Prepared by- Siddhartha Sanyal

PGT
M.SC, B.ED, M.ED
Chapter 1
The Rise of Nationalism in Europe
3/5 Marks Question-Answer:
Question-1
According to Ernst Renan what are the attributes of a nation. [AI 2010]
Answer:
In a lecture delivered at the University of Sorbonne in 1882, the French philosopher Ernst Renan
(1823-92) outlined his understanding of what makes a nation. The lecture was subsequently
published as a famous essay entitled ‘Qu’est-ce qu’une nation?’ (‘What is a Nation?’).
In this essay Renan criticises the notion suggested by others that a nation is formed by a common
language, race, religion, or territory: ‘A nation is the culmination of a long past of endeavours, sacrifice
and devotion. A heroic past, great men, glory, that is the social capital upon which one bases a
national idea. To have common glories in the past, to have a common will in the present, to have
performed great deeds together, to wish to perform still more, these are the essential conditions of
being a people. A nation is therefore a large-scale solidarity … Its existence is a daily plebiscite … A
province is its inhabitants; if anyone has the right to be consulted, it is the inhabitant. A nation never
has any real interest in annexing or holding on to a country against its will. The existence of nations is
a good thing, a necessity even. Their existence is a guarantee of liberty, which would be lost if the
world had only one law and only one master.’

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score more marks in your examinations.

Question-2
Describe the French Revolution. [AI 2015]
Answer:
The first clear expression of nationalism came with the French Revolution in 1789. France, as you
would remember, was a full-fledged territorial state in 1789 under the rule of an absolute monarch.
The political and constitutional changes that came in the wake of the French Revolution led to the
transfer of sovereignty from the monarchy to a body of French citizens. The revolution proclaimed that
it was the people who would henceforth constitute the nation and shape its destiny. From the very
beginning, the French revolutionaries introduced various measures and practices that could create a
sense of collective identity amongst the French people. The ideas of la patrie (the fatherland) and le
citoyen (the citizen) emphasised the notion of a united community enjoying equal rights under a
constitution.
A new French flag, the tricolour, was chosen to replace the former royal standard. The Estates
General was elected by the body of active citizens and renamed the National Assembly. New hymns
were composed, oaths taken and martyrs commemorated, all in the name of the nation. A centralised
administrative system was put in place and it formulated uniform laws for all citizens within its territory.
Internal customs duties and dues were abolished and a uniform system of weights and measures was
adopted. Regional dialects were discouraged and French, as it was spoken and written in Paris,
became the common language of the nation.
The revolutionaries further declared that it was the mission and the destiny of the French nation to
liberate the peoples of Europe from despotism, in other words to help other peoples of Europe to
become nations. When the news of the events in France reached the different cities of Europe,
students and other members of educated middle classes began setting up Jacobin clubs. Their
activities and campaigns prepared the way for the French armies which moved into Holland, Belgium,
Switzerland and much of Italy in the 1790s. With the outbreak of the revolutionary wars, the French
armies began to carry the idea of nationalism abroad.

Question-3
How did nationalism and the idea of the nation-state emerge? [AI 2010]
Answer:
Socially and politically, a landed aristocracy was the dominant class on the continent. The members

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Prepared by- Siddhartha Sanyal
PGT
M.SC, B.ED, M.ED
of this class were united by a common way of life that cut across regional divisions. They owned
estates in the countryside and also town-houses. They spoke French for purposes of diplomacy and
in high society. Their families were often connected by ties of marriage. This powerful aristocracy
was, however, numerically a small group. The majority of the population was made up of the
peasantry. To the west, the bulk of the land was farmed by tenants and small owners, while in
Eastern and Central Europe the pattern of landholding was characterised by vast estates which were
cultivated by serfs.

Question-4
What did Liberal Nationalism Stand for? [AI 2012]
Answer:
Ideas of national unity in early-nineteenth-century Europe were closely allied to the ideology of
liberalism. The term ‘liberalism’ derives from the Latin root liber, meaning free. For the new middle
classes liberalism stood for freedom for the individual and equality of all before the law. Politically, it
emphasised the concept of government by consent. Since the French Revolution, liberalism had
stood for the end of autocracy and clerical privileges, a constitution and representative government
through parliament. Nineteenth-century liberals also stressed the inviolability of private property. Yet,
equality before the law did not necessarily stand for universal suffrage.
Men without property and all women were excluded from political rights. Only for a brief period under
the Jacobins did all adult males enjoy suffrage. However, the Napoleonic Code went back to limited
suffrage and reduced women to the status of a minor, subject to the authority of fathers and
husbands. Throughout the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries women and non-propertied men
organised opposition movements demanding equal political rights.

Question-5
Give a brief note on the Napoleonic code. [AI 2020]
Answer:
The Civil Code of 1804 – usually known as the Napoleonic Code – did away with all privileges based
on birth, established equality before the law and secured the right to property. This Code was
exported to the regions under French control.

Question-6
Give two examples to show that in the 18th century Europe there were no nation states. [AI
2014]
Answer:
In the mid-eighteenth-century Europe there were no ‘nation-states’ as we know them today. The
countries such as Germany, Italy and Switzerland, which we know today were divided into kingdoms,
duchies and cantons whose rulers had their autonomous territories. Eastern and Central Europe were
under autocratic monarchies within the territories of which lived diverse peoples. They did not see
themselves as sharing a collective identity or a common culture. Often, they even spoke different
languages and belonged to different ethnic groups.
The Habsburg Empire that ruled over Austria-Hungary, for example, was a patchwork of many
different regions and peoples. It included the Alpine regions – the Tyrol, Austria and the Sudetenland
– as well as Bohemia, where the aristocracy was predominantly German-speaking. It also included
the Italian-speaking provinces of Lombardy and Venetia.
In Hungary, half of the population spoke Magyar while the other half spoke a variety of dialects. In
Galicia, the aristocracy spoke Polish. Besides these three dominant groups, there also lived within the
boundaries of the empire, a mass of subject peasant peoples Bohemians and Slovaks to the north,
Slovenes in Carniola, Croats to the south, and Roumans to the east in Transylvania. Such differences
did not easily promote a sense of political unity. The only tie binding these diverse groups together
was a common allegiance to the emperor.

Question-7
What were the reforms made by Napoleon? [AI 2013, 18]
Answer:
Within the wide swathe of territory that came under his control, Napoleon set about introducing many
of the reforms that he had already introduced in France. Through a return to monarchy Napoleon had,
no doubt, destroyed democracy in France, but in the administrative field he had incorporated

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revolutionary principles in order to make the whole system more rational and efficient.
The Civil Code of 1804 – usually known as the Napoleonic Code –did away with all privileges based
on birth, established equality before the law and secured the right to property. This Code was
exported to the regions under French control. In the Dutch Republic, in Switzerland, in Italy and
Germany, Napoleon simplified administrative divisions, abolished the feudal system and freed
peasants from serfdom and manorial dues. In the towns too, guild restrictions were removed.
Transport and communication systems were improved.
Peasants, artisans, workers and new businessmen enjoyed a new-found freedom. Businessmen and
small-scale producers of goods, in particular, began to realise that uniform laws, standardised weights
and measures, and a common national currency would facilitate the movement and exchange of
goods and capital from one region to another. However, in the areas conquered, the reactions of the
local populations to French rule were mixed. Initially, in many places such as Holland and
Switzerland, as well as in certain cities like Brussels, Mainz, Milan and Warsaw, the French armies
were welcomed as harbingers of liberty. But the initial enthusiasm soon turned to hostility, as it
became clear that the new administrative arrangements did not go hand in hand with political
freedom. Increased taxation, censorship, forced conscription into the French armies required to
conquer the rest of Europe, all seemed to outweigh the advantages of the administrative changes.

Question-8
Why were the Middle class so named? [AI 2012, 15]
Answer:
Socially and politically, a landed aristocracy was the dominant class on the continent. The members
of this class were united by a common way of life that cut across regional divisions. They owned
estates in the countryside and also town-houses. They spoke French for purposes of diplomacy and
in high society. Their families were often connected by ties of marriage. This powerful aristocracy
was, however, numerically a small group. The majority of the population was made up of the
peasantry. To the west, the bulk of the land was farmed by tenants and small owners, while in
Eastern and Central Europe the pattern of landholding was characterised by vast estates which were
cultivated by serfs.
In Western and parts of Central Europe the growth of industrial production and trade meant the
growth of towns and the emergence of commercial classes whose existence was based on production
for the market. Industrialisation began in England in the second half of the eighteenth century, but in
France and parts of the German states it occurred only during the nineteenth century. In its wake,
new social groups came into being: a working-class population, and middle classes made up of
industrialists, businessmen, professionals. In Central and Eastern Europe these groups were smaller
in number till late nineteenth century. It was among the educated, liberal middle classes that ideas of
national unity following the abolition of aristocratic privileges gained popularity.

Question-9
What led to the spread of conservatism in Europe and what were its impacts? [AI 2012]
Answer:
Following the defeat of Napoleon in 1815, European governments were driven by a spirit of
conservatism. Conservatives believed that established, traditional institutions of state and society –
like the monarchy, the Church, social hierarchies, property and the family – should be preserved.
Most conservatives, however, did not propose a return to the society of pre-revolutionary days.
Rather, they realised, from the changes initiated by Napoleon, that modernisation could in fact
strengthen traditional institutions like the monarchy. It could make state power more effective and
strong. A modern army, an efficient bureaucracy, a dynamic economy, the abolition of feudalism and
serfdom could strengthen the autocratic monarchies of Europe.

Question-10
What were the highlights of the Treaty of Vienna 1815? [AI 2017]
Answer:
In 1815, representatives of the European powers – Britain, Russia, Prussia and Austria – who had
collectively defeated Napoleon, met at Vienna to draw up a settlement for Europe. The main
highlights were to how the nation could develop and what economic measures could help forge this
nation together.

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PGT
M.SC, B.ED, M.ED
Question-11
What was the Romantic Imagination about a nation? [AI 2009]
Answer:
Romanticism, a cultural movement which sought to develop a particular form of nationalist sentiment.
Romantic artists and poets generally criticised the glorification of reason and science and focused
instead on emotions, intuition and mystical feelings. Their effort was to create a sense of a shared
collective heritage, a common cultural past, as the basis of a nation.
The emphasis on vernacular language and the collection of local folklore was not just to recover an
ancient national spirit, but also to carry the modern nationalist message to large audiences who were
mostly illiterate.

Question-12
What was the cause of Silesian weavers uprising? Comment on the viewpoint of the
journalist. [AI 2019]
Answer:
In 1845, weavers in Silesia had led a revolt against contractors who supplied them raw material and
gave them orders for finished textiles but drastically reduced their payments.
The journalist Wilhelm Wolff described the events in a Silesian village as follows: In these villages
(with 18,000 inhabitants) cotton weaving is the most widespread occupation … The misery of the
workers is extreme. The desperate need for jobs has been taken advantage of by the contractors to
reduce the prices of the goods they
order …
On 4 June at 2 p.m. a large crowd of weavers emerged from their homes and marched in pairs up to
the mansion of their contractor demanding higher wages. They were treated with scorn and threats
alternately. Following this, a group of them forced their way into the house, smashed its elegant
windowpanes, furniture, porcelain … another group broke into the storehouse and plundered it of
supplies of cloth which they tore to shreds … The contractor fled with his family to a neighbouring
village which, however, refused to shelter such a person. He returned 24 hours later having
requisitioned the army. In the exchange that followed, eleven weavers were shot.

Question-13
How was nation visualized by artists? [AI 2016]
Answer:
Artists in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries found a way out by personifying a nation. In other
words they represented a country as if it were a person. Nations were then portrayed as female
figures. The female form that was chosen to personify the nation did not stand for any particular
woman in real life; rather it sought to give
the abstract idea of the nation a concrete form. That is, the female figure became an allegory of the
nation.

Question-14
On what basis the female allegories were given names? [AI 2008]
Answer:
Many female allegories were invented by artists in the nineteenth century to represent the nation. In
France she was christened Marianne, a popular Christian name, which underlined the idea of a
people’s nation. Her characteristics were drawn from those of Liberty and the Republic – the red cap,
the tricolour, the cockade. Statues of Marianne were erected in public squares to remind the public of
the national symbol of unity and to persuade them to identify with it. Marianne images were marked
on coins and stamps.
Similarly, Germania became the allegory of the German nation. In visual representations, Germania
wears a crown of oak leaves, as the German oak stands for heroism.

Question-15
Describe the rise of imperialism. [AI 2013]
Answer:
Nationalism, aligned with imperialism, led Europe to disaster in 1914. But meanwhile, many countries
in the world which had been colonised by the European powers in the nineteenth century began to
oppose imperial domination. The anti-imperial movements that developed everywhere were

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nationalist, in the sense that they all struggled to form independent nation-states, and were inspired
by a sense of collective national unity, forged in confrontation with imperialism. European ideas of
nationalism were nowhere replicated, for people everywhere developed their own specific variety of
nationalism. But the idea that societies should be organised into ‘nation-states’ came to be accepted
as natural and universal.

Question-16
According to Ernst Renan what are the attributes of a nation? [AI 2012]
Answer:
In a lecture delivered at the University of Sorbonne in 1882, the French philosopher Ernst Renan
(1823-92) outlined his understanding of what makes a nation. The lecture was subsequently
published as a famous essay entitled ‘Qu’est-ce qu’une nation?’ (‘What is a Nation?’).
In this essay Renan criticises the notion suggested by others that a nation is formed by a common
language, race, religion, or territory: ‘A nation is the culmination of a long past of endeavours, sacrifice
and devotion. A heroic past, great men, glory, that is the social capital upon which one bases a
national idea. To have common glories in the past, to have a common will in the present, to have
performed great deeds together, to wish to perform still more, these are the essential conditions of
being a people. A nation is therefore a large-scale solidarity … Its existence is a daily plebiscite … A
province is its inhabitants; if anyone has the right to be consulted, it is the inhabitant. A nation never
has any real interest in annexing or holding on to a country against its will. The existence of nations is
a good thing, a necessity even. Their existence is a guarantee of liberty, which would be lost if the
world had only one law and only one master.’

Question-17
How did nationalism and the idea of the nation-state emerge? [AI 2016]
Answer:
Socially and politically, a landed aristocracy was the dominant class on the continent. The members
of this class were united by a common way of life that cut across regional divisions. They owned
estates in the countryside and also town-houses. They spoke French for purposes of diplomacy and
in high society. Their families were often connected by ties of marriage. This powerful aristocracy
was, however, numerically a small group. The majority of the population was made up of the
peasantry. To the west, the bulk of the land was farmed by tenants and small owners, while in
Eastern and Central Europe the pattern of landholding was characterised by vast estates which were
cultivated by serfs.

Question-18
What did Liberal Nationalism Stand for? [AI 2020]
Answer:
Ideas of national unity in early-nineteenth-century Europe were closely allied to the ideology of
liberalism. The term ‘liberalism’ derives from the Latin root liber, meaning free. For the new middle
classes liberalism stood for freedom for the individual and equality of all before the law. Politically, it
emphasised the concept of government by consent. Since the French Revolution, liberalism had
stood for the end of autocracy and clerical privileges, a constitution and representative government
through parliament. Nineteenth-century liberals also stressed the inviolability of private property. Yet,
equality before the law did not necessarily stand for universal suffrage.
Men without property and all women were excluded from political rights. Only for a brief period under
the Jacobins did all adult males enjoy suffrage. However, the Napoleonic Code went back to limited
suffrage and reduced women to the status of a minor, subject to the authority of fathers and
husbands. Throughout the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries women and non-propertied men
organised opposition movements demanding equal political rights.

NCERT Solutions

Question 1(a)
Write a note on Guiseppe Mazzini. [AI 2014]
Answer:

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1. Giuseppe Mazzini (1807-1872) was an Italian politician, journalist and activist for the unification
of Italy and spearheaded the Italian revolutionary movement. His efforts helped bring about the
independent and unified Italy in place of several separate states, many dominated by foreign
powers.
2. He also helped define the modern European movement for popular democracy in a republican
state.
3. Mazzini was a fervent advocate of republicanism and envisioned a united, free and independent
Italy.
4. Unlike his contemporary Garibaldi, who was also a republican, Mazzini never compromised his
republican ideas and refused to swear an oath of allegiance to the House of Savoy.
5. Mazzini was the spiritual force of the Italian resurrection. He joined the Carbonari, a
revolutionary organisation and was arrested in 1830. He was sent into exile in 1831 for
attempting a revolution in Liguria. He subsequently founded two more underground societies,
first – Young Italy in Marseilles and then Young Europe in Berne, whose members were like-
minded young men from Poland, France, Italy and the German states.
6. Mazzini believed that God had intended nations to be the natural units of mankind. So Italy
could not continue to be a patchwork of small states and kingdoms. It had to be forged into a
single unified republic within a wider alliance of nations. This unification alone could be the basis
of Italian liberty. Mazzini was in favour of a republic because he thought sovereignity resides
essentially in the people and can only completely express itself in that form. Mazzini’s relentless
opposition to monarchy and his vision of democratic republics frightened the conservatives.
Metternich described him as ‘the most dangerous enemy of our social order’.
7. Young Italy’ attempted many insurrections but were unsuccessful. Mazzini failed in his objects
because he himself lacked some of the qualities of practical leadership. He underestimated the
strength of the opposition. But in spite of these drawbacks he is one of the chief makers of Italy.
He was responsible for the growth of patriotism for a country that existed as yet only in the
imagination.

Question 1(b)
Write a note on Count Camillo de Cavour. [AI 2011]
Answer:

1. Cavour was a realist who practiced realistic politics. He allied with France when necessary and
with France’s key enemy, Prussia, was necessary.
2. Cavour used international power to achieve his domestic goals.
3. He devoted himself to the liberation of northern Italy from Austrian domination. A brilliant and
steadfast diplomat, he played a leading role in the unification of Italy.
4. He was distrustful of the reactionary politics in force throughout Europe, particularly their
manifestation in the repressive rule of Austria over a large area of Italy.
5. He became Prime Minister of Piedmont in 1852. He reorganized its army and it achieved rapid
growth in material prosperity. Through a tactful diplomatic alliance with France, Sardinia-
Piedmont succeeded in defeating the Austrian forces in 1859.
6. Apart from regular troops, a large number of armed volunteers under the leadership of Giuseppe
Garibaldi joined the fight. In 1860, they marched into South Italy and the Kingdom of Two
Sicilies and with the support of the local peasants drove out the Spanish rulers. Thus, Cavour
was ultimately successful in the unification of Italy under King Victor Emmanuel II. He, however,
died on June 6, 1861, before the completion of the unification of Italy in 1870. Although Cavour
was neither a revolutionary nor a democrat he played an important role in the unification of Italy.

Question 1 (c)
Write a note on The Greek war of independence. [AI 2013]
Answer:

1. The Greek war of independence, also known as the Greek Revolution was a successful war
of~m dependence waged by the Greek revolutionaries between 1821 and 1832 against the
Ottoman Empire. The Greeks were later assisted by the Russian Empire, Great Britain, France
and several other European powers, while the Ottomans were aided by their vassals, Egypt,
Algeria etc.

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2. Events: Greece had been part of the Ottoman Empire since the 15th century. The growth of
revolutionary nationalism in Europe sparked off a struggle for independence among st the
Greeks which began in 1821.
3. The object of the struggle was to expel Turks from Europe and to establish old Greek eastern
empire.
4. Nationalists in Greece were supported by other Greeks living in exile and many West European
countries.
5. Poets and artists lauded Greece as the cradle of European civilisation. They mobilised public
opinion to support its struggle against a Muslim empire. The English poet Lord Byron organised
funds and later went to fight in the war.
6. Ultimately, the Treaty of Constantinople of 1832 recognised Greece as an independent nation.
Its independence was guaranteed by Russia, England and France.

Question 1(d)
Write a note on Frankfurt parliament. [AI 2010]
Answer:

1. Frankfurt Parliament (1848-49) was convened at Frankfurt on May 18, 1848 as a result of the
liberal revolution that swept the German states early in 1848.
2. The parliament was called by a preliminary assembly of German liberals in March 1848 and its
members were elected by the direct manhood suffrage. They represented the entire political
spectrum and included the foremost German figures of that time.
3. Its purpose was to plan the unification of Germany.
4. The conflict among the traditionally separate German states, notably Austria and Prussia made
progress difficult.
5. In March 1849 the parliament adopted a federal constitution of German states, excluding
Austria, with a parliamentary government and a hereditary emperor. Frederick William IV of
Prussia was chosen emperor but he refused to accept the crown from a popularly elected
assembly and the entire scheme failed.
6. Most of the representatives withdrew and the remainder were dispersed. The parliament,
therefore, accomplished nothing as troops were called and the assembly was forced to disband.

Question 2.
What steps did the French revolutionaries take to create a sense of collective identity among
the French people? [AI 2009]
Answer:
From the very beginning, the French revolutionaries introduced various measures and practices that
could create a sense of collective identity amongst the French people. The ideas of la patrie (the
fatherland) and le citoyen (the citizen) emphasized the notion of a united community enjoying equal
rights under a constitution. A new French flag, the tricolour, was chosen to replace the former royal
standard. The Estates General was elected by the body of active citizens and renamed the National
Assembly. New hymns were composed, oaths taken and martyrs commemorated, all in the name of
the nation. A centralised administrative system was put in place and it formulated uniform laws for all
citizens within its territory. Internal customs duties and dues were abolished and a uniform system of
weights and measures was adopted. Regional dialects were discouraged and French, as it was
spoken and written in Paris, became the common language of the nation.

Question 3.
Who were Marianne and Germania? What was the importance of the way in which they were
portrayed? [AI 2012]
Answer:

1. In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, artists represented the country as if it were a person.
2. Nations were portrayed as female figures that sought to give the abstract idea of the nation a
concrete form.
3. The female form that was chosen to personify the nation did not stand for any particular woman
in a real life.

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4. Thus, in France, she was christened Marianne, a popular Christian name, which underlined the
idea of a people’s nation.
5. Her characteristics were drawn from those of liberty and the Republic – the red cap, the
tricolour, the cockade.
6. Statues of Marianne were installed in public squares to remind the public of the national
symbols of unity and to persuade them to identify with it.
7. Marianne images were marked on coins and stamps too.
8. Similarly, Germania became the allegory of the German nation. In visual representations,
Germania wears a crown of oak leaves, because the German oak stands for heroism.

The importance of the way in which they were portrayed was to remind the public of their national
symbols of unity and to persuade them to identify with them.

Question 4.
Briefly trace the process of German unification. [AI 2012, 17]
Answer:
1. Nationalist feelings were widespread among middle-class Germans, who in 1848 tried to unite the
different regions of the German confederation into a nation-state governed by an elected parliament.
2. This liberal initiative to nation-building was, however, repressed by the combined forces of the
monarchy and the military, supported by the large landowners (called Junkers) of Prussia.

3. From then on, Prussia took on the leadership of the movement for national unification. Its chief
minister, Otto von Bismarck, was the architect of this process carried out with the help of the Prussian
army and bureaucracy.

4. Three wars over seven years – with Austria, Denmark and France – ended in Prussian victory and
completed the process of unification.

5. In January 1871, the Prussian king, William I, was proclaimed German Emperor in a ceremony held
at Versailles.

Question 5.
What changes did Napoleon introduce to make the administrative system more efficient in the
territories ruled by him? [AI 2018]
Answer:
The following changes were introduced by Napoleon to make the administrative system more
efficient in the territories ruled by him :

1. Civil Code of 1804 or the Napoleonic Code was issued. It abolished all privileges based on birth.
It established equality before the law and secured the right to property.
2. Napoleon simplified administrative divisions in the Dutch Republic, in Switzerland, in
Italy and Germany. ,
3. The feudal system was abolished and peasants were freed from serfdom and manorial dues.
4. Guild restrictions were removed in towns.
5. Improvements were made in the transport and communication systems.
6. Uniform laws, standardized weights, and measures, and a common national currency was
introduced. It facilitated the movement and exchange of goods and capital from one region to
another. In view of the above reforms it is stated that through a return to monarchy, Napoleon
had, no doubt, destroyed democracy in France, but in the administrative field, he had
incorporated revolutionary principles in order to make the whole system more rational and
efficient.

Question 6.
Explain what is meant by the 1848 revolution of the liberals. What were the political, social and
economic ideas supported by the liberals? [AI 2008]
Answer:
Since the French Revolution, liberalism had stood for the end of autocracy and clerical privileges, a

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constitution and representative government through parliament. Nineteenth-century liberals also
stressed the inviolability of private property. The memory of the French Revolution nonetheless
continued to inspire liberals. One of the major issues taken up by the liberal-nationalists, who
criticised the new conservative order, was freedom of the press.

Parallel to the revolts of the poor, unemployed and starving peasants and workers in many European
countries in the year 1848, a revolution led by the educated middle classes was under way. Events of
February 1848 in France had brought about the abdication of the monarch and a republic based on
universal male suffrage had been proclaimed. In other parts of Europe where independent nation-
states did not yet exist – such as Germany, Italy, Poland, the Austro-Hungarian Empire – men and
women of the liberal middle classes combined their demands for constitutionalism with national
unification. They took advantage of the growing popular unrest to push their demands for the creation
of a nation-state on parliamentary principles – a constitution, freedom of the press and freedom of
association.

Question 7.
How was the history of nationalism in Britain unlike the rest of Europe? [AI 2017]
Answer:
In Britain, the formation of the nation-state was not the result of a sudden upheaval or revolution. It
was the result of a long-drawn-out process. There was no British nation prior to the eighteenth
century. The primary identities of the people who inhabited the British Isles were ethnic ones – such
as English, Welsh, Scot or Irish. All of these ethnic groups had their own cultural and political
traditions. But as the English nation steadily grew in wealth, importance and power, it was able to
extend its influence over the other nations of the islands. The English parliament, which had seized
power from the monarchy in 1688 at the end of a protracted conflict, was the instrument through
which a nation-state, with England at its centre, came to be forged.

The Act of Union (1707) between England and Scotland that resulted in the formation of the ‘United
Kingdom of Great Britain’ meant, in effect, that England was able to impose its influence on Scotland.
The British parliament was henceforth dominated by its English members. The growth of a British
identity meant that Scotland’s distinctive culture and political institutions were systematically
suppressed. The Catholic clans that inhabited the Scottish Highlands suffered terrible repression
whenever they attempted to assert their independence. The Scottish Highlanders were forbidden to
speak their Gaelic language or wear their national dress, and large numbers were forcibly driven out
of their homeland

Question 8.
Why did nationalist tensions emerge in the Balkans? [AI 2020]
Answer:
The most serious source of nationalist tension in Europe after 1871 was the area called the Balkans.
The Balkans was a region of geographical and ethnic variation comprising modern-day Romania,
Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Macedonia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Slovenia, Serbia and
Montenegro whose inhabitants were broadly known as the Slavs. A large part of the Balkans was
under the control of the Ottoman Empire. The spread of the ideas of romantic nationalism in the
Balkans together with the disintegration of the Ottoman Empire made this region very explosive.

All through the nineteenth century the Ottoman Empire had sought to strengthen itself through
modernisation and internal reforms but with very little success. One by one, its European subject
nationalities broke away from its control and declared independence. The Balkan peoples based their
claims for independence or political rights on nationality and used history to prove that they had once
been independent but had subsequently been subjugated by foreign powers. Hence the rebellious
nationalities in the Balkans thought of their struggles as attempts to win back their long-lost
independence.

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Multiple Choice Questions

1. Who, among the following, hosted the Congress at Vienna in 1815. [AI 2012]
(a) King of the Netherlands
(b) Giuseppe Mazzini
(c) Duke Metternich
(d) Otto von Bismarck

2. Which one of the following is true about the ‘Treaty of Constantinople’ in 1832. [AI 2012]
(a) It recognised Turkey as an independent nation.
(b) It recognised Greece as an independent nation.
(c) It recognised Germany as an independent nation.
(d) It recognised France as an independent nation.

3. Who among the following formed the secret society called ‘Young Italy’. [Delhi 2012]
(a) Otto von Bismarck
(b) Giuseppe Mazzini
(c) Metternich
(d) Johann Gottfried Herder
Or
Who among the following took power in the Southern part of Vietnam after the division of the
country? [Delhi 2012]
(a) Ngo Dinh Diem
(b) Ho Chi Minh
(c) Bao Dai
(d) NLF

4. Which one of the following types of government was functioning in France before the
revolution of 1789?
(a) Dictatorship
(b) Military
(c) Body of French Citizen
(d) Monarchy
Or
Who among the following was known as ‘Colons’ [Delhi 2012]
(a) French citizens living in Vietnam
(b) French citizens living in France
(c) Educated people of Vietnam
(d) Elites of Vietnam

5. Which one of the following statements is false regarding the Act of Union 1707? [Delhi 2011]
(a) It was an agreement between England and Scotland.
(b) It was an agreement between England and Ireland.
(c) It resulted in the formation of the ‘United Kingdom of Great Britain’.
(d) It gave England control over Scotland.

6. Which one of the following states was ruled by an Italian princely house before the
unification of Italy? [AI 2011]
(a) Kingdom of Two Sicilies
(b) Lombardy
(c) Venetia
(d) Sardinia-Piedmont

7. Which one of the following statements is not true about Giuseppe Mazzini? [Foreign 2011]
(a) He wanted the united Italian Republic.
(b) He founded an underground society called ‘Young Italy’.

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(c) He wanted Italy to be a monarchy.
(d) He was exiled for attempting a revolution in Liguria.

8. Who said, “when France sneezes the rest of Europe catches cold”?
(a) Garibaldi
(b) Mazzini
(c) Metternich
(d) Bismarck

9. Which treaty recognised Greece as an independent nation?

(a) Treaty of Versailles
(b) Treaty of Vienna
(c) Treaty of Constantinople
(d) Treaty of Lausanne

10. Who was responsible *for the Unification of Germany?

(a) Bismarck
(b) Cavour
(c) Mazzini
(d) Garibaldi

11. Which area was known as the powder keg of Europe?

(a) Germany
(b) Italy
(c) Balkans
(d) Ottoman Empire

12. Elle, the measuring unit in Germany was used to measure

(a) cloth
(b) thread
(c) land
(d) height

13. Zolleverin started in 1834 in Prussia refers to a

(a) Trade Union
(b) Customs Union
(c) Labour Union
(d) Farmer’s Union

14. The Ottoman Empire was ruled by the emperor of

(a) Turkey
(b) Russia
(c) Britain
(d) Prussia

15. At which of the following places was the Frankfurt Assembly convened
(a) at the church of St. Paul.
(b) at the church of St. Peters.
(c) at the palace of Prussia.
(d) at the Hall of Mirrors in the Palace of Versailles.

16. What did the crown of oak leaves symbolise?

(a) Courage
(b) Heroism
(c) Peace
(d) Tolerance

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17. By which of the following treaties was the United Kingdom of Great Britain formed?
(a) Treaty of Versailles
(b) Act of Union
(c) Treaty of Paris
(d) Treaty of Vienna

18. Who was Wolfe Tone?

(a) A French revolutionary.
(b) An Irish Catholic who revolted against British dominance.
(c) A German rebel who revolted against Kaiser William IV
(d) A British protestant leader.

19. Which of the following best explain Utopian society?

(a) A society where everybody is equal.
(b) A democratic society.
(c) An idealist society that can never be achieved.
(d) A society with a comprehensive Constitution.

20 After the French Revolution (1789) the right to vote was given to
(a) all adult population of the country.
(b) all property-owning male citizens of the country.
(c) all property-owning males and women of the country.
(d) all adults excluding women of the country.

21. The main function of the Prussian Zollverein was to

(a) impose a custom duty on imported goods.
(b) abolish the tariff barrier.
(c) reduce custom duties.
(d) impose new rules for trade.

22. Which of the following group of powers collectively defeated Napoleon?

(a) England, France, Italy, Russia.
(b) England, Austria, Spain, Russia.
(c) Austria, Prussia, Russia, Britain.
(d) Britain, Prussia, Russia, Italy.

23. Which of the following countries is considered as the ‘cradle of civilization’?

(a) England
(b) France
(c) Greece
(d) Russia

24. The Treaty of Vienna signed in 1815

(a) brought the conservative regimes back to power.
(b) destroyed the conservative powers of Europe.
(c) introduced democracy in Austria and Prussia.
(d) set up a new Parliament in Austria.

25. Romanticism refers to a

(a) cultural movement
(b) religious movement
(c) political movement
(d) literary movement

26. In Prussia, who was referred to as ‘Junkers’?

(a) Military officials

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(b) Large landowners
(c) Factory owners
(d) Aristocratic nobles

27. Which of the following is an allegory/attribute for ‘liberty’?

(a) Crown of Oak
(b) Red Cap
(c) Olive Branch
(d) Sword

28. What does a blindfolded woman carrying a pair of weighing scales symbolise?
(a) Peace
(b) Equality
(c) Justice
(d) Liberty

29. Who among the following was proclaimed the first King of United Italy?
(a) Nicholas II
(b) King George II
(c) Wilhelm IV
(d) Victor Emannuel II

30 A nation-state is a state where

(a) people of all groups enjoy equal rights.
(b) where the nation has its own emblem and flag.
(c) a state which has a contiguous territory.
(d) a state where people live in a common territory, develop a sense of identity and share a
common history.

31. Most important outcome of the French Revolution of 1789 was

(a) the abolition of absolute monarchy.
(b) making of a new Constitution.
(c) transfer of sovereignty from the monarch to the French citizens.
(d) Formation of the National Assembly.

32. Identify and mark the incorrect response. The Napoleonic Code
(a) did away with all the privileges based on ‘birth and established equality.
(b) destroyed feudalism in France.
(c) formulated codes for the army.
(d) ensured right to property for the privileged class.

33. A large number of people were hostile to the Napoleonic code because
(a) it was not suitable for all.
(b) it destroyed the special privileges of the rulers.
(c) administrative changes did not go hand-in-hand with political freedom.
(d) none of the above.

34. For the middle class of Europe, the most important feature of Liberalism was
(a) abolition of conservatism.
(b) right to be liberal and educated.
(c) individual freedom and equality before law.
(d) representative government.

35. Why did the Frankfurt Parliament fail to achieve its goal?
(a) Women were excluded from the membership.
(b) Did not have the support of the peasants.

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(c) Kaiser William refused to accept the crown and opposed the assembly.
(d) None of the above.

ANSWERS

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