1 .

Aim
To determine angle of minimum deviation for a given prism by plotting a graph between
angle of incidence and the angle of deviation.

Apparatus
Drawing board, a white sheet of paper, prism, drawing pins, pencil, half-metre scale,
office pins, graph paper and a protractor.

Theory
The refractive index in) of the material of the prism is given by

where, Dm angle of minimum deviation and A angle of the prism.

Diagram

Procedure

1. Fix a white sheet of paper on the drawing board with the help of drawing pins or
tape.
 2. Draw a straight line XX’ parallel to the length of the paper nearly in the middle of
the paper.
3. Mark points Q1, Q2, Q3,… on the straight line XX’ at suitable distances of about 5
cm.
4. Draw normals N1Q1, N2Q2, N3Q3,… on points Q1, Q2, Q3,… as shown in
diagram.
5. Draw straight lines R1Q1, R2Q2, R3Q3,… making angles of 35°, 40°, … 60° (write
value of the angles on the paper) respectively with the normals.
6. Mark one comer of the prism as A and take it as the edge of the prism for all the
observations.
7. Put it prism with its refracting face AB in the line XX’ and point Q1 in the middle
of AB.
8. Mark the boundary of the prism.
9. Fix two or more office pin P1 and P2 vertically on the line R1Q1. The distance
between the pins should be 10 mm or more.
10. Look the images of point P1 and P2 through face AC.
11. Close your left eye and bring open right eye in line with the two images.
12. Fix two office pins P3 and P4 vertically, and 10 cm apart such that the open right
eye sees pins P4 and P3 and images of P2 and P1 in one straight line.
13. Remove pins P3 and P4 and encircle their pricks on the paper.
14. Repeat steps 7 to 13 with points Q2, Q3,… for i = 40°,…, 60°.
To measure D in different cases
15. Draw straight lines through points P4 and P3 (pin pricks) to obtain emergent rays
S1T1,S2T2,S3T3,……
16. Produce T1S1, T2S2, T3S3, … inward in the boundary of the prism to meet
produced incident rays R1Q1, R2Q2, R3Q3,… at points F1, F2, F3,…
17. Measure angles K1F1S1,K2F2S2,K3F3S3,…….. These give angle of deviation
D1,D2,D3,….
18. Write values of these angles on the paper.
To measure A
19. Measure angle BAC in the boundary of the prism. This gives angle A.
20. Record your observations.

Observations
Angle of prism ‘A’ =……

Calculations
Plot a graph between angle of incidence ∠i and angle of deviation ∠D by taking ∠i along
X-axis and ∠D along Y-axis. From this graph, find the value of single of minimum
deviation Dm corresponding to the lowest point of the graph.

Result

1. i-D graph indicates that as the angle of incidence (i) increases, the angle of
deviation (D) first decreases, attains a minimum value (Dm ) and then starts
increasing for further increase in angle of incidence.
2. Angle of minimum deviation, Dm = ……..
3. Refractive index of the material of the prism, n = ……….

Precautions

1. The angle of incidence should lie between 35°-60°.

2. The pins should be fixed vertical.
3. The distance between the two pins should not be less than 10 mm
4. Arrow heads should be marked to represent the incident and emergent rays.
5. The same angle of prism should be used for all the observations.

Sources of error

1. Pin pricks may be thick.

2. Measurement of angles may be wrong.

2. Aim
To find, the focal length of a convex lens by plotting graphs between u and v .

Apparatus
An optical bench with three uprights (central upright fixed, two outer uprights with
lateral movement), a convex lens with lens holder, two optical needles, (one thin, one
thick) a knitting needle and a half metre scale.

Theory
The relation between u, v and f for a convex lens is

where,
f = focal length of convex lens
u = distance of object needle from optical centre of the lens
v = distance of image needle from optical centre of the lens.
Note. According to sign-convention, u has negative value and v has positive value.
Hence, f comes positive.

Ray diagram

Procedure
To determine rough focal length

1. Mount the convex lens in lens holder.

2. Go out in the open and face the lens towards distant tree or building.
3. Obtain the image of the tree or the building on a white painted wall (screen) and
move the lens forward and backward to get a sharp image on the wall.
4. Measure the distance between the lens and the wall (screen). This will be equal to
the rough focal length of the lens.
To set the lens
5. Clamp the holder with lens in a fixed upright and keep the upright at 50 cm mark.
6. Adjust the lens such that its surface is vertical and perpendicular to the length of
the optical bench.
7. Keep the upright fixed in this position throughout.
To set the object needle
8. Take the thin optical needle as object needle (O). Mount it in outer laterally
moveable upright near zero end.
9. Move the object needle upright and clamp it at a distance (in full cms) nearly 1.5
times the obtained rough focal length of the lens.
10. Adjust height of the object needle to make its tip lie on horizontal line through the
optical centre of the lens.
11. Note the position of the index mark on the base of the object needle upright.
To set the image needle
12. With left eye closed, see with the right open eye from the other end of the optical
bench. An inverted and enlarged image of the object needle will be seen. Tip of
the image must lie in the middle of the lens.
13. Mount the thick optical needle (image needle) in the fourth upright near the other
end of the optical bench.
 14. Adjust the height of the image needle so that its tip is seen in line with the tip of
the image when seen with right open eye.
15. Move the eye towards right. The tips will get separated. The image tip and the
image needle tip have parallax.
16. Remove the parallax tip to tip.
17. Note the position of the index mark on base of the image needle upright.
18. Record the position of the index marks on the base of upright of the lens, the
object needle and the image needle in the table against Observations
Rough focal length of the given convex lens = …….cm

Sl. No. Object dis Image dis 1/u 1/v F

(u) (cm) (v) (cm) (cm - 1) cm - 1) (cm)

Calculations

Result
The focal length of the given convex lens as determined from graph
Precautions

1. Tips of the object and image needles should lie at the same height as the centre of
the lens.
2. Parallax should be removed from tip to tip by keeping eye at a distance at least 30
cm away from the needle.
3. The object needle should be placed at such a distance that only real, inverted
image of it is formed.
4. Index correction for u and v should be applied.

Sources of error

1. The uprights may not be the vertical.

2. Parallax removal may not be perfect.

3. Aim

To find the focal length of a convex mirror using a convex lens.

Apparatus Required

An optical bench, four uprights with atleast two heaving lateral movement, a convex
mirror, a convex lens, a lens holder, two needles, a needle and a half metre scale.

Theory

A convex lens produces a real image of an object 'O' located at C. A convex mirror is
placed in the path of the rays between the lens and the image such that the rays after
refraction through the lens fall normally on the surface of the mirror. The rays are then
reflected back retracing their path and produce an image on the object. The distance PC
gives the radius of convature of the mirror, i.e., PC = R
and focal length, f = R/2 = PC/2.
 Ray diagram

Procedure

1. Find the approximate focal length of the given convex lens by focussing the image of a
distant object (say, a tree) on a screen and recording the separation between lens and the
image.
2. Mount the object needle, the lens and the mirror on the optical bench as shown in Fig.
and adjust their height such that the tip of the needle, the optical centre of the lens and
the pole of the mirror lie at the same horizontal level.
3. Keep the object pin between F and 2F of the fens. Adjust the needle and the mirror
such that there is no parallax between the tip of the object needle and its inverted image
formed at O itself. 4. Note the positions of the object (O), the lens (L) and the mirror
(M).
5. Remove the mirror and keep another needle C on the same side as the mirror. Adjust
the needle C so as to remove the parallax between image of O and the needle C. Record
this position of C. 6. Repeat the steps above 3 to 5 to record at least five different
positions of the object and the lens.
7. Find the index correction between the mirror and image needle as explained earlier.

Observations & Calculations

Sl. No. Position of Position of F = PI / 2 F(cm)

mirror mirror
 (P) (cm) Image R = PI (cm)

(I) (cm) (cm)

Precautions

1. The tips of the needles and the centres of the lens and the mirror should be at same
height.
2. The parallax should be removed from tip to tip.
3. The distance between the lens and the mirror should be small.
4. While adjusting the image needle, the lens and the object needle should not be
disturbed.
5. The index correction should be carefully recorded and applied.

Sources of Errors

1. Parallax not removed completely.

2. The uprights are not perfectly vertical.
3. Optical centre, pole of the mirror and the tip of the object needle are not placed in a
line.

4.Aim
To draw the I-V characteristic curve of a p-n junction in forward bias and reverse
bias.
Apparatus
A p-n junction (semi-conductor) diode, a 3 volt battery, a 50 volt battery, a high
resistance rheostat, one 0-3 volt voltmeter, one 0-50 volt voltmeter, one 0-100 mA
ammeter, one 0-100 μA ammeter, one way key, connecting wires and pieces of sand
paper.

Theory
Forward bias characteristics. When the p -section of the diode is connected to positive
terminal of a battery and n-section is connected to negative terminal of the battery then
junction is said to be forward biased. With increase in bias voltage, the forward current
increases slowly in the beginning and then rapidly. At about 0.7 V for Si diode (0.2 V for
Ge), the current increases suddenly. The value of forward bias voltage, at which the
forward current increases rapidly, is called cut in voltage or threshold voltage.
Reverse bias characteristics. When the p -section of the diode is connected to negative
terminal of high voltage battery and n-section of the diode is connected to positive
terminal of the same battery, then junction is said to be reverse biased.
When reverse bias voltage increases, initially there is a very small reverse current flow,
which remains almost constant with bias. But when reverse bias voltage increases to
sufficiently high value, the reverse current suddenly increases to a large value. This
voltage at which breakdown of junction diode occurs (suddenly large current flow) is
called zener breakdown voltage or inverse voltage. The breakdown voltage may starts
from one volt to several hundred volts,

Diagram

depending upon dopant density and the depletion layer.

Procedure
For forward-bias

1. Make circuit diagram as shown in diagram.

2. Make all connections neat, clean and tight.
3. Note least count and zero error of voltmeter (V) and milli-ammeter (mA).
4. Bring moving contact of potential divider (rheostat) near negative end and insert
the key K. Voltmeter V and milli-ammeter mA will give zero reading.
5. Move the contact a little towards positive end to apply a forward-bias voltage (VF)
of 0. 1 V. Current remains zero.
6. Increase the forward-bias voltage for diode, current remains zero, (It is due to
junction potential barrier).
7. Increase VF , milli-ammeter records a small current.
8. Increase VF in steps and note the corresponding current. Current increases first
slowly and then rapidly.
9. At certain VF ,the current increases suddenly. This represents “forward knee
voltage” stage.
10. If the VF increases beyond “forward breakdown” stage, the forward current does
not change much. Now take out the key at once.
11. Record your observations as given ahead.

For reverse-bias

12. Make circuit diagram as shown in diagram.

13. Make all connections neat, clean and tight.
14. Note least count and zero error of voltmeter (V) and micro-ammeter (μA).
15. Bring moving contact of potential divider (rheostat) near positive end and insert
the key K Voltmeter V and micro-ammeter μA will give zero reading.
16. Move the contact towards negative end to apply a reverse-bias voltage (VR) to a
certain value , a feebly reverse current starts flowing.
17. Increase VR in steps. Current increases first slowly and then rapidly. Note the
current.
18. Make VR high, the current increases suddenly. This represents “reverse break-
down” stage. Note the current and take out the key at once.
19. Record your observations as given ahead.

Observations
For forward-bias
 1. Table for forward-bias voltage and forward current

Sl. No. forward-bias forward current

voltage
( volt ) ( mA )
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

2. Table for reverse-bias voltage and reverse current

Sl. No. reverse -bias reverse current

voltage
( volt ) ( μA )
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Calculations
For forward-bias

Forward bias resistance

For reverse-bias.

Reverse bias resistance

Result
Junction resistance for forward-bias = ohms
Junction resistance for reverse-bias = ohms.

Precautions

1. All connections should be neat, clean and tight.

2. Key should be used in circuit and opened when the circuit is not being used.
3. Forward-bias voltage beyond breakdown should not be applied.
4. Reverse-bias voltage beyond breakdown should not be applied.

Sources of error
1. circuit is switched on when it is not being used.

2.The junction diode supplied may be faulty.

EXPT - 5

Aim
To determine resistivity of two / three wires by plotting a graph for potential difference
versus current.

Apparatus
A resistance wire, a voltmeter (0-3) V and an ammeter (0-3) A of appropriate range, a
battery (battery eliminator), a rheostat, a metre scale, one way key, connecting wires and a
piece of sand paper.

Theory
According to the Ohm’s law the current flowing through a conductor is directly
proportional to the potential difference across its ends provided the physical conditions
(temperature, dimensions, pressure) of the conductor remains the same. If I be the
current flowing through a conductor and V be the potential difference across its ends,
then according to, Ohm’s Law,

Resistivity of wire ,

Ρ = (R A) / l = (R  r 2) / l
Circuit diagram

Procedure

1. Arrange the apparatus in the same manner as given in the arrangement diagram.
2. Clean the ends of the connecting wires with sand paper to remove the insulations,
if any.
3. Make neat, clean and tight connections according to the circuit diagram. While
making connections ensure that +ve marked terminals of voltmeter and ammeter
are joined towards the +ve terminal of the battery.
4. Determine the least count of voltmeter and ammeter, and also note the zero error,
if any.
5. Insert the key K, slide the rheostat contact and see that ammeter and voltmeter are
working properly.
6. Adjust the sliding contact of the rheostat such that a measurable current passes
through the resistance coil or the resistance wire.
7. Note down the value of potential difference V” from voltmeter and current I from
ammeter.
8. Shift the rheostat contact slightly so that both ammeter and voltmeter show full
divisions readings and not in fraction.
9. Record the readings of the voltmeter and ammeter.
10. Take at least four sets of independent observations.
11. Cut the resistance wire at the points where it leaves the terminals, stretch it and
find its length by the metre scale.
12. Measure the diameter of wire by using screw guage.
13. Record your observations.
14. Repeat the entire experiment for the second wire of different material.
Observations

1. Length
Length of the resistance wire (1) = …l 1 100CM…….

Length of the resistance wire (2) = …l 2…….

2. Diameter

Diameter of the resistance wire (1) = …d 1 …….

Diameter of the resistance wire (2) = …d 2……

3. Range
Range of the given ammeter = ……….
Range of the given voltmeter = ……….
4. Least count
Least count of ammeter = ……….
Least count of voltmeter = ……….
5. Table for Ammeter and Voltmeter Readings

Observation Table for R 1 -

No. of obs. Voltmeter readings Ammeter readings Resistance

(V) (I) R=V/I
1.
2.
3.
4.

R1=

Observation Table for R 2 -

No. of obs. Voltmeter readings Ammeter readings Resistance

(V) (I) R=V/I
1.
2.
3.
4.

R2=
Calculations
1. Find ratio of V and I for each set of observations.
2. Plot a graph between potential difference V and current I, taking V along X-axis and I
along Y-axis. The graph comes to be a straight line.

From graph,

In  ABC ,

tan = AB / CB

cot =  V/  I

R =  V/  I

cot = R

1. Resistivity of wire (1) = (R 1  r 1 2) / l 1

2. Resistivity of wire (2) = (R 2  r 2 2) / l 2

Result

3. The graph between V and I is a straight line

4. Resistivity of wire (1) =
5. Resistivity of wire (2) =

Precautions

1. The connections should be neat, clean and tight.

2. Thick copper wires should be used for the connections after removing the
insulations near their ends by rubbing with sand paper.
3. Voltmeter and ammeter should be of proper range.
4. A low resistance rheostat should be used.
5. The key should be inserted only while taking observations to avoid heating of
resistance (otherwise its resistance will increase).

Sources of error

1. The instrument screws may be loose.

2. Thick connecting wires may not be available.
3. Rheostat may have high resistance.
EXPT - 6

Aim

To verify the laws of the combination of resistances using a meter bridge.

Apparatus/Materials Required

 Meter Bridge
 Leclanche cell
 Resistance Box
 Galvanometer
 Jockey
 Sand Paper
 Connecting wire
 Two resistance wires
 A set square

Theory

(i) The resistance of a resistance wire or a coil is given by

where R is the resistance from the resistance box in the left gap, and l is the length of the
meter bridge wire from zero ends up to the balance point.

(ii) When two resistors r1 and r2 are connected in series, their combined resistance is
given as follows:

Rs = r1 + r2
Circuit diagram

Procedure
For Resistance

1. Arrange the apparatus as shown in arrangement diagram.

2. Connect the resistance wire whose resistance is to be determined in the right gap
between C and B. Take care that no part of the wire forms a loop:
3. Connect resistance box of low range in the left hand gap between A and B.
4. Make all the other connections as shown in the circuit diagram.
5. Take out some resistance (say 2 ohm) from the resistance box, plug the key K.
6. Touch the jockey gently first at left end and then at right end of the bridge wire.
7. Note the deflections in the galvanometer. If the galvanometer shows deflections in
opposite directions, the connections are correct. If the deflection is one side only,
then there is some fault in the circuit. Check or take help of your teacher and
rectify the fault.
8. Move (slide) the jockey gently along the wire from left to right till galvanometer
gives zero deflection. The point where the jockey is touching the wire is null point
D.
9. Choose an appropriate value of R from the resistance box such that there is no
deflection in the galvanometer when the jockey is nearly in the middle of the wire
(i.e.,between 45 cm to 55 cm).
10. Note position of point D (with the help of a set square) to know length AD = l.
11. Take at least three sets of observations in the same way by changing the value of R
in steps.
12. Take the two resistance coils as r1 and r2.
13. To find the value of r1 and r2, follow the same steps as above
14. Connect the two coils r1 and r2 in series as shown in figure in the right gap of
Meter bridge and find the resistance of this combination, Take at least three sets
of observations.
15. Record your observations.
 Observations

No. of Known l 100 – l

obs res
(cm ) ( cm ) Average
R

r1 2

r2 1

rs 1

Calculation –

Result
Error = experimental value – theoretical value

Precautions

1. The connections should be neat, clean and tight.

2. All the plugs in the resistance box should be tight.
3. Move the jockey gently over the bridge wire and do not rub it.
4. The plug in key K should be inserted only when the observations are to be taken.
5. Null point should be brought between 45 cm and 55 cm.
6. Set square should be used to note null point to avoid error of parallax.
7. At one place, diameter of wire should be measured in two mutually perpendicular
directions.
8. The wire should not make a loop.

Sources of error

1. The instrument screws may be loose.

2. The plugs may not be clean.
3. The wire may not have uniform thickness.
4. The screw gauge may have faults like back lash error and wrong pitch.
EXPT - 7

Aim

To determine the frequency of alternating current using a sonometer and

an electromagnet.

APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED

A sonometer with a soft iron wire stretched over it, an electromagnet, a

step-down transformer, slotted 1/2 kg weights hanger, a physical balance,
two sharp edge wedges and a weight box.

Theory

The frequency n of the fundamental mode of vibration of a stretched

string, fixed at two ends, is given by

Here l is the length of the vibrating string, T is the tension in the wire and
m is its mass per unit length.

Hence, if f is the frequency of the alternating current, then

Procedure

1. Set up the sonometer and stretchthe wire AB by placing a load of½ kg on the
hanger (Fig. E 8.1).

2. Support the electromagnet in a stand and connect it to the secondary of a

stepdown transformer. Adjust its position, such that its one pole lies close to the
middle of the sonometer wire.
 3. Switch on the alternating current supply and adjust the length of vibrating
portion of AB by sliding the wedge W or W′. Make this adjustment until the
amplitude of the vibrating string is maximum.

4. Measure the vibrating length and note the tension in the string.

5. Increase the load in steps of ½ kg and each time find the vibrating length.

6. Switch off the ac supply. Untie the wire of the sonometer from its peg and find
its mass in a physical balance. Calculate mass of 100 cm sonometer wire. Hence
find the mass per unit length, m for the wire.

Observations and Calculations

No. of Mass on Tension

obs the hanger
T = Mg Resonating length
M ( kg )
(N) l1 l2 l=l2 -l1

Mass per unit length, m = ... g/cm = ...kg/m

Acceleration due to gravity, g = ...ms-2

PRECAUTIONS

1. Pulley should be as frictionless as possible.

2. Edges of the wedge should be sharp.

3. Tip of the electromagnetic pole should be close to the middle of the

sonometer wire.

4. After taking each of the observations, circuit should be switched

off for a few minutes.

SOURCES OF ERROR

1. Friction of the pulley is the main source of error in the experiment.

Due to this, the value of tension acting on the wire is less than that

actually applied.

2. AC frequency may not be stable.

EXPT - 8

Aim
To determine resistance of a galvanometer by half-deflection method and to find its
figure of merit.

Apparatus
A weston type galvanometer, a voltmeter, a battery or battery eliminator, two (10,000 Ω
and 200 Ω) resistance boxes, two one-way keys, a rheostat, a screw gauge, a metre scale,
an ammeter of given range, connecting wires and a piece of sand paper.

Theory
Circuit diagram

Procedure
(a) Resistance of galvanometer by half deflection method

1. Make the connections accordingly as shown in circuit diagram.

2. See that all plugs of the resistance boxes are tight.
3. Take out the high resistance (say 2000 Ω) from the resistance box R and insert the
key K1 only.
4. Adjust the value of R so that deflection is maximum, even in number and within
the scale.
5. Note the deflection. Let it be θ.
6. Insert the key also and without changing the value of R, adjust the value of S, such
that deflection in the galvanometer reduces to exactly half the value obtained in
step 5 i.e., θ/2.
7. Note the value of resistance S.
8. Repeat steps 4 to 7 three times taking out different values of R and adjusting S
every time.
(b) Figure of merit
9. Take one cell of the battery (battery eliminator) and find its E.M.F. by a voltmeter
by connecting +ve of the voltmeter with +ve of the cell and -ve of voltmeter with
-ve of the cell. Let it be E.
10. Make connections as in circuit diagram.
11. Adjust the value of R to obtain a certain deflection 0 (say 30 divisions) when the
circuit is closed.
12. Note the values of resistance R and deflection θ.
13. Now change the value of R and note the galvanometer deflection again.
14. Repeat the steps 9 to 13 with both cells of the battery with different voltages like
2, 4, 6, 8, volts from battery eliminator.
15. Find the figure of merit k using the formula.
Observations and Calculations

1. Table for resistance of the galvanometer by half deflection method

No. Resistance, R Deflection in Shunt Half Galvanometer

of (Ω) the resistance deflection
obs galvanometer
S(Ө) ( Ө/2 )
(Ө)
(Ω)
1
2
3

2. Table for figure of merit

No. Emf Resistance, R Deflection in the

of galvanometer
obs ( Volt ) (Ω)
(Ө)

1
2
3

Result

1. Resistance of given galvanometer = …….. Ω

2. Figure of merit of given galvanometer = A/dn.
Precautions

1. All the connections should be neat, clean and tight.

2. All the plugs in resistance boxes should be tight.
3. The e.m.f. of cell or battery should be constant.
4. Initially a high resistance from the resistance box (R) should be introduced in the
circuit (otherwise for small resistance an excessive current will flow through the
galvanometer or ammeter can be damaged).

Sources of error

1. The screws of the instruments may be loose.

2. The plugs of resistance boxes may not be clean.
3. The e.m.f. of battery may not be constant.
4. The galvanometer divisions may not be of equal size.

ACTIVITY (1)

Aim
To assemble a household circuit comprising three bulbs, three (on/off) switches,a fuse
and a power source.

Apparatus and material

Apparatus: No apparatus required in assembling a circuit.
Material: Three bulbs (6 V, 1W) each, fuse of 0.6 A, main switch a power supply
(battery . eliminator), three (on/off) switches flexible connecting wire with red and black
plastic covering,a fuse wire.
Supplementary: Main electric board with a two-pin socket and main switch.

Theory
Electricity supplied to us for domestic purposes is 220 V A.C. and 50 Hz. The household
circuit, all appliances are connected in “parallel” with mains. The switches are connected
in series with each appliances in live wire. 5 A switches are required for normal
appliances like, bulbs, fluorescent tubes fans etc. 15 A sockets and switches are required
for heavy load appliances ‘ like, refrigerator, air conditioner, geyser, hot plates etc. All
appliances must have three wires called live, neutral and the earth. Total power
consumption ‘P’ at a time
P = P1 + P2 + P3 +………..
where P1, P2, P3 are the powers drawn by appliances.
To protect the appliances from damage when unduly high currents are drawn fuse
of little higher rating, 10 to 20% higher than the current normally drawn by all
appliances. For further safety, a suitable value MAINS FUSE like rating 32 A is
connected in series with supply source.
Diagram

Procedure

1. Connect the bulbs B1, B2 and B3 in series with switches S1, S2 and S3 respectively
and connect each set of B-S in parallel with each other.
2. Connect main supply to a step-down transformer (battery eliminator) to get
required voltage from 0 to 10 V (0, 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 V).
3. Connect the mains fuse M.S. in series with the power supply (battery eliminator).
4. Connect an A.C. ammeter in series with the B-S set.
5. Connect one end of power supply to one end of B-S set.
6. Check the circuit one again to ensure that household circuit is complete.
7. Gradually increase the current to 0.75 A, the fuse must bum off at about 0.6 A.

ACTIVITY (2)

Aim
To assemble the components of a given electrical circuit.

Apparatus and material

Apparatus: A voltmeter and an ammeter of appropriate range, a battery, a rheostat, one
way key.
Material: An unknown resistance or resistance coil, connecting wires, a piece of sand
paper.
Diagram

No. of obs. Voltmeter readings Ammeter readings Resistance

(V) (I) R=V/I
1.
2.
3.

Procedure

1. Connect the components (Resistors, inductors etc.) in series with each other as
shown in diagram and then in series with the battery.
2. Connect the ammeter in series with the circuit, to measure the current.
3. Connect the voltmeter in parallel to the resistor, to measure the potential
difference.
4. Connect the switch in series with the battery.
5. Assembly of the electrical components in electric circuit is complete.

Utility
It is used for measuring an unknown resistance
ACTIVITY (3)

Aim
To study the variation in potential drop with length of a wire for a steady current.

Apparatus and material

Apparatus. Potentiometer:
Material: A fully charged 4.5 V battery or battery eliminator, a low resistance rheostat, a
voltmeter of range (0-3.0 V), an ammeter (0-3) A, a one way key, a jockey, a set square,
connecting wires and a piece of sand paper.

Theory
For a potentiometer with wire of uniform material density and thickness (cross-sectional
area) carrying a steady current, potential drop is proportional to the length of the wire.

where K is the drop of potential per unit length. It is called the potential gradient.

Diagram
Procedure

1. Draw a circuit diagram showing the scheme of connections as in figure.

2. Remove the insulation from the ends of the connecting copper wires with a sand
paper.
3. Connect the positive pole of the battery (eliminator) (a battery of constant e.m.f.)
to the zero end (P) of the potentiometer and the negative pole through a one-way
key, an ammeter and a low resistance rheostat to the other end (Q) of the
potentiometer.
4. Connect the positive terminal of the voltmeter to the end P of the potentiometer
and the negative terminal to the jockey.
5. Touch the end of the jockey to the end Q of the potentiometer.
6. Close the key and set the rheostat such that the voltmeter gives full scale
deflection (3 V).
7. Touch the jockey at end P at 0 (zero) cm. The voltmeter will give zero deflection.
8. Touch the jockey at marks separated by 50 cm length of wire. Note the voltmeter
reading in each case.
9. Record your observations in tabular form as given ahead.

Observations and Calculations

Calculation from graph

Plot a graph choosing a suitable scale, for the values of potential drop V along y-axis and
length l along x-axis as shown in figure.
Result

ACTIVITY (4)

(a)

Aim
To study the nature and size of the image formed by a convex lens on a screen by using a
candle and a screen (for different distances of the candle from the lens).

Apparatus
An optical bench with three uprights, a convex lens with holder, a burning candle, a
card-board screen.

Theory

As the object (burning candle) is moved from infinity towards the convex lens, its image
(position of screen) moves from lens focus towards infinity.
For candle distance less than focal length, image becomes virtual and does not come on
screen.
Diagram

Procedure
Find rough focal length of the convex lens by usual method.
Mount the convex lens in holder in central upright and keep it in the middle of the
optical bench.
Mount the card-board screen on another upright and keep it at distance equal to rough
focal length of the lens, from the central upright.
Mount the burning candle in third upright and keep it on the other side of the central
upright and near the end of the optical bench.
Adjust heights so that the inverted image of erect flame of burning candle is formed on
screen. Move the screen to make the image sharp. The screen will be nearly at the focus
of the convex lens.
The image will be real inverted and much more diminished.
As the burning candle is moved towards the lens on one side, the screen has to be
moved away from the lens on other side, for getting sharp flame image. The inverted
image size increases.
When the position of the candle is at distance 2f from the lens, the screen is also at same
distance on the other side. The image size will be equal to the actual flame size.
Move the candle further nearer to the lens. The screen has to be moved away for getting
an enlarged inverted real image on screen.
As the candle reaches the focus of the lens, the screen may not be able to get its image
which will be at infinity i.e. beyond the ends of the optical bench.
Conclusion
This change in position, nature and size of the image is according to theoretical
predictions.

(b)

Aim
To study the nature and size of the image formed by a concave mirror on a screen by
using a candle and a screen (for different distances of the candle from the mirror).

Apparatus
An optical bench with three uprights, a concave mirror with holder, a burning candle, a
card-board screen.

Theory

Hence as the object (burning candle) is moved from infinity towards the concave mirror,
its image (position of screen) moves from mirror focus towards infinity. The two cross
each other at distance 2f i.e., at the centre of curvature of the mirror.
For candle distance less than focal length, image becomes virtual and does not come on
screen

.
Diagram

Procedure
Find rough focal length of the concave mirror by usual method.
Mount the concave mirror in holder in first upright and keep it near one end of the
optical bench, keeping mirror face inward.
Mount the card-board screen on a second upright and keep it at distance equal to rough
focal length of mirror, from first upright.
Mount the burning candle in third upright and keep it near other end of the optical
bench.
Adjust heights so that the inverted image of erect flame of burning candle is formed on
screen. Move the screen to make the image sharp. The screen will be nearly at the focus
of the concave mirror.
The image will be real, inverted and much more diminished.
As the burning candle is moved towards the mirror, the screen has to be moved away
from it for getting a sharp flame image. The inverted image size increases.
When the position of the candle approaches centre of curvature of the mirror, the screen
also approaches the same position. The image size will be equal to the actual flame size.
Now interchange the uprights. Bring candle upright nearer to mirror than the screen
upright.
Move the candle further nearer. The screen has to be moved away for getting an enlarged
inverted real image on screen.
As the candle reaches the focus of the mirror, the screen may not be able to get its image
which will be formed at infinity i.e. beyond the length of the optical bench.
Conclusion
This change in position, nature and size of the image is according to theoretical
predictions.

ACTIVITY (5).

Aim
To identify a diode, an LED , a resistor and a capacitor from a mixed collection of such
items.

Apparatus and material

Apparatus: Multimeter.
Material: Above mixed collection of items.

Theory
For identification, appearance and working of each item will have to be
considered.

1. A diode is a two terminal device. It conducts when forward biased and does not
conduct when reverse biased. It does not emit light while conducting. Hence, it
does not glow.
2. A LED (light emitting diode) is also a two terminal device. It also conducts when
forward biased and does not conduct when reverse biased. It emits light while
conducting. Hence, it glow.
3. A resistor is a two terminal device. It conducts when either forward biased or
reverse biased. (Infact there is no forward or reverse bias for a resistor). It
conducts even when operated with A.C. voltage.
4. A capacitor is also a two terminal device. It does not conduct when either forward
biased or reverse biased. When a capacitor is connected to a D.C. source, then
multimeter shows full scale current initially but it decay to zero quickly. It is because that
initially a capacitor draw a charge.
The components to be identified are shown in figure.

Procedure

1. If the item has four or more terminals and has form of a chip, it is an IC
(integrated circuit).
2. If the item has three terminals, it is a transistor.
3. If the item has two terminals, it may be diode, a LED, a resistor or a capacitor.
To differentiate proceed as ahead.
4. Put the selector on resistance R of multimeter for checking the continuity. The
probe metal ends are inserted in terminal marked on the multimeter as common
and P (or + ve).

If such that the black one is in common and red probe is in P (or + ve). On touching the
two ends of the device to the two other metal ends of probes.

1. If pointer moves when voltage is applied in one way and does not move when
reversed and there is no light emission, the item is a diode.
2. If pointer moves when voltage is applied in one way and does not move when re-
versed and there is light emission, the item is a LED.
3. If pointer moves when voltage is applied in one way and also when reversed, the
item is a resistor.
4. If pointer does not move when voltage is applied in one way and also when
reversed, the item is a capacitor.
Observations

ACTIVITY (6).

AIM To observe diffraction of light due to a thin slit.

APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED Two razor blades, one adhesive

tape/cello-tape, source of light (electric bulb/ laser pencil), a piece of black paper, two
glass plats.

PRINCIPLE

When a beam of light passes through a fine opening (aperture) or around a sharp
obstacle, it bends around corners of the obstacle/aperture. The light beam spreads and
penetrates into the geometrical shadow of the obstacle. This phenomenon of bending of
light around fine openings/obstacles is called diffraction and is one of the evidences in
favour of wave nature of light. It arises because of the interference of light waves from
different points of the same wave front. Two razor blades with their sharp edges held
parallel, quite close to each other (separation being of the order of wavelength of light λ)
form a fine single slit The diffraction pattern due to a single slit consists of a central
bright band, surrounded on both sides by coloured bands (with electric bulb) and
alternate dark and bright bands (with laser pencil) of decreasing intensity and fringe
width.
PROCEDURE

1. Make a fine, single slit using razor blades. For this purpose, take a glass plate and fix
a black paper on top of it. Cut out a narrow slit in the central part of the black paper.
Place two razor blades, side by side, quite close to each other over this slit as shown
in Fig.
2. Place a glowing clear electric lamp preferably with a straight filament (or a laser pencil)
at sufficient distance (about 4 to 8m) behind the fine slit between the two sharp edges of
the razor blades. Observe the lamp through the slit. What do you find?

3. Alternatively, place the slit about 0.5m from the wall and the source of light at a
distance of about 15-20 cm behind the slit. Observe the light falling on the wall.

4. Repeat the observations of steps 2 and 3 with a laser pencil. Note the changes you
observe.

RESULT

Light waves incident on very fine apertures (openings) bend around corners and exhibit
phenomenon of diffraction.