is based on the collection, analysis, and
interpretation of data. Before you can collect data, however, you must determine what
kind of data to collect. To make this determination, you must understand the relations
among constructs, variables, and instruments.

A construct is an abstraction that cannot be observed directly; it is a concept invented to

explain behavior. Examples of educational constructs are intelligence, personality,
teacher effectiveness, creativity, ability, achievement, and motivation. To be measurable,
constructs must be operationally defined—that is, defined in terms of processes or
operations that can be observed and measured. To measure a construct, it is necessary
to identify the scores or values it can assume. For example, the construct “personality”
can be made measurable by defining two personality types, introverts and extroverts, as
measured by scores on a 30-item questionnaire, with a high score indicating a more
introverted personality and a low score indicating a more extroverted personality.
Similarly, the construct “teacher effectiveness” may be operationally defined by
observing a teacher in action and judging effectiveness based on four levels:
unsatisfactory, marginal, adequate, and excellent. When constructs are operationally
defined, they become variables.

Variables
Earlier we defined a variable as a placeholder that can assume any one of a range of
values. The variable must be able to take on at least two values or scores. We deal with
variables in all our research studies. Gender, ethnicity, socioeconomic status (SES), test
scores, age, and teacher experience are all variables; people differ on these
characteristics.

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Variables themselves differ in many ways. For example, variables can be represented by
different kinds of measurements, they can be identified as categorical or quantitative, or
they can be classified as dependent or independent. The following sections discuss these
distinctions.

2. Measurement Scales and Variables:-

Researchers use four types of measurement scales: nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio
scales. A measurement scale is a system for organizing data so that it may be inspected,
analyzed, and interpreted. In other words, the scale is the instrument used to provide
the range of values or scores for each variable.

2.1. Nominal Variables:-A nominal variable is also called a categorical variable

because the values include two or more named categories (i.e., the word nominal comes
from the Latin word for name). Nominal variables include sex (e.g., female, male),
employment status (e.g., full time, part-time, unemployed), marital status (e.g., married,
divorced, single), and type of school (e.g., public, private, charter). For identification
purposes, nominal variables are often represented by numbers. For example, the
category “male” may be represented by the number 1 and “female” by the number 2. It is
critically important to understand that such a numbering of nominal variables does not
indicate that one category is higher or better than another. That is, representing male
with a 1 and female with a 2 does not indicate that males are lower or worse than
females or that males are at a higher rank than females. The numbers are only labels for
the groups. To avoid such confusion, it is often best to label the levels of nominal
variables with names or letters (A, B, C, etc.).

2.2. Ordinal Variables:- An ordinal variable not only classifies a person or objects
but, but also ranks them. In other words, ordinal variables have, as their values,
rankings in order from highest to lowest or from most to least. For example, if 50
students were placed into five reading groups, with each group representing a different
reading ability, a student in Reading Group 1 would be in the highest achieving group
and a student in Reading Group 5 would be in the lowest reading group. Rankings make
it possible to make comparisons, such as to say that one student is achieving at a higher
level than another student. Class rank is another example of an ordinal variable.

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2.3. Interval Variables:-An interval variable has all the characteristics of nominal
and ordinal variables, but its values also represent equal intervals. Scores on most tests
used in educational research, such as achievement, aptitude, motivation, and aptitude
tests, are treated as interval variables. When variables have equal intervals, it is assumed
that the difference between a score of 30 and a score of 40 is essentially the same as the
difference between a score of 50 and a score of 60, and the difference between 81 and 82
is about the same as the difference between 82 and 83. Interval scales, however, do not
have a true zero point. T

2.4. Ratio Variables:- A ratio variable has all the properties of the previous three
types of variables and, in addition, its measurement scale has a true zero point. Height,
weight, time, distance, and speed are examples of ratio scales. The concept of “no
weight,” for example, is a meaningful one. Because of the true zero point, we can say not
only that the difference between a height of 3 ft 2 in. and a height of 4 ft 2 in. is the same
as the difference between 5 ft 4 in. and 6 ft 4 in. but also that a person 6 ft 4 in. is twice
as tall as one 3 ft 2 in. As another example, the total number of correct items on a test
can be measured on a ratio scale (i.e., a student can get zero items correct; a student
with 20 items correct has twice as many correct answers as a student with 10 items
correct).

2.4. Quantitative and Qualitative Variables

Quantitative variables exist on a continuum that ranges from low to high, or less to
more. Ordinal, interval and ratio variables are all quantitative variables because they
describe performance in quantitative terms. Examples are test scores, heights, speed,
age, and class size. Nominal or categorical variables do not provide quantitative
information about how people or objects differ. They provide information about
qualitative differences only. Nominal variables permit persons or things that represent
different qualities (e.g., eye color, religion, gender, political party) but not different
quantities. Dependent and Independent Variables As discussed earlier, the dependent
variable in an experimental study is the variable hypothesized to depend on or to be
caused by another variable, the independent variable.

3. Characteristics of measuring instrument

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The cognitive characteristic is a mental characteristic related to intellect, such as
achievement; effective characteristic is a mental characteristic related to emotion, such
as attitude).

Selecting an appropriate instrument that is already standardized invariably takes less

time than developing an instrument yourself. A standardized instrument is
administered, scored, and interpreted, in the same way, no matter where or when it is
used. Standardized instruments tend to be developed by experts, who possess needed
test construction skills.

From a research point of view, an additional advantage of using a standardized

instrument is that results from different studies using the same instrument can be
compared as non-projective or projective, as discussed later in this chapter. Choosing an
instrument for a particular research purpose involves identifying and selecting the most
appropriate instrument from among alternatives. To choose intelligently, researchers
must be familiar with a variety of instruments and know the criteria they should apply in
selecting the best alternatives.

3.1. Instrument Terminology

Given the array of instruments in educational research, it is important to know some of

the basic terminology used to describe them. We start with the terms test, assessment,
and measurement. A test is a formal, systematic, usually paper-and-pencil procedure for
gathering information about peoples’ cognitive and affective characteristics (a cognitive
characteristic is a mental characteristic related to intellect, such as achievement; an
affective characteristic is a mental characteristic related to emotion, such as attitude).
Tests typically produce numerical scores. A standardized test is administered, scored,
and interpreted, in the same way, no matter where or when it is used. For example, the
SAT, ACT, Iowa Tests of Basic Skills, Stanford Achievement Test, and other nationally
used tests have been crafted to ensure that all test takers experience the same conditions
when taking them. Such standardization allows comparisons among test takers from
across the nation. You may remember taking national standardized achievement tests in
school. They probably had a stop sign every few pages that warned, “Stop! Do not turn
the page until instructed.” These stops are to ensure that all test takers have the same

XLV
amount of time for each part of the test. Assessment is a broad term that encompasses
the entire process of collecting, synthesizing, and interpreting information, whether
formal or informal, numerical or textual. Tests are a subset of assessment, as are
observations and interviews. Measurement is the process of quantifying or scoring
performance on an assessment instrument. Measurement occurs after data are
collected.

4. Types of measuring instruments

There are many different kinds of tests available and many different ways to classify
them

4.1. Cognitive Tests

A cognitive test measures intellectual processes, such as thinking, memorizing,

problem-solving, analyzing, reasoning, and applying information. Most tests that school
pupils take are cognitive achievement tests. Achievement Tests

An achievement test measures an individual’s current proficiency in given areas of

knowledge or skill. Typically administered in school settings, achievement tests are
designed to provide information about how well test takers have learned the material
introduced in school

4.2. Aptitude Tests

Tests of general aptitude are also referred to as scholastic aptitude tests and tests of
general mental ability. Unlike an achievement test, which is used to assess what
individuals have learned, an aptitude test is commonly used to predict how well an
individual is likely to perform in a future situation. Aptitude tests are standardized and
are often administered as part of a school testing program; they are also used
extensively in job hiring.

4.3. Affective Tests

An effective time test is an assessment designed to measure affective characteristics—

mental characteristics related to emotion, such as attitude, interest, and value. Affective
tests are often used in educational research and exist in many different formats. Most

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nonprojective time; that is, they are self-report measures in which the test taker
responds to a series of questions or statements about him- or herself. For example, a
question may be, “Which would you prefer, reading a book or playing basketball?” Self-
report tests are frequently used in survey studies (e.g., to describe the personality
structure of various groups, such as high school dropouts), correlational studies (e.g., to
determine relations among various personality traits and other variables, such as
achievement), and causal-comparative or experimental studies (e.g., to investigate the
comparative effectiveness of different instructional methods for different personality
types).

Attitude Scales

An attitude scale is an instrument that measures what an individual believes perceives,

or feels about self, others, activities, institutions, or situations. Five basic types of scales
are used to measure attitudes: Likert scales, semantic differential scales, rating scales,
Thurston scales, and Guttmann scales.

4.4. Likert Scales.

A Likert scale requires an individual to respond to a series of statements by indicating

whether he or she strongly agrees (SA), agrees (A), is undecided (U), disagrees (D), or
strongly disagrees (SD). Each response is assigned a point value, and an individual’s
score is determined by adding the point values of all the statements. For example, the
following point values are typically assigned to positive statements: SA 5 5, A 5 4, U 5 3,
D 5 2, SD 5 1. An example of a positive statement is, “Short people are entitled to the
same job opportunities as tall people.” A score of 5 or 4 on this item indicates a positive
attitude toward equal opportunity for short people. A high total score across all items on
the test would be indicative of an overall positive attitude. For negative statements, the
point values would be reversed— that is, SA 5 1, A 5 2, U 5 3, D 5 4, and SD 5 5. An
example of a negative statement is, “Short people are not entitled to the same job
opportunities as tall people.” On this item, scores should be reversed; “disagree” or
“strongly disagree” indicate a positive attitude toward opportunities for short people

4.5. Semantic Differential Scales.

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A semantic differential scale requires an individual to indicate his or her attitude about a
topic (e.g., property taxes) by selecting a position on a continuum that ranges from one
bipolar adjective (e.g., fair) to another (e.g., unfair). Each position on the continuum has
an associated score value.

4.6. Rating Scales.

A rating scale may also be used to measure a respondent’s attitudes toward self, others,
activities, institutions, or situations. One form of rating scale provides descriptions of
performance or preference and requires the individual to check the most appropriate
description.

4.7. Thurstone and Guttman Scales.

A Thurston scale requires participants to select from a list of statements that represent
different points of view on a topic. Each item has an associated point value between 1
and 11; point values for each item are determined by averaging the values of the items
assigned by several judges. An individual’s attitude score is the average point value of all
the statements checked by that individual. A Guttmann scale also requires respondents
to agree or disagree with several statements; it is then used to determine whether an
attitude is one-dimensional. An attitude is one-dimensional if it produces a cumulative
scale in which an individual who agrees with a given statement also agrees with all
related preceding statements.

5. Criteria for good measuring instruments

If researchers’ interpretations of data are to be valuable, the measuring instruments

used to collect those data must be both valid and reliable.

5.1. Validity of Measuring Instruments:- Validity refers to the degree to which a

test measures what it is supposed to measure and, consequently, permits
appropriate interpretation of scores. Validity is, therefore, “the most fundamental
consideration in developing and evaluating tests.” 2 When we test, we test for a
purpose, and our measurement tools must help us achieve that purpose.
5.2. Researchers generally discuss four types of test validity:- content
validity, criterion-related validity, construct validity, and consequential validity.

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 They are viewed as interrelated, not independent, aspects of validity.
 Content Validity
Content validity is the degree to which a test measures an intended content area.
Content validity requires both item validity and sampling validity. Item validity is
concerned with whether the test items are relevant to the measurement of the intended
content area. Sampling validity is concerned with how well the test samples the total
content area being tested. For example, a test designed to measure knowledge of biology
facts would have good item validity if all the items are relevant to biology but poor
sampling validity if all the test items are about vertebrates. If instead, the test
adequately sampled the full content of biology, it would have good content validity.
Content validity is important because we cannot possibly measure every topic in a
content area, and yet we want to make inferences about test takers’ performance on the
entire content area.
 Criterion-related Validity
It is determined by relating performance on a test to perform on a second test or
another measure. The second test or measure is the criterion against which the validity
of the initial test is judged.
Criterion-related validity has two forms: concurrent validity and predictive validity.
Concurrent Validity. Concurrent validity is the degree to which scores on one test are
related to scores on a similar, preexisting test administered in the same time frame or to
some other valid measure available at the same time. Often, for example, a test is
developed that claims to do the same job as some other test but is easier or faster. One
way to determine whether the claim is true is to administer the new and the old test to
the same group and compare the scores. Concurrent validity is determined by
establishing a relationship or discrimination. The relationship method involves
determining the correlation between scores on the test under study (e.g., a new test) and
scores on some other established test or criterion (e.g., grade point average). The steps
are as follows:
1. Administer the new test to a defined group of individuals.
2. Administer a previously established, valid criterion test (the criterion) to
the same group at the same time or shortly thereafter.

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 3. Correlate the two sets of scores.
4. Evaluate the results.
Predictive Validity
Predictive validity is the degree to which a test can predict how well an individual will do
in a future situation. For example, if an algebra aptitude test administered at the start of
school can predict which students will perform well or poorly in algebra at the end of the
school year (the criterion) fairly accurately, the aptitude test has high predictive validity.
Predictive validity is extremely important for tests that are used to classify or select
individuals. An example many of you are familiar with is the use of Graduate Record
Examination (GRE) scores to select students for admission to graduate school. Many
graduate schools require a minimum score for admission in the belief that students who
achieve that score have a higher probability of succeeding in graduate school than those
scoring lower. Other tests used to classify or select people include those used to
determine eligibility for special education services and the needs of students receiving
such services. It is imperative in these situations that decisions about appropriate
programs be based on the results of measures with predictive validity
2. Construct Validity
Construct validity is the most important form of validity because it asks the fundamental
validity question: What is this test measuring? In other words, construct validity reflects
the degree to which a test measures an intended hypothetical construct. All variables
derive from constructs, and constructs are non-observable traits, such as intelligence,
anxiety, and honesty, “invented” to explain behavior. Constructs underlie the variables
that Researchers measure. You cannot see a construct; you can only observe its effect.
Constructs, however, do an amazingly good job of explaining certain differences among
individuals. For example, some students learn faster than others, learn more, and retain
information longer. To explain these differences, scientists hypothesized that a construct
called intelligence is related to learning, and everyone possesses the intelligence to a
greater or lesser degree. A theory of intelligence was born, and tests were developed to
measure a person’s intelligence. As it happens, students who have high intelligence
scores (i.e., “more” intelligence) tend to do better in school and other learning
environments than those who have lower intelligence scores (i.e., “less” intelligence).
Importantly, however, research studies involving a construct are valid only to the extent
L
that the instrument selected for the study is the intended construct rather than some
unanticipated, intervening variable.
3. Consequential Validity
Consequential validity, as the name suggests, is concerned with the consequences that
occur from tests. As more and more tests are being administered to more and more
individuals, and as the consequences of testing are becoming more important, concern
over the consequences of testing has increased. All tests have intended purposes (I
mean, really, d create these things just for fun?), and in general, the intended purposes
are valid and appropriate. There are, however, some testing instances that produce
(usually unintended) harmful consequences to the test takers. Consequential validity,
then, is the extent to which an instrument creates harmful effects for the user.
Examining consequential validity allows researchers to ferret out and identify tests that
may be harmful to students, teachers, and other test users, whether the problem is
intended or not.
5.3. Factors That Threaten Validity:- Several factors can diminish the validity of
tests and instruments used in research, including
 Unclear test directions
 Confusing and ambiguous test items
 Vocabulary too difficult for test-takers
 Overly difficult and complex sentence structures
 Inconsistent and subjective scoring methods
 Untaught items included on achievement tests
 Failure to follow standardized test administration procedures
 Cheating, either by participants or by someone teaching the correct
answers to the specific test items
These factors diminish the validity of tests because they distort or produce atypical test
performance, which in turn distorts the desired interpretation of the test scores.

Summery
Accurate measurement in social research requires a concept-based definition
operational definition and systems rule for the natation of indicators. The nominal scale

LI
assigns numbers or letters to objects only for identification. Ordinal scale arranges
objects according to their magnitude in an ordered way. The interval scale measures
order in units of the equal interval, Ratio scale is an absolute scale, starting with
absolute zero.

Measuring instruments are evaluated in terms of reliability, validity, and sensitivity.

Reliability refers to the measuring instruments’ ability to provide consistent results in
repeated uses. Validity refers to the degree to which the instrument measures the
concept the researcher wants to measure. Sensitivity is the ability of the measuring
instrument to accurately measure variability in stimuli or responses.

Chapter Seven
Sampling in research and Interviews
1.1. Sampling procedure

Sampling enables the researcher to study a relatively small part of the target population
and yet obtain data that are representative of the whole population. Although this is a
good reason for researchers to employ this procedure there are many more that can be
put forward in favor of sampling.

Despite these advantages, sampling is argued to be associated with several problems

that deserve to be mentioned. The two most obvious problems are first that sampling
requires more intense and complex administration planning and programing than
saturation surveys, and the second sampling implies a reduction in the size of the target
population and hence fewer potential respondents this raises questions regarding the
representativeness and generalization of the finding that cannot be ignored.

1.2. principles of sampling

Samples are expected to be representative. To archive sampling representativeness,

procedures are expected to follow criteria standards and methodological principles.
These are:-

 Sample units must be chosen in a systematic manner

LII
  Sample units must be easily identifiable clearly defined
 Sample units must be independent of each other uniform and the same
size and should appear only once in the population
 Once selected cannot discard
 Sampling units are not interchangeable
 The selection process should be based on sound criteria and should
avoid error, bias, and distortions
 Researchers should adhere to the principle of research.
1.3. Types of sampling

Sampling procedures vary considerably. Samples may be constructed through self-

selection or as it is most common through the researcher. There are also sampling
procedures based on Probability standards and non- Probability standards.

1.3.1. Probability standards

The probability sampling method utilizes some form of random selection. In this
method, all the eligible individuals have a chance of selecting the sample from the whole
sample space. This method is more time-consuming and expensive than the non-
probability sampling method. The benefit of using probability sampling is that it
guarantees the sample that should be representative of the population.

Probability Sampling Types

Probability Sampling methods are further classified into different types, such as simple
random sampling, systematic sampling, stratified sampling, and clustered sampling. Let
us discuss the different types of probability sampling methods along with illustrative
examples here in detail.

Simple Random Sampling

In a simple random sampling technique, every item in the population has an equal and
likely chance of being selected in the sample. Since the item selection entirely depends
on the chance, this method is known as the “Method of chance Selection”. As

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the sample size is large, and the item is chosen randomly, it is known as
“Representative Sampling”.

Example: Suppose we want to select a simple random sample of 200 students from a
school. Here, we can assign a number to every student in the school database from 1 to
500 and use a random number generator to select a sample of 200 numbers.
Systematic Sampling

In the systematic sampling method, the items are selected from the target population by
selecting the random selection point and selecting the other methods after a fixed
sample interval. It is calculated by dividing the total population size by the desired
population size.

Example: Suppose the names of 300 students of a school are sorted in the reverse
alphabetical order. To select a sample in a systematic sampling method, we have to
choose some 15 students by randomly selecting a starting number, say 5. From number
5 onwards, will select every 15th person from the sorted list. Finally, we can end up with
a sample of some students. .

Stratified Sampling

In a stratified sampling method, the total population is divided into smaller groups to
complete the sampling process. The small group is formed based on a few characteristics
in the population. After separating the population into a smaller group, the statisticians
randomly select the sample.

For example, there are three bags (A, B, and C), each with different balls. Bag A has 50
balls, bag B has 100 balls, and bag C has 200 balls. We have to choose a sample of balls
from each bag proportionally. Suppose 5 balls from bag A, 10 balls from bag B, and 20
balls from bag C.

Clustered Sampling

In the clustered sampling method, the cluster or group of people is formed from the
population set. The group has similar significatory characteristics. Also, they have an

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equal chance of being a part of the sample. This method uses simple random sampling
for the cluster of the population.

Example: An educational institution has ten branches across the country with almost
the number of students. If we want to collect some data regarding facilities and other
things, we can’t travel to every unit to collect the required data. Hence, we can use
random sampling to select three or four branches as clusters.

All these four methods can be understood in a better manner with the help of the figure
given below. The figure contains various examples of how samples will be taken from
the population using different techniques.

1.3.2. Non-probability standards

The non-probability sampling method is a technique in which the researcher selects the
sample based on subjective judgment rather than random selection. In this method, not
all the members of the population have a chance to participate in the study.

Non-Probability Sampling Types

Non-probability Sampling methods are further classified into different types, such as
convenience sampling, consecutive sampling, quota sampling, judgmental sampling,
snowball sampling. Here, let us discuss all these types of non-probability sampling in
detail.

Convenience Sampling

In a convenience sampling method, the samples are selected from the population
directly because they are conveniently available for the researcher. The samples are easy
to select, and the researcher did not choose the sample that outlines the entire
population.

Example: In researching customer support services in a particular region, we ask your

few customers to complete a survey on the products after the purchase. This is a
convenient way to collect data. Still, as we only surveyed customers taking the same
product. At the same time, the sample is not representative of all the customers in that
area.
Consecutive Sampling

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Consecutive sampling is similar to convenience sampling with a slight variation. The
researcher picks a single person or a group of people for sampling. Then the researcher
researches for some time to analyze the result and move to another group if needed.
Quota Sampling

In the quota sampling method, the researcher forms a sample that involves the
individuals to represent the population based on specific traits or qualities. The
researcher chooses the sample subsets that bring the useful collection of data that
generalizes the entire population. .
Purposive or Judgmental Sampling

In purposive sampling, the samples are selected only based on the researcher’s
knowledge. As their knowledge is instrumental in creating the samples, there are
chances of obtaining highly accurate answers with a minimum marginal error. It is also
known as judgmental sampling or authoritative sampling. .

Snowball Sampling

Snowball sampling is also known as a chain-referral sampling technique. In this

method, the samples have traits that are difficult to find. So, each identified member of a
population is asked to find the other sampling units. Those sampling units also belong
to the same targeted population. .

1.4. Sampling size

The question about appropriate sample size in social research has attracted due
attention from the research of all schools of thought. However, the focus of relevant
estimation varies significantly with some showing an interest in pure quantity others in
quality, and others again in both. A wise rule, in this case, is the sample must be “as
large as necessary and as small as possible.” The critical figure is reached in some cases
through logical estimates and in others through statistical computation.

For survey research, it is common to sample 10% to 20% of the population, although
this guideline can be misleading. In reality, the appropriate sample size depends on such
factors as the specific type of research involved, the size of the population, and whether
data will be analyzed for given subgroups. For survey research as well as r other

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Quantitative research methods, statistical techniques and related software are available
for determining sample size in a precise way that takes into account relevant variables.
However, the following general rules help determine sample size:
 The larger the population size, the smaller the percentage of the population
required to get a representative sample.
 For smaller populations, say, N 100 or fewer, there is little point in sampling;
survey the entire population.
 If the population size is around 500 (give or take 100), 50% should be sampled.
 If the population size is around 1,500, 20% should be sampled.
 Beyond a certain point (about N 5,000), the population size is almost irrelevant
and a sample size of 400 will be adequate. Thus, the superintendent from our
previous examples would be relatively safe with a sample of 400 teachers but
would be even more confident with a sample of 500.
Of course, these numbers or percentages are suggested minimums. If it is at all possible
to obtain more participants, you should do so. Even with very large samples, however,
researchers can sample in such a way as to lead to erroneous conclusions. We turn now
to the many forms of sampling bias that can affect a study, regardless of sample size.

1.5. Avoiding Sampling Error and Bias Error

Beyond that within the control of the researcher, is a reality of random sampling.
Selecting random samples does not guarantee that they will be representative of the
population, and no sample will have a composition precisely identical to that of the
population. If well selected and sufficiently large, the sample should closely represent
the population, but occasionally a sample will differ significantly from the population on
some important variable— remember, random means out of the researcher’s control and
at the mercy of chance. This chance variation is called sampling error. If the sample is
greatly underrepresented on a particular variable, the researcher should stratify on that
variable (i.e., create a new sample using stratified sampling) because stratification can
provide proportional or equal-sized samples. In contrast to sampling error, which
results from random differences between samples and populations, sampling bias is a
systematic sampling error that is generally the fault of the researcher. It occurs when

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some aspect of the sampling creates a bias in the data. For example, suppose a
researcher studying college students’ attitudes toward alcohol stood outside bars and
asked patrons leaving the bars to answer questions regarding their attitudes toward
alcohol. This sample would be biased because the study was to be about the attitudes of
college students—all types of college students. By sampling outside bars, the researchers
systematically omitted college students who don’t go to bars. The sampling bias in the
study limits the study conclusions to a different population (e.g., students who go to
bars); thus, the researcher can’t generalize to the original population of interest.
Similarly, when a survey researcher gets a return of only 45% of questionnaires sent out,
the large number of non-returns introduces a potential response bias in the results. As
these examples illustrate, sample bias greatly affects the trustworthiness of a study.

Researchers should be aware of sources of sampling bias and do their best to avoid it.
We’ve already mentioned that securing administrative approval to involve students in
educational research studies is not easy. Of necessity, researchers often are forced to
study whatever samples they can get (as discussed later in the section on convenience
sampling) and to use whatever methods teachers and administrators will allow.
Cooperating with teachers and administrators is, of course, advisable, but not at the
expense of good research. If your study cannot be conducted properly under the
administrators’ restrictions, try hard to convince the administration to allow the study
to be conducted in a way that will provide viable results. If this fails, you should look
elsewhere for participants.

2. Interviews
The interview is a common occurrence in social life because there are many different
forms of interview. There are job interviews, media interviews, social work interviews,
police interviews, appraisal interviews. These different kinds of interviews share some
common features, such as the eliciting of information by the interviewer from the
interviewee and the operation of rules of varying degrees of formality or explicitness
concerning the conduct of the interview.

An interview is a structured conversation where one participant asks questions, and the
other provides answers. In common parlance, the word "interview" refers to a one-on-

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one conversation between an interviewer and an interviewee. The interviewer asks
questions to which the interviewee responds, usually providing information. That
information may be used or provided to other audiences immediately or later. This
feature is common to many types of interviews – a job interview or interview with a
witness to an event may have no other audience present at the time, but the answers will
be later provided to others in the employment or investigative process. An interview
may also transfer information in both directions.

2.1. Types of interview

Formal interviews are those in which the interviewer asks the interviewee the same
questions in the same way to different respondents. This will typically involve reading
out questions from a pre-written and pre-coded structured questionnaire.

Unstructured or Informal interviews (also called discovery interviews) are more

like a guided conversation. The interviewer has complete freedom to vary the questions
from respondent to respondent, so they can follow whatever lines of inquiry they think
are most appropriate, depending on the responses given by each respondent.

Semi-Structured interviews are those in which respondents have a list of questions,

but they are free to ask further, differentiated questions based on the responses given.

Group interviews – Interviews can be conducted either one-to-one (individual

interviews) or in a group, in which the interviewer interviews two or more respondents
at a time. Group interviews have their unique sights and limitations which we” ll return
to later.

Focus groups are a type of group interview in which respondents are asked to discuss
certain topics.

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 2.2. Interviews: key terms

The Interview Schedule – A list of questions or topic areas the interviewer wishes to
ask or cover in the course of the interview. The more structured the interview, the more
rigid the interview schedule will be. Before conducting an interview it is usual for the
researcher to know something about the topic area and the respondents themselves, and
so they will have at least some idea of the questions they are likely to ask: even if they
are doing ‘unstructured interviews’ an interviewer will have some kind of interview
schedule, even if it is just a list of broad topic areas to discuss or an opening question.

Transcription of interviews -Transcription is the process of writing down (or typing

up) what respondents say in an interview. To be able to transcribe effectively, interviews
will need to be recorded.

The problem of Leading Questions – In Unstructured Interviews, the interviewer

should aim to avoid asking leading questions.

2.3. The Strengths and Limitations of Unstructured Interviews

2.3.1. The strengths of unstructured interviews

Respondent-lectured interviews are ‘respondent led’ – this is because the researcher

listens to what the respondent says and then asks further questions based on what the
respondent says. This should allow respondents to express themselves and explain their
views more fully than with structured interviews.

Flexibility – the researcher can change his or her mind about what the most important
questions are as the interview develops. Unstructured Interviews thus avoid the
imposition problem – respondents are less constrained than with structured interviews
or questionnaires in which the questions are written in advance by the researcher. This
is especially advantageous in group interviews, where interaction between respondents
can spark conversations that the interviewer hadn’t thought would have happened in
advance, which could then be probed further with an unstructured methodology.

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Rapport and empathy – unstructured interviews encourage a good rapport between
interviewee and interviewer. Because of their informal nature, like guided
conversations, unstructured interviews are more likely to make respondents feel at ease
than with the more formal setting of a structured questionnaire or experiment. This
should encourage openness, trust, and empathy.

Checking to understand – unstructured interviews also allow the interviewer to

check to understand. If an interviewee doesn’t understand a question, the interviewer is
free to rephrase it or to ask follow-up questions to clarify aspects of answers that were
not clear in the first instance.

Unstructured interviews are good for sensitive topics because they are more likely to
make respondents feel at ease with the interviewer. They also allow the interviewer to
show more sympathy (if required) than with the colder more mechanical quantitative
methods.

Empowerment for respondents – the researcher and respondents are on a more

equal footing than with more quantitative methods. The researcher doesn’t assume they
know best. This empowers the respondents. Feminist researchers in particular believe
that the unstructured interview can neutralize the hierarchical, exploitative power
relations that they believe to be inherent in the more traditional interview structure.
They see the traditional interview as a site for the exploitation and subordination of
women, with the interviewers potentially creating outcomes against their interviewees’
interests. In traditional interview formats, the interviewer directs the questioning and
takes ownership of the material; in the feminist (unstructured) interview method, the
woman would recount her experiences in her own words with the interviewer serving
only as a guide to the account.

Practical advantages – there are few practical advantages with this method, but
compared to full-blown participant observation, they are a relatively quick method for
gaining in-depth data. They are also a good method to combine with overt participant

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observation to get respondents to further explain the meanings behind their actions. So
in short, they are impractical, unless you’re in the middle of a year-long Participant
Observation study (it’s all relative!).

2.3.2. The Limitations of unstructured interviews

The main theoretical disadvantage is the lack of reliability – unstructured Interviews

lack reliability because each interview is unique – a variety of different questions are
asked and phrased in a variety of different ways to different respondents.

They are also difficult to repeat because the success of the interview depends on the
bond of trust between the researcher and the respondent – another researcher who does
not relate to the respondent may thus get different answers. Group interviews are
especially difficult to repeat, given that the dynamics of the interview are influenced not
just by the values of the researcher, but also by group dynamics. One person can change
the dynamic of a group of three or four people enormously.

Interviewer bias might undermine the validity of unstructured interviews – this is

where the values of the researcher interfere with the results. The researcher may give
away whether they approve or disapprove of certain responses in their body language or
tone of voice (or wording of probing questions) and this, in turn, might encourage or
discourage respondents from being honest.

The characteristics of the interviewer might also bias the results and undermine
the validity – how honest the respondent is in the course of an hour-long interview
might depend on the class, gender, or ethnicity of the interviewer.

Unstructured interviews also lack representativeness – because they are time-

consuming, it is difficult to get a large enough sample to be representative of large
populations.

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It is difficult to quantify data, compare answers and find stats and trends because
the data gained is qualitative.

Practical disadvantages – unstructured Interviews may take a relatively long time to

conduct. Some interviews can take hours. They also need to be taped and transcribed,
and in the analysis phase, there may be a lot of information that is not directly relevant
to one’s research topic that needs to be sifted through.

Interpersonal skills and training – A further practical problem is that some

researchers may lack the interpersonal skills required to conduct informal unstructured
interviews. Training might need to be more thorough for researchers undertaking
unstructured interviews – to avoid the problem of interviewer bias.

There are few ethical problems, assuming that informed consent is gained and
confidentially ensured. Although having said this, the fact that the researcher is getting
more in-depth data, more of an insight into who the person is, does offer the potential
for the information to do more harm to the respondent if it got into the wrong hands
(but this, in turn, depends on the topics discussed and the exact content of the
interviews.

Summery
Sampling is a procedure that uses a small number of units of representative of a given
population as a basis for concluding the whole population. There are two sources of
errors between the samples result and the population parameters.

There are two major sampling methods are probability and Nonprobability techniques.
The non-probability method is a technique in which the researcher selects the sample
based on subjective judgment rather than random selection. This method includes
Convenience Sampling, Consecutive Sampling, Quota Sampling, Purposive or
Judgmental Sampling, and Snowball Sampling. Probability sampling methods are based
on chance selection procedures. Some of these procedures are simple random sampling,
systematic sampling, cluster sampling. Internet sampling presents some unique

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opportunities. The variance and standard deviation are the most useful measure of
dispersion. Estimating the size of a population means with a single value gives a point
estimate. A range of numbers within which the researcher is confident the population,
mean will lie is a confidence interval estimate. The social research determination of
sample size requires an understanding of -The magnitude of acceptable error, The
variance of the population or the standard deviation, and The confidence level it creates
Also interview needs social involvement using types methods Formal interviews,
unstructured or Informal interviews, Semi-Structured interviews Group interviews and
Focus groups.

Interviews are different from questionnaires as they involve social interaction.

Unlike questionnaires methods, researchers need training in how to interview.
Researchers can ask different types of questions which in turn generate different
types of data whereas open questions allow people to express what they think in
their own words.

From the chapter indicated above, I learned that an interview is also known as a
formal interview has Strengths which are Structured interviews are easy to
replicate as a fixed set of closed questions are used, which are easy to quantify –
This means a large sample can be obtained resulting in the findings being
representative and having the ability to be generalized to large population
limitations of the interview which is Structure interviews are not flexible.

Reference
 Earl Babbie, The Practice of Social Research, Twelfth Edition
 Gay, L. R. Educational research: competencies for analysis and applications/L.R. Gay,
Geoffrey E. Mills; Peter Airasian.—10th edition
 Sotirios Sarantakos, social research 4th Edition
 Alan Bryman, Social Research Methods Fourth edition
 Babbie, Earl. 1998. Survey Research Methods Wadsworth Publishing Company,
Belmont: California.

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 Gary King, Robert Keohane, Sidney Verba, 1996. Designing Social Inquiry Princeton
University Press.
 www.scribbr.com/methodology/qualitative-quantitative-research
 http://unstick.me/choosing-between-quantitative-and-qualitative-approaches
 www.yourarticlelibrary.com/social-research/the-interview-method-advantages-and-
limitations-social-research
 www.simplypsychology.org/interviews.html#structured
 www.simplypsychology.org/interviews.html
 http://revisesociology.com/2016/01/23/interviews-in-social-research-advantages-and-
disadvantages
 www.thebalancesmb.com/choosing-between-qualitative-and-quantitative-methods

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