IEEE Standard For Requirements, Terminology, and Test Code For Dry-Type Air-Core Series-Connected Reactors

IEEE Standard for Requirements,
Terminology, and Test Code for

Dry-Type Air-Core Series-Connected
Reactors
IEEE Power & Energy Society
Sponsored by the
Transformers Committee
IEEE
3 Park Avenue IEEE Std C57.16™2011
(Revision of
New York, NY 10016-5997
IEEE Std C57.16-1996)
USA
2 February 2012
Authorized licensed use limited to: Universidade Estadual de Campinas. Downloaded on March 13,2019 at 14:35:47 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
IEEE Std C57.16™-2011
(Revision of
IEEE Std C57.16-1996)

Reactors
Sponsor
Transformers Committee
of the
IEEE Power & Energy Society
Approved 31 October 2011

IEEE-SA Standards Board
Approved 7 Decemberer 2012

American National Standards Institute
Abstract: Recommendations are given for reactors intended for series connection, in both
transmission and distribution systems, to control power flow under steady-state conditions and/or
limit fault current under short-circuit conditions. Dry-type air-core reactors covered by this
standard are self-cooled by natural air convection. With some restrictions, other reactors,
including filter reactors, shunt capacitor reactors (used with shunt capacitor banks), and
discharge current-limiting reactors (used with series capacitor banks) are also covered.
Keywords: air-core reactors, discharge current-limiting reactors, dry-type air-core reactors, dry-
type reactors, filter reactors, harmonic filters, IEEE C57.16, reactors, series capacitor bank
applications, series-connected reactors, series reactor applications, shunt capacitor bank
applications, shunt capacitor reactors
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Introduction
This introduction is not part of IEEE Std C57.16-2011, IEEE Standard for Requirements, Terminology, and Test Code
for Dry-Type Air-Core Series-Connected Reactors.
The work to revise IEEE Std C57.16-1996, IEEE Standard Requirements, Terminology, and Test Code for
Dry-Type Air-Core Series-Connected Reactors, was carried out by the Dry-Type Reactor Working Group,
reporting to the Dry-Type Transformers Subcommittee of the IEEE Transformers Committee. Several
important objectives for the revision led to the current document:
a) Test code has been updated to reflect current test equipment technology and current application
considerations.
b) An informative annex has been added to provide guidance and background information on the
impact of reactors on the transient recovery voltages (TRV) seen by circuit breakers. In simple
terms, one of the purposes of using a current-limiting reactor is to protect the circuit breaker from
fault current beyond its short-circuit rating; however, in applying the current-limiting reactor, the
TRV capability of the circuit breaker might be exceeded. One of the most common forms of
mitigation is to use capacitors. These capacitors are very often in the scope of supply of the reactor
manufacturer. This is the primary rationale for including Annex F in this standard. On a secondary
basis, the material in the annex is included only to provide guidance and to “caution” and is not
meant to “supersede” information in the referenced switchgear standards. In fact, another purpose
of the annex is to direct readers to the appropriate switchgear documents.
Notice to users
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iv
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v
Participants
At the time this standard was submitted to the IEEE-SA Standards Board for approval, the Dry-Type
Reactor Working Group had the following membership:
Richard F. Dudley, Chair
Sten Andersson Charles Johnson Ulf Radbrandt

V. Jack Aromin Lars-Erik Juhlin Les Recksiedler
Peter M. Balma Sheldon F. Kennedy Pierre Riffon
Gene Blackburn Klaus Papp Devki Sharma
Fred Elliott Christoph Ploetner Michael R. Sharp
J. Alan C. Forrest Klaus Pointner Tony Weekes
Derek Foster Greg S. Polovick Gene Wolf
Xiangfu Guo Paulette A. Payne Powell Peter Zhao
Lewis Powell
The following members of the individual balloting committee voted on this standard. Balloters may have
voted for approval, disapproval, or abstention.
William J. Ackerman Randall Groves Michael S. Newman

Roy Alexander Bal Gupta Charles Ngethe
Carlo Arpino Peter Heinzig Joe Nims
Peter M. Balma Gary Heuston T. Olsen
Robert Barnett Timothy Holdway Lorraine Padden
George Becker Philip Hopkinson Klaus Papp
Steven Bezner John Houdek Bansi Patel
Wallace Binder Jingxuan Hu Brian Penny
Michael Bio R. Jackson Alvaro Portillo
Gene Blackburn Charles Johnson Lewis Powell
Jeffrey Britton Wayne Johnson Iulian Profir
Gustavo Brunello Andrew Jones Jean-Christophe Riboud
Carl Bush Lars-Erik Juhlin Johannes Rickmann
Arvind K. Chaudhary Gael Kennedy Pierre Riffon
Bill Chiu Sheldon F. Kennedy Charles Rogers
Robert Christman Yuri Khersonsky Marnie Roussell
Stephen Conrad Jospeh L. Koepfinger Thomas Rozek
Jerry Corkran Jim Kulchisky Bartien Sayogo
Gary Donner Saumen Kundu Devki Sharma
Denis Dufournet John Lackey Michael R. Sharp
Edgar Dullni Chung-Yiu Lam Gil Shultz
Gearold O. H. Eidhin Stephen Lambert James Smith
Gary Engmann Aleksandr Levin Jerry Smith
Rabiz Foda Hua Liu John Spare
Joseph Foldi Albert Livshitz David Stankes
Marcel Fortin Thomas Lundquist Gary Stoedter
Derek Foster Greg Luri John Vergis
Fredric Friend J. Dennis Marlow Jane Verner
David Gilmer John W. Matthews Kenneth White
Mietek Glinkowski Jerry Murphy Jian Yu
James Graham Jeffrey Nelson Waldemar Ziomek
vi
When the IEEE-SA Standards Board approved this standard on 31 October 2011, it had the following
membership:
Richard H. Hulett, Chair

John Kulick, Vice Chair
Robert M. Grow, Past President
Judith Gorman, Secretary
Masayuki Ariyoshi Jim Hughes Gary Robinson

William Bartley Joseph L. Koepfinger* Jon Walter Rosdahl
Ted Burse David J. Law Sam Sciacca
Clint Chaplin Thomas Lee Mike Seavey
Wael Diab Hung Ling Curtis Siller
Jean-Philippe Faure Oleg Logvinov Phil Winston
Alexander Gelman Ted Olsen Howard Wolfman
Paul Houzé Don Wright
*Member Emeritus
Also included are the following nonvoting IEEE-SA Standards Board liaisons:
Satish K. Aggarwal, NRC Representative

Richard DeBlasio, DOE Representative
Michael Janezic, NIST Representative
Catherine Berger
IEEE Standards Program Manager, Document Development
Erin Spiewak
IEEE Standards Program Manager, Technical Program Development
vii
Contents
1. Overview .................................................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Scope ................................................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Purpose ................................................................................................................................................ 2
2. Normative references.................................................................................................................................. 2
3. Definitions .................................................................................................................................................. 3
3.1 Types of dry-type air-core series reactors ............................................................................................ 3
3.2 Series reactor applications ................................................................................................................... 3
3.3 Rating .................................................................................................................................................. 4
3.4 Current ................................................................................................................................................. 4
3.5 Duty ..................................................................................................................................................... 4
3.6 Voltage ................................................................................................................................................ 4
3.7 Losses and impedance at system frequency......................................................................................... 5
4. General requirements.................................................................................................................................. 6
4.1 Service conditions................................................................................................................................ 6
4.2 Insulation ............................................................................................................................................. 7
4.3 Operation at altitudes in excess of 1000 m (3300 ft) ........................................................................... 8
5. Rating ......................................................................................................................................................... 9
5.1 Basis of rating ...................................................................................................................................... 9
5.2 System frequency ................................................................................................................................ 9
5.3 Reactance rating .................................................................................................................................10
5.4 Voltage rating .....................................................................................................................................10
5.5 Specification of continuous current rating ..........................................................................................10
5.6 Short-circuit current rating .................................................................................................................10
6. Tests ..........................................................................................................................................................13
6.1 Routine, design, and other tests for series reactors .............................................................................13
6.2 Where tests are to be made .................................................................................................................14
6.3 Test sequence ......................................................................................................................................14
6.4 Test procedures ...................................................................................................................................15
7. Losses and impedance ...............................................................................................................................15

7.1 Losses .................................................................................................................................................15
7.2 Impedance...........................................................................................................................................16
7.3 Impedance and losses test ...................................................................................................................16
8. Temperature rise ........................................................................................................................................17

8.1 Considerations in establishing limits of temperature rise ...................................................................17
8.2 Limits of temperature rise ...................................................................................................................19
8.3 Temperature rise tests .........................................................................................................................20
9. Insulation levels and dielectric tests ..........................................................................................................21

9.1 Impulse insulation levels ....................................................................................................................21
9.2 Dielectric test levels ............................................................................................................................23
9.3 Dielectric ............................................................................................................................................23
10. Short-circuit capability ............................................................................................................................25

10.1 Short-circuit description ...................................................................................................................25
viii
10.2 Maximum mechanical stress of series reactors for short-circuit conditions .....................................25
10.3 Thermal limit of series reactors for short-circuit conditions .............................................................27
10.4 Mechanical short-circuit test .............................................................................................................27
11. Test code..................................................................................................................................................27

11.1 General .............................................................................................................................................27
11.2 Resistance measurements .................................................................................................................28
11.3 Dielectric tests ..................................................................................................................................31
11.4 Losses and impedance ......................................................................................................................39
11.5 Temperature rise tests .......................................................................................................................44
11.6 Short-circuit test ...............................................................................................................................48
11.7 Short-time current .............................................................................................................................51
11.8 Audible sound level test....................................................................................................................53
11.9 Seismic verification ..........................................................................................................................57
12. Construction ............................................................................................................................................57

12.1 Nameplates .......................................................................................................................................57
12.2 Insulator units ...................................................................................................................................59
12.3 Tap (in a reactor) ..............................................................................................................................59
Annex A (normative) Specific requirements for dry-type air-core filter reactors .........................................60
Annex B (normative) Specific requirements for dry-type air-core shunt capacitor reactors .........................79
Annex C (normative) Specific requirements for dry-type air-core discharge current-limiting reactors for
series capacitor bank applications .................................................................................................................90
Annex D (normative) Reactors supplied in enclosures..................................................................................99
Annex E (informative) Construction and installation of dry-type air-core series reactors ..........................101
Annex F (informative) System considerations in the application of current-limiting reactors ....................108
Annex G (informative) Bibliography ..........................................................................................................114
ix
Reactors
IMPORTANT NOTICE: This standard is not intended to ensure safety, security, health, or
environmental protection. Implementers of the standard are responsible for determining appropriate
safety, security, environmental, and health practices or regulatory requirements.
This IEEE document is made available for use subject to important notices and legal disclaimers.
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1. Overview
1.1 Scope
This standard applies to series-connected dry-type air-core single-phase and three-phase outdoor or indoor
reactors of distribution and transmission voltage class that are connected in the power system to control
power flow under steady-state conditions and/or limit fault current under short-circuit conditions. Dry-type
air-core reactors covered by this standard are self-cooled by natural air convection.
With some restrictions, this standard is applicable to filter reactors, shunt capacitor reactors (used
with shunt capacitor banks), and discharge current-limiting reactors (used with series capacitor banks).
Annex A, Annex B, and Annex C are included to provide guidance.
This standard does not apply to devices such as
a) Shunt reactors (see IEEE Std C57.21™-2008) 1

b) Arc suppression coils
c) Neutral grounding devices (see IEEE Std 32™-1972 [B21]) 2
1
Information on references can be found in Clause 2.
2
Numbers in brackets correspond to the numbers in the bibliography in Annex G.
1
IEEE Std C57.16-2011
IEEE Standard for Requirements, Terminology, and Test Code for Dry-Type Air-Core Series-Connected Reactors
d) Line resonant reactors

e) High-voltage direct current (HVDC) smoothing reactors (IEEE Std 1277™-2010 [B23])
f) Forced cooled reactors
g) Line traps and radio interference (RI) filter reactors (ANSI C93.3-1995)
1.2 Purpose
The purpose of this standard is to define the requirements and test code for series-connected dry-type air-
core reactors and, with some restrictions, filter reactors, shunt capacitor reactors, and discharge current-
limiting reactors.
2. Normative references
The following referenced documents are indispensable for the application of this document (i.e., they must
be understood and used, so each referenced document is cited in text and its relationship to this document is
explained). For dated references, only the edition cited applies. For undated references, the latest edition of
the referenced document (including any amendments or corrigenda) applies.
ANSI C93.3-1995, American National Standard—Requirements for Power-line Carrier Line Traps. 3
ANSI S1.4-1983, American National Standard Specification for Sound Level Meters (includes supplement
ANSI S1.4a-1985).
ANSI S1.11-1986 (R1993), American National Standard Specification for Octave-Band and Fractional-
Octave-Band Analog and Digital Filters.
IEC 60076-10:2005, Power transformers—Part 10: Determination of sound levels. 4
IEEE Std 1™-2000 (Reaff 2011), IEEE Recommended Practice—General Principles for Temperature
Limits in the Rating of Electrical Equipment and for the Evaluation of Electrical Insulation. 5,6
IEEE Std 4™-1995, IEEE Standard Techniques for High-Voltage Testing.
IEEE Std 693™-2005, IEEE Recommended Practice for Seismic Design of Substations.
IEEE Std 824™-2004, IEEE Standard for Series Capacitor Banks in Power Systems.
IEEE Std C57.21™-2008, IEEE Standard Requirements, Terminology, and Test Code for Shunt Reactors
Rated Over 500 kVA.
IEEE Std C57.98™-1993 (Reaff 1999), IEEE Guide for Transformer Impulse Tests.
NEMA CC 1-2009, Electric Power Connection for Substations. 7
3
ANSI publications are available from the American National Standards Institute (http://www.ansi.org/).
4
IEC publications are available from the International Electrotechnical Commission (http://www.iec.ch/). IEC publications are also
available in the United States from the American National Standards Institute (http://www.ansi.org/).
5
The IEEE standards or products referred to in this clause are trademarks of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc.
6
IEEE publications are available from the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (http://standards.ieee.org/).
7
NEMA publications are available from Global Engineering Documents (http://global.ihs.com/).
2
3. Definitions
For the purposes of this document, the following terms and definitions apply. The IEEE Standards
Dictionary: Glossary of Terms & Definitions 8 should be referenced for terms not defined in this clause.
3.1 Types of dry-type air-core series reactors
air-core reactor: A reactor that does not include a magnetic core or magnetic shield.
indoor reactor: A reactor that, because of its construction, shall be protected from the weather.
outdoor reactor: A reactor of weatherproof construction.
three-phase dry-type air-core reactor: A reactor made up of single-phase devices that are stacked and
magnetically coupled. Depending on the application, the self-inductance may be modified to compensate
for mutual coupling effects.
3.2 Series reactor applications
bus tie reactor: A current-limiting reactor for connection between two different buses or two sections of
the same bus for the purpose of limiting and localizing the disturbance due to a fault in either bus.
current-limiting reactor: A reactor connected in series with the phase conductors for limiting the current
that can flow in a circuit under short-circuit conditions or under other operating conditions, such as
capacitor switching, motor starting, synchronizing, arc stabilization, etc.
duplex current-limiting reactor: A center-tapped reactor used in two circuit branches fed by a common
circuit and wound so that negative coupling is employed under normal operating conditions to reduce
circuit impedance and positive coupling is employed under fault conditions to increase circuit impedance.
feeder reactor: A current-limiting reactor connected in series with a feeder circuit, for the purpose of
limiting and localizing the disturbance due to faults on the feeder.
high-voltage power flow control reactor: A transmission class reactor connected in series with the
transmission system in order to optimize power flow by altering the line reactance.
insertion reactor: A reactor that is connected momentarily across the open contacts of a circuit-
interrupting device for synchronizing and/or switching transient suppression purposes.
load balancing reactor: A series-connected reactor used to correct the division of current between
parallel-connected transformers or circuits that have unequal impedance voltages under steady-state and
short-circuit conditions.
motor starting reactor: A current-limiting reactor used to limit the starting current of a machine.
NOTE—Various technical publications are available that cover the application of series reactors and can be consulted
to provide more background information, application considerations, case studies, etc. 9
8
The IEEE Standards Dictionary: Glossary of Terms and Definitions is available at http://shop.ieee.org.
9
Notes in text, tables, and figures in a standard are given for information only and do not contain requirements needed to implement
the standard.
3
3.3 Rating
rating of a series reactor: The current that a series reactor can carry at its specified reactance together
with any other defining characteristics, such as system voltage, basic impulse insulation level (BIL), short-
circuit current (thermal and mechanical) duty, and frequency.
3.4 Current
mechanical short-circuit rating: The maximum asymmetrical (peak) fault current that the reactor is
capable of withstanding with no loss of electrical or mechanical integrity.
rated continuous current: The maximum root-mean-square (rms) power-frequency current for a specified
duty that can be continuous, or short time, or intermittent.
rated short-time overcurrent: The root-mean-square (rms) power-frequency current, of magnitude greater
than the continuous current rating, that can be carried for a specified period of time.
thermal short-circuit rating: The maximum steady-state short-circuit root-mean-square (rms) current that
can be carried for a specified time, the reactor being approximately at rated temperature rise and maximum
ambient at the time the load is applied without exceeding the specified temperature limits and within the
limitations of established standards.
3.5 Duty
continuous duty: A requirement of service that demands operation at a substantially constant current for
an extended period of time.
duty: A requirement of service that defines the degree of regularity of the current through the reactor.
intermittent duty: A requirement of service that demands operation for alternate periods of current
loading and rest, such alternate intervals being definitely specified.
periodic duty: A type of intermittent duty in which the current loading conditions are regularly recurrent.
short-time duty: A requirement of service that demands operation at a substantially constant current for a
short and definitely specified time.
varying duty: A requirement of service that demands operation at intermittent current loading and for
periods of time, both of which may be subject to wide variation.
3.6 Voltage
nominal voltage (of a system): A nominal value assigned to a system or circuit of a given voltage class for
the purpose of convenient designation.
NOTE—The term nominal voltage designates the line-to-line voltage, as distinguished from the line-to-neutral voltage.
It applies to all parts of the system or circuit.
4
rated system voltage: The voltage of a series reactor to which operational and performance characteristics
are referred. It corresponds to the nominal line-to-line or phase-to-phase system voltage of the circuit on
which the reactor is intended to be used.
voltage to ground: The voltage between any live conductor of a circuit and the earth.
NOTE—Where safety considerations are involved, the voltage to ground that may occur in an ungrounded circuit is
usually the highest voltage normally existing between the conductors of the circuit, but in special circumstances higher
voltages may occur.
3.7 Losses and impedance at system frequency
3.7.1 Losses
“equivalent” resistance: The value of resistance of a series reactor obtained by dividing the total losses by
the current squared at power frequency. See: losses.
losses: The losses that are incident to the carrying of current. They include
a) The resistance and eddy-current loss in the winding due to load current.
b) Losses caused by circulating current in parallel windings.
c) Stray losses caused by magnetic flux in other metallic parts of the reactor, in the reactor support
structure, and in the reactor enclosure when the support structure and the enclosure are supplied as
an integral part of the reactor installation.
NOTE 1—The losses produced by magnetic flux in adjacent apparatus or material not an integral part of the reactor or
its enclosure (if supplied) are not included.
NOTE 2—For three-phase stacked reactors, the losses are those of each individual single-phase reactor and not the
average value or total value of the three-phase reactors with three-phase excitation.
3.7.2 Impedance
impedance: The phasor sum of the reactance and effective resistance, expressed in ohms.
impedance voltage drop: The product of the rated impedance and the rated current of a series reactor.
per-unit reactance: On a rated current base, a dimensionless quantity obtained by referencing the
magnitude of the reactance to the rated system line-to-neutral voltage divided by the rated current of the
reactor.
NOTE—Per-unit reactance can also be defined on an arbitrary megavoltampere (MVA) base.
rated inductance: The total installed inductance at a specified frequency. It may consist of mutual as well
as self-inductance components.
rated reactance: The product of rated inductance and rated angular frequency that provides the required
reduction in fault current or other desired modification to power circuit characteristics.
reactance: The product of the inductance, in henries, and the angular frequency of the system.
reactance voltage drop: The component of voltage drop in quadrature with the current.
5
resistance voltage drop: The component of voltage drop in phase with the current.
NOTE—If the coupling is high in a three-phase stacked reactor, the resistive voltage drop and reactive voltage drop of
one reactor may be significantly affected by the adjacent reactor.
4. General requirements
4.1 Service conditions
4.1.1 Usual service conditions
Series reactors conforming to this standard shall be suitable for operation at standard rating provided that
the site-related conditions in the following subclauses are met.
4.1.1.1 Ambient temperature
Ambient temperature is the temperature of the air surrounding the reactor. For the purposes of this
standard, it is assumed that the temperature of the cooling air (ambient temperature) does not exceed 40 °C
and the average temperature of the cooling air for any 24 h period does not exceed 30 °C. 10
4.1.1.2 Environmental and application-related service conditions
Reactors for outdoor application shall be designed for conditions such as rain, freezing rain (ice), snow, fog
and ultraviolet (UV) ray exposure. The purchaser should, in the specification, attempt to quantify or qualify
environmental conditions, including type and level of pollution. The reactor should also be designed to
withstand, without damage or loss of service life, mechanical loads such as electromagnetic forces during
short circuits, wind loading, and stresses caused by thermal expansion and contraction due to ambient
temperature and current loading variations. Wind speed data, including gust factors, should be specified by
the purchaser. In the case of indoor application, the purchaser should specify the type and level of pollution
from the environment and the indoor ambient temperature range.
4.1.1.3 Altitude
The altitude does not exceed 1000 m (3300 ft).
4.1.2 Unusual service conditions and other conditions that may affect design and
application
Unusual service conditions may require that particular consideration be given to the construction or
operation of the equipment, and these should be brought to the attention of those responsible for the
specification, manufacture, application, and operation of the equipment. Among such unusual conditions
are the following:
10
It is recommended that the average temperature of the cooling air be calculated by averaging 24 consecutive hourly readings. When
the outdoor air is the cooling medium, the average of the maximum and minimum daily temperature may be used. The value that is
obtained in this manner is usually slightly higher than the true daily average.
6
a) Application at higher ambient temperatures or at higher altitudes than specified in 4.1.1.

NOTE—Standard equipment may be applied at higher ambient temperatures or at higher altitudes than
specified, but the performance will be affected.
b) Restriction of air flow to the reactor that could affect its self-cooling by natural air convection.
c) Exposure to foreign materials, such as damaging fumes or vapors; farm fertilizers and weed sprays;
excessive dust, abrasive or magnetic dust; explosive mixtures of dust or gases; steam, excessive
moisture, or dripping water; salt air or spray, etc.
d) Exposure to abnormal vibration, shock, or tilting.
e) Exposure to temperatures below –40 °C.
f) Exposure to unusual transportation or storage conditions.
g) Unusual space limitations.
h) Operating duty, difficult or irregular maintenance, abnormal harmonic content, unbalanced voltage,
special insulation requirement, etc.
i) Unusual operating requirements, such as might result from the absence of surge-arrester protection,
lack of magnetic shielding, etc.
NOTE—If a series reactor is not fully shielded magnetically, consideration should be given to its location
relative to other apparatus and to metallic structures in order to minimize heating effects of stray fields at
normal current and reaction forces under short circuit. The manufacturer can evaluate the suitability of an
installation if provided with details of the surrounding structure.
j) Operation of system with one phase conductor grounded.

NOTE—This should be considered as an emergency operating condition, and the duration should be limited to
the time reasonably required to isolate the fault.
4.2 Insulation
4.2.1 Insulation between turns
Dry-type air-core series reactors have no magnetic core; therefore, the primary internal insulation is solely
the winding turn-to-turn insulation system. In the case of open-style dry-type reactor designs, the insulation
between turns is provided by air and the materials utilized to separate the turns. In the case of dry-type
reactors with fully encapsulated windings, the insulation between turns is usually a solid dielectric material.
The material utilized to encapsulate such a reactor is employed, in part, to provide environmental protection
and mechanical strength. In selecting appropriate materials to be utilized as turns insulation on the
conductors, it is necessary to evaluate dielectric properties, mechanical properties, and multifactor aging
characteristics under operating conditions. Encapsulation materials are evaluated in a similar fashion.
Amount, type, and method of application of materials employed are a function of manufacturing
considerations, specification requirements, service (application) requirements, and site or environmental
conditions.
4.2.2 Insulation between terminals
The distance between input and output terminals, the winding length, the electrode configuration of the
winding ends, and the dielectric properties of the winding surface shall be such that the reactor can
withstand the steady-state operating voltages, short-time, and transient overvoltages applied between the
terminals.
7
4.2.3 Insulation to ground and between phases
The support insulators provide the primary insulation to ground and, if applicable, between phases of a dry-
type air-core series reactor. These are selected based on system voltage considerations, special transient
overvoltage requirements, and site environmental conditions (e.g., pollution, altitude).
4.3 Operation at altitudes in excess of 1000 m (3300 ft)
Standard equipment may be applied in locations having an altitude in excess of 1000 m (3300 ft), but the
dielectric strength of air-insulated parts and the current-carrying capacity will be reduced. For instance, the
effect of decreased air density due to high altitude is to decrease the flashover voltage for a given distance.
See IEEE Std C37.100.1-2007 [B13] for guidance.
4.3.1 Dielectric strength of air-insulated parts
The dielectric strength, at altitudes greater than 1000 m (3300 ft), of air-insulated parts of a given insulation
class should be multiplied by the proper altitude correction factor, as given in Table 1, to obtain the
dielectric strength at the required altitude. For example, the dielectric strength of a series reactor that
depends in whole or in part upon air for its insulation decreases as the altitude increases.
Table 1 —Dielectric strength correction factors

for altitudes greater than 1000 m (3300 ft)
Altitude Altitude correction factor

m ft for dielectric strength
1000 3300 1.00

1200 4000 0.98
1500 5000 0.95
1800 6000 0.92
2100 7000 0.89
2400 8000 0.86
2700 9000 0.83
3000 10 000 0.80
3600 12 000 0.75
4200 14 000 0.70
4500 15 000 0.67
NOTE—An altitude of 4500 m (15 000 ft) is considered a maximum for standard reactors.
4.3.2 Operation at rated continuous current
It is recognized as good practice to use reactors of standard temperature rise at rated current at altitudes
greater than 1000 m (3300 ft) provided the average temperature of the cooling air does not exceed the
values in Table 2 for the respective altitudes. Standard temperature limits will not be exceeded.
8
Table 2 —Maximum allowable 24 h average temperature of cooling air to permit

a dry-type air-core series reactor to carry rated continuous current
Altitude
Insulation index (°C)
(°C)
1000 m (3300 ft) 2000 m (6600 ft) 3000 m (9900 ft) 4000 m (13 200 ft)
105 30 27 24 21
130 30 26 22 18
155 30 24 18 12
180 30 23 16 9
220 30 22 15 7
NOTE—Recommended calculation of average temperature is described in Footnote 9 (see page 6).
4.3.3 Operation at less than rated continuous current
It is recommended that, when reactors of standard temperature rise in standard ambient temperatures are
used at altitudes greater than 1000 m (3300 ft), the current to be carried be reduced below rating by 0.3%
for each 100 m (330 ft) that the altitude is above 1000 m. If this is done, the standard temperature rise will
not be exceeded.
5. Rating
5.1 Basis of rating
The rating of a series reactor shall include the following:
a) Rated reactance (in ohms or percent)

b) Voltage drop
c) Rated system voltage
d) Rated continuous current
e) Mechanical and thermal short-circuit current
f) Number of phases
g) Power frequency
h) Basic impulse insulation level (BIL)
i) Rated inductance
5.2 System frequency
The reference system frequency for series reactors used in this standard in North America is 60 Hz.
NOTE—As this standard is used outside North America, 50 Hz may be the operating frequency. In this case,
calculations should be modified accordingly.
9
5.3 Reactance rating
Most currently available dry-type air-core series reactors are custom designed; thus the end user should
specify the exact reactance required.
5.3.1 Reactance voltage drop
The reactance voltage drop of a series reactor at its rated current is obtained by multiplying the rated
reactance by the rated current.
5.4 Voltage rating
Custom-designed dry-type air-core series reactors are available for any system voltage including the
standard ones listed in Table 6 (in Clause 9). The rated voltage of the series reactor should be equal to or
greater than the highest expected operating voltage that will be seen by the reactor in service.
5.5 Specification of continuous current rating
Custom-designed dry-type air-core series reactors allow the end user to specify the exact current rating
required, including special duty cycles.
NOTE—If harmonic current content is significant, it should be taken into consideration in arriving at the continuous
current rating of the series reactor.
5.6 Short-circuit current rating
5.6.1 Mechanical and thermal short-circuit current rating
Series (current-limiting) reactors shall have a thermal and mechanical short-circuit current rating. The
thermal and mechanical short-circuit rating shall be specified by the purchaser. Typically, the short-circuit
rating is determined from the calculated current when any type of fault occurs at the load side terminals
with a minimum of 105% of rated system voltage present as measured at the supply side terminals of the
reactor. Anticipated system voltages of greater than 105% shall be specified and accounted for, as operation
of reactors at a higher system voltage than that used for the short-circuit calculation imposes a severe short-
circuit duty that may be beyond the mechanical strength of the reactor. It should also be emphasized that
system impedance, at the location in the system where the reactor is to be installed, should be considered in
arriving at the short-circuit rating of the current-limiting reactor in order to achieve an economic design that
fully meets all system requirements. This approach, however, may result in designs that are specific to the
particular system location and are not interchangeable. The mechanical short-circuit current rating is based
on the worst-case assumption of a simultaneous three-phase fault and the resulting offset peak current. The
degree of offset is a function of system damping. The magnitude of the thermal short-circuit current rating
is obtained from system fault calculations and the duration is a function of system operating policy
including number of “autorecloses” of the breaker, etc. Some useful formulas and a sample calculation
follow.
10
Reference formulas include Equation (1) through Equation (4).
(Vs ) 2
XL = (1)
MVA
 1 1 
X R = (Vs ) 2  −  (2)
 MVAA MVAB 
Vs  1 1 
XR =  −  (3)
3  I SCA I SCB 
MVA V 1 (4)
I SC = , I SC = s ×
3 × Vs 3 XL
NOTE—The equation for XL is correct only for the special case where the system resistance R is zero. In actual
systems, R is finite. However, the system resistance can be ignored if the R/X ratio is small enough. For an R/X ratio of
0.05 or an X/R ratio of 20 (about the middle of Table 8 in 10.2.2), the error is about 0.1%.
where
MVA is the three-phase symmetrical system fault level, in megavoltamperes

MVAB is the three-phase symmetrical system fault level on the source side of a series reactor
MVAA is the three-phase symmetrical system fault level on the load side of a series reactor
XL is the total, per-phase, system equivalent series reactance, in ohms
XR is the reactance of series reactor, in ohms
VS is the system line-to-line root-mean-square (rms) voltage, in kilovolts
ISC is the rms short-circuit current, in kiloamperes
ISCB is the per-phase, system fault current, in kiloamperes, excluding the use of a series reactor
ISCA is the per-phase, system fault current, in kiloamperes, including the use of a series reactor
A sample calculation is as follows:
a) Rated system voltage is equal to 13.8 kV.

b) Fault level is equal to 100 MVA at 105% of rated system voltage.
c) Reduce fault level to 50 MVA at 105% of rated system voltage.
The existing system series reactance is calculated using Equation (5).
XL =
(13.8 × 1.05)2 = 2.1 Ω (5)
100
11
The total series reactance required to limit fault level to 50 MVA and accounting for a nominal operating
overvoltage of 105% is calculated using Equation (6).
XL =
(13.8 × 1.05)2 = 4.20 Ω (6)
50
Therefore, the required value of the series reactor reactance is calculated using Equation (7).
XR = 4.20 – 2.1 = 2.10 Ω (7)
The symmetrical rms fault-current rating of the reactor is calculated using Equation (8).
I SCA =
(13.8 × 1.05) × 1
= 2.0 kA (8)
3 4.2
5.6.2 Short-circuit mechanical stresses
Under short-circuit conditions, the electromagnetic forces and associated stresses in the windings and
ancillary components of dry-type air-core reactors can reach values tens to hundreds of times those seen
under steady-state operating conditions. Forces and stresses are proportional to the square of the magnitude
of the current. Windings are subjected to simultaneous hoop and compressive forces. Input and output
current-carrying bus or cable (including the terminals to which they are attached) shall withstand “vectoral”
loads that vary with the spatially changing pattern of the dry-type air-core reactor’s magnetic field. The
reactor’s mechanical clamping structure and support elements are exposed to direct acting forces (if they
carry current) as well as reaction forces.
5.6.3 Mechanical short-circuit current rating
The mechanical short-circuit current rating shall be expressed as maximum peak asymmetrical amperes.
The maximum peak of an asymmetrical current shall be determined by the purchaser through system
knowledge and the use of Equation (9) in 10.2.2. If not specified by the purchaser, the maximum peak
asymmetrical current shall be considered as 2.55 times the rms symmetrical current (Ipk = 2.55 × Irms).
NOTE—This is consistent with IEC 60076-6:2007 [B9].
The mechanical short-circuit current rating shall be verified by a design test and/or calculation. The method
of calculation is to be agreed upon by the manufacturer and the purchaser.
5.6.4 Thermal short-circuit current rating
Series (current-limiting) reactors shall have a thermal short-circuit current rating of magnitude based on the
rms symmetrical fault current as specified in 5.6.1. The duration should be specified by the purchaser and
should typically take into consideration system protection practices such as breaker interrupting time,
breaker autoreclose sequence, etc.
The thermal short-circuit current rating shall be expressed in rms symmetrical amperes.
12
Typical values for the duration of the thermal short-circuit current rating are 1 s, 2 s, or 3 s. The actual
required duration should be specified by the purchaser. If not specified by the purchaser, the duration of the
thermal short-circuit current shall be considered to be 3 s.
NOTE—Duration of short-circuit current can impact the cost of a current-limiting reactor; therefore, it is in the
purchaser’s best interest to specify a realistic value of time.
The thermal short-circuit current rating shall be verified by a design test and/or calculation. The calculation
method is found in 11.7.
5.6.5 Enclosures
When reactors are used in enclosures, a number of precautions should be observed. Such precautions
include at least the following. For fiberglass enclosures, large metallic auxiliary parts (e.g., ventilation
screens) shall be grounded in order to avoid shorted loops that could be subject to heavy current flow and
damaging forces under short-circuit conditions. Metal enclosures shall be designed using the principles of
sectionalization and isolation in order to avoid overheating under steady-state operating conditions and
permanent distortion, excessive temperature, or sparking under short-circuit conditions.
NOTE—The design of enclosures for use with air-core series reactors requires extensive engineering expertise and
proper coordination with the reactor design. It is, therefore, recommended that the design of enclosures be left to the
reactor manufacturer. Manufacture of the enclosures should also be left to the reactor manufacturer unless design
details are supplied.
6. Tests
6.1 Routine, design, and other tests for series reactors
Tests for dry-type series reactors are listed in Table 3.
Table 3 —Routine, design, and other tests for dry-type series reactors
Test classification
Test When performed
Routine Design Other
Resistance measurement The dc resistance measurement shall be made on all X
units.
Impedance measurement The impedance measurement shall be made on all units. X
Total loss measurement Total losses shall be measured on all units. X
Temperature rise test This test is performed on one unit out of a number of
X
units of the same design.
Applied voltage test The applied voltage test shall be made only on support
X
insulators when specified.
Radio influence voltage This test is performed for nominal system voltages
X
(RIV) test 230 kV and above only when specified.
Turn-to-turn test This test is performed for nominal system voltages of
X
34.5 kV and below.
13
Test classification
Test When performed
Routine Design Other
Lightning impulse test
— Nominal system voltage The lightning impulse test shall be performed on all
greater than 34.5 kV units. X
— Nominal system voltage The lightning impulse test shall be performed only when
at or below 34.5 kV specified. X
Switching impulse test The switching impulse test shall be made on the support
structure (insulators) of series reactors rated 230 kV or X
above only when specified.
Chopped-wave impulse test The chopped-wave impulse test shall be made on series
X
reactors only when specified.
Audible sound test Units shall be tested only when specified. X
Seismic verification test The seismic verification test shall be made on series
X
reactors only when specified.
Short-circuit test One unit of a design shall be tested only when specified. X
6.1.1 Routine tests
A routine test is a test made on each and every unit of a specific design and is primarily a verification of
quality. Routine tests shall be made on all series reactors in accordance with the requirements of Table 3.
6.1.2 Design tests
A design test (also referred to as a type test) is a test carried out on a single unit of a specific design and is
primarily a verification of the ability to meet in-service application requirements. Design tests shall be
made on series reactors in accordance with the requirements of Table 3.
6.1.3 Other tests
A test designated as “other” is a test performed on one or all units of a specific design if requested by the
purchaser. Such a test may be requested to demonstrate conformance to special application requirements as
opposed to the more general application requirements covered by design tests. When specified (as
individual tests), “other” special tests, as listed in Table 3, shall be made on series reactors.
6.2 Where tests are to be made
All tests are to be made at the manufacturer’s plant, a recognized independent test laboratory, or other
suitable facility unless specified otherwise.
6.3 Test sequence
The listing of tests shown in Table 3 does not necessarily indicate the sequence in which the tests shall be
made. All tests are defined in and shall be made in accordance with Clause 11.
14
6.4 Test procedures
The test procedures of this standard describe accepted methods used in making the tests and specify the
tests that demonstrate performance to rating. They do not preclude the use of other equivalent or more
effective methods of demonstrating ratings based on agreement between manufacturer and purchaser.
7. Losses and impedance
7.1 Losses
7.1.1 Tolerance on losses
A tolerance on losses is utilized for two purposes: first, for commercial evaluation and, second, to provide
the basis of a quality check.
7.1.1.1 Tolerance on losses for commercial evaluation
As energy costs increase, losses become a more significant component of total operating cost and, as such,
may be evaluated by the purchaser. Therefore, compliance to guaranteed losses may become part of the
commercial contract. A tolerance on losses, e.g., to account for measurement tolerances or other
considerations, may be part of the contractual agreement. Additionally, the contract may specify guarantee
criteria such as maximum loss per unit, average loss for all units, total “package” losses, etc. In any case,
this is a commercial matter between the purchaser and the manufacturer.
From an engineering standpoint, if a unit exceeds guaranteed loss, aside from the commercial implications
(which are a matter between the manufacturer and the purchaser), it is essential to demonstrate that
temperature rise limits for the insulation system employed are not exceeded.
7.1.1.2 Tolerance on losses as the basis of a quality check
The losses on any individual reactor unit shall not differ from the average loss of all units of the same
design by more than 6%. For single-phase units, the average loss shall be calculated by using the measured
losses on each individual unit. For three-phase stacked reactors, the average loss for each phase shall be
calculated by using the per-phase losses measured on a three-phase basis on each individual coil of a three-
phase stacked reactor. For three-phase stacked reactors, the 6% tolerance on losses applies to units of the
same phase.
If any of the individual units exceeds this tolerance, the manufacturer shall initiate an investigation in order
to find the cause of this deviation. In order for acceptance to be considered, the manufacturer shall
demonstrate to the purchaser, by either calculation and/or test, that the deviation will not impair the ability
of the unit to meet the other requirements of this standard, including the temperature rise limits.
15
7.2 Impedance
7.2.1 Tolerance on impedance
Tolerances on impedance apply over a current range from zero to full short-circuit rating.
7.2.2 Impedance of a single-phase reactor
The impedance of a single-phase reactor, or of the minimum tap of a single-phase reactor having more than
one impedance rating, shall not vary more than +7% or –3% from its guaranteed value. The impedance for
all other connections shall not vary more than +10% or –3% from the guaranteed value.
7.2.3 Self-impedance of a three-phase reactor
The self-impedance of each phase of a three-phase reactor, or of the minimum tap of a three-phase reactor
having more than one impedance rating, shall not vary more than +7% or –3% from its guaranteed value.
The self-impedance for all other connections shall not vary more than +10% or –3% from the guaranteed
value.
7.2.4 Voltage drop
The voltage drop across each phase of a three-phase reactor, or of the minimum tap of a three-phase reactor
having more than one rated voltage drop, with balanced three-phase rated current, shall be not more than
14% above or 3% below the guaranteed value. The voltage drop for all other connections shall be not more
than 16% above or 3% below the guaranteed value.
7.2.5 Compensation for mutual impedance
When three-phase reactors are specified to be compensated for mutual impedance to provide balanced
three-phase voltage drops, the minimum self-impedance of any phase shall be not less than 75% of the
guaranteed value. Usually power systems are designed such that single-phase short-circuit currents are
lower than three-phase short-circuit currents. However, it should be recognized that single line-to-ground
faults on a system with a grounded neutral may result in fault currents in the lowest self-impedance phase
higher than the three-phase fault currents. If no system impedance is considered, fault currents in the lowest
self-impedance phase can be as high as 1.33 times the three-phase fault currents.
NOTE—In the case of orders with multiple three-phase stacks, it is permissible to assemble only one three-phase stack
and by measurement obtain the coupling factor(s). These coupling factor(s) can be used to obtain the effective
inductance (mutual inductance included) per phase for the other reactors in three-phase stack configuration from single-
phase self-inductance measurements.
7.3 Impedance and losses test
Since dry-type air-core reactors have no iron core, the impedance and losses may be measured at any value
of current and the losses corrected to rated current. For temperature correction, refer to 11.4.2.
For three-phase stacked reactors, the loss measurement shall be performed on each individual single-phase
reactor when it is energized with single-phase current.
16
If a wattmeter is used to determine losses, then impedance can be calculated by simultaneously measuring
current and voltage and dividing the voltage by the current. Bridge methods allow the simultaneous
measurement of reactance (inductance) and equivalent resistance, from which impedance and losses can be
calculated.
8. Temperature rise
8.1 Considerations in establishing limits of temperature rise
8.1.1 Life of insulating materials
The life of insulating materials commonly used in dry-type series reactors depends largely upon the
temperatures to which they are subjected and the duration of such temperatures.
Since the actual temperature is the sum of the ambient temperature and the winding temperature rise, it is
apparent that the ambient temperature very largely influences the life of insulating materials used in dry-
type series reactors.
Other factors upon which the life of insulating materials depends are as follows:
a) Dielectric stress and associated effects

b) Vibration or varying mechanical stress
c) Repeated expansions and contractions
d) Exposure to moisture, contaminants, etc.
e) Overloading (current) of the device
8.1.2 Insulating materials
A wide range of conductor insulating materials is available. Most materials utilized today are polymers,
which tend to be available in tape form, enamels or varnishes, and extrudable format. Selection of a
conductor insulation material may be a function of thermal requirements, voltage requirements, mechanical
requirements, or other service considerations. Because materials can exhibit different performance
capabilities under various operating conditions, individual materials or combination of materials can be
used in reactors of different temperature classes depending on the end application. It is for this reason that
materials are no longer defined as Class B, F, or H and are now assigned temperature indices. Each
temperature index assigned to a material carries the implied descriptors of temperature, number of
serviceable hours at that temperature, and end-of-life criteria. In general terms, an insulating material can
be assigned more than one specific temperature index depending on the end-of-life criteria and
performance characteristics desired. Therefore, because materials can exhibit different performance
capabilities under various construction formats and operating conditions, the classification of a dry-type
reactor as being of a particular temperature class does not imply that each individual material used in its
construction is of the same thermal capability. The assignment of the temperature index of the insulation
system and of the associated “hot spot” temperature rise is the responsibility of the reactor manufacturer.
Only experience or adequate acceptance tests provide a basis for defining the temperature limits for the
insulation system.
17
8.1.3 Thermal rating of materials and systems
Individual insulation and encapsulation materials may be assigned a temperature index based on the ability
to retain a certain performance characteristic for a specified number of hours at a specified temperature.
However, in the case of dry-type air-core series reactors, it is not the performance characteristics of the
constituent materials by themselves that is of interest; it is the performance of the system. Therefore, in
designing dry-type air-core reactors for appropriate service life, it is not sufficient just to know the
capabilities of the constituent materials; it is the performance of the system of materials that is critical since
individual materials in a system can interact.
Although performance at temperature is one of the main evaluating criteria for materials, multifactor aging
effects also should be considered, especially for the overall system. The assessment of what the important
interactive aging mechanisms are is really in the jurisdiction of the manufacturer. Interactive aging
mechanisms that might have to be considered are temperature, electrical stress, thermal shock, mechanical
load cycling, and environmental criteria.
Multifactor aging studies to establish the long-term performance of insulation materials are usually carried
out based on principles in IEEE Std 1-2000.
8.1.4 Limits of temperature rise and duty of current-limiting reactors
Because series reactors are used in series with other equipment on the power system, the current through
the reactor usually varies as the connected load changes. Unless there are special conditions, series reactors
do not operate at full rated current for much of their life.
Similar series-connected equipment (i.e., power line carrier wave traps; see ANSI C93.3-1995) typically
have higher allowable winding temperature rise values due to variation in duty. Conversely, shunt reactors
inherently have a very high continuous duty, with their current varying only with the applied voltage.
Therefore, they have lower maximum winding temperature rise limits (see IEEE Std C57.21-2008) than
series-connected equipment, since the winding will be at maximum design temperature rise for most of its
connected lifetime.
Therefore, duty is also a major factor in arriving at the temperature rise limits in Table 4 (see 8.2.3).
8.1.5 Experience factor in establishing temperature rise limits for dry-type air-core series
reactors
Although knowledge of the thermal capabilities of the constituent materials in a dry-type air-core series
reactor can provide a basis for establishing the allowable temperature rise limit for the reactor, service
experience is also a significant determiner. This was an important criterion in arriving at the temperature
rise limits in Table 4 (see 8.2.3). For this reason, the average temperature rise limits and hot spot
temperature rise limits in Table 4 were arrived at both from the point of view of the temperature index of
the insulation system and also from the application experience (including duty) and service history obtained
from the application of reactors designed to identical temperature rise limits in the previous editions of this
standard (ANSI C57.16-1958 and IEEE Std C57.16-1996).
18
8.2 Limits of temperature rise
8.2.1 Standard limits of temperature rise
The standard limits of temperature rise of series reactors shall be as given in Table 4 (see 8.2.3).
Specifically, series reactors shall be designed so that the hottest-spot conductor temperature rise above the
ambient temperature when operated at rated current does not exceed the values given in Table 4.
8.2.2 Enclosed reactor
When a dry-type air-core reactor is enclosed, external parts that can be touched shall not exceed a 30 °C
temperature rise.
8.2.3 Temperature rise of reactor parts
The temperature rise above the ambient temperature of reactor parts in contact with the insulation or
encapsulation material, when operated at rated current, shall not exceed the values given in Table 4. The
temperature rise limit shall be based on the specific insulation temperature index of the insulation and
encapsulation materials, whichever is in contact with the metallic part. For procedures in determining
temperature rise, see 11.5.
Table 4 —Limits of temperature rise for

continuously rated dry-type air-core series reactors
Insulation temperature Average winding temperature rise Hottest-spot winding
Item index b,c by resistance a,d,e,f temperature rise a,d,f
(°C) (°C) (°C)
1 105 55 85
130 80 110
155 100 135
180 115 160
220 140 200
2 Metallic parts in contact with or adjacent to the insulation shall not attain a temperature in excess of
that allowed for the hottest spot of the windings adjacent to that insulation.
3 Metallic parts other than those covered in item 2 shall not attain excessive temperature rises.
a
Temperature rise is rise above ambient in degrees Celsius.
b
A reactor with a specified temperature rise shall have an insulation temperature index that has been proven by experience or testing.
c
The insulation temperature index in Table 4 is supplied as a reference and is based on the preferred temperature index for insulation
materials as defined in IEEE Std 1-2000. It should be noted that the preferred temperature index is the lowest value in a number range
(of temperatures) into which insulation materials can be placed. This results in an element of conservatism in the thermal performance
of an insulation system and thus constitutes part of the experience factors in assigning temperature rise limits.
d
The above average temperature rises and hot spot temperature rises are maximum upper limits. Hottest-spot winding temperature rise
limits are based on the accepted experience that series reactors are subject to significant variation in duty. The reference ambient
temperature is considered to be a 20 °C annual average ambient temperature in conjunction with the capability to operate in a 40 °C
maximum ambient when the 24 h average is 30 °C. Specified temperature limits may be lower due to such service considerations as
high average ambient temperature conditions, prolonged exposure to high ambients, indoor versus outdoor service, high continuous
duty (limited “load cycling”), and loading profile (specified overloads).
e
The average winding temperature rise limits are based on the attempt to achieve an approximate 40% differential between hot spot
rise and average rise. However, it should not be construed that the difference between maximum hot spot rise and average rise is a hot
spot allowance. There are so many design variables involved that it is not possible to arrive at a meaningful single value. Nevertheless,
it should be stressed that the intent is that neither the average winding rise nor the hottest-spot winding rise should be exceeded. Since
it is generally hot spot temperature rise that determines the life of a reactor, the manufacturer and purchaser may agree that the average
temperature rise can be safely exceeded for some reactor designs provided the hot spot rise limit is respected and verified.
f
Consideration should be given to specifying reduced temperature rise limits for reactors utilized on generator lines, interties, etc. In
these types of applications, equipment is usually fully loaded most of the time, as opposed to more usual applications where equipment
is loaded based on varying duty (“load cycled”).
19
8.2.4 Temperature rise of terminals
Table 5 gives the temperature rise limits for terminals.
Table 5 —Temperature rise limits for terminals

Maximum value
Terminal description Temperature rise at
Connection, bolted or the equivalent Temperature ambient air temperature
(°C) not exceeding 40 °C
(°C)
Bare-copper, bare-copper alloy or bare-aluminum alloy
– in air 90 50
Silver-coated or nickel-coated
– in air 115 75
Tin-coated
– in air 105 65
For more information, see Braunovic [B3], [B4], and [B5]; Jackson [B25]; and IEC/TR 60943:2007 [B11].
NOTE—It should be recognized that the terminals of reactors, of necessity, come at the ends of the winding where the
flux density may be almost as high as it is inside the coil. Therefore, it is important, especially for high-current reactor
units, to use appropriate connectors, preferably those that present a streamlined geometry to the magnetic field. It is
also critical that the dimensions and the direction of approach of the user’s conductors do not increase the eddy losses;
otherwise, the temperature rise of the connection may be greatly increased. If the user’s conductor insulation is limited
to a lower temperature rise than that allowed for the reactor terminal, a section of bare conductor that radiates sufficient
heat to provide the desired temperature differential should be inserted by the user.
8.3 Temperature rise tests
8.3.1 Test methodology
This test shall be made by passing rated continuous current through the reactor until the temperature rise
becomes constant and then determining the hottest-spot temperature rise, where practicable, together with
the average winding temperature rise. The temperature rise tests shall be made in a room that is essentially
draft-free.
When the available test power does not permit making the test at rated continuous current, then the
manufacturer should demonstrate to the user that reduced current testing produces sufficiently accurate
results when extrapolated to rated current level. The manufacturer should notify the user of reduced current
level testing during the proposal stage.
NOTE—For higher current rated units, knowledge of in-service terminal temperature rise may be of importance. In this
case, consideration should be given to performing the temperature rise test with the actual connectors to be used in
service, especially if they differ from those recommended by the manufacturer. If the connectors are not supplied by the
manufacturer, the end user should supply them. It is important that conditions for such a test truly reflect in-service
operating conditions, or erroneous results may be obtained. Test conditions should be agreed to by manufacturer and
end user.
20
8.3.2 Hottest-spot determination
The hottest-spot temperature rise for dry-type series reactors shall be determined by thermometer or other
devices such as fiber-optic probes or temperature “stickers” where the use of thermocouples poses a hazard
due to high voltage.
8.3.3 Ambient temperature
Ambient temperature for an open reactor is the temperature of the air surrounding the reactor and for an
enclosed reactor is the temperature of the air surrounding the enclosure.
8.3.4 Methods of temperature determination
8.3.4.1 Thermometer method of temperature determination
The thermometer method consists of determining the temperature by mercury or alcohol thermometers, by
resistance thermometers, or by thermocouples, any of these instruments being applied to the hottest part of
the apparatus accessible to mercury or alcohol thermometers.
8.3.4.2 Resistance method of temperature determination
The resistance method consists of the determination of the temperature by comparison of the resistance of a
winding at the temperature to be determined with the resistance at a known temperature.
9. Insulation levels and dielectric tests
9.1 Impulse insulation levels
The standard impulse insulation levels for series reactors are given in Table 6, column 2. These values are
expressed in terms of the peak value of a 1.2 × 50 µs full wave.
Table 6 —Insulation test levels for dry-type air-core series reactors

1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Rated system BIL and full Chopped-wave Time to Switching Turn-to-turn Power-frequency
voltage wave test b,g test c chopping impulse testd test voltagee withstand testf
(kV)a (kV peak) (kV peak) (µs) (kV peak) (kV peak) (kV rms)
1.2 30 33 1.0 — 25 10
45 50 1.5 — 38 10
2.5 45 50 1.5 — 38 15
60 66 1.5 — 51 15
5.0 60 66 1.5 — 51 19
75 83 1.5 — 64 19
8.7 75 83 1.5 — 64 26
95 105 1.8 — 81 26
21
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Rated system BIL and full Chopped-wave Time to Switching Turn-to-turn Power-frequency
voltage wave test b,g test c chopping impulse testd test voltagee withstand testf
(kV)a (kV peak) (kV peak) (µs) (kV peak) (kV peak) (kV rms)
15 95 105 1.8 — 81 34
110 120 2.0 — 94 34
25 150 165 3.0 — 128 50
34.5 200 220 3.0 — 170 70
46 200 220 3.0 — — 95
250 275 3.0 — — 95
69 250 275 3.0 — — 140
350 385 3.0 — — 140
115 350 385 3.0 291 — 173
450 495 3.0 375 — 173
550 605 3.0 450 — 173
138 450 495 3.0 375 — 207
550 605 3.0 460 — 207
650 715 3.0 540 — 207
161 550 605 3.0 460 — 242
650 715 3.0 540 — 242
750 825 3.0 620 — 242
825 900 3.0 685 — 242
230 750 825 3.0 620 — 345
825 900 3.0 685 — 345
900 990 3.0 745 — 345
345 1050 1155 3.0 870 — 518
1175 1290 3.0 975 — 518
500 1425 1570 3.0 1180 — 750
1550 1705 3.0 1290 — 750
1675 1845 3.0 1390 — 750
735 1950 2145 3.0 1550 — 830
765 2050 2255 3.0 1700 — 880
a
A reduced insulation level may be applied across reactor terminals if the reactor is adequately protected by a surge arrester. This could be
an economical engineering solution for some series reactors installed on transmission systems such as current-limiting reactors, series
capacitor discharge reactors, etc. For such cases, the insulation level across the reactor shall be one of the above standardized levels and shall
be at least 1.25 times the 8 × 20 µs, 10 kA protective level of the surge arresters connected between terminals.
b
In the case of dry-type air-core series reactors employed in a three-phase stack configuration, interphase insulators may have a higher BIL
rating than those at the base of the stack that provide only phase-to-ground insulation.
c
Chopped-wave test level is defined as 1.1 × BIL (basic impulse insulation level) test level, including the appropriate “round-off.”
d
Switching impulse test is applicable to the support insulator only and is defined for nominal system voltages 230 kV and higher.
e
Turn-to-turn test levels are defined for BIL equal to or less than 200 kV. Turn-to-turn test levels are defined to be approximately 90% of the
rated BIL across reactor terminals. For BIL voltages greater than 200 kV, the turn-to-turn test is not applicable, and a full-wave impulse test
is to be performed as a routine test. Although the Dry-Type Reactor Working Group considered extending the turn-to-turn test up to BIL
equal to or less than 550 kV, it was decided not to include test values in Table 6 as fully commercialized test equipment was not readily
available or fully proven. However, the option remains to employ a turn-to-turn test at higher BILs based on a crest voltage of approximately
85% of BIL. Performance of the turn-to-turn test in lieu of the impulse test would be based on the availability of test equipment and
agreement between the manufacturer and the purchaser.
f
Power-frequency withstand test is applicable to the support insulator only.
g
For reactors installed indoors, the end user may specify a reduced BIL.
22
9.2 Dielectric test levels
Standard impulse and low-frequency dielectric test levels for series reactors shall be as given in Table 6.
9.3 Dielectric
9.3.1 Dielectric tests
Dielectric tests are tests that consist of the application of a voltage higher than the rated voltage for a
specified time for the purpose of determining the adequacy against breakdown of insulating materials and
spacing under normal conditions.
9.3.2 Turn-to-turn overvoltage test
The turn-to-turn test for dry-type air-core series reactors shall be made by applying between the terminals
of each winding a series of high-frequency, exponentially decaying sinusoidal voltages. The test sequence
shall consist of a reduced sinusoidal voltage discharge followed by 7200 sinusoidal voltage discharges with
a first peak voltage at least equal to the values specified in Table 6, column 6. The duration of the test shall
be such that the required number of voltage peaks of specified magnitude is achieved.
NOTE—Test duration required to meet the 7200 sinusoidal voltage discharges is a function of the charging circuit
employed.
9.3.3 Impulse tests
For dry-type air-core series reactors, a lightning impulse test shall be made on each terminal of the reactor
with the other terminal grounded and by applying a reduced full wave and three full waves, all of positive
polarity with crest voltage as specified in Table 6, column 2.
NOTE—All impulse tests in IEEE reactor standards are positive polarity. Positive polarity impulses provide a more
onerous test on external insulation than negative polarity impulses.
A chopped wave impulse test is an “other” test and shall be made on each terminal of the reactor, when
specified, by applying one reduced full wave, one full wave, one reduced chopped wave, two chopped
waves, followed by two full waves (preferably within 10 min after the last chopped wave), with crest
voltage as specified in columns 2 and 3 of Table 6 and time to chop as specified in column 4 of Table 6.
NOTE—Based on agreement between purchaser and manufacturer, consideration can be given to performing an
optional procedure for the impulse design test for series reactors rated 230 kV and higher. This optional procedure is
proposed to be consistent with other substation equipment employing mixed insulation systems (e.g., bushings,
instrument transformers, circuit breakers). This optional procedure is applicable only to subtransmission and
transmission class reactors. The objective is for the number of impulses applied to each terminal to be statistically
significant. Procedure B of IEEE Std 4-1995 provides guidance. If such an optional procedure is required, it should be
clearly indicated in the user’s inquiry. It is also recommended that consideration be given to performing this “optional”
impulse design test on a “mockup” due to the statistical nature of the test and the fact that two flashovers are allowed.
This “mockup” should consist of the complete end electrode geometry and a single layer winding of the rated
inductance. The cost of the “mockup” should be included in the cost of this “optional” impulse design test. Equivalent
type test reports may be submitted in lieu of performing the test.
In this case, the lightning impulse design test should consist of one reduced full wave of positive polarity and 15 full
waves of positive polarity applied to each terminal. If a chopped wave or “other” impulse test is required, the test
sequence for each terminal shall consist of
23
 One reduced full wave of positive polarity

 One full wave of positive polarity
 One reduced full wave of negative polarity
 One reduced chopped wave of negative polarity (optional)
 Two chopped waves of negative polarity
 Fourteen full waves of positive polarity
Due to the statistical nature of the test, the requirements of the test are met if there are no more than two disruptive
discharges on the self-restoring insulation and if there are no indications of failure of the non-self-restoring insulation.
A switching impulse test under wet conditions test shall be made, when specified, on the complete support
assembly, including the reactor and insulators, for system voltages 230 kV and higher. The test voltage is
of positive polarity. The test shall include one reduced full wave and 15 full waves, with crest voltage as
specified in Table 6, column 5. Two disruptive discharges (flashovers) are allowed. The purpose of this test
is to assess the effect of the geometry of the reactor and ancillary elements of the support structure on the
switching impulse withstand of the support insulators. The simulated rain conditions shall be in accordance
with IEEE Std 4-1995. The simulated rain conditions shall be met on only one of the supporting insulator
structures if more than one insulator structure is used.
9.3.4 Applied voltage test
For dry-type air-core series reactors, an applied voltage test shall be made, when specified, on the reactor’s
supporting structure, including insulators. For outdoor applications and system voltages equal to or greater
than 230 kV, the test shall be made under simulated wet conditions. The simulated rain conditions shall be
in accordance with IEEE Std 4-1995. The simulated rain conditions shall be met on only one of the
supporting insulator structures if more than one insulator is used. Test values are those indicated in Table 6,
column 7.
9.3.5 Radio influence voltage (RIV) test
The RIV test is required only for series reactors operating at system voltages 230 kV and higher and is
carried out at power frequency according to Annex A of NEMA CC 1-2009. The radio influence voltage
(RIV) of a series reactor shall not exceed the maximum RIV value stated in Table 7, when the series reactor
is applied at the stated maximum system voltage. The RIV test shall be performed on the reactor and on its
support structure and connectors, if available. The main sources of radio noise are the auxiliary metallic
components of the reactor, such as the end electrodes, terminals, insulator mounting brackets, etc.
Table 7 —RIV values
System voltage (kV)a Radio influence test

Maximum RIV
voltage
Maximum Nominal (µV)c
(kV)b
242 230 140 250
362 345 209 250
550 500 317 500
800 765 462 750
a
The maximum and nominal system voltages are from ANSI C84.1-2006 [B2].
b
The radio influence test voltage is the line-to-ground value of the maximum system voltage.
c
The maximum permissible background RIV level shall be 1/2 of the maximum RIV level (µV) tabulated for each system voltage.
Correction for background voltage level shall be by the rms method. These maximum RIV values, as conducted radio noise, add a
negligible amount to the radio noise normally radiated from the line, even at a short distance from the series reactor and its support
structure.
24
10. Short-circuit capability
10.1 Short-circuit description
10.1.1 Duration
The duration of the short circuit is limited to 3 s or as specified by the purchaser.
10.1.2 Requirements
When used on circuits having reclosing features, series reactors (current-limiting application) shall be
capable of withstanding successive short circuits without cooling to normal operating temperatures between
successive occurrences of the short circuit, provided the accumulated duration of short circuit does not
exceed 3 s or a duration specified by the purchaser.
10.1.3 Operating conditions
Some of the operating conditions that may result in short-circuit currents in excess of those provided for
normal operating conditions are listed below:
a) The short-circuit current will be increased when the series reactor is operated above 105% rated
system voltage and a short circuit occurs during a period of such operation.
b) The fault currents may be increased during abnormal conditions, such as out-of-phase voltage
conditions on interconnected systems.
10.2 Maximum mechanical stress of series reactors for short-circuit conditions
10.2.1 Initial short-circuit current
For determination of maximum mechanical stresses, the initial short-circuit current shall be assumed to be
offset. In a system with zero damping, the maximum peak value of the short-circuit current is two times the
peak value of the rms symmetrical short-circuit current. In reality, however, the value is lower due to
system damping effects.
10.2.2 First cycle asymmetrical peak
The first cycle asymmetrical peak short-circuit current that the reactor is required to withstand shall be
specified by the purchaser or, based on knowledge of system damping, can be determined as shown in
Equation (9). If not specified by the purchaser, the maximum asymmetrical peak value of short-circuit
current should be considered to be 2.55 times the rms symmetrical current.
I (peak asymmetrical) = KIsc (9)
25
where
Isc is the short-circuit current, rms symmetrical

K is 2.55 or the appropriate multiplier obtained from Table 8
NOTE 1—The 2.55 value for the asymmetry factor K is based on a dc offset of 1.8 versus the theoretical maximum
value of 2.0. The assumption that a minimum value of system damping is always present is consistent with the practice
in IEC standards.
NOTE 2—The X/R ratio in Table 8 is a measure of damping in the system or circuit in question. R is the effective
resistance of the system including the reactor, and X is the net reactance in the system including that supplied by the
reactor.
Table 8 —Value of K for use in Equation (9)
X/R K X/R K X/R K

1000 2.824 100 2.785 10 2.452
500 2.820 50 2.743 5 2.184
333 2.815 33 2.702 3.3 1.990
250 2.811 25 2.662 2.5 1.849
200 2.806 20 2.624 2 1.746
167 2.802 17 2.588 1 1.509
143 2.798 14 2.552 — —
125 2.793 12.5 2.518 — —
111 2.789 11 2.484 — —
10.2.3 Asymmetry factor K
The multiplier K is calculated from Equation (10).
[
K = 1 + (ε −(Φ + π / 2) R / X
)sin Φ ] 2 (10)
where
R/X is the ratio of ohms resistance to ohms reactance in the system when the short circuit occurs
ε is 2.7183, the base of the natural logarithms,
φ is the tan–1 (X/R), in radians
NOTE—The expression for K is an approximation. The values of K given in Table 8 are calculated from this
approximation and are accurate to within 0.7% of the values calculated by exact methods.
For reactor applications involving shunt or series capacitor banks, K factor cannot be used. The purchaser
shall specify the peak short-circuit current considering the actual circuit configuration.
26
10.3 Thermal limit of series reactors for short-circuit conditions
10.3.1 Limiting temperature
The temperature, as calculated by methods given in 11.7.1, of the conductor material in the windings of
reactors under the short-circuit conditions specified in 10.1 shall not exceed the limiting values given in
Table 9.
Table 9 —Limiting temperature for rated short-term current
Insulation temperature index Actual limiting hot-spot temperature

(°C) (°C)a
105 205
130 285
155 315
180 350
220 400
a
The above limiting temperatures are upper bounds based on the known capabilities of available
materials. The actual limit used in a design shall be modified based on the winding insulation and
encapsulation materials utilized.
10.4 Mechanical short-circuit test
10.4.1 Mechanical strength capability
The test for the mechanical strength capability of the series (current-limiting) reactor shall be made at a
specified test current for a duration of not less than 10 cycles at rated frequency with the first maximum
peak value of the completely offset short circuit not less than the maximum peak value as given in 10.2.2 or
as specified by the purchaser.
11. Test code
11.1 General
11.1.1 Symbols
In this test code, an effort is made to use a uniform set of symbols without, however, sacrificing simplicity
or clarity. Following are the main symbols:
V voltage
I current
P active power (in-phase component)
Q reactive power (quadrature component)
27
kVA or VA apparent power

Z impedance
R resistance
X reactance
L inductance, self
C capacitance
θ temperature, as indicated, in degrees Celsius
Cθ thermal capacitance, heat capacity
t time
φ impedance angle, in degrees
F, m, a, k factor, as indicated
11.1.2 Subscripts and symbols
Subscripts and other symbols are to be used as locally identified.
11.1.3 Schedule of tests
The usual program of testing a reactor includes some or all of the following tests:
 Resistance measurements (see 11.2)

 Dielectric tests (see 11.3)
 Losses and impedance (see 11.4)
 Temperature rise (see 11.5)
 Short-circuit test (see 11.6)
 Short-time current (see 11.7)
11.2 Resistance measurements
11.2.1 Necessity for resistance measurements
Resistance measurements are of fundamental importance for three purposes:
a) For the calculation of the conductor I2R loss

b) For the calculation of winding temperatures at the end of a temperature rise test
c) For a quality check among units of the same rating
11.2.2 Conversion of resistance measurements
Cold winding resistance measurements are normally converted to a standard reference temperature equal to
the rated average winding temperature rise plus 20 °C. In addition, it may be necessary to convert the
resistance measurements to the temperature at which the impedance and loss measurements were made.
The conversions are accomplished by using Equation (11).
28
Rs = Rm
(θ s + Tk )
(11)
(θ
m + Tk )
where
Rs is the resistance at desired temperature θs

Rm is the measured resistance at temperature θm
θs is the desired reference temperature, in degrees Celsius
θm is the temperature at which resistance was measured, in degrees Celsius
Tk is 234.5 for copper and 225 for aluminum
The manufacturer shall use the appropriate value of Tk for the specified conductor material used and shall
advise the purchaser accordingly.
11.2.3 Determination of cold temperature
The cold temperature of the winding shall be determined as accurately as possible when measuring the cold
resistance. The precautions in the following subclauses shall be observed.
11.2.3.1 General
Cold resistance measurements shall not be taken in less than 4 h after the reactor has been moved from one
location to another where the ambient temperatures differ by more than 5 °C, but less than 10 °C.
Measurements shall not be taken in less than 8 h if the temperature difference is more than 10 °C.
NOTE—The above guidelines apply to dry-type air-core series reactors with typical thermal time constants between 30
and 60 min. In the case of very large reactors with a thermal time constant over 60 min, the waiting times should be
increased to 5 times the actual thermal time constant.
11.2.3.2 Reactor windings
The temperature of the windings shall be recorded as the average of several thermocouples or thermometers
or other temperature measurement devices located along the winding with extreme care used to make sure
that their functional end or bulbs are as nearly as possible in actual contact with the windings. It should not
be assumed that the windings are at the same temperature as the surrounding air.
11.2.3.3 Drop-of-potential method (voltampere)
11.2.3.3.1 Equipment
DC resistance for reference, for losses calculation, and for the temperature rise test can be measured using
the drop of potential (voltmeter-ammeter) methods as described in this clause or by using electronic-based
micro-ohmmeters, which are based on the four-wire voltampere methodology. The use of micro-ohmmeters
is especially recommended for the temperature rise test.
Since the use of a micro-ohmmeter provides direct readout of dc resistance, the methodology described
below only applies to drop-of-potential (voltampere) methodology.
29
The drop-of-potential method is generally more accurate than the bridge method for measurements made in
the field as the possibility to use higher dc current can overcome interference issues.
11.2.3.3.2 Simultaneous readings
Measurements are made with direct current, and simultaneous readings of current and voltage are taken
using the connections of Figure 1. The required resistance is calculated from the readings in accordance
with Ohm’s law.
Figure 1 —Connections for the drop-of-potential method of resistance measurement
11.2.3.3.3 Errors of observation
In order to minimize errors of observation, the measuring instruments, as much as possible, shall have
ranges that give reasonably large deflections, or, if digitally based, the instruments shall provide readouts of
several significant digits accurately.
11.2.3.3.4 Voltmeter leads
The voltmeter leads shall be connected as closely as possible to the terminals of the winding to be
measured. This is to avoid including in the reading the resistances of current-carrying leads and their
contact and of extra lengths of leads.
11.2.3.3.5 Voltmeter protection
To protect the voltmeter from damage by off-scale deflections, the voltmeter should be disconnected from
the circuit before switching the current on or off.
11.2.3.3.6 Accuracy
Voltmeters and ohmmeters of suitable range and accuracy shall be used.
30
11.2.3.3.7 Steady-state values
Readings shall not be taken until after the current and voltage have reached steady-state values.
11.2.3.3.8 Number of readings
Readings shall be taken with not less than four values of current when deflecting instruments are used. The
average of the resistances calculated from these measurements shall be considered to be the resistance of
the winding.
11.2.3.3.9 Percent of rated continuous current
The current used shall not exceed 15% of the rated continuous current of the winding whose resistance is to
be measured. Larger values may cause inaccuracy by heating the winding and thereby changing its
temperature and resistance.
11.2.3.4 Bridge methods
Bridge methods are preferred, in a laboratory, because of their accuracy and convenience.
11.2.3.4.1 Bridge methods and temperature rise determination
Bridge methods are also recommended for measurements that are to be used in connection with
temperature rise determination.
11.2.3.4.2 “Thermoelectric effects”
In order to avoid “thermoelectric effects” that are more pronounced when measuring hot dc resistance, the
leads for connection to the bridge, including the mechanism utilized to connect to the reactor terminals,
should be of the same material as the windings and terminals of the reactor on which measurements are
being made, e.g., copper for copper-wound reactors and aluminum for aluminum-wound reactors.
11.3 Dielectric tests
11.3.1 Methodology
Unless otherwise specified, dielectric tests shall be made in accordance with IEEE Std 4-1995. Dielectric
tests apply also to reactors in enclosures with built-in leads when they are so furnished.
11.3.2 Factory dielectric tests
11.3.2.1 Purpose
The purpose of dielectric tests in the factory is to check the insulation and workmanship and to demonstrate
that the reactor has been designed to withstand the insulation tests required by the purchase specification.
31
11.3.3 Applied-voltage test
11.3.3.1 General
In the case of dry-type air-core series reactors, the major insulation to ground is supplied by the support
insulators. Therefore, an applied voltage test is a test on the support insulators.
11.3.3.2 Method
For reactors having system voltages equal to or greater than 230 kV, the test shall be performed under
simulated rain conditions. Test values are those indicated in Table 6, column 7. The simulated rain
conditions shall be in accordance with IEEE Std 4-1995. The actual reactor or an equivalent “mockup”
shall be mounted on the insulating support structure. The simulated rain conditions shall be considered to
be met using only the reactor or mockup section facing the simulated rain-producing equipment and on
only one of the supporting insulator structures, if more than one supporting insulator structure is used. The
rationale for this test setup is that the reactor winding surfaces can act as a rain collector and increase the
quantity of rain on the insulating structure.
11.3.4 RIV test
The RIV test shall be performed at power frequency with the series reactor suitably supported in order to
determine the RIV produced by the series reactor itself. If the field-installed support structure is available,
then the test shall be carried out in this configuration. Actual connectors should be used if available. If not
available, equivalent or similar connectors should be used with the in-service feeding conductors simulated
with aluminum pipes or cables of equivalent diameter. The aluminum pipe or cable length shall be greater
than one meter for each reactor terminal. At the end of the aluminum pipe or cable, suitable corona
shielding may be used by the laboratory. The equipment and general method used in determining the RIV
shall be in accordance with the criteria in Annex A of NEMA CC 1-2009. The RIV shall not exceed the
value in accordance with 9.3.5 and Table 7.
11.3.5 Turn-to-turn overvoltage test for dry-type air-core series reactors
11.3.5.1 Background
The turn-to-turn test is equivalent to the lightning impulse test as a “quality” check. As such, test levels
should not be more severe than the impulse test. The turn-to-turn test is convenient and practical, and
failure detection, especially with digital data acquisition systems, is definitive.
NOTE—At the time of revision of this standard, the Dry-Type Reactor Working Group considered whether the turn-to-
turn test should be extended from 34.5 kV system voltage class to 115 kV system voltage class as an alternative to the
impulse test, i.e., equivalent to 550 kV BIL. However, since fully commercialized test equipment was not readily
available and proven, it was decided not to include specific test levels at this time and to leave their inclusion to another
revision process. The option does remain, based on availability of test equipment and agreement between manufacturer
and end user, to perform a turn-to-turn test in lieu of an impulse test for higher BIL ratings.
32
11.3.5.2 Test methodology
The turn-to-turn test is performed by repeatedly charging a capacitor and discharging it, through sphere
gaps, into the reactor windings. The type of overvoltage that the reactor is subjected to is more
representative of a switching overvoltage, with an exponentially decaying sinusoidal wave shape and a
front time similar to a lightning impulse. The duration of the test shall be such that the required number of
voltage peaks of specified magnitude is achieved and the initial peak value shall be the peak value as
specified in Table 6. The ringing frequency is a function of the coil inductance and charging capacitor, and
it is typically on the order of 1 kHz to 100 kHz. The test shall consist of not less than 7200 overvoltages of
the required magnitude.
Primary verification of winding insulation integrity should be based on “oscillographic” methods. A surge
oscilloscope and camera or digital data acquisition system are used to record the last discharge
superimposed on a reduced voltage discharge. A change in period or rate of envelope decay, between the
reduced and full waves, is an indication of a change in coil impedance and thus an interturn failure. The
crest test voltage level is given in column 6 of Table 6.
Secondary verification of insulation integrity is by observation. A failure can be detected by noise, smoke,
or spark discharge in the reactor windings.
NOTE 1—The test voltage for the turn-to-turn test is applied to one terminal only since any nonlinearity effects due to
the rate of rise to the first crest voltage of each train of decaying sinusoidal overvoltages are of little impact and
secondary to the overall test objective that the winding be subjected to a sustained decaying sinusoidal overvoltage.
Figure 2 shows the schematic of the test circuit and representative oscillograms of applied test voltage. The use of
oscillograms for failure detection is based on change in ringing frequency and change in rate of envelope decay
(damping).
NOTE 2—Test duration required to meet the 7200 sinusoidal voltage discharges is a function of the charging circuit
employed.
11.3.6 Standard impulse tests
A lightning impulse test is required as a routine test for dry-type reactors with nominal system voltages
greater than 115 kV. The test shall consist of and be applied in the following order: one reduced full wave
and three full waves. Both terminals of the reactor shall be tested. Dry-type series reactors 34.5 kV and
below shall be tested only when specified. Dry-type reactors rated 34.5 kV and lower shall be tested with
the turn-to-turn overvoltage test.
When an optional chopped-wave test is specified, impulse tests are generally applied in the following
order: one reduced full wave, one full wave, one reduced chopped wave, two chopped waves, and two full
waves (preferably within 10 min after the last chopped wave).
Other reduced full waves may be applied at any time during the test sequence as deemed necessary.
Impulse tests apply also to reactors fitted in enclosures with built-in leads when they are so furnished.
Refer to IEEE Std C57.98-1993 for guidance on impulse testing techniques, interpretation of oscillograms,
and failure detection criteria.
33
D.C. Power Sphere Gaps

Supply
R1
Cc
C1
Charging To
Capacitor Reactor Under
Test Oscilloscope
R2
C2
A: Oscillogram showing a reactor that passed the turn-to-turn test.

B: Oscillogram showing a reactor of the same rating as in Oscillogram A, but
having a turn-to-turn fault. Note the shift in frequency and the increased
damping.
Figure 2 —Turn-to-turn test circuit and sample oscillograms
34
NOTE—As presented in the note in 9.3.3 and based on agreement between purchaser and manufacturer, if the optional
procedure for the impulse design test is to be performed, it should consist of one reduced full wave of positive polarity
and 15 full waves of positive polarity applied to each terminal. Note that this optional procedure is applicable only to
subtransmission and transmission class reactors. If a chopped wave or other impulse test is required, the test sequence
for each terminal should consist of
 One full wave of positive polarity
 One reduced full wave of negative polarity
 One reduced chopped wave of negative polarity (optional)
 Two chopped waves of negative polarity
 Fourteen full waves of positive polarity
Due to the statistical nature of the test, the requirements of the test are met if there are no more than two disruptive
discharges on the self-restoring insulation and if there are no indications of failure of the non-self-restoring insulation.
It is recommended that consideration be given to performing the “optional” impulse test on a “mockup” due to the
statistical nature and risk of flashover. Two such flashovers are allowed. The cost of “mockup” should be included in
the cost of this “optional” type test. The mockup should include the end electrodes and one winding of the rated
inductance. Equivalent type test reports may be submitted in lieu of performing the test.
11.3.6.1 Full-wave test
The full wave rises to peak in about 1.2 µs and decays to one half of peak value in 50 µs from the virtual
origin. The peak value shall be in accordance with the assigned BIL, Table 6, subject to a tolerance of –3%.
The tolerance on time to peak should normally be ± 30%. The virtual front time of a lightning impulse is
defined as 1.67 times the time interval measured on the front of the wave from 30% to 90% of the peak
value. The tolerance on time to one half of peak shall normally be ± 20%. However, as a practical matter,
for cases where the front time exceeds the maximum value of 1.56 µs, the impulse generator series
resistance should be reduced, and this reduction should cause an overshoot on the voltage peak. The
resistance shall be reduced up to the point where the overshoot does not exceed 10%. The resultant front
time, obtained when the limit of 10% on the overshoot is reached, shall be used for the test even if this front
value exceeds the maximum specified value of 1.56 µs.
The impedance of some windings may be so low that the desired time to the 50% voltage point on the tail
of the wave cannot be obtained with available equipment. In such cases, the manufacturer shall advise the
purchaser at proposal stage of the wave shape limitation. Based on agreement, waves of shorter duration
are acceptable.
The virtual origin can be determined by locating points on the front of the wave at which the voltage is,
respectively, 30% and 90% of the peak value and then drawing a straight line through these points. The
intersection of this line with the time axis (zero-voltage line) is the virtual origin.
If there are oscillations on the front of the waves, the 30% and 90% points shall be determined from the
average, smooth wavefront sketched in through the oscillations. The magnitude of the oscillations
preferably should not exceed 10% of the applied voltage.
When there are high-frequency oscillations on the peak of the wave, the peak value shall be determined
from a smooth wave sketched through the oscillations. If the period of these oscillations is 2 µs or more,
the actual peak value shall be used.
11.3.6.2 Reduced full-wave test
This wave is the same as a full wave except that the peak value shall be between 50% and 70% of the full-
wave value given in Table 6.
35
11.3.6.3 Chopped-wave test
When specified, this wave shall be the same as a full wave except that the peak value shall be at the
required higher level given in Table 6 and the voltage wave shall be chopped at or after the required
minimum time to sparkover. In general, the gap or other equivalent chopping device shall be located as
close as possible to the terminals, and the impedance shall be limited to that of the necessary leads to the
gap. However, it shall be permissible for the manufacturer to add resistance to limit the amount of
overswing to the opposite polarity to 50% of the amplitude of the chopped wave. The value of resistance
added shall not increase the time to chop of the chopped wave.
11.3.6.4 Wave polarity
For dry-type series reactors, the test wave shall be positive polarity unless otherwise specified.
11.3.6.5 Wave shape control
The maximum half value time t2 of an impulse wave tail can be derived from the resonance frequency of
the impulse generator capacitance (Cg) with the test object reactance (Lt), as shown in Equation (12).
π (12)
t2 = Lt C g
3
This is a theoretical value applying to an undamped oscillation with an opposite polarity peak of 100%.
Various amounts of circuit damping reduce this value accordingly. For instance, with a limitation of 50%
for the opposite polarity peak, t2 is calculated using Equation (13).
t 2 ≈ 0.5 Lt C g (13)
Equation (12) and Equation (13) are based on the standard impulse test circuit. Values of t2 < 50 µs are
typical for low-inductance reactors. Values of t2 close to or exceeding those calculated using Equation (12)
and Equation (13) can be achieved with the use of an inductor in parallel with the series (front) resistor of
the impulse circuit with compromises generally required between wave duration, opposite polarity peak,
wavefront time, and peak overshoot.
More information on the testing of low impedance windings can be found in Annex A of IEC 60076-4:
2002 [B8].
NOTE—Past practice has been to test a low-impedance winding by inserting a resistor of not more than 500 Ω in the
grounded end of the winding. Although this improved the impulse wave shape, the largest portion of the test voltage
was across the resistor and not across the test coil windings. Therefore, a shorter impulse wave tail is preferable to the
insertion of a series resistor between the test object and ground.
11.3.6.6 Impulse oscillograms
All impulses applied to a reactor shall be recorded by a cathode-ray oscillograph or by suitable digital
transient recorder. These oscillograms shall include voltage and ground-current oscillograms for all full-
wave and reduced full-wave impulses. Sweep times should be on the order of 2 µs to 5 µs for chopped-
wave tests, 50 µs to 100 µs for full-wave tests, and 100 µs to 600 µs for ground-current measurements.
36
All voltage and current oscillograms shall be included in the test report, including all relevant calibration
shots.
11.3.7 Connections for impulse tests
The tests shall be applied to each terminal one at a time.
11.3.7.1 Terminals not being tested
One terminal of the winding under test shall be grounded through a low-resistance shunt so that ground
current measurements can be made. The resistance of the current shunt should typically be less than 0.1%
of the reactance of the test object (reactor) at 5 kHz. The 5 kHz reference frequency is based on the half
period of a standard lightning impulse being on the order of 100 µs.
11.3.8 Detection of failure during impulse test
Because of the nature of impulse test failures, one of the most important matters is the detection of such
failures. There are a number of indications of insulation failure.
11.3.8.1 Ground current oscillograms
In this method of failure detection, the impulse current in the grounded end of the winding tested is
measured by means of a cathode-ray oscillograph or by suitable digital transient recorder connected across
a suitable shunt inserted between the grounded end of the winding and ground. Any differences in the wave
shape between the reduced full wave and final full wave detected by comparison of the two current
oscillograms may be indications of failure or deviations due to “noninjurious” causes. A complete
investigation is required and should include an evaluation by means of a new reduced full-wave test and a
new full-wave test. Examples of probable causes of different wave shapes are operation of protective
devices or conditions in the test circuit external to the series reactor.
The ground current method of detection is not suitable for use with chopped-wave tests.
It is difficult to shield the measuring circuit completely from the influence of the high voltage of the surge
generator, and some stray potentials are frequently picked up that may produce an erratic record for the first
1 µs or 2 µs. Such influences, if they occur at the start of the current wave (and, to a lesser extent, at the
start of the voltage wave), should be disregarded.
Where the impedance of the series reactor tested is high with respect to its series capacitance, current
measurements may be difficult to make because of the small impulse current. In order to reduce the initial
large capacitance current and maintain a reasonable amplitude for the remainder of the wave, a capacitor
may be included in the current-measuring circuit. The capacitor should not be larger than required to
achieve this result.
11.3.8.2 Voltage oscillograms
Any unexplained differences between the reduced full wave and final full wave detected by comparison of
the two voltage oscillograms, or any such differences observed by comparing the chopped waves to each
other and to the full wave up to the time of flashover, are indications of failure. Deviations may be caused
by conditions in the test circuit external to the series reactor and shall be fully investigated and confirmed
by a new reduced full-wave test and a new full-wave test.
37
Other techniques that can be employed to investigate a suspected problem during the impulse test are the
application of additional reduced full waves and the subsequent comparison of these oscillograms with the
original, the application of a series of full-wave impulses and an examination of the oscillograms for
evidence of progressive change and, if a digitally based test system is being employed, the transfer function
can be utilized.
11.3.8.3 Other methods of failure detection
Other methods of failure detection include the following:
a) Failure of gap to flashover. In making the chopped-wave test, failure of the chopping gap, or any
external part to flashover, although the voltage oscillogram shows a chopped wave, is an indication
of a failure within the series reactor or in the test circuit or an indication that the gap is too wide.
b) Noise. Unusual noise within the series reactor at the instant of applying the impulse may be an
indication of trouble. The cause of such noise shall be investigated.
11.3.9 Switching impulse test procedures
The switching impulse test, when specified, shall consist of applying a switching impulse wave across the
complete reactor support structure, including insulators, with a peak value equal to the specified test level.
Since this is a test on the support structure, the reactor terminals shall be connected together during the
performance of the test. In this case, due to the very large geometries involved, the switching impulse test is
performed while wetting a section of the reactor and at least one insulator column. Accurate results can be
obtained since all insulator columns are identical in terms of geometry. The test shall be carried out in
accordance with IEEE Std 4-1995.
11.3.9.1 Number of tests
The switching impulse test consists of applying to the top of the support structure with the bottom end
grounded, one reduced-voltage wave and 15 full-voltage waves. The reduced-voltage wave shall have a
peak value of 50% to 70% of the full-voltage wave value given in Table 6. The full-voltage wave shall
have a peak value in accordance with Table 6. The requirements of the test are satisfied if not more than
two disruptive discharges occur.
11.3.9.2 Switching impulse waves
11.3.9.2.1 Polarity
For dry-type high-voltage series reactors, rated 230 kV and over, the test wave is normally of positive
polarity.
11.3.9.2.2 Wave shape
The switching impulse voltage wave shall have a peak value in accordance with the assigned insulation
level, subject to a tolerance of –3%. The nominal time to crest shall be 250 µs ± 20% and the time to half
value of 2500 µs ± 60%.
38
11.3.9.2.3 Time to peak
The actual time to peak shall be defined as the time interval from the start of the impulse wave to the time
when the maximum amplitude is reached.
11.3.9.2.4 Time to half-voltage values
See IEEE Std 4-1995.
11.3.9.2.5 Failure detection
A voltage oscillogram shall be taken of each impulse wave. The test is considered successful if there is no
collapse of voltage indicated on the oscillograms.
11.3.9.2.6 Suggested methods of generating switching impulse waves
An applied voltage wave of proper magnitude and duration may be obtained by discharging an impulse
generator or other capacitor bank across the support structure (including insulators) under test. External
circuit parameters may be used for controlling the wave shape.
11.4 Losses and impedance
11.4.1 General impedance test
The impedance voltage comprises an effective resistance component corresponding to the impedance losses
and a reactance component corresponding to the flux linkages of the winding.
11.4.1.1 Separation by calculation
It is not practical to measure these components separately, but after the total impedance loss and impedance
voltage are measured, the components may be separated by calculation.
11.4.1.2 Resistance and reactance component determination
Resistance and reactance components of the impedance voltage are determined by using Equation (14) and
Equation (15).
Pz
Vr = (14)
I
V x = V z2 − Vr2 (15)
39
where
Vr is the resistance voltage, in phase component

Vx is the reactance voltage, quadrature component
Vz is the impedance voltage of winding carrying current
Pz is the watts measured in impedance test of winding carrying current
I is the current, in amperes, in winding on which voltage is impressed
11.4.1.3 Impedance of three-phase stacked reactors
For three-phase stacked reactors where the coupling factor between phases exceeds 5%, the current in each
phase shall be measured while applying a system of symmetrical three-phase voltages to the “star-
connected” phase windings. The impedance shall be taken as
phase−to− phase applied voltage

3 × measured phase current
11.4.2 Temperature correction for losses
The I2R component of the impedance loss increases with the temperature, and the stray-loss component
diminishes with the temperature. Therefore, when it is desired to convert the impedance losses from one
temperature to another, the two components of the impedance loss are converted separately, as shown in
Equation (16).
Tk + θ
Pr = Pr'
Tk + θ '
(16)
T +θ '
' k
Ps = Ps
Tk + θ
where
Pr and Ps are I2R and stray losses, respectively, at the specified temperature θ. P'r and P's are measured I2R
and stray losses at temperature θ '. θ and θ ' are in degrees Celsius.
advise the user accordingly.
11.4.2.1 Reference temperature for losses and impedance
The typical reference temperature for series reactors to which losses and impedances are corrected shall be
75 °C.
NOTE—In the case of loss evaluated reactors, consideration may be given to the use of a reference temperature for loss
calculations to be the average winding rise, as determined by a temperature rise test, plus 20 °C.
40
11.4.3 Loss measurements
11.4.3.1 General
Since many series reactors (especially high-kilovoltampere units) operate at low power factors, small
variations in frequency, deviations from the true sine wave in applied voltage, errors in measuring
components, and electromagnetic interference may introduce significant errors in loss measurements.
Proper test conditions and precision components specifically designed for low power factor measurements
are essential for an accurate determination of reactor losses.
a) Impedance bridges are frequently used to measure losses and are generally more accurate than
traditional wattmeter measurements. While many configurations of impedance bridge networks are
possible, the choice of a particular network shall be determined by the measurement problem at
hand and the testing facilities available. It should be noted that modern electronic-based wattmeters
can be highly accurate.
b) If wattmeters are used to measure losses, connections to the reactor shall be the same as those
shown in Figure 3 for single-phase reactors and in Figure 4 for three-phase stacked reactors. The
total loss of a three-phase stacked reactor shall be taken as the arithmetic sum of the three
wattmeter readings. In the case of reactor orders with multiple three-phase stacks, it is permissible
to assemble only one three-phase stack and by measurement obtain the total loss. For the routine
test, single-phase measurements of loss on the individual phases may be used.
Figure 3 —Single-phase reactor connections for impedance-loss and

impedance-voltage tests
(Instrument transformers to be added when necessary)
41
(a) Two wattmeter method
(b) Three wattmeter method
Figure 4 —Three-phase reactor connections for impedance-loss and

impedance-voltage tests
(Instrument transformers to be added when necessary)
11.4.3.2 Loss tests on dry-type series reactors
In these reactors, the losses consist of the I2R (dc resistance) losses in the conductor, the eddy losses in the
conductor, and any metallic framework of the clamping structure.
Since the losses in these reactors are proportional to I2, the losses can be measured at 100% of the rated
current or at a reduced current. In either case, precision of measurement shall be demonstrated to the
purchaser’s satisfaction. The losses are to be corrected to rated current and a reference temperature. In
some cases, the actual average winding rise as determined by the temperature rise test plus 20 °C may be
used: this approach is an attempt to reflect actual in-service losses and actual site average ambient
temperature. For three-phase stacked reactors the losses should be measured with each individual phase
excited but with the reactors in three-phase configuration.
11.4.3.2.1 Temperature of the winding
The temperature of the winding shall be taken immediately before and after the impedance measurements
in a manner similar to that described in 11.2. The average shall be taken as the true temperature.
2
11.4.3.2.2 I R loss of the winding
The I2R loss of the winding is calculated from the ohmic resistance measurements (corrected to the
temperature at which the impedance test was made) and the currents that were used in the impedance
measurement. These I2R losses subtracted from the impedance watts give the stray losses of the winding.
42
When reactor windings are enclosed in shielded housings or tanks, part or all of which are magnetic
material, part of the stray loss shall be considered with the winding I2R when correcting losses from
measured temperature to other temperatures. Since this value varies with the proportions of the reactor
design and type of shield, it will have to be approximated for each design but can be checked by
measurement of loss at the start and finish of the temperature run.
11.4.3.2.3 Per-unit values
Per-unit values of the resistance, reactance, and impedance voltage are obtained by dividing Vr, Vx, and Vz
in 11.4.1.2 by the rated voltage. Percentage values are obtained by multiplying per-unit values by 100.
11.4.4 Impedance-loss and impedance-voltage test of a three-phase reactor
Balanced three-phase voltages of rated frequency and suitable magnitude are applied to the terminals to
force rated current to circulate (see Figure 4).
11.4.4.1 Procedure
The procedure is similar to that described for single-phase units, except that all connection and
measurements are three phase instead of single phase.
11.4.4.2 Line currents
If the three line currents cannot be balanced, their average rms values should correspond to the desired
value.
11.4.4.3 Stray-loss component
The stray-loss component of the impedance watts is obtained by subtracting from the latter the I2R losses of
the reactor.
11.4.4.4 Temperature correction
Temperature correction shall be made as in 11.4.2.
11.4.5 Wattmeter or bridge method
Modern electronic-based wattmeters can be highly accurate and are now typically used to measure losses.
In the past, bridge methods were preferred due to their accuracy and may also continue to be used.
43
11.5 Temperature rise tests
11.5.1 Loading for temperature rise tests
The reactor shall be tested under loading conditions that produce losses as close as possible to those
obtained at rated frequency with rated current in the windings. If laboratory power is not sufficient or
power control adjustment is not fine enough to carry out a test at rated current, testing at current levels
down to 90% of rated is permissible. The measured temperature rise shall be corrected using the method in
11.5.6.
In the case of reactors to be installed in a side-by-side configuration, testing of a single unit is

representative. In the case of reactors mounted in a three-phase stack configuration, they should be tested in
the installed configuration with a three-phase current supply unless otherwise agreed upon between
purchaser and manufacturer.
11.5.2 Temperature rise tests
11.5.2.1 General
All temperature rise tests shall be made under normal conditions of the means, or method, of cooling.
11.5.2.2 Reactor configuration
Reactors shall be completely assembled.
11.5.2.3 Ambient temperature
The ambient temperature shall be taken as that of the surrounding air, which should be preferably not less
than 10 °C nor more than 40 °C. However, in recognition that it may be impractical to maintain the ambient
temperature of large test laboratories within this range, temperature rise tests may be made with ambient
temperatures outside the range with prior special agreement from the customer.
11.5.2.4 Ambient temperature determination
The temperature of the surrounding air (ambient temperature) shall be determined by at least three
thermocouples or thermometers spaced uniformly around the reactor under test. They shall be located at
about one half the height of the reactor and at a distance of 1 m to 2 m from the reactor. They shall be
protected from drafts and abnormal heating.
11.5.2.5 Minimization of errors
To reduce to a minimum the errors due to time lag between the temperature of the reactors and the
variations in the ambient temperature, the thermocouples or thermometers shall be placed in suitable
containers that shall have such proportions as require not less than 1 h for the indicated temperature within
the container to change 6.3 °C if suddenly placed in air that has a temperature 10 °C higher or lower than
the previous steady-state indicated temperature within the container.
44
11.5.2.6 Temperature rise of metal parts
The temperature rise of metal parts (other than the winding conductor) in contact with, or adjacent to,
insulation and the temperature rise of other metal parts shall be determined by thermocouple or by
thermometer when required.
11.5.2.7 Temperature measuring devices
Fiber-optic sensors, thermocouples, thermometers, or temperature labels may be used to measure surface
temperature. The use of thermocouples may be hazardous due to parts being at high voltage.
11.5.2.8 Use of initial overloads
It is permissible to shorten the time required for the test by the use of initial overloads, restricted cooling, or
any other suitable method provided that determining the value of the thermal time constant of the reactor is
not required. The thermal time constant of the reactor may also be determined during the cooling down
period.
11.5.2.9 Temperature rise of the winding
The temperature rise of the winding shall be determined by the resistance method or by thermometer when
so specified.
11.5.2.10 Ultimate temperature rise
The ultimate temperature rise is considered to be reached when the temperature rise becomes constant, i.e.,
when temperatures measured by thermometers or thermocouples on the winding do not vary by more than
2.5% or 1 °C, whichever is greater, during a period of two consecutive hours and/or the duration of the heat
run is at least five thermal time constants. (The thermal time constant shall be verified.)
11.5.3 Determination of average measured winding temperatures by the hot-resistance

method
11.5.3.1 Average winding temperature rise
The average measured temperature of the winding conductor may be determined by either Equation (17) or
Equation (18).
R
θ= (Tk +θ o )− Tk (17)
Ro
R − Ro
θ = (Tk + θo ) + θo (18)
Ro
45
where

θ is the temperature in degrees Celsius corresponding to hot resistance R
θo is the temperature in degrees Celsius corresponding to cold resistance Ro
R is the hot resistance; record the elapsed time between the instant of shutdown and each
hot-resistance measurement
Ro is the cold resistance determined in accordance with the rules in this standard
11.5.4 Hot spot measurement
Modern dry-type air-core series reactors usually employ fully encapsulated windings. Therefore, direct
access to the winding is not possible for the measurement of hot spot temperatures during the temperature
rise test. However, it is possible to measure winding surface temperature with some degree of accuracy.
Such winding surface temperature measurements are essentially a measurement of winding hot spot due to
the fact that the winding encapsulation medium is thin compared to the winding conductor cross section.
Winding hot spot can be measured using thermometers, thermocouples, or fiber-optic probes. In all cases,
the method for fixing of the temperature measuring device to the surface of the winding is extremely
critical. Silicone rubber sealant compound or similarly based adhesive systems offer the best performance
due to their bonding capabilities at high temperatures and thermal insulating properties. The latter
characteristic helps to ensure winding surface temperature is measured and not cooling duct air
temperature. The amount of silicone rubber sealant used is important. Sufficient material shall be employed
to bond the thermometer bulb to the surface in such a manner that the bulb registers only surface
temperature and not air temperature. The same holds true for thermocouples or fiber-optic probes.
It is also important to ensure that the measuring device or the bonding system does not impede or influence
the flow of cooling air.
A hot spot measurement should be made for each encapsulated winding group in the reactor under test.
Hottest-spot location and, hence, measurement point location are typically in the last turns of the upper
winding end. Exact location and, hence, the temperature measuring device placement decision can best be
determined by the manufacturer due to its detailed knowledge of the product.
11.5.5 Temperature rise test in three-phase stack configuration
In the case of heat runs performed on reactors in a three-phase stack configuration, the average winding
temperature rise and hot spot winding temperature rises should be obtained for each individual phase
reactor. Typically, the top coil in a three-phase stack has the highest temperature values due to the influence
of the reactors in the bottom two phases.
11.5.6 Winding temperature rise correction for reduced current
When the input test current It is below the rated value of current Ir, but not less than 90% of Ir, the
temperature rise ∆θt of the windings shall be measured by the resistance method when steady-state
conditions have been reached and then shall be corrected to rated load conditions ∆θr, by using
Equation (19).
46
I  2
∆θ r = ∆θ t  r  (19)
 It 
where
Ir is the rated current

It is the test current
∆θr is the average temperature rise at rated current
∆θt is the average temperature rise at test current
NOTE—The exponent of 2 used in the above calculation is conservative and is an upper bound. Typical values range
from 1.6 to 2.0. If the manufacturer uses an exponent of 2 to convert from a lower current to a higher current, then only
one temperature rise test is required. If a manufacturer wishes to use an exponent lower than 2, then two temperature
rise tests shall be performed to verify the actual exponent value. The determination of the exponent n from the test data
is carried out as follows:
n
I 
∆θ t 2 = ∆θ t1  2 
 I1 
n
∆θ t 2  I 2 
= 
∆θ t1  I 1 
 ∆θ  I 
ln  t 2  = n ln  2 
 ∆θ t1   I1 
Therefore,
 ∆θ 
ln t 2 
∆θ
n =  t1 
 I2 
ln  
 I1 
11.5.7 Induction times
The induction time for the measuring current to become stable should be noted during the cold resistance
measurements in order that sufficient time elapses for the induction effect to disappear before hot resistance
readings are taken.
11.5.8 Correction of observed temperature rise for variation in altitude
11.5.8.1 Altitude not exceeding 1000 m
When tests are made at an altitude not exceeding 1000 m (3300 ft) above sea level, no altitude correction
shall be applied to the temperature rise.
47
11.5.8.2 Reactors operating at an altitude in excess of 1000 m
When a reactor that is tested at an altitude less than 1000 m (3300 ft) is to be operated at an altitude in
excess of 1000 m, it shall be assumed that the observed temperature rise increases in accordance with the
relation given in Equation (20).
Increase in temperature rise at altitude A m (ft) =

 A  (20)
observed rise ×  − 1 F
 Ao 
where
Ao is 1000 m (3300 ft)

F is an empirical factor equal to 0.05
NOTE—The “observed rise” in the foregoing equation is winding rise over the ambient temperature.
11.5.9 Correction of observed temperature rise for ambient temperature
11.5.9.1 Ambient air temperature other than 30 °C
When the ambient air temperature is other than 30 °C, a correction shall be applied to both the average and
hot spot temperature rise of the winding by multiplying by the correction factor C, which is given by the
ratio shown in Equation (21).
Tk + 30
C= (21)
Tk + θ
where

θ is the ambient air temperature, in degrees Celsius
advise the user accordingly.
11.6 Short-circuit test
11.6.1 Rationale for the short-circuit test
A short-circuit test is performed to demonstrate the ability of the dry-type air-core series reactor under test
to withstand worst-case system fault scenarios. A system fault is typically composed of a full offset peak
current portion and a longer duration symmetrical current portion. In most cases the offset decays to zero in
under ten cycles. The high offset peak currents during the initial portion of the fault impose the highest
mechanical stresses on the reactor, while the longer duration symmetrical fault current subjects the reactor
to high temperatures and significant mechanical loads simultaneously.
48
Other system operational factors that should be taken into consideration in the specification of the short-
circuit test are the number of breaker autoreclosures during a fault and the time that a fault current is
allowed to flow before it is interrupted. The number of autoreclosures allowed should influence the number
of mechanical peak shots performed during the mechanical short-circuit test, e.g., 1, 2, or 3. The number of
cycles in each shot of the mechanical short-circuit test should reflect the utility’s interrupting practice. The
duration selected (typically 1 s, 2 s, or 3 s) should reflect the cumulative thermal effects of the utility’s
autoreclosure philosophy and the time a fault is allowed to exist before it is interrupted.
11.6.2 Basic principles of short-circuit testing
A reactor(s) may be short-circuit tested in a number of configurations. The single-phase short-circuit test
may be performed on one unit, or a three-phase short-circuit test may be performed on a three-phase in-
line, three-phase triangular, or three-phase stacked configuration. Three-phase reactor configurations are
tested with three-phase short-circuit currents applied to the input terminals and with the output terminals
connected together.
It is preferable to test the reactor(s) in a test setup that represents the installed condition as closely as
possible. In this case it is important that the test be performed with components and configurations exactly
as installed. Interactive forces generated by the reactor’s field and current feeds (e.g., bus, cable) are an
important aspect of design, and any deviation in configuration or in components utilized for the test shall be
fully assessed.
In many cases it may not be possible to test the reactor as installed. In these situations it is paramount that
interaction force effects created by the field of the reactor and the supply circuit current be minimized. To
this end the circuit setup illustrated in Figure 5 is typical of a desirable situation where interactive effects
between the reactor and laboratory bus bar layout are minimized.
The objective of the short-circuit test is to demonstrate the ability of the reactor and its auxiliary
components to withstand the mechanical stresses generated by internal electromagnetic forces. All forces
on reactor components are the result of the interactive effects of the currents flowing in them (windings,
input terminal arms) and the global magnetic field of the reactor. Forces transmitted to the reactor under
test as a result of poorly restrained bus, inadequate fixing of the reactor to the test bay floor, etc., are not
representative of field-installed conditions. Therefore, test setup is extremely critical to produce realistic
results.
11.6.3 Guidelines for short-circuit testing
a) Reactors should be assembled for test as closely as possible to actual service conditions. If the
reactor manufacturer has included buswork or any additional parts important to the operation of the
reactor, they shall be attached for the test.
It is acceptable to test
1) One coil of a three-phase side-by-side mounting configuration,
2) Two coils of a two-coil stack configuration, or
3) A three-phase stack in a three-phase configuration.
b) A minimum test current sequence consisting of one fully offset first peak and a total duration of
10 cycles shall be performed per phase.
c) Three-phase stacked reactors or a three-phase bank of separate reactors with defined installation
(only when required) shall undergo three-phase short-circuit tests where each reactor phase shall be
specifically selected to experience the first maximum offset peak current.
49
d) If the coil is installed in a circuit with a recloser, then three fully offset shots shall be performed
(per phase for a three-phase stack configuration) to demonstrate performance under successive
reclosures.
e) The thermal test, if required and not verified by calculation, shall consist of one rms symmetrical
current shot for rated duration (usually 3 s) or of duration up to 6 s to give the same I2t, if rated
thermal short-circuit current magnitude cannot be achieved.
f) The end user and the reactor manufacturer shall agree on the test sequence before test.
NOTE 1—All base brackets should be bolted to floor.

NOTE 2—All bolts should be torqued to correct value.
NOTE 3—Incoming/outgoing bus connection to reactor should be by flexible conductor links with a length of 0.2 m
maximum. It is intended that the conductor links should not become taut.
NOTE 4—Incoming/outgoing bus should be rigidly supported at flexible conductor links.
NOTE 5—Other variations on the test setup illustrated are acceptable providing the intent is met. Final test setup
should be fully agreed to by the manufacturer, the end user, and the test facility, or equivalent.
Figure 5 —Guideline for bus connection and arrangement for short-circuit testing
50
11.6.4 Acceptance criteria
Routine tests, including measurement of inductance and losses and the performance of a turn-to-turn or
impulse dielectric test, at 100% of specified voltage, shall be carried out on the reactor(s) before and after
the short-circuit type test. Inductance and loss values shall be consistent within measurement tolerance
limits. Oscillograms from the required dielectric test should show no change, agreeing with the limits of the
high-voltage dielectric test systems.
Visual inspection of the reactor and supporting structure shall give no indication that there has been any
change in mechanical conditions that impairs the function of the reactor. Depending on the type of
construction employed in the reactor, the areas of mechanical criticality vary. In the case of open style
reactors, focus should be on the winding-clamping system. For fully encapsulated reactors, the
encapsulation should be carefully inspected for surface cracks before and after the short-circuit tests.
Coating cracks at discontinuities such as at the winding-clamping system interface, etc., are not usually
indications of a mechanical problem but are typically due to the inelastic nature of most paints and other
coating materials. If, after the short-circuit test program, in the case of an open style reactor, the winding-
clamping system has deteriorated or, in the case of an encapsulated reactor, the surface cracks have
increased in number or dimension, the reactor is considered to have failed the short-circuit test. In case of
doubt, up to three more short-circuit tests with fully offset current shall be applied to verify that the
monitored condition has stabilized. If the deterioration continues, the reactor shall be considered to have
failed the test. If conditions stabilize after one or two extra short-circuit tests and coupled with successful
routine tests after short-circuit tests, the reactor shall be considered to have passed the short-circuit test.
11.7 Short-time current
11.7.1 Thermal short-time current capability calculations for series (current-limiting)

reactors
11.7.1.1 Increase in winding temperature
The increase in winding temperature ∆θt during short-circuit conditions shall be estimated on the basis of
all heat stored in the conductor material and its associated turns insulation.
11.7.1.2 Thermal capacitance
The thermal capacitance of the conductor material shall be taken as the average of the values at the starting
and finishing temperatures.
11.7.1.3 Units
All temperatures are in degrees Celsius.
11.7.1.4 Appropriate calculations of increase in winding temperature
The increase in winding temperature, ∆θt that occurs during a specified short-time t shall be calculated by
using Equation (22).
51
∆θt = (Tk + θs)F = (Tk + θs)[(1 + es)m + 0.6 m2] (22)
where
F = [(1 + es)m + 0.6 m2]

m = at
a = Ps 1
=
Pr (23)
Ca Tk + θ s Ca (Tk + 75)
where
t is the time, in seconds

∆θt is the increase in winding temperature during time t (not to be greater than the difference between
starting temperature θs and limiting temperature during short-circuit conditions given in Table 8)
θs is the starting temperature and is equal to the reference ambient temperature (30 °C) plus steady-
state hottest-spot temperature rise above reference ambient temperature at continuous current
rating, using
a) measured hottest-spot temperature rise, if tested
b) standard hottest-spot limiting temperature rise, if not temperature rise tested
Ps is the short-circuit resistance loss at the starting temperature, θs, watts per kilogram of conductor
material
Pr is the short-circuit resistance loss at 75 °C, watts per kilogram of conductor material
es is the per-unit eddy current loss, based on resistance loss at the starting temperature, and is equal
to
 T + 75 
e75  k 
 Tk + θ s 
e75 is the per-unit eddy current loss, based on resistance loss at 75 °C

Ca is the average thermal capacitance, in joules (watt-second) per degree Celsius, per kilogram of
conductor material, and its associated turns insulation, over the range of increase in winding
temperature
11.7.1.5 Thermal capacitance estimation
The thermal capacitance Cx at any temperature θx, below 500 °C may be closely estimated from the
empirical equations, Equation (24) and Equation (25).
Ai (24)
C x = 383.6 + 0.0992θ x + 242.5 for copper
Ac
Ai (25)
C x = 892.9 + 0.4409θ x + 793.7 for aluminum
Ac
where
Ai is the cross-sectional area of insulation
52
Ac is the cross-sectional area of conductor

θx is the temperature, in degrees Celsius
Cx is the thermal capacitance, in joules per degree Celsius, per kilogram at temperature θx
11.7.1.6 Exact calculation of increase in winding temperature
Equation (22) is an approximate formula, and its use should be restricted to values of m = 0.6 and less. The
more exact equation is given in Equation (26).
(
∆θ t = (Tk + θ s ) ε 2 m + es (ε 2 m − 1) − 1 ) (26)
where
ε is equal to 2.7183, which is the base of the natural logarithms
11.8 Audible sound level test
11.8.1 General
The measurement of the sound level on dry-type air-core series reactors is an optional test. Sound level
may be reported as sound pressure or sound power, as requested by the end user.
Audible sound from dry-type air-core reactors originates principally in the reactor winding where it is
radiated as airborne sound. The frequency spectrum of the audible sound for a 60 Hz power system consists
primarily of a tone at 120 Hz.
The A-weighted sound-pressure level measurement shall be used to determine the sound-power level of a
dry-type air-core series reactor. The specified procedures for sound measurement are applicable to reactors
being tested indoors or outdoors at the factory or to those that have been installed in the field.
11.8.2 Terminology
a) Sound-pressure level (Lp), in decibels, is 20 times the logarithm to the base 10 of the ratio of the
measured sound pressure to a reference pressure of 20 × 10–6 Pa.
b) Ambient sound-pressure level is the sound-pressure level measured in the test facility without the
reactor energized.
c) Measurement surface area (S) is a hypothetical surface enveloping the sound source (reactor) and
on which the measurements are taken.
d) Sound-power level (LW), in decibels, is 10 times the logarithm to the base 10 of the ratio of the
emitted sound power to a reference power of 10–12 W. It is derived from the measured sound-
pressure level and the measurement surface area.
e) Semireverberant facility is a room with a solid floor and an undetermined amount of sound-
absorbing materials on the walls and ceiling.
53
11.8.3 Instrumentation
Sound-pressure level measurements shall be made with instrumentation that meets the requirements of
ANSI S1.4-1983 for type 2 meters and ANSI S1.11-1986.
A suitable wind screen on the microphone shall be used when the air velocity due to winds causes the
readings to be in error.
Sound-measuring instrumentation shall be calibrated before and after each measurement session. Should
the calibration change by more than 2 dB, the measurements shall be declared invalid. Further, it should be
demonstrated prior to the measurement that the magnetic field of the reactor does not affect the reading of
the sound level meter by more than 1 dB.
11.8.4 Test conditions
The reactor shall be completely assembled, and the installed mounting configuration of the reactor should
be utilized as much as practicable. For instance, high-voltage series reactors are mounted on very tall
structures, and sound measurements on such a configuration may not be easily achievable or feasible.
Measurements should be made in an environment having an ambient sound-pressure level at least 5 dB

below the combined sound-pressure level (reactor plus ambient). When the ambient sound-pressure level is
5 dB or more below the combined level of reactor and ambient, the corrections shown in Table 10 shall be
applied to the combined sound-pressure level to obtain the reactor sound-pressure level. When the
difference between the reactor sound-pressure level and the ambient sound-pressure level is less than
5 dB and it is desired only to know the sound-pressure level that the reactor does not exceed, a correction of
–1.6 dB may be used.
Table 10 —Correction for ambient sound

Correction to be applied to
Difference between
average sound level of
average sound level of
combined series reactor and ambient
combined series reactor and ambient
to obtain
and average sound level of ambient
average sound level of series reactor
(dB)
(dB)
5 1.6
6 1.3
7 1.0
8 0.8
9 0.6
10 0.4
Over 10 0.0
If the reactor is tested within a semireverberant facility (as is usually encountered when testing indoors), an
environmental correction may be applied for undesired sound reflections from the room boundaries and
other reflecting objects to compensate for the increase of the measured sound level. To keep the correction
as small as possible, the reactor shall be located so that no acoustically reflecting surface is within 3 m
(10 ft) of the measuring microphone. If a correction is applied, the manufacturer shall demonstrate the
validity to the user. Information about the correction for a reverberant test room can be found in 11.1.2 of
IEC 60076-10:2005, the IEC sound measurement test standard.
54
The reactor shall be energized at rated current with rated frequency. If the reactor is designed with a means
for adjusting the impedance, it should be set for rated impedance.
Dry-type air-core series reactors are single-phase units and shall be energized from a single-phase source.
Testing of reactors in a three-phase configuration, for instance, a three-phase stack, may also be possible as
a special request using a three-phase supply. When available test power is insufficient for testing at rated
current, then the manufacturer shall demonstrate to the user’s satisfaction that reduced current testing
produces sufficiently accurate results when extrapolated to the rated current level. If this cannot be
demonstrated to the user, a field test can be performed.
11.8.5 Microphone positions
The reference sound-producing surface of a dry-type air-core reactor is its outside winding surface.
For single reactors with a winding less than 2.4 m (8 ft) tall, microphone locations shall be at mid-height of
the winding. For single reactors greater than 2.4 m tall, microphone locations shall be at one third and two
thirds of the winding height. For two- and three-coil stacked arrangements, microphone locations shall be at
mid-height of each reactor winding. If measurements at the above heights are not possible due to bus bar
layout, microphone locations shall be at the mid-height of the base reactor winding. In plan view, the
microphone locations shall be laid out clockwise, sequentially at intervals of less than or equal to 1 m along
the circumference of a circle having its center at the geometric center of the reactor and a radius equal to
the reactor radius plus 3 m (10 ft). The first station shall be on a radial line through the bottom terminal, or
as close to it in the clockwise direction as is permitted to comply with safety requirements and minimum
clearance distances to live parts.
For side-by-side arrangements of single or stacked reactors, microphone locations are determined by the
same method as for a single reactor or single stack if the locations do not overlap. If the microphone
locations do overlap, measurements shall be taken only around the outermost perimeter of the resulting
contour (see Figure 6).
Continuous measurement by a “walk around” test with an integrating sound level meter is the preferred test
method due to the ready availability and capability of such sound level meters. The measurement contour
as described in the above paragraphs is to be employed when using the capabilities of an integrating sound
level meter. It is important that the contour be traversed at a near constant speed (uniform walking speed).
Experience has shown that results obtained using the “walk around” audible sound measurement
methodology are in agreement with those obtained using the discrete microphone position methodology.
11.8.6 Sound level measurement
Sound-pressure levels shall be measured in conformance with 11.8.1, 11.8.3, 11.8.4, and 11.8.5 using the
sound level meter A-weighting characteristic.
55
Figure 6 —Microphone locations for audible sound tests
11.8.7 Calculation of average sound-pressure level
An average sound-pressure level L pA shall be calculated from the measured values of the A-weighted
sound-pressure level LpAi by using Equation (27).
1 n

∑10
0.1LρΑi
L pA = 10 log 10   (27)
N i =1 
where
L pA is the average sound-pressure level, in dB(A)

LpAi is the measured sound-pressure level at location i, in dB(A)
N is the total number of measurement locations
56
In the case of the use of an integrating sound level meter, the average sound-pressure level calculated using
Equation (27) is provided directly by the sound level meter.
It should be noted that the above calculated value may have to be corrected for the following factors:
a) Ambient sound-pressure level

b) Acoustic characteristics of the location where sound readings are taken, e.g., reverberant properties
of the test laboratory
11.8.8 Calculation of A-weighted sound-power level
The A-weighted sound-power level LWA shall be computed using Equation (28).
LWA = L pA + 10 log10 ( S ) (28)
where
LWA is the A-weighted sound-power level of the reactor, in dB(A)

L pA is the A-weighted average sound-pressure level of the reactor, in dB(A)
S is the measurement surface area, in square meters
The measurement surface area S for a dry-type series reactor located near ground is best approximated by a
hemispherical shell, as shown in Equation (29).
S = 2πRm2 (29)
where
Rm is the measurement radius
11.9 Seismic verification
When specified, a seismic performance verification shall be carried out using analytical methods, by testing
under simulated seismic conditions, or by combined test and analysis such as that described in
IEEE Std 693-2005. Although not directly applicable to electrical substation equipment, building codes
such as the Uniform Building Code [B32] are at times referenced regarding the seismic performance of
series-connected reactors.
12. Construction
12.1 Nameplates
12.1.1 Recommended information
A series reactor shall be provided with stainless steel (or equivalent) nameplate, which should include the
following information:
57
a) Apparatus type
b) Manufacturer’s name
c) Serial number (manufacturer’s)
d) Year of manufacture
e) Temperature rise, °C
f) Type of cooling
g) Rated reactance
h) Measured reactance
i) Continuous current
j) Thermal _____ kA _____ s
k) Mechanical peak _____ kA
l) System frequency
m) System (or insulation) voltage rating _____ kV
n) Basic impulse level _____ kV
o) Altitude ____ m (____ ft) above sea level (ASL)
p) Number and year of this standard
q) Total weight ____ kg (____ lb)
NOTE—Total weight is the weight per phase including support elements.
12.1.2 Optional information
Optional information that may be required is as follows:
a) Voltage drop
b) Number of phases
c) Drawing number
d) Customer ID number
e) Service; indoor, outdoor
f) Number and year of specification
12.1.3 Mounting location
Nameplates can be mounted in any location deemed suitable by the reactor manufacturer. Some operational
convenience may be realized if the nameplate is mounted so that it is readable from ground level with the
use of an optical aid.
58
12.2 Insulator units
12.2.1 Porcelain insulator units
Porcelain insulator units shall comply with ANSI C29.9-1983 [B1]. Resin or other polymer type insulators
should comply with the appropriate standards.
12.3 Tap (in a reactor)
A tap in a reactor is a connection brought out of a winding at some point between its extremities to permit
changing of the impedance.
59
Annex A
(normative)
Specific requirements for dry-type air-core filter reactors
A.1 General
A.1.1 Scope
The information in this annex applies to dry-type air-core reactors used in harmonic filter applications, e.g.,
filters with resonances in the audible frequency range. Filter reactors in ac or dc power systems are usually
connected with capacitors and resistors in filter circuits to provide a specific filter response and thus reduce
harmonics by blocking or providing a low impedance path for them. This information does not apply to dc
side smoothing reactors in high-voltage direct current (HVDC) systems.
Filter circuits are typically utilized in industrial power systems, in static var compensators (SVCs), and in
converter stations for HVDC transmission systems or HVDC back-to-back links. This information is
applicable to filter reactors on both the ac and the dc sides of an HVDC power converter.
Filter reactors may be connected either in a shunt configuration with the system (shunt filters; usually the
reactors are connected in series with capacitors) or in series configuration with the system, i.e., in series
with the phase conductors (series filters; usually the reactors are connected in parallel with capacitors).
For additional information on the application and specification of components and the protection and
control of harmonic filters, see IEEE Std 1531-2003 [B24].
A.1.2 Annex precedence
Where information in this annex conflicts with that provided elsewhere in this standard, the annex
information shall be considered to take precedence for dry-type air-core filter reactors.
A.2 Definitions
coupling factor: The mutual inductance between two phases of three-phase stacked reactors, expressed in
per unit or percentage of the square root of the product of the self-inductances of the two individual phases.
NOTE—For phases 1 and 2, the coupling factor is as follows:

M 12
k=
L1 x L2
where M is the mutual inductance and L is the self-inductance.
“equivalent” resistance: The value of resistance obtained by dividing total losses by the current squared at
a specific frequency. The total losses do not include the active power transferred by the magnetic coupling
between phases in a three-phase arrangement.
60
mutual reactance Xm of three-phase stacked reactors: The ratio of the induced voltage in an open phase
and the current in an excited phase, in ohms, per phase at a specified frequency.
rated current: The root square sum (rss) of the harmonic currents, including the fundamental current.
rated dynamic overcurrent(s): The magnitude and duration of transient currents seen by the filter reactor,
such as those seen during energizing of the filter branch. The number of such dynamic overcurrents per
year is critical for the design of the filter reactor.
rated inductance: The inductance value at rated tuning frequency. For three-phase stacked filter reactors,
the rated inductance per phase includes mutual coupling effects between the different phases.
rated peak withstand short-circuit current: The maximum asymmetrical peak fault current.
rated power-frequency current: The root-mean-square (rms) value of power-frequency current

continuously flowing through the reactor.
rated power-frequency reactance: The reactance at the rated frequency of the fundamental current. For
three-phase stacked filter reactors, the power-frequency reactance includes the mutual reactance between
different phases when energized with a balanced three-phase supply.
rated power-frequency voltage: The root-mean-square (rms) value of power-frequency voltage

continuously applied across the reactor.
rated Q-factor: The ratio obtained by dividing reactance by “equivalent” resistance at rated tuning
frequency and reference temperature.
NOTE—For three-phase stacked filter reactors energized with three-phase excitation, the nonsymmetrical mutual
coupling between the different phases can cause the power loss measurement per phase to be near zero or even
negative. In this case, the “equivalent” resistance to be used for Q-factor calculation includes only the dc resistance of
each individual single-phase reactor plus the effective additional resistance due to stray losses; it does not include the
influence from mutual coupling between phases.
rated symmetrical short-circuit current: The maximum constant root-mean-square (rms) fault current
that can be carried for a specific time by the filter reactor.
rated tuning frequency: The resonance frequency of the filter circuit in which the reactor is a component.
rated tuning-frequency current: The root-mean-square (rms) value of current of tuning frequency
continuously flowing through the reactor.
NOTE—In certain special applications (audio-frequency signaling), the tuning-frequency current is intermittent. This
should be taken into account in the evaluation of losses and temperature rise limits.
rated tuning-frequency voltage: The root-mean-square (rms) value of the tuning-frequency voltage
continuously applied across the reactor.
A.3 General requirements
A.3.1 General
The steady-state voltage across a filter reactor is usually low compared to the system voltage; however, the
reactor is subject to transient overvoltages. The contribution of harmonic currents through a filter reactor
61
requires special consideration. The harmonic currents increase both the losses in the reactor and the voltage
across the reactor winding.
When connected in shunt configuration and in series with a capacitor, the continuous power-frequency
current of the filter reactor is limited by the impedance of the series-connected capacitor. However, the
harmonic current may be of the same order as, or even larger than, the power-frequency current, especially
for multiple tuned filters. If the reactor is located between line and capacitor, the reactor may also be
subjected to short-circuit currents due to system faults on the bus system between reactor and capacitor.
The filter reactor is also subjected to transient overcurrents during filter-switching operations and during
faults on the bus to which they are connected.
When connected in series configuration with the system, the filter reactor is subjected to the system’s
continuous load current and currents due to system faults.
Filter reactors may also be subjected to dynamic overcurrents such as high levels of harmonics during
system disturbances, such as abnormal network frequency deviations, unbalanced ac system faults,
geomagnetic storms, or the energization of large system transformers.
A.3.2 Design
Filter reactors may be single-phase (side-by-side mounted) or three-phase (stacked configuration). As a

result of insulation requirements between phases, the application of three-phase stacked reactors is usually
confined to distribution systems class.
NOTE 1—Air-core filter reactors are surrounded by a stray magnetic field created by the winding ampere turns. The
location of the reactor relative to metallic structures should be considered with regard to inductive heating effects
during normal operation or to coupled forces during short-circuit loading of the filter reactor. Furthermore, it should be
noted that metallic structures, including the ground mat, may alter the reactor’s inductance and Q-factor (especially for
three-phase stacked filter reactors).
NOTE 2—In the case of three-phase configured filter reactors or filter reactors of different rating installed close to each
other (or even stacked), attention should be paid to the magnetic coupling between reactors with regard to the influence
on inductance and Q-factor.
NOTE 3—Three-phase stacked filter reactors are mainly used in shunt-connected filter circuits. The neutral of such
filter circuits is usually isolated from ground. The type of neutral treatment of the filter circuit, ungrounded or
grounded, may be critical to filter performance when using stacked reactors, especially where the mutual coupling is
not negligible.
Filter reactors may be designed with a means for adjusting the inductance within a limited range, usually by
means of taps or by the relative movement of two “split reactance” coils. The inductance variation range is
subject to agreement and shall be mentioned in the specification or tender.
Where variation of inductance is achieved by means of tapping, the reactor winding may be split into a
main winding and a tapped winding. Inductance steps may also be achieved by tapping the main winding.
Where variation in reactance is achieved by relative coil movement, the coil is “split” into two (usually
stacked) coils with adjustable separation, i.e., the inductance can be adjusted by varying the magnetic
coupling between the two “split reactance” coils.
A.3.3 Design consideration for audible sound
Due to the presence of large harmonic currents that produce forced vibrations in the human audible range
of the sound spectrum, the acoustic noise of filter reactors may be quite high. Filter reactors shall, therefore,
62
be designed to avoid, as far as possible, mechanical or acoustic resonances at major audible sound
frequencies.
When a filter reactor is provided with a sound mitigation enclosure, special attention shall be given to the
design and manufacture of electrical connections inside the enclosure, as they cannot be inspected during
operation. Fire retardant materials should be used in the sound enclosure. Thermal performance of the
reactor shall also be considered with the enclosure in place.
A.3.4 Environmental aspects
Since the harmonic currents may cause significant voltage across a filter reactor, the environmental
conditions may be critical to the performance of the filter reactor, and thus they shall be stated clearly in the
inquiry, e.g., degree of salt contamination or humidity, location of site if in the tropics or close to the sea,
installation in desert areas or in heavy pollution areas such as steel mills. The environmental aspects shall
be considered in the design, for example, in selecting materials and dimensioning of surface and turn-to-
turn stresses, to allow safe operation during the expected lifetime of the reactor.
In addition, other environmental conditions, such as actual maximum and average ambient temperatures at
the site (versus standard weather bureau data), seismic requirements, and wind loads, should be included in
the reactor specification.
A.4 Ratings
Reference to 60 Hz voltages and currents apply equally to 50 Hz or other frequency power systems.
A.4.1 Voltage drop rating
The voltage drop across the reactor depends on the voltage drop due to the 60 Hz current and of all
harmonic currents. The instantaneous voltage drop is a function of the magnitude of the current
components and their phase relationships. The larger reactor impedance at the higher frequency
components of the harmonic current can substantially increase the voltage drop.
The rated voltage drop across the reactor shall be taken as the worst-case peak voltage of the resulting
voltage drop divided by 2 . If the wave shape of the resulting voltage drop is unknown, the rated voltage
drop is determined by the root-sum-square (rss) method using 60 Hz and harmonic frequency voltage
drops, e.g., as in Equation (A.1).
 ∞  1/ 2
VDrss =  ∑VDH2  (A.1)
 H =1 
where
VDrss is the rss voltage drop

VDH is the voltage drop at harmonic H
H is the harmonic order
NOTE—The value of voltage drop obtained by the rss method is usually lower than the worst-case peak voltage drop
but is typically the most important value necessary for the proper design of the filter reactor.
63
A.4.2 Current rating
Fundamental 60 Hz current and all harmonic and dc currents, where applicable, shall be specified. This is
critical as they are required for both thermal and voltage design purposes. These currents constitute the
current spectrum of the reactor.
NOTE—In the case of filter reactors for SVC application, the special nature of the load should be specified and
considered in the design. Intermittent current can fluctuate over a wide frequency range with interruption periods of
parts of seconds to months.
A.4.3 Thermal short-time current rating
This value is equivalent to the thermal short-circuit rating in accordance with 3.4 and 5.6.4. For reactors in
series-connected filter circuits, this value is related to system overcurrent faults.
For reactors in shunt-connected filter circuits, this value is related to temporarily increased levels of
harmonic currents due to abnormal operating conditions of the harmonic source or due to detuning caused
by abnormal ac network frequency deviations. The increased level of harmonics during system faults and
switching events should also be considered.
Based on the system specifics of the application, the magnitude of rated short-time current shall be
specified for each filter reactor rating.
A.4.4 Mechanical short-circuit current rating
This value is the maximum peak current caused by any transient or short-circuit condition (see also 3.4 and
5.6.3). For reactors in series-connected filter circuits, this value is related to system overcurrent faults.
For reactors in shunt-connected filter circuits, this value is usually determined by oscillations excited by
faults, especially faults on the line or bus to which they are connected. Also the inrush current during filter
switching shall be considered.
The magnitude of the peak value at rated mechanical short-circuit current shall be specified in the inquiry
and tender for each filter reactor and shall be based on its individual application. For transients other than
the fundamental, the time to crest shall be specified in the inquiry.
If transient currents of the same order of magnitude as the mechanical short-circuit rating are expected to be
frequent, i.e., more than 10 times a year, the number of such transient current peaks per year shall be
specified.
NOTE—Filter reactors used in conjunction with electric arc furnaces are, in particular, subjected to transient (dynamic)
currents.
A.4.5 Rated Q-factor of a filter reactor
The rated Q-factor is the Q-factor at specified tuning frequency or frequencies, reference temperature, and
the reactor’s rated inductance. Unless otherwise specified, this is a guaranteed minimum value.
For three-phase stacked filter reactors, the rated Q-factor at tuning frequency is the value obtained for the
individual reactor when energized with single-phase excitation.
The manufacturer shall, on request, supply information concerning the expected Q-factor of the filter
reactor at specified tuning frequency or frequencies with an accuracy as defined in A.6.3.
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A.4.6 Reactor duty for rating
Unless otherwise specified, the reactor duty for rating is continuous operation at rated current.
A.4.7 Limits of temperature rise for continuous rating
Limits of temperature rise for filter reactors with continuous loading shall adhere to 8.3 and Table 3 of
IEEE Std C57.21-2008.
For filter reactors used in filter applications subjected to intermittent loads, Table 4 of this standard may be
considered.
A.4.8 Reference temperature
The reference temperature for the filter reactor shall be the temperature rise at nominal/normal operating
conditions (which may differ from the rated current) plus 20 °C. The temperature rise shall be based upon
the temperature rise test or calculations made by the manufacturer when temperature rise test results are not
available.
A.4.9 Insulation between phases and to ground
The insulation of a filter reactor between phases and to ground depends on the design of the filter circuit
and may differ from normal insulation levels for the system. For reactors connected in shunt filters, the
selection of a reduced insulation level may be appropriate. BIL and switching impulse levels between
phases and to ground shall be stated in the inquiry, as applicable.
The rms value of all harmonic voltages, including the fundamental and, where appropriate, the dc voltage,
between the reactor and ground shall be specified as a basis for establishing insulator creepage distance, as
applicable.
A.4.10 Insulation across the coil
The insulation system of a filter reactor shall be designed to withstand both the voltage drop caused by the
60 Hz and harmonic currents and the transient overvoltages. Depending on the filter design, the insulation
levels across the reactor may be different from the insulation levels between phases and to ground. BIL and
switching impulse levels across the reactor shall be included in the filter reactor specification, as applicable.
The resulting voltage appearing across the reactor during the maximum specified transient fault current
shall not be greater than 83% of the rated BIL across coil.
NOTE—When the filter reactor is protected by an arrester, the resulting voltage across the reactor during the maximum
specified fault current should be lower than the switching impulse protective level (SIPL), which may be very close to
the lightning impulse protective level (LIPL) of the arrester to avoid operation of the arrester during the fault. The
insulation margins for the filter reactor shall be added on top of both the SIPL and the LIPL. (BIL is LIPL plus the
insulation margin for lightning impulse). This is especially true for 3rd harmonic filters for HVDC during ac network
single-phase ground faults. Both the BIL and the maximum resulting voltage across the reactor during the maximum
specified fault current shall be specified by the purchaser. For the latter the waveform should also be given.
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A.5 Testing
A.5.1 Routine tests for filter reactors
a) Measurement of winding dc resistance

b) Measurement of inductance
c) Measurement of total losses and Q-factor
d) Lightning impulse test or turn-to-turn overvoltage test depending on the rated insulation voltage
levels (see Table 3 and Table 6).
A.5.2 Design tests for filter reactor
a) Temperature rise test

b) Measurement of variation of inductance and resistance with frequency
c) Measurement of self-inductances of three-phase stacked filter reactors
d) Measurement of mutual inductances of three-phase stacked filter reactors
A.5.3 Other tests for filter reactors
a) Thermal short-time overcurrent test or calculation

b) Mechanical short-circuit test or calculation
c) Switching impulse test to ground
d) Applied potential test
e) Chopped-wave impulse test
f) Radio influence voltage (RIV) test
g) Audible sound test or calculation
h) Seismic verification test or calculation
A.5.4 Notes on routine tests for filter reactors
A.5.4.1 Measurement of winding dc resistance
The method of measurement is as generally outlined in 11.2.
For tapped reactors, the dc resistance shall be measured at the nominal inductance tap.
A.5.4.2 Measurement of inductance
A.5.4.2.1 General
The inductance shall be measured on all units of an order at the rated tuning frequency only and at all tap
positions (if taps are provided) when applicable. As an option, for orders involving multiple tapped filter
reactors of identical design, the inductance at each tap position shall be measured on one unit of the order.
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For the other tapped filter reactors, of the same design, inductance shall be measured at a minimum of three
points, typically maximum, minimum, and nominal. In this case correctness of tapping shall be verified by
physical inspection.
Where more than one tuning frequency is specified (multituned filters), the inductance of the filter reactor
(including taps if so supplied) shall be measured at either the lowest or highest tuning frequency to be
specified.
For continuously tunable filter reactors, the inductance shall be measured at the nominal position and the
extremes of regulation.
A.5.4.2.2 Measurement of inductance of tapped filter reactors
In some cases the value of tap step change of tapped filter reactors may be such that the measurement
tolerance is of the same order of magnitude. In other words, the measurement tolerance is such that even
though the tap increments physically are in uniform steps, the measured results do not reflect this fact. In
most cases the problem is not the inductance/loss measurement system but is due to stray inductance in
instrument connection leads and tap links. In this case one option may be to use graphical methods,
manually or in the form of software embedded in the inductance/loss measurement system. Essentially the
measured inductance of each tap location is graphed versus the design turns in the tap section. A best-fit
graph is generated. The inductance at the actual design turns for each tap are read off the graph and are the
values reported in the test report. Large deviations between the measured inductance value at a tap location
versus the value read off the graph may indicate a manufacturing error in locating the particular tap and
shall be investigated.
NOTE—It should be noted that typical practice at site during commissioning of filters is to measure the capacitance
value of individual capacitor units (“cans”), calculate the total capacitance, select the closest tap to meet design tuning,
and verify the appropriate tap by measuring the high-frequency impedance response of the filter. Inductance of the
filter reactor (at the selected tap position) is typically not measured. Therefore, the exact inductance value at the various
tap positions is not critical; tapping range and sufficient tap steps are, however, important.
A.5.4.2.3 Measurement of inductance of three-phase stacked filter reactors
For three-phase stacked reactors, the “effective inductance” (mutual inductance included) per phase shall
be derived from a three-phase measurement of the reactor’s impedance by applying a system of
symmetrical three-phase voltages to the star-connected phase windings with the star point floating.
The impedance for each phase shall be taken as follows:
phase−to− phase applied voltage

3 × measured phase current
In the case of filter reactor orders with multiple three-phase stacks, it is permissible to assemble only one
three-phase stack and by measurement obtain the coupling factors(s). These factors can be used to obtain
the effective inductance (mutual inductance included) per phase for the other filter reactors in three-phase
stack configuration from single-phase self-inductance measurements. The coupling factor between two
phases is determined by measuring the mutual reactance and the self-inductances of the two phases; see A.2
for definitions of coupling factor and mutual reactance.
NOTE 1—For three-phase stacked reactors, the self-inductance of each individual phase is not the same as the rated
and effective inductance.
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NOTE 2—In most cases, the neutral of the filters is floating. This is the case for virtually all filters in distribution class
systems, i.e., for either industrial or utility networks. Most SVCs have an effectively grounded neutral. Filters for
transmission class systems, including HVDC, are effectively grounded, and the neutral of the filters may also be
grounded. Also three-phase stacked reactors are not usually used for transmission class filters due to the insulation
requirements between phases, or if they are used, then the magnetic coupling is negligible because of the clearances.
Therefore, it is justified to assume that no zero-sequence current may flow through a three-phase stacked filter reactor.
For three-phase stacked reactors, which may be subjected in service to the flow of zero-sequence current,
the zero-sequence inductance per phase should additionally be measured. This step is done by applying a
single-phase voltage to the windings of the three reactors connected in parallel and measuring the current of
each phase.
A.5.4.3 Measurement of total losses and Q-factor
The method of measurement is as generally outlined in 11.4. The losses of an air-core reactor at a given
frequency are assumed to be proportional to the square of the current and may be measured at reduced
current (or voltage). The Q-factor may be derived from loss and impedance test measurements as shown
below.
The “equivalent” resistance shall be measured at nominal inductance at 60 Hz and at rated tuning
frequencies at any convenient ambient temperature. The resistance shall be corrected to the reference
temperature specified in 11.4.2.
The inductance and the Q-factor at a specific frequency are derived from the loss and impedance test by
using Equation (A.2) and Equation (A.3).
1 V (A.2)
L= × x
2 ×π × f I
Vx × I (A.3)
Q=
Pz
where
f is the frequency, in hertz

L is the inductance, in henries, at frequency f
Q is the Q-factor at frequency f at reference temperature
Vx is the reactance voltage, in volts (see 11.4)
I is the current, in amperes (see 11.4)
Pz is the total losses, in watts, corrected to the reference temperature specified in 11.4.2
NOTE—Pz = Pr + Ps where Pr is the I2R losses and Ps is the stray losses.
If a bridge method is employed, inductance and Q-factor at specific frequencies can be obtained directly
from the measurement.
Test arrangements shall be agreed between the manufacturer and the purchaser prior to testing.
For three-phase stacked reactors, the total loss shall be measured with three-phase excitation with the
reactor assembled as in service. The arithmetic sum of the measured loss of the three individual phases
gives the total loss. In the case of filter reactor orders with multiple three-phase stacks, it is permissible to
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assemble only one three-phase stack and by measurement obtain the total loss. For the routine test, single-
phase measurements of loss and Q-factor on the individual phases may be used.
The measurement of the Q-factor shall be performed prior to dielectric testing and, if so specified, be
repeated at the end of the test sequence.
The power-frequency winding loss is determined by measurements at power frequency. Losses for
specified individual harmonic frequency components are calculated or directly obtained from
measurements at the respective harmonic frequencies and added to the power-frequency loss. The total loss
is referred to reference temperature.
NOTE—For filter reactors loaded with dc current, the measured dc losses, referred to the reference temperature, shall
be included.
Losses shall be measured at the nominal inductance tap for tapped reactors.
A.5.4.4 Lightning impulse test
The test is as generally outlined in 11.3.6.
The test shall be made with waves of positive polarity applied to the high-voltage terminal, with the low-
voltage terminal grounded. If a specific BIL is also specified for the low-voltage terminal, the impulse test
or turn-to-turn test shall also be performed on the low-voltage terminal, with the high-voltage terminal
grounded, at the prescribed low-voltage terminal insulation level. For tapped reactors, the impulse or turn-
to-turn test shall be performed, unless otherwise specified, at the maximum tap position on a routine test
basis and at the maximum and minimum tap positions for the design test.
NOTE 1—If the location of the filter reactor in the filter circuit is such that the reactor may be subjected to transient
voltages from either end, then it should be impulsed from both ends. For this situation only, tapped filter reactors
should be impulsed from both ends at the maximum tap position on a routine test basis and from both ends at maximum
and minimum tap positions for the design test.
NOTE 2—All impulse tests in IEEE reactor standards are positive polarity. Positive polarity impulses provide a more
onerous test on external insulation than negative polarity impulses.
A.5.5 Notes on design tests for filter reactors
A.5.5.1 Temperature rise test
The temperature rise test is carried out at power frequency. The test current shall be adjusted to produce the
total fundamental plus harmonic winding losses. If the reactor is provided with an enclosure, the enclosure
shall be erected for the temperature rise test. The test procedure is outlined in 11.5.
For tapped reactors, the temperature rise test shall be performed at the maximum inductance tap. The
equivalent test current is obtained from Equation (A.4).
m
I t2 × Rt = I F2 × RF + ∑ I Hn
2
× RHn + (I dc2 × Rdc ) (A.4)
n =2
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where
It is the equivalent test current (50 Hz or 60 Hz)

IF is the maximum continuous fundamental current
IHn is the maximum continuous nth harmonic current
Rt is the winding resistance at test current frequency, corrected to maximum operating temperature
RF is the winding resistance at fundamental frequency, corrected to maximum operating temperature
RHn is the winding resistance at nth harmonic, corrected to maximum operating temperature
m is the highest specified harmonic
Idc is the maximum continuous dc current if the reactor is subjected to dc current loading
Rdc is the winding dc resistance, corrected to maximum operating temperature
Losses that do not directly influence the temperature rise of windings (e.g., losses in spiders and brackets)
should not be included. However, when the reactor is provided with an enclosure, the possible effect on
temperature rise due to any induced losses in the enclosure should be considered. Stray losses external to
the winding and not included in the total losses to be supplied during the temperature rise test shall be
defined and explained by the manufacturer, for instance, by using appropriate software based on magnetic
field plots.
The test shall provide verification of temperature limits achieved at rated current and harmonics as
described in A.4.2. Acceptable average winding and hot spot temperature shall be as specified in A.4.7.
A.5.5.2 Measurement of variation of inductance and resistance with frequency
The variation of inductance and resistance with frequency shall be measured at nominal inductance and at
any convenient ambient temperature. The frequency range shall be 60 Hz to 3600 Hz for the inductance
and dc to 3600 Hz for the resistance, unless otherwise specified. The measured values shall be corrected to
maximum operating temperature and used for calculation of the equivalent current in A.5.5.1.
A.5.6 Notes on “other” tests for filter reactors
A.5.6.1 Inductance tap for tests
All tests in this subclause shall be performed at the maximum inductance tap.
A.5.6.2 Radio influence voltage (RIV) test
The voltage of a filter reactor to ground depends on the design of the filter circuit and may differ from the
nominal system voltage. If an RIV test is specified, this fact should be considered when determining the
level of the test voltage to be applied between reactor and ground for the RIV test. Normally this test
applies only to filter reactors for which one terminal is directly connected to systems rated 230 kV and
above.
A.5.6.3 Audible sound level test on filter reactors
A.5.6.3.1 General
Generally, an audible sound test for filter reactors shall be performed as prescribed in 11.8: test setup,
instrumentation, microphone positions, etc.
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The sound radiated from the filter reactor depends on both the power-frequency and harmonic currents.
Unless otherwise specified, it is recommended to consider only the most significant harmonic currents out
of the harmonic current spectrum. Since simultaneous power-frequency and harmonic currents usually
cannot be applied for testing, it is recommended to test the reactor successively with currents at power
frequency, at significant harmonic frequencies, and at frequencies that reflect the interaction of currents
with different frequencies.
NOTE—The sound level test results can then be compared with the reactor manufacturer design values. These
measurements are also performed to verify the manufacturer’s calculation method if it is not practicable to obtain sound
level measurements at all critical specified current values and all resultant interactive values. In case of doubt regarding
the final noise level performance of a filter reactor, field measurements may give a clear answer regarding audible
sound performance, provided the full rated harmonic current spectrum is present.
For a reactor current spectrum with currents I1, I2, I3, …, the test currents (sound equivalent currents) are
given as follows:
Filter reactor Amplitude of Frequency of Sound

current test current test current frequency
I1, I2, I3, ... I1 f1 2f1
I2 f2 2f2
I3 f3 2f3
… … …
For any pair of currents, the following currents need to be considered due to interactive effects:
Filter reactor Amplitude of Frequency of Sound

current test current test current frequency
I1, I2 (2 × I1 × I2)1/2 (f2 + f1)/2 f2 + f1
(2 × I1 × I2)1/2 (f2 – f1)/2 f2 – f1
f1, f2, f3, … are the frequencies of the filter reactor rms currents I1, I2, I3, … that are interacting. Usually f1 is
the power frequency, and f2, f3, … are the frequencies of the significant harmonic currents.
The harmonic power supply usually consists of a power amplifier or variable frequency inverter and
associated resonant circuit elements. Rotating machines may also be used.
The A-weighted sound-pressure level measurement shall be used to determine the sound-power level of a
filter reactor.
A.5.6.3.2 Test conditions
The filter reactor shall be completely assembled, including any integrated ancillary de-Q’ing components
such as “de-Q’ing rings” or resistors, if applicable.
The filter reactor should be tested preferably at the specified amplitudes of the harmonic currents.
Nevertheless, harmonic current sources that are in use have limited power capability, and most of the time,
the specified harmonic current(s) cannot be fed to the reactor because the required power is in excess of the
power supply capabilities. For such cases, it is a general practice to perform the measurement at reduced
current, and correction from measured to full test currents shall be made by calculation.
If the reactor is designed with a means for adjusting the impedance, it should be set for rated impedance.
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A.5.6.3.3 Sound level measurement
Sound-pressure levels shall be measured in conformance with 11.8, A.5.6.3.1, and A.5.6.3.2 using the
sound level meter A-weighting characteristic.
A.5.6.3.4 Calculation of average sound-pressure level
An average sound-pressure level at each tested current and frequency value, L pA , shall be calculated from
the measured values of the A-weighted sound-pressure level LpAi by using Equation (A.5).
1 n

∑10
0.1LρΑi
L pA = 10 log 10   (A.5)
N i =1 
where
L pA is the average sound-pressure level, in dB(A)

LpAi is the measured sound-pressure level at location i, in dB(A)
N is the total number of measurement locations
When an integrating sound level meter is used, the average sound-pressure level calculated using
Equation (A.5) is provided directly by the sound level meter.
If the test is done at reduced current, correction from measured to full test current shall be made by using
Equation (A.6).
I full
L pA _ corr = L pA + 40 log10 ( ) (A.6)
I reduced
where
L pA _ corr is the average sound-pressure level of the filter reactor for each individual test component,
corrected to full current, in dB(A)
The total A-weighted sound-pressure level of the filter reactor is calculated using Equation (A.7).
 n 
L pA _ total = 10 log 10  ∑10 0.1L pA _ corr c  (A.7)
 c =1 
where
LpA_total is the total A-weighted sound-pressure level of the filter reactor, in dB(A)
L pA _ corr c is the sound-pressure level of each individual test component c (corrected to full current),
in dB(A)
n is the number of harmonic frequencies of interest
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It should be noted that the above calculated value may have to be corrected for the following factors:
a) Ambient sound-pressure level

b) Acoustic characteristics of the location where sound readings are taken, e.g., reverberant properties
of the test laboratory (see 11.1.2 in IEC 60076-10:2005)
A.5.6.3.5 Calculation of A-weighted sound-power level
The A-weighted sound-power level LWA of the filter reactor shall be computed using Equation (A.8).
LWA = LpA_total + 10log10(S) (A.8)
where
LWA is the A-weighted sound-power level of the filter reactor, in dB(A)

LpA_total is the total A-weighted sound-pressure level of the filter reactor, in dB(A)
S is the measurement surface area, in square meters
The measurement surface area S for a dry-type air-core series reactor located near ground is best
approximated by a hemispherical shell or a cylinder. The appropriate measurement surface is a function of
the reactor shape (height versus diameter) and measurement distance.
Hemispherical shell:
S = 2πRm2
where
Rm is the measurement radius
Cylinder (measurements made at 2 m from the surface of the reactor):
The area S of the measurement surface, expressed in square meters, is given by:
S = (h + 2) lm
where
h is the height, in meters, of the reactor

lm is the length, in meters, of the prescribed contour and is calculated by Im = (Da + 2x)π
where
Da is the outside diameter of reactor winding

x is the measurement distance from the coil outside surface
2 accounts for the top surface of the “cylinder”
NOTE—Other contours can be used if justified, such as those defined in IEC 60076-10:2005.
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A.5.6.4 Thermal short-time overcurrent test
The temperature rise at the short-time overcurrent may be obtained from a combined temperature rise test.
Test sequence shall include verification that steady-state temperature for the specified continuous
fundamental current and harmonics has been reached. It shall be followed by applying the specified short-
time overcurrent to obtain the net resultant temperature. The acceptable hot spot temperature limit is
defined in Table 4.
As an alternative, the temperature at the specified short-time overcurrent may be calculated.
A.5.6.5 Mechanical short-circuit current test
For reactors in shunt-connected filters, the mechanical short-circuit current is not usually significant. The
mechanical and thermal capabilities of filter reactors can be verified by calculation or by a suitable
capacitor discharge test, based on agreement between the manufacturer and the purchaser.
A.6 Tolerances
A.6.1 Inductance
If a filter reactor is not provided with a means of adjusting the inductance, tolerances on rated inductance
shall be specified and guaranteed. Where taps are specified, a tolerance for each tap should be specified or
a minimum tap range and maximum tap step size should be stated.
A.6.2 Losses
The average loss of all units of the same design on one order shall not exceed the guaranteed value.
A.6.3 Q-factor
Unless otherwise specified, the “as manufactured” tolerances on Q-factor should be ± 20% of the value
estimated by the manufacturer.
Unless otherwise specified, the Q-factor at rated tuning frequency of any filter reactor shall not deviate
from the average Q-factor of all units of the same design on one order by more than 15%.
Unless otherwise specified, the Q-factor, at the rated tuning frequency and reference temperature, measured
at the end of the test sequence, shall not deviate from the one measured prior to the dielectric testing by
more than 5%.
A.7 Nameplate information
A.7.1 Recommended information
The following information should be included on the nameplate:
a) Apparatus type
74
c) Serial number
e) Temperature class
f) Temperature rise, °C
g) Type of cooling
h) Rated power frequency
i) Rated tuning frequency
j) Rated inductance (at rated tuning frequency)
k) Measured inductance
l) Q-factor (at rated tuning frequency) (as applicable)
m) Rated fundamental current (as applicable)
n) Rated current (rss value of all harmonic currents, including fundamental)
o) Thermal current _____ kA/ _____ s
p) Mechanical peak current _____ kA
q) BIL (basic impulse insulation level)
r) Altitude, if exceeding 1000 m (3300 ft)
s) Number and year of standard
t) Total weight
A.7.2 Optional information
Optional information that may be required as follows:
a) Number of phases
b) Drawing number
c) Customer ID number
d) Service; indoor, outdoor
e) Maximum ambient temperature
f) System voltage
g) Number and year of specification
A.8 Filter reactor design information
The information in the following subclauses is required to design a filter reactor properly.
A.8.1 Filter reactors for standard applications
 Maximum system voltage _____ kV

 Rated system voltage _____ kV
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 Rated inductance: mH
 Tolerance:
 Fundamental current rating: A
 Harmonic currents (Hz/A): A
 Short-time current (rms symmetrical, seconds): kA, s
 Q-value at ____ Hz Q>____, or Q< ____, or Q=____± @ (reference temp.) °C
 Maximum continuous voltage to ground: kV
 Lightning impulse withstand level (LIWL)
 Across reactor: kV crest
 Low-voltage terminal to ground: kV crest
 Switching impulse withstand level (SIWL)
 Across reactor: kV crest
 Low-voltage terminal to ground: kV crest
 Mounting; side-by-side or three-coil stacked
 Indoor or outdoor
 Taps _____ %
 Steps ± _____
A.8.2 Filter reactors for special applications
 Arc furnace application: Yes/No

 Switching operations (number per year): per year
 Short-time overcurrent
_______Transient current (peak, duration in cycles): kA peak, ms
_______Time constant “T” for transient current decay s
_______ Dynamic current (peak, duration in ms): kA peak, ms
_______Time constant “T” for dynamic current decay (T): s

 Dynamic overvoltage (rms, duration in ms): kV, ms
 Dynamic overvoltage time constant s
A.8.3 Environmental conditions
 Seismic: g
 Pollution levels: salt, industrial, etc.
 Ambient temperature (site)
____ Annual average: °C
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____ Annual maximum: °C
____ Annual minimum: °C
A.9 De-Q’ing of filter reactors; test code implications
A.9.1 Introduction
Filters are employed in ac power systems, for the most part, to prevent harmonics from entering the system
or to divert them from the part of the system to be protected; as stand-alone shunt filters, where they also
provide capacitive reactive compensation; or as part of a static var system (SVC). Filters are also an
important element of HVDC systems, i.e., ac and dc side filters. There are a number of shunt filter
configurations: single tuned (high Q), “band pass” (low Q), and high pass damped (“first order,” “second
order,” “third order,” and “C-type”).
A.9.2 De-Q’ing/damping
Low Q or damping can be provided by “stand-alone” resistors. In some cases, resistors may be mounted on
top of the filter reactor. Note that mounting the filter reactor on the resistor is not usually done due to the
heat generated by the resistor. If a resistance in parallel with the reactor is required, the resistor may be
mounted inside the reactor, depending on the power rating of the resistor. An alternative to the parallel
connected resistor may be achieved by “de-Q’ing” the filter reactor. This option can be achieved by
increasing the winding losses, especially over the harmonic frequencies and preferably at a selected
harmonic frequency or frequencies. De-Q’ing may also be achieved by increasing the harmonic “stray
losses” of the filter reactor usually by the addition of special “de-Q’ing” elements, such as “de-Q’ing
rings.”
A.9.3 Test code
In the case of “stand-alone resistors,” there is no impact on the test code methodology for the filter reactor.
This comment also applies to resistors mounted on the filter reactor and connected in series with the filter
reactor. Test code methodology for the resistor and for the filter reactor are independent. Consideration can
be made to performing temperature rise tests with the filter resistors mounted on the filter reactors to verify
that reactor cooling has not been impeded and the stray magnetic field of the reactor does not adversely
heat the resistor.
If a resistor is mounted in parallel with the filter reactor and is mounted inside the filter reactor, then the
filter reactor/parallel resistor combination shall be tested as a complete entity. The resistor shall be rated at
the same BIL as the filter reactor.
In the case of de-Q’ing of the filter reactor, the filter reactor shall be tested in accordance with the test code
described in this standard. Since de-Q’ing is passive and is based on increasing the losses (focus on
harmonic losses), there is no impact on dielectric tests. There is obviously an impact on losses. Impact on
temperature rise is a function of the type of de-Q’ing employed: increased winding losses versus external
de-Q’ing elements.
De-Q’ing accessories that are fastened to the reactor shall be included for all testing as there may be
significant mechanical and thermal stresses imparted on the accessories particularly during short-circuit or
temperature rise testing. Also, where sound level testing is specified, these tests shall be carried out with
de-Q’ing accessories attached as they may contribute to the equipment sound level.
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A.9.4 Conductor insulation temperature
If de-Q’ing is achieved in whole or in part by increasing the conductor eddy losses at specific harmonic
frequencies, there is a direct correlation to conductor insulation temperature, i.e., conductor temperature
rise due to de-Q’ing losses. This factor should be taken into consideration in determining the equivalent
current for the temperature rise design/type test.
If de-Q’ing is achieved using external means such as a mounted resistor or special de-Q’ing geometry, the
impact on conductor insulation temperature is secondary and also strongly geometry dependent. For
instance, if resistors or de-Q’ing geometries are mounted on top of or above the reactor windings, the
impact is negligible. An internally mounted resistor or a resistor mounted below the reactor contributes to a
higher operating ambient and thus a higher conductor insulation system operating temperature. The
temperature rise design/type test shall reflect this factor.
If de-Q’ing is located below the reactor main winding, the losses in the de-Q’ing and the associated heat
generated could affect the temperature of the cooling air and the operating temperature of the reactor main
winding. The rationale for the temperature rise design test shall take this factor into consideration.
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Annex B
(normative)
Specific requirements for dry-type air-core shunt capacitor reactors
B.1 General
B.1.1 Scope
This information applies to dry-type air-core reactors used in series with shunt-connected capacitors.
Air-core reactors are used in series with shunt-connected capacitor banks to limit inrush currents due to
capacitor bank switching, to reduce outrush currents caused by close-in faults, and to “detune” capacitor
banks to avoid resonance with the electrical system. During normal operation the capacitor current flows
through the shunt capacitor reactor. The maximum permissible (overload) current of the shunt capacitor
reactor is based on the corresponding value for the capacitor bank.
Shunt capacitor reactors may be used at industrial, distribution, and transmission voltage levels
and are connected to capacitor banks ranging from a few hundred kilovar to several tens of megavar. See
Figure B.1.
LOutrush LOutrush
LOutrush
LBack to Back
LBack to Back
LBack to Back
Figure B.1—Capacitor installation with single bank (left) and with multiple banks (right)
NOTE—The terminology “shunt capacitor reactor” is used in this standard as it is common practice in North America.
However, in IEC 60076-6:2007 [B9], the terminology used is “damping reactor,” although the function of such reactors
is inrush or outrush current limiting and they do not provide damping.
Additional information on shunt capacitor reactors can be found in IEEE Std 1036-2010. 11
Shunt capacitor reactors shall generally comply with the requirements given in IEEE Std 18™-2002. 12
11
For information about this reference, see B.1.3.
12
79
B.1.2 Annex precedence
information shall take precedence for the respective reactor type.
B.1.3 Supporting published material
This annex shall be used in conjunction with the following publications, where applicable:
IEC 60871-1:2005, Shunt capacitors for a.c. power systems having a rated voltage above 1 000 V – Part 1:
General. 13
IEEE Std C37.06™-2009, IEEE Standard for AC High-Voltage Circuit Breakers Rated on a Symmetrical
Current Basis—Preferred Ratings and Related Required Capabilities for Voltage Above 1000 V. 14,15
IEEE Std C37.012™-2005, IEEE Application Guide for Capacitance Current Switching for AC High
Voltage Circuit Breakers.
IEEE Std C37.12™-2008, IEEE Guide for Specifications of High-Voltage Circuit Breakers (over
1000 Volts).
IEEE Std 18™-2002, IEEE Standard for Shunt Power Capacitors.
IEEE Std 1036™-2010, IEEE Guide for the Application of Shunt Power Capacitors.
NEMA CP 1-2000 (R2008), Shunt Capacitors. 16
B.2 Definitions
“effective” resistance: The value of resistance obtained by dividing total losses by the current squared at a
specific frequency.
Q-factor: The ratio of reactance to “effective” resistance at specified transient inrush frequency and
reference temperature.
rated continuous current: The effective root-mean-square (rms) value of power-frequency current
(including the effect of continuous overvoltage, capacitor tolerance, and harmonics) that can be carried by
the reactor for the duty specified without exceeding the specified temperature limits and within the limits of
established standards.
rated inductance: The inductance value of the shunt capacitor reactor that provides the required reduction
of transient inrush current at the specified frequency.
rated transient inrush (or outrush) current: The peak value of the highest transient inrush, or outrush,
current at the specified frequency that the shunt capacitor reactor is capable of withstanding with no loss of
electrical or mechanical integrity.
13
14
15
16
NEMA publications are available from Global Engineering Documents (http://global.ihs.com/).
80
rated transient inrush (or outrush) frequency: The resonant frequency of the shunt capacitor reactor,
associated shunt capacitor bank, and relevant parts of the system for the operating conditions of capacitor
bank switching or worst-case “close-in” fault.
B.3 General requirements
B.3.1 General
The steady-state voltage across a shunt capacitor reactor is usually low compared to the system voltage.
However, shunt capacitor reactors are usually switched very frequently, often several times per day, and
subject to routine transient overvoltages. Also, the presence of harmonic currents through a shunt capacitor
reactor requires special consideration as the harmonic currents increases both the losses in the reactor and
the voltage drop across the reactor winding.
A shunt capacitor reactor is subject to inrush current transients due to switching operations and outrush
transient currents due to close-in faults. If the reactor is arranged between line and capacitor, the reactor
may also be subject to short-circuit currents due to faults on the bus between reactor and capacitor.
Therefore, a complete specification for shunt capacitor reactors should include, as applicable, specifics on
switching duty; symmetrical short-circuit current duration and magnitude; asymmetrical (peak) short-
circuit current; and maximum transient inrush and outrush current magnitude, frequency, and duration.
Care should be taken to understand transient recovery voltages (TRV) for circuit breakers applied in
conjunction with shunt capacitor banks and reactors. Annex F contains additional background information.
B.3.2 Design
Shunt capacitor reactors for inrush/outrush current limitation are normally single-phase units applied in
three-phase sets and are normally not tapped. They may be mounted in any conventional configuration, but
are usually arranged in a side-by-side or three-phase vertical stacked arrangement.
B.3.3 Design considerations for harmonics
The impedance of a shunt capacitor decreases with higher frequency and can result in significant harmonic
frequency content in a shunt capacitor bank’s current. This characteristic is considered in applicable
standards for shunt power capacitors. It is also noted that the impedance of the shunt capacitor reactor
increases with higher frequency. Therefore, the harmonic currents of higher frequencies are more
pronounced in the shunt capacitor bank current spectrum than the corresponding harmonic voltages in the
system voltage spectrum.
The following items should be considered:
a) Worldwide the harmonic contamination of the ac systems is increasing. Past “rules of thumb” may
not be sufficient.
b) This standard provides general guidelines, but the purchaser shall consider actual circuit
configurations regarding the risk for higher harmonic content.
c) The general guidelines can be significantly higher for grounded capacitor banks than for
ungrounded capacitor banks. The reason is that grounded capacitor banks are stressed by the
transformer excitation current (e.g., 3rd, 9th, 15th zero-sequence harmonic). The harmonics of the
transformer excitation current increase with system voltages and are the worst at the highest
overvoltages.
81
The relations are demonstrated by Equation (B.1), Equation (B.2), and Equation (B.3), which are valid for
harmonics of frequency below the resonance frequency of the shunt capacitor and the shunt capacitor
reactor. These are normally the harmonics of interest.
 Vh  2
THD = ∑  V  × 100 (B.1)
 1
2
 h ×Vh 
FhI = 1 + ∑   (B.2)
 V1 
2
 h 2 ×Vh 
FhV = 1 + ∑   (B.3)
 V1 
where
THD is the total harmonic distortion (%) of the ac bus voltage

FhI is the harmonic current distortion factor of the shunt capacitor bank current
FhV is the harmonic voltage distortion factor of the shunt capacitor reactor voltage
V1 is the fundamental voltage of the ac bus
Vh is the harmonic voltage of the ac bus
h is the harmonic order
The continuous current for shunt capacitor reactors can be calculated from Equation (B.4) and
Equation (B.5).
MVAr × 1000 (B.4)

I1N =
3 × Vs
I eff = I 1N × Fv × Ft × FhI (B.5)
where
I1N is the nominal fundamental current, in kiloamperes

MVAr is the nominal three-phase rating of capacitor bank (at nominal ac voltage)
Vs is the nominal line-to-line system voltage, in kilovolts
Ieff is the effective (rated) rms current of the shunt capacitor reactor
Fv is the voltage factor; ratio between maximum system rms voltage and nominal system rms voltage
Ft is the capacitance tolerance factor for the shunt capacitor rating, in per units
FhI is the harmonic current distortion factor of the shunt capacitor bank current
It shall be considered that due to the low impedance of the shunt capacitor bank, the content of high-order
harmonics on the ac bus normally is reduced and that for high-order harmonics, the impedance of the shunt
capacitor reactor is significant. In addition, if, with the shunt capacitor bank connected, there are significant
ac bus harmonic voltages of frequencies at or above the resonance frequency, the continuous harmonic
loading of the shunt capacitor reactor may be significant. Then Annex A may be more applicable.
82
Based on the above, a few guidelines for establishing the “effective” current rating of the shunt capacitor
reactor are offered for capacitors manufactured according to ANSI and IEEE standards:
Fv is typically 1.05 but could be larger. Overvoltages are limited to 110% of rated “capacitor unit”
voltage.
Ft is normally 1.10, “capacitor unit” tolerance is –0/+10%, but overall bank tolerance is usually less.
The capacitor manufacturer should be consulted with regard to bank tolerances.
FhI should be at least 1.075 for an ungrounded capacitor bank or at least 1.18 for a grounded capacitor
bank.
Therefore, the guideline for an ungrounded capacitor bank is calculated using Equation (B.6).
I eff = I1 × (1.05 × 1.10 × 1.075) = I1 × 1.24 (B.6)
This is usually rounded to 1.25 and is consistent with practices in other standards such as IEEE Std 1036-
2010 and IEEE Std C37.012-2005. 17
Similarly, the guideline for a grounded capacitor bank is calculated using Equation (B.7).
I eff = I1 × (1.05 × 1.10 × 1.18) = I 1 × 1.36 (B.7)
This is usually rounded to 1.35 and is consistent with practices in other standards such as IEEE Std 1036-
2010 and IEEE Std C37.012-2005.
It is important to note that all devices utilized for the capacitor bank design shall be selected in
consideration of the above “effective current” ratings.
It shall be emphasized that the above are general guidelines and the purchaser shall review the situations
regarding highest continuous system voltage, capacitor bank tolerances, and the expected future harmonic
distortion. If future conditions are expected to be worse than the general figures given in this standard, the
relevant information shall be included in the specification.
B.3.4 Design considerations for inrush frequency
Due to the repetitive nature of the inrush duty, the reactor should not have mechanical resonances close to
twice the inrush frequency. The frequency band for the inrush frequency due to different shunt capacitor
bank(s) and system operating configurations shall be specified if it exceeds ± 2%.
B.4 Ratings
Reference to 60 Hz voltages and currents apply equally to 50 Hz or other power system operating
frequencies.
17
For information about these references, see B.1.3.
83
B.4.1 Rated continuous current
The rated continuous current of the shunt capacitor reactor shall be selected to be at least equal to the
maximum permissible continuous current of the associated capacitor bank or the effective (rated) current as
calculated above, whichever is greater. This current should be specified in the inquiry.
NOTE 1—As specified in 5.3 of IEEE Std 18-2002, the allowed occasional rms current through a shunt capacitor bank
is 1.35 times the normal fundamental current, provided that Fy = 1.1 is not exceeded and capacitors are designed to
operate up to 135% of rated kilovars, including the kilovars due to fundamental voltage and to all harmonic voltages.
NOTE 2—Capacitor unit capacitance tolerance specified in IEEE Std 18-2002 is –0/+10%, implying a tolerance factor
Ft of 1.10; however, overall bank tolerances can be less. See B.3.3.
B.4.2 Overload current rating
The maximum permissible overload current of the shunt capacitor reactor is based on the corresponding
value for the capacitor bank as determined by system operating conditions and information in IEEE Std 18-
2002, IEEE Std 1036-2010, and NEMA CP 1-2000. 18
NOTE—For special capacitor applications, such as static var systems or HVDC systems, the overload currents as
specified in power capacitor standards are not always applicable.
B.4.3 Rated transient inrush current
This is the highest transient inrush current covering all recognized cases of regular capacitor bank or bank
section switching (including outrush during close-in faults). The relevant transient inrush resonant
frequency shall be specified in the inquiry. The manufacturer shall, upon request, supply information about
the expected Q-factor of the shunt capacitor reactor at this frequency with an accuracy as defined in B.6.2.
The shunt capacitor reactor shall be capable of withstanding the dynamic effects of this rated transient
inrush current.
B.4.3.1 Transient inrush considerations
The following should be considered:
a) The thermal effect of the transient inrush current is normally not significant.
b) If the shunt capacitor reactor is required to withstand contingency overcurrents in excess of the
rated transient inrush current, for example, due to close-in bus faults, the magnitude and duration of
such overcurrents shall be specified.
c) Acceptable limits for capacitive transient inrush current and frequency for breaker closing are
defined in Table 1A, Table 2A, and Table 3A of IEEE Std C37.06-2009. 19
B.4.4 Voltage rating
The power-frequency voltage drop is equal to the reactor rated current multiplied by the reactor impedance
at power frequency. However, a shunt capacitor reactor shall be able to operate continuously with a much
higher voltage across the reactor due to the presence of harmonics. Unless otherwise specified, the shunt
capacitor reactor shall be rated for a continuous voltage across the reactor that is five times the fundamental
18
19
84
voltage drop. (The result is that a value of five for the harmonic voltage distortion factor Fhv, as defined in
B.3.3, is assumed.)
The maximum transient inrush or outrush peak voltage across the reactor shall be specified.
B.4.5 Reactor duty for rating
Unless otherwise specified, the reactor duty for rating is continuous operation at rated current.
The estimated repetition rate of transient inrush or outrush current events shall be specified in the inquiry as
the number of events per day or the number of events per year.
NOTE 1—For special capacitor applications, such as in static var systems, the shunt capacitor bank may be subjected
to intermittent duty.
NOTE 2—Transient overvoltage and overcurrent events for shunt capacitor banks are defined in 5.8 of IEEE Std 18-
2002. Additional information can be found in IEEE Std 1036-2010 and NEMA CP 1-2000. 20
B.4.6 Limits of temperature rise for continuous rating
For reactors with intermittent loading, Table 4 may be used. However, where reactors are specified to be
energized continuously, limits of temperature rise for shunt capacitor reactors shall be as specified in 8.3
and Table 3 of IEEE Std C57.21-2008.
B.4.7 Insulation level
Unless otherwise specified, the insulation level shall correspond to the highest voltage level for equipment
on the system in which the shunt capacitor reactor is to be installed. If one terminal of the shunt capacitor
reactor is intended to be directly grounded, nonuniform insulation may be applied by agreement between
the manufacturer and the purchaser. BIL and switching impulse levels across the reactor and to ground
shall be specified in the inquiry as applicable. The BIL levels shall be selected from the standard values in
Table 6.
The rms value of all harmonic voltages, including the fundamental voltage, between the reactor and ground
or between phases (for stacked reactors) shall be specified as a basis for establishing insulator creepage
distance, as applicable.
B.5 Testing
B.5.1 Routine tests for shunt capacitor reactors

c) Measurement of losses and Q-factor
d) Lightning impulse test or turn-to-turn overvoltage test depending on reactor voltage class (see
Table 3 and Table 6).
20
85
B.5.2 Design tests for shunt capacitor reactors
 Temperature rise test
B.5.3 Other tests for shunt capacitor reactors
a) Thermal short-time overcurrent test or calculation

b) Mechanical short-circuit test or calculation
c) Inrush current withstand test or calculation
d) Chopped-wave impulse test
e) Audible sound test or calculation
f) Seismic verification test or calculation
g) Mechanical resonance test or calculation
B.5.4 Notes on routine test for shunt capacitor reactors
B.5.4.1 Measurement of winding dc resistance
B.5.4.2 Measurement of inductance
The inductance shall be measured at 60 Hz and at transient inrush frequencies at any convenient ambient
temperature.
B.5.4.3 Measurement of losses and Q-factor
The method of measurement is as generally outlined in 11.4. The losses of an air-core reactor are assumed
to be proportional to the square of the current and may be measured with reduced current (or voltage). The
Q-factor may be derived from loss and impedance test measurements as shown below. At high harmonic
frequencies the test arrangement should be validated for high-frequency performance to help ensure that the
impedance of the connections does not contribute to errors in the measurements.
The “effective” resistance shall be measured at rated transient inrush frequency at any convenient ambient
temperature. The resistance shall be corrected to the reference temperature specified in 11.4.2.
The loss and impedance test shall be carried out at the fundamental frequency and/or the inrush frequency.
using Equation (B.8) and Equation (B.9).
1 V (B.8)
L= × x
2 ×π × f I
86
Vx × I (B.9)
Q=
Pz
where

Q is the Q-factor at frequency f
Vx is the reactance voltage, in volts, at frequency f (see 11.4)
I is the current, in amperes, at frequency f (see 11.4)
Pz is the total losses, in watts, at frequency f, corrected to the reference temperature specified in
11.4.2
NOTE—Pz = Pr + Ps where Pr is the I2R losses and Ps is the stray losses.
If a bridge method is employed, inductance and Q-factor at specific frequencies can be obtained directly
from this measurement.
Test arrangements shall be agreed to between the manufacturer and the purchaser prior to testing.
The measurement of the Q-factor shall be performed prior to dielectric testing and, if so specified, shall be
Losses are referred to rated current at power frequency.
B.5.4.4 Lightning impulse test
The test is as generally outlined in 11.3.6.
The test shall be made with positive polarity applied to each terminal with the other terminal grounded. For
cases where the reactor is located between the low-voltage part of the capacitor bank and the ground, the
impulse shall be applied to the high-voltage terminal (based on the installed configuration) with the low-
voltage terminal grounded. In such a case, if the low-voltage terminal also has a rated lightning impulse
specified (value may be different), the test shall also be performed on the low-voltage terminal with the
high-voltage terminal grounded.
B.5.5 Notes on design tests for shunt capacitor reactors
B.5.5.1 Temperature rise test
The temperature rise test is carried out at power frequency as specified in 11.5. Limits for temperature rise
are specified in B.4.6.
87
B.5.6 Notes on “other tests” for shunt capacitor reactors
B.5.6.1 Mechanical short-circuit test
For shunt capacitor reactors, the mechanical short-circuit test may be carried out at power frequency in
accordance with 11.6.2, 11.6.3, and 11.6.4. As an alternative, the short-circuit capability may be verified by
calculation.
B.5.6.2 Transient inrush (or outrush) current withstand test
For shunt capacitor reactors, the transient inrush current requirement is usually (except for some back-to-
back switching applications) lower in magnitude than the power-frequency fault current requirement and
thus may be easily verified by calculation.
B.5.6.3 Mechanical resonance test
Due to the repetitive nature of the inrush duty, consideration should be given to performing a test to
demonstrate that the mechanical resonances of the winding are at least 10% away from a value of twice the
inrush current frequency. The manufacturer shall propose a suitable test procedure. As an alternative, this
may be verified by calculation.
B.6 Tolerances
B.6.1 Inductance
The inductance is +20/–0% of rated inductance or as specified.
B.6.2 Q-factor
Unless otherwise specified, the tolerance on Q-factor shall be ± 20% of the value estimated by the
manufacturer.
Unless otherwise specified, the Q-factor, at the inrush frequency and reference temperature, measured at
the end of the test sequence, shall not deviate from the one measured prior to the dielectric testing by more
than 3%.
B.7 Nameplate information
B.7.1 Recommended information
a) Apparatus type
c) Serial number
88
e) Thermal class of insulation
g) Type of cooling
i) Rated inductance (at rated inrush/outrush frequency)
j) Measured inductance
k) Rated continuous current
l) Mechanical peak current _____ kA
m) Voltage drop
n) BIL (basic impulse insulation level)
o) Altitude
p) Number and year of this standard
q) Total weight
B.7.2 Optional information
Optional information that may be required is as follows:
a) Number of phases
b) Drawing number
c) Customer ID number
d) Service; indoor, outdoor
e) Maximum ambient temperature
f) System voltage
g) Thermal current _____ kA
h) Inrush frequency
i) Q-factor (at transient inrush frequency)
j) Number and year of specification
89
Annex C
(normative)
Specific requirements for dry-type air-core discharge current-limiting
reactors for series capacitor bank applications
C.1 General
C.1.1 Scope
This information applies to dry-type air-core discharge current-limiting reactors used in the
bypass/discharge circuit of high-voltage series compensation capacitor bank applications.
Discharge current-limiting reactors are usually integral components of distribution and transmission voltage
level series capacitor banks. Basically they are installed to limit the capacitor discharge current when the
series capacitor bank bypass gap sparks over or the bypass switch closes.
The information is not directly applicable to reactors applied in series with a thyristor switch in controllable
series capacitor applications. For such reactors, the information in this annex regarding short-circuit and
discharge current rating is applicable, while Annex A (for filter reactors) may be more appropriate for other
design and performance characteristics.
C.1.2 Annex precedence
information shall take precedence for the respective reactor type.
C.1.3 Supporting published material
This annex shall be used in conjunction with the following publications, as appropriate:
IEC 143-1:2004, Series capacitors for power systems—Part 1: General—Performance, testing and rating—
Safety requirements—Guide for installation. 21
IEC 143-2:1994, Series capacitors for power systems—Part 2: Protective equipment for series capacitor
banks.
IEEE Std 824™-2004, IEEE Standard for Series Capacitor Banks in Power Systems. 22
21
22
90
C.2 Definitions
discharge frequency: The resonant frequency of the discharge current-limiting reactor and associated
series capacitor bank at capacitor bank discharge due to breaker closing or spark gap ignition.
Q-factor: The ratio between reactance and resistance at specified discharge frequency and reference
temperature.
rated continuous current: The root-mean-square (rms) value of power-frequency current continuously
flowing through the reactor (including harmonics).
rated discharge current: The peak value of the highest discharge current specified for the discharge
current-limiting reactor mechanical design (including power-frequency fault current).
rated inductance: The inductance value at power frequency specified for the discharge current-limiting
reactor.
C.3 General requirements
C.3.1 General
Typical one-line diagrams for a series capacitor bank with discharge current-limiting reactor are shown in
Figure C.1. Normally the bypass switch is open, and the line current flows through the capacitors. For this
condition there is no current through, and no voltage across, the reactor. However, when the bypass switch
is in the closed position, current can flow in the discharge current-limiting reactor for extended periods of
time. At the frequency of the power system, the reactance of the reactor is much less than that of the
capacitor. Hence, during the bypassed condition, the current in the reactor is almost the same as the line
current. Under this condition, the reactor is exposed in full measure to power system fault currents.
However, transient voltages across the reactor are limited by the capacitors, gaps, and metal oxide
varistor(s) (MOVs) that are electrically in parallel with the reactor under this bypassed condition.
Figure C.1—Typical configurations for a series compensation capacitor

with discharge current-limiting reactor
91
Discharge current-limiting reactors shall be designed to withstand system power-frequency fault currents
and higher frequency capacitor discharge current. Since the spark gap is ignited or the breaker is closed
under conditions of short-circuit current through the series capacitor bank, the maximum discharge current
peak consists of the capacitive discharge current superimposed upon the power-frequency fault current. The
maximum total peak current for a discharge current-limiting reactor shall be specified as well as the
damping factor for the discharge current.
When the series capacitor is bypassed, the reactor/capacitor combination forms a parallel resonance circuit.
It is suggested that the selection of the inductance, the permissible manufacturing tolerance for that
inductance, and the harmonic current rating of the reactor take into account the harmonic current in the line
and the possible amplification of that current caused by the interaction of the paralleled reactor/capacitor
combination with the system.
In some cases, the discharge damping circuit may be designed with a reactor of low Q-factor at the
discharge frequency or utilize a damping resistor in parallel with the reactor. The function of the resistor is
to quickly damp the capacitor discharge current. The discharge damping reactor is equipped with a series-
connected device (spark gap or MOV) that “electrically” connects the resistor in the discharge circuit only
during capacitor discharge mode to minimize power losses in normal bypass conditions.
C.3.2 Design
Discharge current-limiting reactors are single-phase units usually mounted on a high-voltage elevated
platform with the series capacitors. The platform is mounted on insulators to provide full phase insulation
to ground. Therefore, the impulse rating of the reactor to the platform (potential) is much lower than system
phase-to-ground requirements. Also, an MOV is usually connected in the bypass circuit with the reactor to
limit the voltage across the capacitor and reactor. Discharge current-limiting reactors are normally not
tapped.
C.3.3 Corona shielding
Normally the discharge current-limiting reactors are shielded from full phase-to-ground voltage exposure
by the platform. However, if the reactor is located at the outer edge of the platform or outside the platform,
corona shielding may be needed. The requirement for corona shielding due to exposure to the full phase-to-
ground voltage shall be specified, if applicable.
C.3.4 Discharge frequency considerations
Due to the repetitive nature of the discharge duty, the reactor should not have mechanical resonances close
to twice the discharge frequency. The frequency band for the discharge frequency due to different
configurations of the series compensation arrangement shall be specified. Also, the expected frequency
range and magnitude of discharge currents due to different operating configurations of the series
compensation capacitor bank shall be specified when applicable.
C.4 Ratings
Reference to 60 Hz voltages and currents apply equally to 50 Hz or other frequency power systems.
92
C.4.1 Rated continuous current
The rated continuous current of the discharge current-limiting reactor is the current that can be carried by
the reactor when operating for the duty specified as a series element in the transmission line without
exceeding the temperature limits and within the limits of established standards.
C.4.2 Thermal short-time current rating
The thermal short-time current rating is determined as specified in 3.4 and 5.6.4.
C.4.3 Rated discharge current
The rated discharge current is the highest peak discharge current covering all recognized cases of discharge
of the series capacitor bank as a consequence of power-frequency fault current. The high-frequency
capacitor discharge current is superimposed on the power-frequency fault current. The peak currents should
be added together to determine the worst-case peak current duty for the discharge current-limiting reactor
unless more accurate system information is available. With modern protection schemes, the actual peak
current is lower than the arithmetic sum. The relevant discharge resonant frequency shall be specified. The
manufacturer shall, upon request, supply information about the expected Q-factor of the discharge current-
limiting reactor at this frequency. The discharge current-limiting reactor shall be capable of withstanding
the dynamic effects of this rated discharge current.
NOTE 1—The thermal effect of the discharge current is normally not significant for the reactor.
NOTE 2—The peaks of the capacitor discharge current and the fundamental frequency fault current do not normally
coincide.
NOTE 3—In the case where a damping resistor is used in the discharge damping circuit, the discharge frequency may
be a different value depending on whether the resistor is connected. However, the difference in frequency if the
resistance is connected or not is usually very small.
C.4.4 Voltage rating
The power-frequency voltage drop is equal to the reactor rated current multiplied by the reactor impedance
at power frequency.
The maximum discharge peak voltage across the reactor shall be specified.
C.4.5 Q-factor
When the damping of the discharge current is determined by the losses of the discharge current-limiting
reactor, a maximum Q-factor at the discharge frequency may be specified. Under these conditions, the
decay of the capacitor discharge current is governed by the Q-factor of the reactor at the discharge
frequency and thus the time constant of the discharge current decay is 2L/Rf. The time constant of the decay
of the capacitor discharge current should not be confused with the reactor time constant, which is L/Rf.
C.4.6 Reactor duty for rating
Subclauses 3.5 and 8.1.4 apply.
93
The estimated frequency of discharge current events shall be specified as the number of events per day or
number of events per year.
C.4.7 Insulation level
The insulation of the discharge current-limiting reactor depends on the insulation coordination for the series
capacitor arrangement. The maximum voltage on the capacitor at time of “gap sparkover” or switch closure
should be specified. BIL and switching impulse levels across the reactor and to platform (potential) shall be
specified, as applicable. The BIL level may be selected from the standard values in Table 6, but customized
or adapted values may also be used. The rms value of all harmonic voltages, including the fundamental
voltage, between the reactor and platform (potential), shall be specified as a basis for insulator creepage
distance, as applicable.
C.5 Testing
C.5.1 Routine tests for discharge current-limiting reactors

c) Measurements of losses and Q-factor
d) Lightning impulse test or turn-to-turn overvoltage test depending on reactor lightning impulse level
(see Table 3 and Table 6)
C.5.2 Design tests for discharge current-limiting reactors
a) Temperature rise test

b) Discharge current test
c) Fault current test
d) Modified short-circuit test (mechanical short-circuit/discharge current test and thermal short-circuit
test)
NOTE—Item d) is an alternative to b) and c).
C.5.3 Other tests for discharge current-limiting reactors
a) Seismic verification test or calculation

b) Mechanical resonance test
C.5.4 Notes on routine tests for discharge current-limiting reactors
C.5.4.1 Measurement of winding dc resistance
94
C.5.4.2 Measurement of inductance
The inductance shall be measured at power frequency and at discharge frequencies at any convenient
ambient temperature.
C.5.4.3 Measurement of losses and Q-factor
The method of measurement is as generally outlined in 11.4. The losses of an air-core reactor are assumed
to be proportional to the square of the current and may be measured at reduced current (or voltage). The
Q-factor may be derived from loss and impedance measurements as shown below. At high frequencies, the
test arrangement should be validated for high-frequency performance to demonstrate that the impedance of
the connections does not contribute to errors in the measurements. Losses are referred to rated current at
power frequency.
The resistance shall be measured at discharge frequency at any convenient ambient temperature. The
resistance shall be corrected to the reference temperature specified in 11.4.2.
using Equation (C.1) and Equation (C.2).
1 Vx
L= × (C.1)
2 ×π × f I
Vx × I
Q= (C.2)
Pz
where

Q is the Q-factor at frequency f
Vx is the reactance voltage, in volts, at frequency f (see 11.4)
I is the current, in amperes, at frequency f (see 11.4)
Pz is the total losses, in watts, at frequency f, corrected to the reference temperature specified in
11.4.2
NOTE—Pz = Pr + Ps where Pr is the 12R losses and Ps is the stray losses.
Test arrangements shall be agreed to between the manufacturer and the purchaser prior to testing.
The measurement of the Q-factor shall be performed prior to dielectric testing and, if so specified, be
C.5.4.4 Lightning impulse test
The test is generally outlined in 11.3.6.
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C.5.5 Notes on design tests for discharge current-limiting reactors
C.5.5.1 General
IEEE Std 824-2004 should be consulted, 23 but in general design tests on discharge current-limiting reactors
shall be made in accordance with the information found in the following subclauses. Design tests on similar
units may be used as evidence of compliance provided, as applicable, mechanical stresses, electrical
stresses, or maximum temperatures of previously tested reactors, of similar construction, can be shown to
be equal to or more severe than those that will be experienced by the newly specified unit.
C.5.5.2 Discharge current test
The discharge current-limiting reactor shall be subjected to a test current not less than 1.1 times the “rated
discharge current” as defined in C.4.3. The discharge current test may be carried out with a test current
comprising a half-cycle current wave of power frequency and with the same amplitude. The test shall be
repeated 25 times without evidence of mechanical or electrical damage.
NOTE—The 1.1 factor is applied to the “rated discharge current” to provide and demonstrate margin for service duty.
C.5.5.3 Fault current test
The discharge current-limiting reactor shall be tested to demonstrate that it can carry its rated power-
frequency fault current (including peak asymmetrical) for its rated duration without evidence of excessive
temperature or of mechanical or electrical damage. The test shall be carried out at power frequency in
accordance with 11.6.2, 11.6.3, and 11.6.4.
C.5.5.4 Modified short-circuit test (mechanical short-circuit/discharge current and thermal

short-circuit test)
As an alternative to the test program described in C.5.5.2 and C.5.5.3, a “modified short-circuit test” as
described in this subclause can be performed based on agreement between the purchaser and the
manufacturer. This test procedure has evolved within the industry and has been used on various projects. It
is suggested that a power-frequency short-circuit test be performed with 10 cycles of symmetrical test
current of peak value equal to 1.1 times the peak value of “rated discharge current.” A test-current duration
of 10 cycles subjects the reactor to 20 peaks of mechanical loading. Since mechanical loading is sustained,
this “modified short-circuit test” subjects the reactor simultaneously to mechanical loads of duration and
magnitude in excess of any seen in service and is thus a representative demonstration of reactor mechanical
integrity. The test is carried out generally in accordance with 11.6.2, 11.6.3, and 11.6.4.
The thermal short-circuit test is identical to that of a standard current-limiting reactor and is performed
at the rated symmetrical short-circuit level for the duration specified. (If not specified, the duration shall
be 3 s.)
NOTE—Test laboratory capabilities: Due to the possibly very high “discharge current rating” of discharge current-
limiting reactors, test laboratories may not be able to carry out the discharge current, fault current, and modified short-
circuit tests at specified levels. In this case, consideration should be given to verifying reactor capability by calculation.
23
For information about this reference, see C.1.3.
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C.5.5.5 Temperature rise test
The test shall be made according to 11.5 by mounting the discharge current-limiting reactor similarly to
that used in service. Apply rated continuous power-frequency current and measure temperature conditions
for the length of time required to reach stable thermal conditions and to establish temperature rise above
40 °C ambient. The temperature rise should not exceed the manufacturer’s established limit for the
materials used.
C.5.6 Notes for other tests for discharge current-limiting reactors
C.5.6.1 Mechanical resonance test
Due to the repetitive nature of the discharge duty, consideration should be given to performing a test to
verify that the winding mechanical resonances are at least 10% away from a value of twice the discharge
current frequency, considering the frequency band of the discharge current. The manufacturer shall propose
a suitable test procedure. As an alternative, the winding mechanical resonance may be verified by
calculation.
C.6 Tolerances
C.6.1 Inductance
The tolerance shall be +10/–0% of rated inductance or as specified. The selection of the manufacturing
tolerance for the reactor inductance should take into account possible system interactive effects caused by
the reactor/capacitor combination.
C.6.2 Q-factor
Unless otherwise specified, the “as manufactured” tolerance on Q-factor should be ± 20% of the value
estimated by the manufacturer.
Unless otherwise specified, the Q-factor, at the discharge frequency and reference temperature, measured at
the end of the test sequence, shall not deviate from the value measured prior to dielectric testing by more
than 3%.
C.7 Nameplate information
C.7.1 Recommended information
a) Apparatus type
c) Serial number
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e) Thermal class of insulation

g) Type of cooling
i) Rated inductance (at rated power frequency)
j) Measured inductance
k) Rated continuous current
l) Thermal current _____ kA
m) Mechanical peak current _____ kA
n) Voltage drop
o) BIL (basic impulse insulation level)
p) Altitude
q) Number and year of this standard
r) Total weight
C.7.2 Optional information
Optional information that may be required as follows:
a) Discharge frequency
b) Q-factor (at discharge frequency)
c) Number of phases
d) Drawing number
e) Customer ID number
f) Service; indoor, outdoor
g) Maximum ambient temperature
h) System voltage
i) Number and year of specification
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Annex D
(normative)
Reactors supplied in enclosures
D.1 Introduction
Reactors (typically current-limiting and motor starting reactors and occasionally filter reactors) may be
supplied in enclosures designed by the manufacturer and made of steel, aluminum, or fiber-reinforced
plastic (FRP) (typically, fiberglass polyester resin composite). The enclosure is typically required for
personnel protection especially if the reactor is to be installed in an indoor area with high, continuous
personnel traffic.
NOTE—The focus of this annex is on the electromechanical design aspects of enclosures supplied with dry-type air-
core reactors and the impact on the test code when a reactor(s) is supplied in an enclosure. Personnel safety aspects are
beyond the scope of this standard and are covered in other documents.
D.2 Special design considerations for reactor enclosures
The enclosure shall be designed with sufficient ventilation in order that the operating temperature of
reactors mounted inside the enclosure do not exceed the temperature rise limits set in this standard. It is
crucial that metallic enclosures be designed in such a way that excessive induced losses and associated
heating effects do not occur, e.g., isolated panels, frame free of shorted loops. If, in special cases, a special
enclosure is provided to reduce the magnetic field, the enclosure may be designed to include closed loops
by intention. In this case, it is crucial that such metallic enclosures be designed in such a way that excessive
induced losses and associated heating effects are controlled and/or minimized. Entry/exit points for
electrical connections shall be designed to avoid flashovers to the enclosure under steady-state and transient
voltages.
D.3 Testing
Test code for the reactor shall be interpreted based on the supply of a reactor(s) in an enclosure.
Consideration should be given to performing the temperature rise type test with the fully assembled
reactor(s) in the enclosure.
In the case of dielectric tests, such as the lightning impulse test or turn to turn test, the determination as to
whether the dielectric test should be carried out on the reactor(s) in the enclosure should be based on the
system connection methodology, e.g., potheads, bushings, flashover distance from bus or cable, at
entry/exit, to the enclosure. If the dielectric test is carried out on the reactor in the enclosure, it should be on
a type test basis only. Dielectric tests on other reactor/enclosure combinations of an identical order are
required to be carried out only on the reactor.
For an FRP enclosure, induced losses are virtually zero. In the case of a metallic enclosure, losses are
usually a small percentage of total losses for a well-designed enclosure. Measurement of losses with the
supplied reactor in a fully assembled enclosure can be expensive due to the assembly time in the laboratory.
However, if other tests (impulse, temperature rise) are carried out with the reactor in the enclosure, then
losses can be measured at that time. A “tare factor” can be employed for other reactor/enclosure
combinations of an order.
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Routine resistance and impedance testing need not be performed with the reactors in the enclosure as the
impact of the enclosure on these measurements is usually negligible and the purpose of the routine test is a
manufacturing quality check.
Where short-circuit type testing is specified, it should be performed on the reactor in the assembled metallic
enclosure. The high magnetic fields generated by the reactor during the test may create significant forces on
the enclosure panels. For nonmetallic enclosures, it may not be necessary to perform the short-circuit test in
the assembled enclosure as electromagnetic induced forces do not exist.
Where sound level testing is specified, the sound levels should be measured with reactors assembled in the
enclosures. The measurements should be taken along a contour 1 m beyond the outside edges of the
enclosure.
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Annex E
(informative)
Construction and installation of dry-type air-core series reactors
E.1 General description
All parts of dry-type air-core series reactors are “live,” unlike oil-immersed reactors and transformers
where the tank is grounded. The only external “live” parts of an oil-immersed reactor or transformer are the
bushings.
Dry-type air-core series reactors do not have an iron core. Therefore, the magnetic field is not constrained
and occupies the space around the dry-type air-core reactor. Although the magnetic field strength is
reduced with increase in distance from the reactor, the presence of this field should be taken into
consideration for the installation of dry-type air-core units. The extent to which care has to be taken is
largely a function of kilovoltamperes and is lower for low kilovoltampere units.
In the following subclauses, application-related construction details and installation considerations are
discussed in order to provide guidance to the user of dry-type air-core series reactors.
E.2 Safety
Since dry-type air-core series reactors are not enclosed in a grounded tank, parts above the base support
insulators should be treated as “live.” Therefore, in order to meet personnel safety requirements, the reactor
shall be installed with clearances established by the National Electric Safety Code® (NESC®)
(IEEE Std C2-2007 [B12] or applicable edition). For transmission voltage class and distribution voltage
class equipment, standard methods of achieving personnel clearance are the use of fencing and special
support structures. In many cases, both methods are employed simultaneously. Distribution voltage class
series reactors are also installed in cells fabricated from standard building materials or vendor-supplied
enclosures.
When fencing is employed, special care should be taken to prevent the stray magnetic field of the series
reactor from inducing high currents in metallic fencing components. All metallic fencing should be broken
up into electrically isolated sections if it is located very near the reactor. It is also critical that all portions of
a metallic fence are grounded because of the capacitive coupling that can exist between the reactor, which
is at high potential, and the fence. Another alternative is to use nonmetallic fencing, e.g., wood or plastic.
If distribution class series reactors are mounted in cells fabricated from standard building materials, the use
of rebar should be fully analyzed, preferably by the reactor supplier, to determine eddy current heating-
based temperature rise. Metallic structural members are also a concern. Standalone enclosures of steel or
fiberglass are also employed for personnel protection. Care should be taken to sectionalize enclosure panels
to avoid induced current heating and possible excessive mechanical loads during short-circuit duty.
Grounding of panels should also be done so that the creation of closed loops is avoided. Reactor
manufacturers can often supply specially designed enclosures to minimize enclosure size and provide
proper grounding, panel size, and isolation. Designs very often require sophisticated computer analyses
backed by empirical data from in-service experience and short-circuit testing.
Special mounting structures can also be employed to provide safety clearance for substation personnel.
Methods employed include fiberglass pedestals, braced aluminum and steel pedestals, special grounded
metallic support pedestals, and reinforced concrete structures. The type of material (aluminum, mild steel,
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austenitic stainless steel) that can be employed is a function of magnetic field strength, field direction,
structure geometry, and mechanical considerations. In the case of concrete structures, eddy current heating
in rebar should be fully assessed and may necessitate the use of nonmetallic (fiberglass) or austenitic
stainless steel reinforcing rods.
When employing dry-type air-core series reactors, care should be taken in the installation of the station
ground grid in the vicinity of the reactors. The ground grid should be designed to limit currents induced in
it to an acceptable value. Grounding of other ancillary support structures or equipment in the vicinity of the
reactors should be accomplished without creating closed loops in the grounding system.
As a prudent safety precaution, all grounding of reactor ancillary components, enclosure panels and frame,
metallic fencing, ground grids, etc., should be inspected and tested on a regular schedule.
E.3 Site conditions
Site conditions should be taken into consideration in the application of dry-type air-core series reactors. It is
preferable if unusual site conditions are made a part of the specification so that the reactor can be designed
accordingly.
Pollution is an important factor. Many reactors are installed in industrial applications, in utility
applications, or near sources of industrial pollutants. Coastal installations are also critical, even for
installation some distance inland. Salt pollution effects are a function of storm severity, direction of winds,
and severity versus frequency considerations. Mitigation techniques can include, in the case of the reactor,
lower surface voltage stress, special track-resistant coatings (such as room-temperature vulcanizing (RTV)
silicone rubber), acid or caustic resistant paints, etc. Mounting insulators and bus support insulators may
have to be high-creepage designs, may utilize RTV coating protection, or may require other techniques.
Ambient temperature at the point of installation is an important factor. Most specifications quote maximum
ambient temperatures based on weather office data. However, more critical is temperature at the site,
specifically the area of installation. The issue is not only solar radiation effects but also the temperature of
the cooling air, which could be significantly higher than the air temperature in the shade. Nearby buildings
and walls erected around reactor installations can have an effect on the cooling air temperature and the air
flow seen by the reactor. Although difficult to quantify, even a descriptive clarification in the reactor
specification would be a very useful design aid.
E.4 Clearances: electrical, ventilation, and magnetic
The clearance requirements are of three types: electrical, ventilation, and magnetic.
As the normal dry-type air-core series reactor has exposed live parts at essentially all points on its outer
surface, provisions are made for electrical clearance from the reactor surface to nearby grounded surfaces
and to the surface of other reactors in adjacent phases. Standard electrical clearances to live parts are
perfectly adequate. No special precautions over and above normal substation practices are required.
Ventilation clearance requirements may vary somewhat depending on the reactor manufacturer. For
instance, in the case of reactors employing vertical cooling ducts, provision should be made for the
unimpeded entrance and exit of cooling air at the bottom and top of the cooling ducts, respectively.
Generally, the ventilation clearance is less than the magnetic clearance requirements, and, as such, it should
not prove to be a limiting factor when installing the unit. Irrespective of this fact, it is still important to
recognize that there is a requirement for ventilation, and the blockage of the cooling ducts with any foreign
material, metallic or nonmetallic, or interference with normal convective air flow should be avoided.
Magnetic clearance requirements arise since dry-type air-core reactors have no iron core to capture the
magnetic field. See Figure E.1.
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NOTE 1—Reactor center located at origin.

NOTE 2—Flux lines marked in percent of maximum flux.
NOTE 3—Horizontal and vertical axes are in percent of the mean radius of the reactor.
Figure E.1—Single quadrant plot of flux surrounding a typical reactor
These stray magnetic fields can induce currents in structural metallic parts that may give rise to serious
heating under normal load conditions and to severe forces under short-circuit conditions. The induced
currents are of two types, and, as such, they give rise to two types of clearance requirements:
a) Eddy currents caused by the local field give rise to a minimum clearance required to metallic parts
that do not form closed loops.
b) Circulating current caused by coil flux linking a closed loop formed by a number of structural
members leads to a minimum distance that shall be maintained between the reactor and parts that
form closed electrical loops.
A very common, albeit understandable, misconception is the belief that these “magnetic clearances” apply
to magnetic materials only and not to other metallic but nonmagnetic parts. This is not true. While it is true
that nonmagnetic materials such as aluminum may often be used in place of steel to reduce the severity of
heating problems caused by stray reactor fields, it should be recognized that structural parts constructed of
these materials also carry sizable currents, experience heating due to the presence of the coil field, and
perhaps have substantial forces impressed on them when the reactor carries short-circuit current. The only
difference is that for some conditions the heating is less severe when nonmagnetic, low-resistance materials
are used.
The effect of the stray magnetic field shall be considered in the support structure design as well as in the
placement of auxiliary equipment such as circuit breakers, lightning arresters, etc. Additionally, any other
required, nearby structures shall be located in areas where the effect of the stray magnetic field does not
create excessive heating. Figure E.2 illustrates conservative “rules of thumb” for the installation of dry-type
air-core reactors.
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1) Keep small metallic parts not forming closed loops outside “MC1.”a
2) Keep large metallic geometries or closed loops outside “MC2.”b
3) Keep spacing requirements to neighboring reactors to avoid
i) Unacceptable mutual influence on inductance
ii) Inadmissible electrodynamic forces acting between adjacent reactors during maximum
short-time current
4) Use adequate connectors having geometries not providing too large a frontal area to the
magnetic field in order to minimize eddy heating.
5) Select adequate connection bars or cable with respect to eddy heating, and align them in radial
direction from the reactor terminal.
6) Provide connection bus bar or cable/bus supports close to the reactor to relieve the reactor
terminals of undue mechanical loads.
7) Insulate crossover points of rebar.
8) Provide even and level foundation plane.
9) Partition metallic fencing erected in the reactor vicinity into electrically insulated sections that
are individually grounded.
10) Do not form shorted loops when grounding the fence sections.
11) Avoid shorted loops in the station ground grid.
a
“MC1” Magnetic clearance contour: 1/2 coil outer diameter from all surfaces of the reactor.
b
“MC2” Magnetic clearance contour: 1 coil outer diameter from all surfaces of the reactor.
Figure E.2—Installation guidance—summary (basic rules)
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As can be seen from Figure E.2, the clearance required to closed loops is approximately double that
required for parts that do not form closed loops. For this reason, it is best, particularly in the case of new
installations, to design the structural parts near the reactor so that the formation of closed loops is avoided.
For existing installations that are being modernized or upgraded, however, the generally troublesome
structural parts, such as concrete reinforcing rods and building support beams, are already in place, and as
such, it may not be possible to avoid the presence of closed loops. In this case, the required reactors may
still be fit into the desired space even if the general magnetic clearance requirements shown in Figure E.2
are not satisfied. This deviation may often be accomplished simply by performing a detailed magnetic
clearance analysis to confirm that the guidelines may be reduced for the specific case in question. In more
difficult cases, the use of appropriate materials, geometries, and shielding may provide the necessary
reduction in clearance requirements.
If insulators and associated support structure are supplied with the reactor, it is desirable that they be of
sufficient height to provide the required magnetic clearance to the foundation on which the reactor is to be
mounted. Sufficient information regarding metallic parts below the reactor (rebar, structures, ground grids)
shall be provided by the purchaser to the manufacturer.
E.5 Mechanical considerations
Depending on the scope of supply, special attention should be given, by either the manufacturer or
purchaser, to the interactive electromagnetic forces between stacked reactors, between reactors installed
close to each other, between the reactor and current-carrying auxiliary parts (such as buswork), and
between the reactor and bus or cable connections to the reactor. Support structure and bracing elements
shall be designed to resist the resultant loads.
As standard practice, unless otherwise specified, peak wind loads and electromagnetic forces created by a
simultaneous three-phase fault (again, unless otherwise specified) are assumed to occur simultaneously.
Seismic loads or other specified loading are typically assumed to act on a noncoincidental basis.
Reactors should be designed to facilitate lifting and should be provided with lifting eyes or similar devices
to allow safe, rapid installation. Lifting and handling instructions should be clear and readily available. In
the case of very heavy reactors, special crating and transport precautions may have to be taken to keep
stresses in the reactor at safe levels. Likewise, special lifting devices and procedures may have to be
employed.
E.6 Concrete foundation and mounting
Foundation and mounting requirements are a function of the rating and hence mass of the reactor. Many
low kilovoltampere units (<1 MVA) are mounted indoors with no special precautions other than magnetic
clearance considerations. Larger units mounted indoors may require the use of vibration isolators. For large
units mounted outdoors, one basic rule of thumb that should be considered, as with the mounting of any
large piece of equipment, is to keep the foundation at least two or three times the mass of the object
mounted on it. The objective is preventing ground-vibration-based noise problems in the field. If bedrock at
the site is very near the surface or soil conditions warrant, a less massive foundation can be used.
Generally for dry-type air-core series reactors, the other critical foundation or floor design criterion is that
the stray magnetic field of the reactor does not create excessive heating in the reinforcing material. In most
cases, for outdoor mounted units, the distribution of the coil mass on the concrete base results in the
concrete being very lightly loaded. Therefore, rebar may not be necessary. If rebar is necessary,
nonmetallic or stainless steel rebar should eliminate potential eddy heating problems. Also, where metallic
rebar is used, the crossover points should be electrically isolated to prevent closed loops. Pieces of hose
slipped over the rebar at the crossover should be sufficient. If clearances greater than the coil diameter are
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used below the reactor, then precautions of isolating the rebar to prevent shorted loops and selecting
stainless steel or nonmetallic materials may not be necessary.
The final major consideration is the anchoring system used to secure the coil support structure to the
concrete base. The anchors shall be located deep enough in the concrete and be designed to resist the
overturning load imposed on the coil and its structure due to wind loading, short-circuit forces, or seismic
excitation. These criteria are most important for reactors located on top of tall support structures (e.g.,
fiberglass pedestals) to give required clearance for station personnel. Again, the manufacturer of dry-type
air-core series reactors is the best source of definitive information.
One unique aspect of high-voltage reactors is that the structure required underneath the reactor both for
voltage and personnel clearance usually results in low levels of magnetic field at the foundation, and thus
the foundation may typically be built using standard methods. However, to make sure that there are no
problems, the manufacturer of the reactor should conduct a detailed analysis.
E.7 Connections
In the case of low kilovoltampere rated units, the only consideration regarding connections is that of
ampacity and desired terminal temperature rise. However, because of the very intense magnetic fields that
exist close to large megavoltamperes dry-type air-core reactors, special care should be taken in designing
terminals, connectors, and connections to the system. Terminals should be streamlined to the magnetic field
in order to minimize eddy current heating. Connectors employed should also follow the same criteria. Since
eddy losses are proportional to the geometry to the fourth power, it is preferable to use stranded cable
instead of solid bus bar for making system connections to the reactors. However, solid bus bar can be used,
provided increased ampacity is employed to compensate for the eddy heating. It is also of benefit if the bus
bar is rectangular and is oriented so that the coil’s magnetic field impinges in the direction of its narrowest
section. It should be stressed, however, that short-circuit forces on connections should be iterated into the
selection process and include such considerations as additional support points, flexible links, etc.
E.8 Auxiliary protection
Modern, dry-type air-core reactors can be designed to meet any system BIL requirement. It should be
pointed out that BIL requirements normally are based on switching or standard lightning impulse
conditions. In modern power systems, it is possible that reactors can be subjected to very fast rising
transient overvoltages. If these are known about in advance, they can be considered in the design of the
reactor. However, in many cases, it is hard to predict the rate of rise or the magnitude of such transients,
and, in these cases, auxiliary protection such as the use of surge arresters may be advisable. Any such
decision should be based on in-depth discussions with the reactor manufacturer and detailed systems
analysis.
E.9 Switching: circuit breakers
Circuit breakers are normally utilized to switch the circuits of which series reactors are a component. The
two things that should be considered are the effect of the switching operation on the insulation system of
the dry-type air-core series reactor and the transient recovery voltage (TRV) applied to the circuit breaker.
Detailed high-frequency coupled circuit models developed for dry-type air-core series reactors allow proper
analysis of most situations. Therefore, the insulation system of the reactor can be designed appropriately,
the proper breaker selected, or the high-frequency characteristic of the reactor may be modified to reduce
breaker TRV.
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E.10 Indoor installation
When reactors are installed indoors versus outdoors, additional criteria should be taken into consideration.
It is especially critical to utilize the input/expertise of the reactor manufacturer. These criteria include the
following:
a) The presence of “rebar” in floors, walls, and ceiling should be determined and assessed. If induced
heating effects produce excessive temperature in the “rebar,” shielding may be required. Civil
engineering expertise should be sought to determine safe temperatures for “rebar” in concrete.
b) Ventilation should be adequate and is a function of the losses of the reactor installation. The reactor
manufacturer can supply information on cooling and “make-up” air requirements, for instance, inlet
air flow, in cubic meters per minute. It is very important that forced ventilation does not negatively
affect the cooling of the reactor, for instance, impede natural convection air flow in the reactor
cooling ducts.
c) The effect of the reactor’s magnetic field on instrumentation, etc., in adjacent areas should be
assessed, and shielding should be applied, if required.
d) Careful attention should be paid to any electrical closed loops around the reactors. Guidance on
manufacturer’s drawings generally provides clearances with respect to heating effects caused by
induced currents. However, these clearances do not take into consideration any ancillary effects of
induced electromotive force (emf) or higher resistance “contact points” in a closed loop circuit.
Magnetic field analysis for a specific installation and equipment rating may be available from the
equipment supplier upon request.
e) Building access and handling equipment should be evaluated and taken into consideration.
f) Dielectric clearance and “flashover distances” should be reviewed.
g) Reactors of higher MVA rating or those with high harmonic current loading, such as some filter
reactors, may require more care and consideration for indoor installation.
h) In addition to potential induced current heating effects, care should be taken on electrical conduits
or water pipes and possible “emf” induced arcing across open or poor electrical connection points.
E.11 Supporting published material
Caverly, David S., and Patel, Ramesh H., “Air Core Reactors: Important Considerations for Their
Specification and Application,” Canadian Pulp and Paper Association Meeting, Montreal, PQ, Canada,
Feb. 1984.
Harlow, James H., (Editor), Electric Power Transformer Engineering, 2d ed., CRC Press, 2007, Chapter
10-1, Reactors.
Payne, Paulette, “Design and Installation of 13.8kV Current Limiting Reactors for the PEPCO System,”
Electrical Equipment Committee, Pennsylvania Electric Association, Hershey, Pennsylvania, 10 Sept.
1991.
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Annex F
(informative)
System considerations in the application of current-limiting reactors
F.1 General
The specific focus of this annex is to alert utilities and large industrial “end users” to the possible circuit
breaker transient recovery voltage (TRV) issues associated with the application of current-limiting reactors
under fault conditions; to provide mitigation solutions to TRV problems caused by the use of current-
limiting reactors; and to make available to the user an extensive list of applicable references. One of the
most common forms of mitigation is to add capacitors in conjunction with the reactors. This mitigation is
applicable at all voltage levels: medium voltage and transmission voltage. The capacitors may be located
inside, near to, or at some distance from the reactor depending on various considerations such as system
voltage levels and voltage clearance requirements, magnetic clearance considerations and system criteria.
Capacitors are very often mounted inside distribution class current-limiting reactors, but in the case of
high-voltage series reactors, the required high-voltage capacitors are typically separately mounted. Many
applications of current-limiting reactors are on medium-voltage feeders, and the capacitors are often within
the scope of supply of the reactor manufacturer, which meets the need for technical coordination. It is also
possible that they can also be procured separately, but it is strongly recommended that there is technical
coordination between the reactor manufacturer, the capacitor manufacturer, and the end user. Regardless of
whether the capacitors are within the reactor manufacturer’s scope of supply or are supplied separately, the
need for proper technical coordination and the possible specific reactor/capacitor testing requirements were
the prime motivators for including this annex in this standard. In order to offer some insight into the scope
and context of the TRV issue, the following background information on the application of current-limiting
reactors is provided.
One major purpose of using a current-limiting reactor is to reduce the fault-current magnitude on the feeder
side. Also, the presence of a current-limiting reactor on a feeder provides partial isolation of the bus from a
feeder fault and prevents the bus voltage from collapsing to zero in the case of a feeder fault. Very often,
distribution networks are designed for a relatively low value of short-circuit current in order to cope with
the capabilities of protective and/or switching devices (such as expulsion fuses, disconnectors, and load
switches), the tank rupture withstand levels of distribution transformers, or the interaction of fault currents
with parallel communication circuits. Moreover, by using a current-limiting reactor located on the source
side of the feeder circuit breaker, reducing the required short-circuit current rating of the feeder circuit
breaker can be considered. Current-limiting reactors can also be installed after the circuit breaker, but in
this case, a lower short-circuit rated circuit breaker cannot be considered due to the possibility of a fault
between the circuit breaker and the reactor. See the note introducing Figure F.1.
NOTE 1—Further discussion of the rationale regarding the location of the current-limiting reactor versus the circuit
breaker can be found in the references in F.5.
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NOTE 2—In order to provide additional background information, the following discussion regarding the typical
practice in effectively earthed neutral networks (as generally used in North America) versus noneffectively earthed
neutral systems (as often used outside North America) regarding the application of current-limiting reactors is included.
In fact, the practices/system configurations described in this note are employed on the basis as deemed the most
advantageous in many jurisdictions.
Noneffectively earthed neutral distribution systems have their neutral isolated or grounded through a high impedance.
This is due to the fact that such distribution systems are three-phase based (even for residential) instead of a single-
phase based distribution system. This may allow a permanent or a long-duration phase-to-ground fault to persist
without interrupting electricity supply to clients.
Effectively earthed neutral distribution systems have their neutral solidly grounded or grounded through a low
impedance (grounding reactor or similar devices). This system design facilitates single-phase distribution circuits. For
such circuits, a phase-to-ground fault should be quickly interrupted since a significant fault current can be generated.
Knowing that single-phase faults represent generally a large majority of the total number of faults, using
“noneffectively earthed neutral” distribution systems increases the availability of power supply to the users, but its use
does exclude the possibility of single-phase distribution.
Current-limiting reactors are seldom used in noneffectively earthed systems since large portions of the distribution
systems (at least in small, medium, and large cities) are built with cables instead of overhead distribution lines. Single
phase-to-ground faults do exist, but do not result in large fault currents as in effectively earthed neutral systems.
Electromagnetic forces during single-phase faults are thus essentially nonexistent in “noneffectively earthed neutral
systems.” Significant fault current in “noneffectively earthed neutral systems” may occur only during double earth
faults (phase-to-phase faults) or during three-phase faults. If “screened” cables (each phase has a ground shield) are
used, then the magnetic forces caused by the fault currents also do not exist. With “belted” cables (common shield for
the three phases), forces may be present. In addition, such noneffectively earthed neutral systems generally use current-
limiting fuses. Current-limiting fuses do limit the peak and the duration of fault currents to low values, thus limiting
forces accordingly. Current-limiting fuses may cope with high prospective fault currents (fault currents greater than
10 kA rms are typical).
Expulsion fuses allow for an economical construction of distribution overhead lines and also reduced sensitivity to
overloads. However, they do not limit the peak value of, and the duration of, the short-circuit current in the “short-
circuit current loop.” Moreover, they can work on systems where the prospective fault current is lower than that of
circuits having current-limiting fuses. Utilities using expulsion fuses limit the amplitude of fault currents to values with
which the expulsion fuses can cope. This also gives a simpler line construction since fault levels are typically lower and
the resultant short-circuit forces are significantly reduced. Expulsion fuses are typically used on overhead three-phase
and single-phase distribution circuits. This is one of the main reasons that current-limiting reactors are typically used on
effectively earthed distribution feeders.
Another advantage of using current-limiting reactors is that it may permit the use of a circuit breaker with a
lower short-circuit current rating in some specific applications, such as fault current limiting on distribution
feeders. Nevertheless, users should verify, in accordance with IEEE Std C37.011™-2005, that the circuit
breaker will be able to cope with the resulting TRV. 24
Using current-limiting reactors to reduce fault currents also reduces short-circuit mechanical stresses in
power transformers, bus support systems, customer switchgear, etc.
NOTE—As shown in Figure F.1, the current-limiting reactors are located on the source side of the feeder circuit
breakers. Topologies having the current-limiting reactors located on the load side of the circuit breakers are also used.
Although the fault current on the distribution feeder is the same if the reactor is located on the source side, a fault
occurring between the feeder circuit breaker and the current-limiting reactor will produce a fault-current magnitude
equal to the main bus fault current, in which case the circuit breaker is designed to interrupt it.
24
For information about this reference, see F.5.
109
Current limiting reactor
Substation Feeder circuit-breaker

transformer
Transformer
circuit-breaker
Three-phase fault
Main bus
Figure F.1—Typical single-line diagram illustrating the use of current-limiting reactors

in distribution feeder substations
F.2 Series reactor application and circuit breaker TRV considerations
Since transient recovery voltage characteristics are a function of system configuration, introducing an
inductance into a system does impact the transient recovery voltage characteristics across the circuit
breaker. The introduction of a current-limiting reactor (CLR) or any significant lumped reactance such as a
power transformer tends to increase the rate of rise of recovery voltage (RRRV), which might exceed the
rated value defined for a particular circuit breaker. (See IEEE Std C37.011-2005, IEEE Std C37.015™-
1993, IEC 62271-110, CIGRE Technical Brochures N304 and N305, and IEEE Std C37.010™-1999.)
Systems configuration (layout)/parameters together with circuit breaker capabilities and/or technology are
the key factors when evaluating the impact of TRV, and the behavior of such combinations should be
carefully studied. See IEEE Std C37.011-2005 and IEEE Std C37.015-1993 for additional information. 25
F.3 Mitigation
Capacitors can effectively mitigate TRV problems caused by the addition of a current-limiting reactor.
Capacitors are built by various manufacturers and are available for various system voltages and reactor
ratings. Some are specially designed to be installed inside the reactor, and there is no need to prepare a
separate structure for installation. Others are “stand-alone” and may employ the same technology as is used
in power capacitors or in capacitor voltage transformers (CVTs) and coupling capacitors for power line
carrier (PLC) systems. For some voltage classes, TRV mitigation capacitors can be mounted directly on a
circuit breaker. In this case, the disconnect switch manufacturer should be consulted to verify the capacitive
current switching capability of the disconnect switch to be installed on the load side of the circuit breaker
where the bushing-mounted TRV capacitors are installed.
When designing a system incorporating a series reactor or installing a new series reactor in an existing
system, it is strongly recommended to evaluate the resulting transient recovery voltage across the circuit
breakers in the system. If there is the risk of reaching a TRV that exceeds the TRV ratings of the circuit
breakers in use, a capacitor may be installed across the reactor, or from the load side reactor terminal to
ground, or from the load side terminal of the circuit breaker to ground. For example, to damp the TRV
25
For information about the references in this paragraph, see F.5.
110
associated with the use of inrush current-limiting reactors in shunt capacitor banks, in the case of a fault
between the reactor and the capacitor bank, a capacitor may be installed between the circuit breaker load
side terminal and ground.
It should be noted that if a shielded cable is used to connect a current-limiting reactor to the circuit breaker,
the shielded cable capacitance to ground could be sufficient to preclude a circuit breaker TRV problem. If
further mitigation is required, then the solution is to add additional capacitance in one of the formats
discussed previously. See IEEE Std C37.011-2005 for additional information. 26
Proper sizing and location of TRV mitigation capacitor(s) requires a detailed system analysis and proper
coordination of the application of the capacitor, including the important issues of magnetic and dielectric
clearances.
F.4 Testing considerations
The addition of a capacitor to the current-limiting-reactor either within or in close vicinity to the coil may
impact the performance of the reactor and, vice versa, that of the capacitor itself. The placement of the
capacitor may be critical with regard to the dielectric clearances to the winding. Further, the presence of the
capacitor may influence the voltage grading between the turns of the reactor winding, especially during fast
transient voltages such as lightning impulses. Regarding the capacitor, the magnetic flux generated by the
reactor may induce currents that can circulate within capacitor elements. These currents may damage the
capacitor elements if they are not properly located, orientated, or designed.
The reactor manufacturer should verify the performance of the combined reactor/capacitor unit by a
comparative analysis of the unit with similar configurations that are successfully in service or have been
tested accordingly or, if such data are not available, by testing. If the capacitor is not part of the scope of
supply of the reactor manufacturer, it is strongly recommended to consult the reactor manufacturer for
evaluation of the combined unit.
In some critical cases, it might be preferable to carry out some of the type tests of the specified reactor test
program with the capacitor mounted to the reactor as foreseen in normal service, in particular when the
capacitor is mounted inside the reactor. This will especially apply to the temperature rise test, the short-
circuit withstand test, and the impulse test of the reactor. In the latter case, the capacitor may cause the
duration of the front time to be longer than that of the standard lightning impulse wave. For routine
lightning impulse tests or routine turn-to-turn tests, the presence of the capacitor is not required if separate
routine dielectric tests are performed on the capacitor.
Capacitors should be type tested and routine tested according to their applicable standard. When applicable,
IEEE Std 18-2002, ANSI C93.1-1999, IEC 60358:1990-05, and IEC 60871-1:2005 should be referred to
for the determination of the type and routine test programs. 27
F.5 Supporting documentation
More information on circuit breaker TRV issues associated with the application of reactors and mitigation
measures can be found in a number of sources, many of which are listed in this subclause. References
include IEEE and IEC standards and guides, IEEE reference books, and various technical papers.
26
For information about this reference, see F.5.
27
For information about these references, see F.5.
111
ANSI C37.06.1-2000, American National Standard Guide for High-Voltage Circuit Breakers Rated on
Symmetrical Current Basis Designated “Definite Purpose for Fast Transient Recovery Voltage Times.” 28
ANSI C93.1-1999, American National Standard Requirements for Power-Line Coupling Capacitors and
Coupling Capacitor Voltage Transformers (CCVT).
Carr, J., and McCall, L. V., “Divergent Evolution and Resulting Characteristics Among the World’s
Distribution Systems,” IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, vol. 7, no. 3, July 1992.
CIGRE Technical Brochure 134, “Transient Recovery Voltages in Medium Voltage Networks” 1996. 29
CIGRE Technical Brochures 304 and N305, “Guide for application of IEC 62271-100 and IEC 62271-1,”
Part I and Part II, 2006.
Grigsby, L. L., The Electric Power Engineering Handbook, CRC Press (in cooperation with IEEE Press),
2001.
Harlow, James H., Electric Power Transformer Engineering, CRC Press (in cooperation with IEEE Press),
2004.
IEC 60358:1990-05, ed2.0, Coupling capacitors and capacitor dividers. 30
IEC 60871-1:2005, ed3.0, Shunt capacitors for a.c. power systems having a rated voltage above 1 000 V –
Part 1: General.
IEC 62271-100, ed2, High-voltage switchgear and controlgear—Part 100: Alternating-current circuit-
breakers.
IEC 62271-110, High-voltage switchgear and controlgear—Part 110: Inductive load switching.
IEEE Std C37.06™-2009, IEEE Standard for AC High-Voltage Circuit Breakers Rated on a Symmetrical
Current Basis—Preferred Ratings and Related Required Capabilities for Voltages Above 1000 V. 31,32
IEEE Std C37.010™-1999, IEEE Application Guide for AC High-Voltage Circuit Breakers Rated on a
Symmetrical Current Basis.
IEEE Std C37.011™-2005, IEEE Application Guide for Transient Recovery Voltage for AC High-Voltage
Circuit Breakers.
IEEE Std C37.015™-1993 (Reaff 2000), IEEE Application Guide for Shunt Reactor Switching.
IEEE Std 18™-2002, IEEE Standard for Shunt Power Capacitors.
Lowe, S. K., “Circuit Breaker Stresses Associated with H.V. Series Reactors,” Australian Electrical
Research, Canberra, 10–12 May 1972.
Peelo, D. F., et al., “Mitigation of Circuit Breaker Transient Recovery Voltages Associated with Current
Limiting Reactors,” IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, vol. 11, no. 2, Apr. 1996.
28
29
CIGRE publication are available from the International Council on Large Electric Systems (http://www.cigre.org).
30
31
32
112
Swindler, David L., Schwartz, Paul, Harner, Paul S., and Lambert, Stephen R., “Transient Recovery
Voltage Considerations in the Application of Medium Voltage Circuit-breakers,” IEEE Transactions on
Industry Applications, vol. 33, no. 2, Mar./Apr. 1997.
113
Annex G
(informative)
Bibliography
Bibliographical references are resources that provide additional or helpful material but do not need to be
understood or used to implement this standard. Reference to these resources is made for informational use
only.
[B1] ANSI C29.9-1983 (R2002), American National Standard—Wet-Process Porcelain Insulators

(Apparatus, Post-Type). 33
[B2] ANSI C84.1-2006, American National Standard for Electric Power Systems and Equipment—
Voltage Ratings (60 Hz).
[B3] Braunovic, M., “Effect of contact aid compounds on the performance of bolted aluminum-to-
aluminum joints under load cycling conditions,” IEEE Transactions on Components, Hybrids and
Manufacturing Technology, vol. CHMT-9, no. 1, pp. 59–70, Mar. 1986.
[B4] Braunovic, M., “Evaluation of different platings for aluminum-to-copper connections,” Electrical
Contacts-1991. Proceedings of the 34th IEEE/HOLM Conference on Electrical Contacts, Chicago, Ill.,
pp. 249–260, Oct. 1991.
[B5] Braunovic, M., “Evaluation of different types of contact air compounds for aluminum-to-copper
connections,” Electrical Contacts-1990. Proceedings of the 15th Conference on Electrical Contacts,
Montreal, Quebec, Canada, pp. 509–517, Aug. 1990.
[B6] Deutsch, F., “Measuring the Active Power Losses of Large Reactors,” Brown Boveri Review,
vol. 47, pp. 268–278, Apr. 1960.
[B7] Hemmes, R. T. and Graham, D. C., “Measurement of self-cooled transformer sound levels in
relatively high ambients,” IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, vol. PAS-89, pp. 1657–
1662, Sept./Oct. 1970.
[B8] IEC 60076-4:2002, Power transformers—Part 4: Guide to the lightning impulse and switching
impulse testing – Power transformers and reactors. Annex A, Principles for waveshape control.
[B9] IEC 60076-6:2007, Power transformers—Part 6: Reactors.
[B10] IEC 60076-8:1997, Power transformer application guide.
[B11] IEC/TR 60943:2007, Guidance concerning the permissible temperature rise for parts of electrical
equipment, in particular for terminals. 34
[B12] IEEE Std C2®-2007, National Electrical Safety Code® (NESC®). 35
[B13] IEEE Std C37.100.1™-2007, IEEE Standard of Common Requirements for High Voltage Power
Switchgear Rated Above 1000 V. 36,37
[B14] IEEE Std C57.12.80™-2002, IEEE Standard Terminology for Power and Distribution Transformers.
33
34
35
National Electrical Safety Code and NESC are both registered trademarks and service marks of the Institute of Electrical and
Electronics Engineers, Inc.
36
The IEEE standards or products referred to in this annex are trademarks of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc.
37
114
[B15] IEEE Std C57.12.90™-2006, IEEE Standard Test Code for Liquid-Immersed Distribution, Power,
and Regulating Transformers.
[B16] IEEE Std C57.123™-2002, IEEE Guide for Transformer Loss Measurement.
[B17] IEEE Std C62.1™-1989 (Reaff 1994), IEEE Standard for Gapped Silicon-Carbide Surge Arresters
for AC Power Circuits.
[B18] IEEE Std C62.2™-1987, IEEE Guide for the Application of Gapped Silicon-Carbide Surge Arresters
for Alternating Current Systems.
[B19] IEEE Std C62.11™-2005, IEEE Standard for Metal-Oxide Surge Arresters for AC Power Circuits
(> 1 kV).
[B20] IEEE Std C62.22™-1997, IEEE Guide for the Application of Metal-Oxide Surge Arresters for
Alternating-Current Systems.
[B21] IEEE Std 32™-1972 (Reaff 1990), IEEE Standard Requirements, Terminology, and Test Procedure
for Neutral Grounding Devices.
[B22] IEEE Std 315™, IEEE Standard Graphic Symbols for Electrical and Electronics Diagrams
(Including Reference Designation Letters).
[B23] IEEE Std 1277™-2010, IEEE Standard General Requirements and Test Code for Dry-Type and Oil-
Immersed Smoothing Reactors for DC Power Transmission.
[B24] IEEE Std 1531™-2003, IEEE Guide for the Application and Specification of Harmonic Filters.
[B25] Jackson, R. L., “Significance of surface preparation for bolted aluminum joints,” IEE Proceedings,
C, General Transmission and Distribution, vol. 128, pp. 45-54, Mar. 1981.
[B26] Kusters, N. L., and Petersons, O. A., “Transformer-ratio-arm bridge for high voltage capacitance
measurements,” IEEE Transactions (Communications and Electronics), vol. 68, pp. 606–611, Nov. 1963.
[B27] Malewski, R., Anderson, W. E., and Moore, W. J. M., “Interlaboratory comparison of EHV shunt
reactor loss measurements,” IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, vol. PAS-99, no. 4,
July/Aug. 1980.
[B28] Malewski, R., Arseneau, R., and So, E., “A comparison of instrumentation for measuring the losses
of large power transformers,” IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, vol. PAS-102, no. 6,
pp. 1570–1573, June 1983.
[B29] Moore, W. J. M., “A technique for calibrating power frequency wattmeters at very low power
factors,” IEEE Transactions on Instrumentation and Measurement, vol. IM-23, no. 4, pp. 318–322, Dec.
1974.
[B30] Moore, W. J. M., and Raftis, F. A., “Measurement of shunt reactor loss at high voltage with an
alternating current comparator bridge,” IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, vol. PAS-92,
no. 2, pp. 662–667, Mar./Apr. 1973.
[B31] Petersons, O. A., “Transformer-ratio-arm bridge for measuring large capacitors above 100 volts,”
IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, vol. PAS-87, pp. 1354–1361, May 1968.
[B32] Uniform Building Code (UBC), 1997. 38
38
The Uniform Building Code is available from The International Code Council (http://iccsafe.org).
115

IEEE Standard For Requirements, Terminology, and Test Code For Dry-Type Air-Core Series-Connected Reactors

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IEEE Standard for Requirements,

Terminology, and Test Code for

IEEE Power & Energy Society

IEEE Standard for Requirements,

Approved 31 October 2011

Approved 7 Decemberer 2012

The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc.

Copyright © 2012 by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc.

PDF: ISBN 978-0-7381-7143-2 STD97175

Comments on standards should be submitted to the following address:

Laws and regulations

Updating of IEEE documents

Richard F. Dudley, Chair

Sten Andersson Charles Johnson Ulf Radbrandt

William J. Ackerman Randall Groves Michael S. Newman

Richard H. Hulett, Chair

Masayuki Ariyoshi Jim Hughes Gary Robinson

Satish K. Aggarwal, NRC Representative

7. Losses and impedance ...............................................................................................................................15

8. Temperature rise ........................................................................................................................................17

9. Insulation levels and dielectric tests ..........................................................................................................21

10. Short-circuit capability ............................................................................................................................25

11. Test code..................................................................................................................................................27

12. Construction ............................................................................................................................................57

Annex D (normative) Reactors supplied in enclosures..................................................................................99

Annex F (informative) System considerations in the application of current-limiting reactors ....................108

Annex G (informative) Bibliography ..........................................................................................................114

This standard does not apply to devices such as

a) Shunt reactors (see IEEE Std C57.21™-2008) 1

d) Line resonant reactors

IEC 60076-10:2005, Power transformers—Part 10: Determination of sound levels. 4

IEEE Std 4™-1995, IEEE Standard Techniques for High-Voltage Testing.

NEMA CC 1-2009, Electric Power Connection for Substations. 7

3.1 Types of dry-type air-core series reactors

outdoor reactor: A reactor of weatherproof construction.

3.2 Series reactor applications

3.7 Losses and impedance at system frequency

NOTE—Per-unit reactance can also be defined on an arbitrary megavoltampere (MVA) base.

4.1 Service conditions

4.1.1 Usual service conditions

4.1.1.1 Ambient temperature

4.1.1.2 Environmental and application-related service conditions

The altitude does not exceed 1000 m (3300 ft).

a) Application at higher ambient temperatures or at higher altitudes than specified in 4.1.1.

j) Operation of system with one phase conductor grounded.

4.2.1 Insulation between turns

4.2.2 Insulation between terminals

4.2.3 Insulation to ground and between phases

4.3 Operation at altitudes in excess of 1000 m (3300 ft)

4.3.1 Dielectric strength of air-insulated parts

Table 1 —Dielectric strength correction factors

Altitude Altitude correction factor

1000 3300 1.00

4.3.2 Operation at rated continuous current

Table 2 —Maximum allowable 24 h average temperature of cooling air to permit

4.3.3 Operation at less than rated continuous current

5.1 Basis of rating

The rating of a series reactor shall include the following:

a) Rated reactance (in ohms or percent)