Tools and Resources For Nature-Based Tourism

Tools and Resources for Nature-Based Tourism
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TOOLS AND
RESOURCES FOR
NATURE-BASED
TOURISM
SECOND EDITION
LED BY SUPPORTED BY
i
SUPPORTED BY LED BY
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Table of Contents
Acknowledgments 4
Dedication 4
Abbreviations and Acronyms 5
1 Overview 6
2 Background 9
2.1 Purpose of the Review 10
2.2 Scope 10
2.3 Target Audience 14
2.4 Approach 14
3 Why is Nature-Based Tourism Important? 15

3.1 World Bank Group Initiatives on Nature-Based Tourism 16
3.2 International Agreements 17
4 Tools and Resources 20

4.1 Key Concepts of Nature-Based Tourism 21
Nature-Based Tourism and Ecotourism 21
Protected Areas 22
Wildlife Tourism 24
Hunting 24
Regional and National Guidance 24
Specific Ecosystems and Habitats 25
4.2 Enabling Policy Environment and Planning 26
Policy Frameworks 27
International Planning Guidance 28
Regional and National Planning 29
4.3 Concessions and Partnership Models 31
International Guidance 31
4.4 Destination Management 36
Guidance for Different Types of Natural Assets 38
4.5 Infrastructure and Facilities 43
Accommodation 43
Visitor Infrastructure and Facilities 43
4.6 Visitor Management 45
Visitor Management Tools 45
1
4.7 Nature-Based Enterprise Development 49

Financing Nature-Based Tourism Products 50
Guidance for Varied Tourism Products 54
4.8 Impacts of Nature-Based Tourism 59
Environmental Impacts 59
Economic and Financial Impacts 62
Social and Cultural Impacts 72
4.9 Risk Management and Climate Change 74
4.10 Monitoring and Evaluation 76
5 COVID-19 Pandemic 80
5.1 Policy Papers 81
5.2 Impacts of the Pandemic on Nature-Based Tourism 81
5.3 Nature-Based Tourism Recovery and Resilience 83
6 Training Materials 86
7 Networks and Institutions 89
8 Conclusion 97
8.1 Gaps in Resources and Priorities 98
8.2 Providing a Home for Resources 101
9 Endnotes 102
Tables
Table 1: Nature-based tourism terms and definitions 10
Table 2: Where to find resources responding to your needs 12
Table 3: Sustainable Development Goals and their relevance to tourism 18
Table 4: IUCN Protected Area Categories and their management approach to tourism 23
Table 5: Examples of sustainable consumption and production policy instruments in use in tourism
destinations at different stages of the tourism product life cycle 28
Table 6: Ten principles of tourism and visitor management in protected areas 46
Table 7: Indicative visitor uses in protected areas 47
Table 8: Sources of finance for nature-based tourism, and examples 50
Table 9: List of key gaps in resources cutting across priority areas of intervention 99
Figures
Figure 1: Nature-based tourism topics 11
Figure 2: Types of nature-based tourism tools and resources 11
2
Figure 3: WWF’s Conservation Travel Readiness Scorecard 29

Figure 4: Flow diagram for deciding whether to insource or outsource 32
Figure 5: Active transportation in United States National Parks 45
Figure 6: The conservation marketing equation 49
Figure 7: Cost components of safari and mountain climbing packages in Tanzania 70
Figure 8: Tourism related-threats in protected areas 75
Figure 9: Global Database Protected Areas Visitors (GD-PAVIS) 78
Figure 10: Modeled monthly income loss from no tourism 83
Figure 11: Contents of tourism and conservation – sustainable models and strategies 88
Figure 12: DestiNet’s Tourism2030 Green Travel Maps App 92
Boxes
Box 1: Best practice guidance for snorkeling 26
Box 2: Case study: Transboundary ecotourism in the Kangchenjunga Landscape: Opportunities for
sustainable development through regional cooperation (2019) 30
Box 3: Case study: Assessment of natural resources for nature-based tourism: The case of the Central
Coast Region of Western Australia (2001) 31
Box 4: Case studies on joint ventures and partnerships in conservation areas 33
Box 5: Case study: Best practices on tourism concessions in protected areas from Latin America:
Chile (2010) 35
Box 6: Case study: Conservation and development in Mozambique: Lessons from the
Transfrontier Conservation Areas Program and new perspectives for the Mozbio Program (2015) 36
Box 7: Typology of vulnerable destinations 37
Box 8: Case study: Improving trails and visitor experiences in Peaks National Park, St. Helena (2020) 44
Box 9: Increasing equity of Damaraland Camp for the Torra Conservancy, Namibia 53
Box 10: Case study on assessing tourism potential: Assessment of nature-based tourism in South Kelantan,
Malaysia (2001) 57
Box 11: Examples of good practices in nature-based tourism operations 58
Box 12: Visitor engagement in species identification and research 62
Box 13: Key findings from Economic Impact of Global Wildlife Tourism (2019) 63
Box 14: Studies on tourists’ willingness to pay for nature-based tourism 65
Box 15: Visitor spending effects from national parks in the United States in 2021 66
Box 16: The value of birding tourism in different countries and maximizing tourism potential 71
Box 17: Case studies of community-based ecotourism 74
Box 18: Case study: Assessment of natural resources for nature-based tourism: the case of the
Central Coast Region of Western Australia (2001) 76
Box 19: Citizen science for monitoring of NBT 77
Box 20: Case study: Assessment of nature-based tourism business and tourist demand in Vlora Bay and
Karaburun-Sazan National Marine Park, Albania (2016) 78
Box 21: Use of certification to ensure best practice NBT in protected areas in Australia 79
3
Acknowledgments
This report is written by Anna Spenceley, with substantial input from Urvashi Narain. We thank Claudia Sobrevila,
Lisa Farroway, Hasita Bhammar, Wendy Li, Elisson Wright, Chris Seek, Vanessa Satur, and Andrew Rylance for their
guidance. This publication was peer-reviewed by Maurice Andres Rawlins, Andre Aquino, Hermione Neville, Tijen
Arin, and Benoit Blarel.
We thank the following individuals and organizations who participated in the stakeholder consultations for this
report: Tharwat Abouraya, Marissa Altmann, Claudia del Valle Andreis, Daysy Angeles, Nikhil Advani, Ana Baez,
Debora Barioni, Jerry Bauer, Tim Bamford, James R. Barborak, Natalie Beckett, Oda S. Beltran, Phil Biden, Thomas
Breuer, Alejandra Carminati, Leslie Carlisle, Susan Cardenas, Enrique Cabanilla, Lisa Cheesman, Brian Child, Cher
Chua-Lassalvy, Sarwat Chowdhury, Arnau Texidor Costa, Calvin Cottar, Tania Curry, Ivana Damnjanovic, Carla
Danelutti, Valentina Dinica, Richard W. Diggle, Dexter Bernhard Dombro, Andy Drumm, Randy Durband, Ehab Eid,
Nihal Ellegala, Imad Farhat, Shane Feyers, Virginia Fernandez-Trapa, David Fennell, Juan Ricardo Gómez, Roxana
Goldstein, Yogani Govender, Ronda Green, Stephan Grapentin, Sofía Gutiérrez, Pradeep Mahapatra, Oliver Hillel,
Dale Honeck, Carl Huchzermeyer, Glen Hvenegaard, John J. Jackson III, Mike Jebson, David Kaczan, Shaanti Kapila,
Liisa Kajala, Raymond Katebaka, Chloe King, Helen Klimmek, Jon Kohl, Verónica Kunze, Donald Leadbetter, Natasha
Leader, Amy Chua Fang Lim, Chi Lo, Lisa Majewski, Julian Matthews, Kerry Maree, Rachel McCaffery, Saquib
Mehmood, Mirzonazar Mirzoev, Rob Morley, Christian Müller, Eduardo Najera-Hillman, Hermógenes Henrique
Oliveira Nascimento, Giuseppe Nerilli, David Newsome, Germain Ngandjui, Milena Nikolova, Steve Noakes, Flavio
Ojidos, Willeen Olivier, Bogdan Papuc, Jean-Yves Paille, Dan Paleczny, Christine Pang, Claire Parfitt, Carlos Pelli,
Skipper Pete, Helena Rey de Assis, Salto Morato Natural Reserve, Jessica Rizzolo, Vivienne, Solis Rivera, Angus M
Robinson, Chris Roche, Katherine Ross, Mark Ryan, Carlos Luis Sandi, Fabrizio Santini, James Sano, Jeremy Sampson,
Mahmoud Sarhan, Trevor Sandwith, Veronica Santamaria, Jeffrey Sayer, Oldrich van Schalkwyk, Philipp Schägner,
Natalie Sellier, Richard Shepard, Gordon Sillence, Jeremy Smith, Sue Snyman, Richard Sowry, James Seward, Thiago
do Val Simardi Beraldo Souza, Juraj Svajda, Jamie Sweeting, Zenon Tederko, Cathy Cullinane Thomas, Ronnie
K. Thiyam, Holly Tuppen, Daniel Turner, Mel Turner, Louise Twining-Ward, Carlos Vasquez, Graham Webb, Maria
Cristina Weyland Vieira, Francis Vorhies, Mark Willuhn, Linda Wong, Megan Epler Wood, and Elisson Wright.
Dedication
This report is dedicated to Dr. Claudia Sobrevila, Senior Environmental Specialist and Global Wildlife Program
Manager at the World Bank, who sadly passed away in 2019 during the production of the first edition. Dr. Sobrevila
provided insightful guidance and helped conceptualize this report.
4
Abbreviations and Acronyms

ACCT Africa Conservation and Communities Trust Fund
CEETO Central Europe Eco-Tourism: Tools for Nature Protection
CBD Convention on Biological Diversity
CI Conservation International
CoP Community of Practice
EEN European Ecotourism Network
EU European Union
GD-PAVIS Global database protected areas visitors
GDP Gross Domestic Product
GEF Global Environment Facility
GEN Global Ecotourism Network
GIS Geographical Information System
GSTC Global Sustainable Tourism Council
GWP Global Wildlife Program
IFC International Finance Corporation
IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature
LEWIE Local Economy-Wide Impact Evaluation
MPA Marine Protected Area
M&E Monitoring and Evaluation
MEET Mediterranean Experience of Ecotourism
NACSO Namibian Association of CBNRM Support Organizations
NBT Nature-based tourism
NGO Nongovernmental organization
NPS National Park Service (United States)
PA Protected Area
PATA Pacific Asia Tourism Association
PPP Public-Private Partnership
SADC Southern African Development Community
SDG United Nations Sustainable Development Goals
SERPAT Spectra for the Ecological Regulation of Protected Areas and Tourism
SWOT Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, Threats (SWOT) Analyses
TAPAS Group IUCN WCPA Tourism and Protected Areas Specialist Group
TIES The International Ecotourism Society
TRAFFIC Wildlife Trade Monitoring Network
UNCTAD United Nations Conference on Trade and Development
UNDP United Nations Development Programme
UNEP United Nations Environment Programme
UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
UNWTO United Nations World Tourism Organization
USAID United States Agency for International Development
VERP Visitor experience and resource protection framework
VMAST UNESCO’s Visitor Management Assessment and Strategy Tool
VSE Visitor Spending Effects Model
WCPA World Commission on Protected Areas
WCS Wildlife Conservation Society
WHS UNESCO World Heritage Site
WTP Willingness to pay
WTTC World Travel & Tourism Council
WWF World Wildlife Fund
All currency in this publication is in U.S. dollars unless otherwise indicated. 5

1Overview
6
Note on the release of the second edition of Tools and Resources for Nature-Based Tourism:
Impacts from the COVID-19 pandemic have reverberated across the tourism sector since the publication of this
report in July 2020. Those working in nature-based tourism, from tour operators to community organizations to
protected area authorities, have faced particular challenges – and opportunities – as tourism revenues plummeted
and slowly rebound.
This second edition aims to collect and share the many resources that have emerged over the last two years to
support nature-based tourism destinations and stakeholders to recover and reset in the face of the pandemic. A new
chapter has been added on COVID-19 resources. In addition, other major new and updated nature-based tourism
resources have been added to the report and its associated database.
N
ature-based tourism (NBT) plays an important role This report is a comprehensive review of the tools,
in sustainable development. It can support poverty resources, institutions, and platforms available to help
alleviation, economic growth, and biodiversity nature-based tourism, development, and conservation
conservation and contribute to key global agreements and practitioners prepare and implement projects that
frameworks, including the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable integrate NBT and can strengthen the link between
Development. NBT’s singular potential to create jobs and conservation and development. Trusted resources
growth, while protecting wildlife and ecosystems, makes covering the core components of NBT were identified
it an enticing prospect for developing countries seeking to through a desk and literature review and consultations
align those interests. with over 120 tourism experts. The resulting compilation
provides guidance for practitioners at every stage of a
Yet, the relationship between NBT and poverty reduction is project – from preparation and design to implementation
not straightforward. The implementation of nature-based and evaluation. Resources are organized into the following
tourism and safeguarding of underlying natural assets themes, with many covering multiple topics:
depends on a diverse set of conditions. NBT practitioners,
researchers, and stakeholders are continuously developing 1. Key Concepts of Nature-Based Tourism: Key
and refining tools, guidelines, and practices and learning concepts and best practices for different regions,
from previous efforts in order to realize its optimal benefits. ecosystems, and types of NBT, including ecotourism
and wildlife tourism.
The World Bank invests in nature as an asset that creates 2. Enabling Policy Environment and Planning: Legal
jobs to support economic development and promote and institutional frameworks and arrangements and
environmental conservation. In response to the growing planning toolkits for NBT.
demand from countries in recent years, the World Bank 3. Concessions and Partnership Models: Guidelines
has invested in a $1.2 billion portfolio of projects with NBT and tools for enabling partnerships, including those
components. Furthermore, over half of the 37 national with the private sector, to deliver tourism in protected
projects approved under the Global Environment Facility areas (PAs).
(GEF)-funded, World Bank-led Global Wildlife Program 4. Destination Management: Guidelines, best
(GWP),1 include work on NBT, showing the significance of practices, and case studies to support NBT planning
this opportunity to countries across Africa, Asia, and Latin for destinations.
America and the Caribbean.
7
Overview
5. Infrastructure and Facilities: Resources to guide The compilation demonstrates that substantial work
the development of infrastructure that supports has been done, reflecting the importance of NBT for
conservation objectives. conservation and development across the world. But
6. Visitor Management: Principles and frameworks despite the diversity and depth of the resources identified,
for managing visitor use to avoid or reduce adverse many of the resources currently available are not widely
impacts from tourism. known or used, and gaps remain as a consequence. The
report is therefore complemented by a resource database,
7. Nature-Based Enterprise Development: Information
a one-stop platform for NBT tools and resources that is
for individuals and enterprises that want to plan,
comprehensive and searchable by keywords. Practitioners
design, and operate sustainable NBT, including
can easily find and access materials by topic or type. The
guidance on product development, financing market
database will be hosted by the Global Wildlife Program
segmentation, marketing, and communications.
and readers are invited to help maintain it by contributing
8. Impacts of Nature-Based Tourism: Analyses of the
links to new resources.
impacts of NBT on natural habitats, biodiversity, local
economies and livelihoods, skills, culture and society,
The review also found that while certain priority themes
and tourists.
are emerging for NBT practitioners, they remain under-
9. Risk Management and Climate Change: researched and are therefore not sufficiently covered by
Strategies for analyzing and reducing risk, including resources listed in this compilation. These knowledge
climate change. gaps relate to undertourism and overtourism (particularly
10. Monitoring and Evaluation: Guidance and tools for relating to the dramatic decline during the COVID-19
monitoring and evaluating NBT, including standards, pandemic, followed by a resurgence of NBT subsequently),
indicators, statistics, and certification systems. climate change resilience and adaptation in NBT, hunting
11. COVID-19 Pandemic: Policy papers, impacts of the standards, gender equity, and the use of digital technology
pandemic, and guidance for operating NBT during to improve resilience. The cross-cutting issues of gender
and post-pandemic recovery. and digital technology have considerable potential
to support wider benefit distribution and enterprise
12. Training Materials: Training courses, manuals, and
competitiveness in NBT and should be studied further.
materials including webinars on key NBT topics.
Focusing efforts and resources on filling these knowledge
13. Networks and Institutions: Networks, institutions,
gaps can enhance the potential for NBT projects to
and information platforms that provide support for
maximize their contributions to poverty reduction and
NBT internationally.
biodiversity conservation.
8
2
Background
9
Background
2.1 Purpose of the Review 2.2 Scope

In 2019, the World Bank commissioned a comprehensive NBT describes all forms of tourism that use natural
review of the tools and knowledge resources that could resources in an undeveloped form. NBT is motivated
be used by practitioners in the field of NBT to prepare by the enjoyment of wildlife or undeveloped natural
and implement projects that promote sustainable NBT areas and may incorporate natural attractions including
practices and policies. scenery, topography, waterways, vegetation, wildlife,
and cultural heritage, and activities such as hunting or
The first edition of Tools and Resources for Nature-
white water rafting.2 A number of different terms are
Based Tourism was published in 2020. This second
used to describe forms of NBT, including ecotourism,
edition has been prepared with a new chapter on the
COVID-19 pandemic that aims to profile new resources wildlife tourism, geotourism, and adventure tourism
developed to help the NBT sector recover after being (see Table 1). Successful NBT requires the ability to
hit hard by travel restrictions. The pandemic led to develop and market tourism products based on the
severe and systemic repercussions for conservation and assets offered by the protected area (PA), and the ability
local livelihoods. These are elaborated and options for to maintain the quality of these assets for ongoing
improving resilience are shared. future use. The tourism potential of any PA depends
on a variety of factors, including location, accessibility,
market demand, proximity to other popular tourism
destinations, marketing, presence of local tourism
businesses, and infrastructure (e.g., accommodation,
catering, tourist guiding, etc.).3
Table 1: Nature-based tourism terms and definitions
Term Definition
Forms of tourism that use natural resources in a wild or undeveloped form. Nature-based
Nature-based tourism
tourism is travel for the purpose of enjoying undeveloped natural areas or wildlife.4
Responsible travel to natural areas that conserves the environment, socially and economically
Ecotourism sustains the well-being of the local people, and creates knowledge and understanding
through interpretation and education.5
A form of nature-based tourism that includes the consumptive and non-consumptive use
Wildlife tourism of wild animals in natural areas.6 Wildlife tourism is centered around the observation and
interaction with local animal and plant life in their natural habitats,7 as with safari tourism.
Tourism that sustains or enhances the distinctive geographical character of a place: its
Geotourism
environment, heritage, aesthetics, culture, and the well-being of its residents.8
Often based in natural environments, adventure tourism activities include mountaineering,

Adventure tourism trekking, bungee jumping, mountain biking, cycling, canoeing, scuba diving, rafting, kayaking,
zip-lining, paragliding, hiking, canyoneering, sandboarding, caving, and rock climbing.9
The World Bank Group further emphasizes that NBT impacts, addressing the needs of visitors, the industry,
should contribute to poverty reduction and promote the environment, and host communities.”11 The types
environmental sustainability.10 The United Nations World of NBT topics explored relate to the range of issues
Tourism Organization (UNWTO) defines sustainable that practitioners need to draw on during the design or
tourism as: “Tourism that takes full account of its implementation of projects and programs (see Figure 1
current and future economic, social, and environmental and Figure 2).
10
Figure 1: Nature-based tourism topics
Enabling policy Governance and Concessioning Destination Infrastructure Visitor

environment institutional and management and facilities management
arrangements partnership
models
Nature-based Impacts of Risk COVID-19 Monitoring and

enterprise nature-based management pandemic evaluation
development tourism and climate
change
Figure 2: Types of nature-based tourism tools and resources
Information resources: Certification systems for Toolkits and how-to

• Books and e-books protected areas and tourism tools, including:
• Technical reports service providers, including:
• Financial assessment and
• Case studies • Standards and criteria evaluation tools
• Best practice guidance,
• Indices and ratings • Research tools
guidelines, and codes of
conduct • Indicators
• International agreements
Online platforms:
Training and capacity NBT-related institutions
building resources, including: • Online booking systems with and networks:
sustainability ratings • Nonprofit organizations
• Online courses
• Databases and resource • Research institutions
• Training materials and
platforms
manuals • Networks and alliances
• Websites hosting relevant
• Webinars
resources
11
Background
Where possible, the materials sought were authored All resources identified that fit the scope are presented
by NBT professionals, published by well-established within this report for further reading. Note that they
institutions, were easily accessible (e.g., Open Source), have not been prioritized but are categorized under
and available for free or at low cost (e.g., less than a series of sub-headings to assist readers in finding
$100). Materials in their development stages were specific information. Practitioners can also access the
also identified and added to the e-book database. source materials through an e-book.
The primary language sought was English, but those
identified in other languages were also collected. To help readers find resources that respond to practical
questions they have, the following table can be used as a
guide:
Table 2: Where to find resources responding to your needs
What do you want to know? Go to this section of the report
What is NBT, and why is it important? Section 3
What are the international agreements and decisions relating to sustainable NBT? Section 3.2
Where do I start to get an understanding of sustainable NBT, ecotourism, wildlife Sections in 4.1 on nature-based tourism
tourism, and hunting? and ecotourism, wildlife tourism, and
hunting
What type of tourism can be practiced in different types of PAs? Section in 4.1 on protected areas
Where can I find regional guidance on NBT? Section in 4.1 on regional and national
guidance
Where can I find guidance on NBT in specific habitats? Section in 4.1 on specific ecosystems
and habitats
What do I need in a national policy framework to support sustainable NBT? Section in 4.2 on policy frameworks
How do I plan NBT in a destination? Section in 4.2 on international planning
Where do I find regional NBT planning information? Section in 4.2 on regional and national
planning
How do I design a tourism concessions or partnership framework for NBT? Section 4.3
Are there any case study examples on joint ventures and partnerships? Box 5
Is there regional or national guidance for tourism concessions? Section in 4.3 on regional and national
guidance
Are there destination-level tools for NBT planning? Section 4.4
How do I determine whether NBT is viable in a destination? Section 4.4
I need to develop sustainable accommodation infrastructure for NBT – how Section in 4.5 on accommodation
should I do this?
The NBT destination needs a visitor center, trails, and transport – how should this Section in 4.5 on visitor infrastructure
be done?
12
What do you want to know? Go to this section of the report
How do I ensure visitor management avoids overcrowding in natural areas and Section 4.6
provides good experiences?
The private sector wants to develop commercially viable and sustainable NBT Section 4.7
businesses – how should this be done?
What financing is available for NBT enterprises, and how do I access it? Section in 4.7 on financing NBT
What guidance is available for community-based tourism (CBT), adventure Section in 4.7 on guidance for varied
tourism, geotourism, marine tourism, mountain tourism, or desert tourism? tourism products
Is there NBT enterprise development guidance for different parts of the world? Section in 4.7 on regional and national
guidance
What impacts does NBT have on the environment, wildlife, and animal welfare? Section in 4.8 on environmental impacts
Is there guidance for operating NBT for different types of wildlife (e.g., primates, Section 4.8
birds, marine wildlife)?
What are the economic and financial impacts of NBT? Section in 4.8 on economic and financial
impacts
How does NBT affect conservation financing? Section 4.8
What are the local financial and economic impacts on communities living in NBT Section 4.8
economies and in developing countries?
What tools can be used to measure and monitor financial and economic impacts Section 4.8
of NBT?
What are the potential social and cultural impacts of NBT? Section in 4.8 on social and cultural
impacts
What tools can be used to measure and monitor impacts on local communities Section in 4.8 on tools for local
caused by NBT? community impact assessments
What are the risks associated with NBT and climate change? Section 4.9
What M&E tools are available for NBT and tourism in protected areas? Section 4.10
What types of independent certification can be used to prove that NBT is Section 4.10
sustainable?
What impact did the COVID-19 pandemic have on NBT, conservation, and Section 5
livelihoods, and how should NBT be adapted?
What training courses and resources can be used to build stakeholder capacity in Section 6
sustainable NBT?
Where can additional help be found? What institutions and networks are leaders Section 7
in NBT?
What are the gaps in information to be aware of? Section 8
13
Background
2.3 Target Audience 2.4 Approach

The intended audiences for this report and collated This analysis was prepared through a combination of
resources are: an internet-based literature review12 and stakeholder
consultation. The consultation included online
questionnaires in 2019 and 2022 that collectively received
• Practitioners working on NBT project design,
146 responses from practitioners in the field. In all, over
implementation, and evaluation.
470 resources were identified during this process.
• Governments, PA authorities, private sector
stakeholders, tourism destination management
organizations, nongovernmental organizations
(NGOs); and other partners.
• Stakeholders that participated in the consultation
process and who provided materials to populate the
report database.
14
3
Why is Nature-Based
Tourism Important?
15
Toolsis
Why Nature-Based
and Resources forTourism Important?
Nature-Based Tourism
P
rior to the start of the COVID-19 pandemic, the through jobs and growth, while protecting wildlife
tourism sector was expected to grow by 3.9 percent and conserving ecosystems. The relationship between
per year globally over the next 10 years, according nature-based tourism and poverty reduction is not
to the World Travel and Tourism Council (WTTC). In straightforward. This is because:16
2018, travel and tourism contributed $8.8 trillion, or • Local communities near PAs sometimes carry a large
10.4 percent, to global GDP, and the industry supported share of their costs in the form of restricted access to
one in 10 jobs (319 million) globally13. NBT is the one land and natural resources and crop damage due to
of the fastest growing tourism sectors and plays an raiding wildlife.
important role in sustainable development. It can support
• There is often a mismatch between the high-skill,
poverty alleviation, economic growth, and biodiversity
labor-related demands of the tourism industry
conservation. NBT can be a significant source of income
required to realize tourism potential of natural assets
for local communities and rural households, who often
and the skill levels within local communities.
live in marginalized areas with few pathways out of
• In rural areas, there may be few businesses that can
poverty. Proponents argue that where local communities
adequately provide the necessary products and
benefit from NBT, they may be more likely to conserve
services to support the tourism sector (e.g., food,
wildlife and nature (such as the example of poachers
drink, transport, craft and décor), and so these are
who become employed as tour guides).14 However, local
either sourced from urban centers or imported.
communities near PAs sometimes bear a large share
of the costs of protected area management in the form • Local people are not always the owners of tourism
of restricted access to land and natural resources and businesses, and so business profits are retained by
human-wildlife conflict. 15 non-national owners or by national investors, who are
already affluent and highly skilled.
The onset of COVID-19 and travel restrictions have
dampened NBT, with wide repercussions on livelihoods The World Bank helps countries harness the potential of
and conservation efforts. For example, protected area NBT through three principles of engagement: protecting
management authorities (whether governmental, private, the natural assets on which tourism depends; growing
or community managed) lost critical sources of funding and diversifying the business; and sharing the benefits
for their work when tourism revenues dried up. Affected with local communities. The World Bank’s NBT portfolio
NBT tourism businesses cut staff, reduced wages, or closed includes projects that support biodiversity conservation,
operations indefinitely. These impacts have made clear strengthen PA management, and tackle wildlife poaching,
that post-COVID recovery for many local communities will while incorporating carefully designed private sector
be tied to successful, diversified, and resilient recovery of concessions and local benefit-sharing arrangements.
NBT – and reconfirmed that in a post-COVID scenario NBT Argentina, Cambodia, Mozambique, and Tanzania are
remains an important contributor to green, resilient, and some countries where the World Bank, through its
inclusive development. projects, is investing in NBT through policy enhancements,
infrastructure development, tourism planning, and
supporting communities in benefiting from tourism.
3.1 World Bank Initiatives Additionally, the Global Wildlife Program promotes NBT
on Nature-Based Tourism through a component on wildlife-based economies, with

multiple national projects supporting NBT development to
Since 2015, the World Bank has ramped up efforts and help local communities benefit from healthy ecosystems
re-engaged in tourism through new initiatives, due to and wildlife populations.
a growing demand from countries to alleviate poverty
16
revenues to be economically viable and attractive

“There are a lot of entry points and many small tourism
to the private sector. To avoid concentrating both
components in projects, but most importantly . . . there
positive and negative impacts from NBT in a few
are opportunities and the potential to do a lot more in
areas, it is also important to strategically expand NBT
nature-based tourism,” said Urvashi Narain, World
to other select protected areas.
Bank ENB Global Practice Lead Economist.
• Share the benefits: Local communities must benefit
directly from the tourism activity, be it through jobs
“We need to find creative solutions to protect wildlife and
and other economic opportunities, revenue-sharing
build economic opportunities for local communities,”
arrangements, or the targeted provision of public
said Claudia Sobrevila, Global Wildlife Program
goods (e.g., schools, roads, clinics).
Manager. “This is why the Bank is in it. At the end of the
day, it is about poverty alleviation.”
3.2 International Agreements
“Nature-based tourism can be an effective tool to
promote rural development,” said Mark Lundell, Tourism, and NBT in particular, can contribute directly
World Bank Country Director for Mozambique, the to the objectives of global international agreements,
Comoros, Madagascar, Mauritius, and Seychelles.17 including from the United Nations, the Convention on
Biological Diversity (CBD), UN Educational, Scientific and
Cultural Organization (UNESCO), and the UNWTO.
A portfolio review in 2022 identified at least 52 World Bank
projects, totaling over $1.2 billion, with a nature-based In 2015, the United Nations adopted the 2030 Agenda
tourism component or activity. The World Bank Group for Sustainable Development and the Sustainable
supports interventions that strengthen the linkages Development Goals (SDGs). The agenda established a
between nature-based tourism and poverty reduction. global framework to end extreme poverty, fight inequality
The three main components are:18 and injustice, and remedy climate change. Building
on the Millennium Development Goals, 17 SDGS and
169 associated targets were agreed upon. Tourism is
• Protect the assets: The natural assets underlying the
included within the targets for Goal 8 on decent work and
nature-based tourism sector need to be well managed
economic growth; Goal 12 on responsible consumption
to ensure they are maintained. Revenues will be short- and production; and Goal 14 on life below water. However,
lived if the tourism venture exceeds the capacity of tourism has the potential to contribute, directly or
the natural ecosystems, resulting in natural resource indirectly, to all of the goals (see Table 3).19
degradation.
• Grow the business: The natural site must attract a
sufficient number of visitors and generate sufficient
17
Toolsis
Why Nature-Based
and Resources forTourism Important?
Nature-Based Tourism
Table 3: Sustainable Development Goals and their relevance to tourism20
Goal Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) How tourism has an impact

1. No Poverty End poverty in all forms everywhere. Tourism fosters economic growth and development and provides
income through employment, promoting entrepreneurship, and
empowering disadvantaged groups.
2. Zero Hunger End hunger, achieve food security Tourism can spur agricultural productivity by promoting the
and improved nutrition, and promote production, use, and sale of local produce and its full integration
sustainable agriculture. into the tourism value chain.
3. Good Health and Ensure healthy lives and promote well- Tourism’s contribution to economic growth can have a knock-on
Well-Being being for all ages. effect on health and well-being. Tourism philanthropy can also
play a role here; as can the benefits of tourism to the health of
the tourist.
4. Quality Education Ensure inclusive and equitable quality Tourism can provide incentives to invest in education and
education and promote lifelong learning vocational training, since the sector requires specific skills.
opportunities for all.
5. Gender Equity Achieve gender equality and empower all Tourism can empower women in many ways, especially through
women and girls. jobs and other income-generating opportunities.
6. Clean Water & Ensure availability and sustainable Tourism can play a role in achieving water access and security, as
Sanitation management of water and sanitation for well as hygiene and sanitation for all.
all.
7. Affordable and Ensure access to affordable, reliable, Tourism can accelerate the shift towards renewable energy,
Clean Energy sustainable, and modern energy for all. as well as providing information on renewable energies to
communities.
8. Decent Work and Promote sustained, inclusive, and Tourism is one of the driving forces of global economic growth
Economic Growth sustainable economic growth, full and and provides access to decent work opportunities.
productive employment, and decent work
for all.
9. Industry, Build resilient infrastructure, promote Tourism development relies on good public and private
Innovation and inclusive and sustainable industrialization, infrastructure and an innovative environment. Tourism can
Infrastructure and foster innovation. incentivize government to upgrade infrastructure.
10. Reduced Reduce inequality within and among Tourism can be a powerful tool for community development and
Inequalities countries. reduction in inequalities if it engages local populations. It is an
effective means for developing countries to participate in the
global economy.
11. Sustainable Make cities and human settlements Tourism has potential to advance urban infrastructure and
Cities and inclusive, safe, resilient, and sustainable. universal accessibility, promote regeneration of areas in decay,
Communities and help preserve cultural and natural heritage.
18
Goal Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) How tourism has an impact

12. Responsible Ensure sustainable consumption and Tourism can develop resource efficient initiatives that result in
Consumption and production patterns. enhanced economic, social, and environmental outcomes.
Production
13. Climate Action Take urgent action to combat climate By lowering energy consumption and shifting energy usage
change and its impacts. to renewable energy sources, tourism can help reduce climate
impacts.
14. Life below Water Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, Coastal and marine tourism relies on intact and healthy marine
seas, and marine resources for sustainable ecosystems, which presupposes their conservation.
development.
15. Life on Land Protect, restore, and promote sustainable Tourism can play a role in conserving biodiversity through
use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably reducing waste and consumption, conserving native fauna and
manage forests, combat desertification, flora, and related awareness-raising activities.
halt and reverse land degradation, and
halt biodiversity loss.
16. Peace, Justice Promote peaceful and inclusive societies Tourism can foster multicultural and inter-faith tolerance and
and Strong for sustainable development, provide understanding, through the interaction of visitors and hosts, and
Institutions access to justice for all, and build effective, the interpretation of cultural heritage.
accountable, and inclusive institutions at
all levels.
17. Partnerships for Strengthen the means of implementation Due to its cross-sectoral nature, tourism can strengthen public-
the Goals and revitalize the global partnership for private partnerships and engage multiple stakeholders.
sustainable development.
The United Nations General Assembly adopted a resolution financially and technically to the establishment, operations,
on the Promotion of sustainable tourism (2014), recognizing and maintenance of protected areas through appropriate
the contribution of sustainable tourism to poverty tools” such as concessions and public-private partnerships
eradication, community development, and the protection (PPPs). The report to the 2018 CBD Conference of the Parties
of biodiversity. The resolution calls on the UN to promote on implementation of this and other tourism decisions,
sustainable tourism and ecotourism as a tool for achieving Mainstreaming biodiversity into tourism development
global development goals. (2018), demonstrates considerable efforts to realize the
agreement internationally.
In relation to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD),
NBT contributes to the Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011– The NBT sector also contributes to the Muscat Declaration
2020 (2010), and the plan’s Aichi Biodiversity Targets that on Tourism and Culture (2017) from UNWTO and UNESCO,
relate to conservation (Targets 11 and 12), community which includes commitments to create “a clear vision
development (Target 18), and public awareness (Target 1).21 and defined frameworks at local, national, regional, and
At the 12th Conference of the Parties to the CBD, Decision international levels that foster the coordination and
XII/11 on Biodiversity and Tourism Development (2014) cooperation between tourism and culture stakeholders from
was adopted, inviting parties to provide very specific the public and private sector as well as local communities”
support to NBT, and ‘‘build the capacity of national and and to integrate “natural and cultural heritage policies and
subnational park and protected area agencies, . . . to engage management in sustainable tourism development.”
in partnerships with the tourism industry to contribute
19
4
Tools and Resources
20
M
any tools and resources on tourism in protected Ecotourism, poverty reduction and environmental
and natural areas have been developed protection (2013) is a further compendium of reports and
by academics, development agencies, and presentation papers from a United Nations meeting on
NGOs that can be used to guide project design and the topic. Themes covered included financing ecotourism
implementation. This section provides an overview of investments and their markets, planning, marketing,
tools that can be broadly used for planning NBT initiatives; and destination management, assessing socioeconomic
it then highlights tools on specific topics. impacts and poverty reduction, enhancing environmental
protection, and partnerships for international cooperation.
More than 80 tourism cases (2021) have been compiled by
4.1 Key Concepts of CABI online, including 34 relating to nature-based, wildlife,
Nature-Based Tourism and adventure tourism. Topics covered include securing

community access to private lands for mountain biking in
There are several resources that introduce key concepts Canada (2015), ecotourism in Crete at the Milia Mountain
that underpin different types of sustainable NBT and retreat (2021), tourism and local community engagement
highlight best practices for any planning and design in Costa Rica (2022), adventure tourism in the four different
process. Some of these have global relevance, while others worlds of Ecuador (2019), tourism, wildlife conservation,
focus on specific countries or regions. and animal welfare (2021), long distance trails networks
in Brazil (2020), managing cruising and tourism in the
Nature-Based Tourism and Arctic (2020), ecotourism on the Navuva River, Fiji (2016),
cage diving and shark welfare (2018), and 10 others drawn
Ecotourism from private sector tourism in conservation areas in Africa
A briefing document on NBT issues and an overview (2019).
of relevant World Bank Group projects can be found in
Ramping up nature-based tourism to protect biodiversity Several textbooks provide a good underlying
and boost livelihoods (2017). From the CBD and the UN understanding of NBT and, in particular, ecotourism best
Environment Programme (UNEP) comes A good practice practices. Ecotourism (2020), in its fifth edition, focuses on
guide: Tourism for nature and development (2009), which an array of economic, social, and ecological inconsistencies
aims to provide stakeholders with the tools to make that continue to plague ecotourism in theory and practice,
the tourism sector more biodiversity-friendly and more and examines the sector in reference to other related
socially equitable. It introduces public decision makers forms of tourism, impacts, conservation, sustainability,
to the available toolbox of techniques, technologies, and education and interpretation, policy, and governance.
procedures that optimize the social and environmental Also, Ecotourism: Transitioning to the 22nd century
contributions of tourism and minimize its negative (2018) is another broad-based textbook on the topic that
impact. The guide covers policy and strategy tools, legal addresses sustainability, the enabling environment, natural
and normative tools, monitoring and evaluation, market- resource management, professionalization of the sector,
based instruments, capacity building, and marketing and interpretation, communities, marketing, and education.
promotion. The book Nature tourism (2017) describes the benefits and
pitfalls in recent developments of NBT, tracing the history
The Compendium of best practices in sustainable tourism in development, highlighting the ecological impacts, and
(2014) also shares best practice case studies in sustainable showcasing current practices. The publication includes
ecotourism, gathered from 17 countries, that have discussions on specific tourist markets from holistic
potential for replication elsewhere. These best practices viewpoints, embracing lessons learned from various
include destination management organizations, tour destination countries and continents. The international
operators, accommodation, NGOs, and airlines. A report handbook on ecotourism (2013) provides an overview of
from an Expert group meeting on sustainable tourism: ecotourism issues, concepts, and challenges, behavior and
21
Tools andResources
Tools and Resourcesfor Nature-Based Tourism
visitor experiences, and practices, such as chapters relating Protected Areas

to the planning and certification of ecotourism. Ecotourism:
Principles and practices (2008) is a broad-based textbook The International Union for Conservation of Nature’s (IUCN)
that provides a basis for studies on NBT, with topics such Best Practice Guidelines Series publication on Tourism and
as policy and planning, business, products, marketing, visitation in protected areas: Guidelines for sustainability
guiding and interpretation, and impacts on conservation, (2018) recognizes that managing PA tourism is a complex
communities, and the economy. Ecotourism: Principles, technical task requiring high levels of skill and knowledge.
practices and policies for sustainability (2002) explains These comprehensive guidelines provide information on
components required for successful ecotourism, illustrated the impacts of PA tourism on the environment, society, and
with a series of practical case studies. Natural resources, economy. They highlight key 10 principles for planning
tourism and community livelihoods in Southern Africa and management, address capacity building, and provide
(2020) is a book that examines the connections between guidance on the generation and management of tourism
natural resources, tourism, and community livelihood revenues. Table 4 summarizes the approaches to tourism
practices in Southern Africa, highlighting the successes and visitor use by IUCN’s PA categories. The guidelines
and constraints experienced over the last 50 years expand and update a previous IUCN Best Practice Guideline
through a series of contributed papers. More broadly, on Sustainable tourism in protected areas: Guidelines for
the Handbook for sustainable tourism practitioners: The planning and management (2002). The guidelines are
essential toolbox (2021) provides step-by-step guidance also the basis for an IUCN Massive Online Open Course on
for sustainable NBT, while accounting for modest Valorisation of protected area resources, which contains
timeframes and resources. The handbook includes three modules dedicated to the best practice guidelines.
chapters on feasibility studies, concessions, architecture, The associated Online resources directory provides access
wildlife viewing protocols, visitor use management to the materials used within the guidelines and additional
frameworks, and approaches to environmental, social, and readings and invites users to share new resources on
economic assessment of NBT. this topic.
22
Table 4: IUCN Protected Area Categories and their management approach to tourism22
IUCN Category* Primary goal and protected Approach to tourism and visitor use
value(s)
Ia) Strict Nature Reserve Biodiversity or geoheritage • Public access only possible through organized
protection (ecological and scientific, citizen science, or volunteer service
scientific values) programs
Ib) Wilderness Area Protection of the natural • Low-density, self-reliant visitor use is often a
character and condition of management objective
unmodified or slightly modified • Restricted public access in terms of amount of use,
areas (wilderness and ecological group size, activity, etc.
values) • Tourism activity limited and highly regulated (e.g.,
through special use permits)
II) National Park Protection of an ecosystem • Visitor use and experience is often a management
and its large-scale ecological objective
processes (ecological, • A range of recreation opportunities typically
recreation, and community provided through zoning, facility development, and
values) visitor services (countries have marked differences in
their attitudes to tourism accommodation within PAs)
III) Natural Monument Conservation of specific natural • Visitor use and experience is often a management
features (ecological, recreation, objective
and community values) • Recreation opportunities are typically provided
to facilitate feature protection and public
understanding
IV) Habitat/ Species Management Conservation through • Recreation visitation and commercial tourism are
Area management intervention usually management objectives
(ecological, community, and • A range of recreation opportunities is provided with
recreation values) associated facilities and services
• Commercial tourism common for wildlife viewing
V) Protected Landscape/ Landscape/seascape • Tourism is usually a management objective

Seascape conservation (community, • A range of recreation opportunities is provided with
ecological, and recreation associated facilities and services
values) • Commercial tourism common
VI) Managed Resource Sustainable use of natural • Recreation visitation and commercial tourism can
ecosystems (community, be key objectives
recreation, and ecological • A range of recreation opportunities is provided with
values) associated facilities and services
• Commercial tourism common
Books focusing particularly on PAs include Tourism tourism operations. Based on a journal special edition
and national parks (2015), which examines how and of the same name, Protected areas, sustainable tourism
why national parks have spread and evolved, how they and neo-liberal governance policies (2018) is an
have been fashioned and used, and the integral role of international collection of papers that explores politics,
tourism within them. Case study chapters bring insights performance metrics, and the values that PAs have
from across the world, including from the United States, for economies, peoples, and environments. The book
Canada, Australia, the United Kingdom, Spain, France, Tourism and protected areas (2007) provides a record
Sweden, Indonesia, China, and southern Africa. Tourism of the tourism issues discussed at the 2003 World Parks
in national parks and protected areas (2004) describes Congress and prospective important issues for the
tourism planning and management in national parks following decade.
and PAs and provides guidelines for best practice in
23
Tools andResources
Wildlife Tourism there is a substantial lack of evidence regarding how

hunting contributes to just and sustainable conservation
The World Bank’s Supporting sustainable livelihoods efforts. Best practices in sustainable hunting: A guide to
through wildlife tourism (2018) explores innovative best practices from around the world (2008) provides a
tourism partnership and investment opportunities to collation of research and papers on trophy hunting from
help countries unlock smart investment and grow tourism researchers and NGOs drawn from across Asia, Africa,
sustainably. It provides an overview of sustainable wildlife and Latin America. The other side of the ecotourism coin:
tourism experiences, the types of social, economic, and Consumptive tourism in Southern Africa (2006) discusses
environmental impacts, community participation and aspects of perception, consumption, and conservation of
partnership models, and considerations for the enabling wildlife in relation to the north-south divide relating to
environment and management. sport and trophy hunting in Namibia and Botswana.
The book Wilderness of wildlife tourism (2017) is a

collected volume of papers that addresses wildlife Regional and National Guidance
tourism’s implications for management, local communities, Guidelines and books developed for specific regions and
marketing, technology, education, corporations, and countries include the following resources:
policymaking. Wildlife tourism: Impacts, management,
and planning (2004) is a volume of papers on wildlife • Europe: Practical, profitable, protected: A starter guide
tourism issues, including zoos, wildlife watching, hunting, to developing sustainable tourism in protected areas
and fishing. The book considers social, economic, and (2012) is a manual on how to develop and manage
environmental impacts of wildlife tourism, as well as tourism in PAs, written for European PA managers. It
managing the business side of the sector. includes guidance on tourism strategies and visitor
management, working together with communities
Hunting and organizations, providing NBT experiences and
support infrastructure, communicating through
As a form of wildlife tourism, trophy hunting is often a
interpretation and branding, and generating income
contentious issue, with people supporting or opposing
from user fees and donations. Also for Europe is the
it on a variety of biological, economic, ideological, or
Guide to sustainable tourism in protected areas
cultural bases. The book Tourism and the consumption
(2012), which aims to help guide visitor monitoring
of wildlife (2014) addresses a range of complex issues
and management, involving stakeholders in PPPs,
facing the consumptive wildlife tourism sector across a
sustainable transport, certification, and marketing
number of destinations in Europe, North America, Africa,
approaches. Mediterranean experience of ecotourism:
India, Arabia, and Oceania. Issues debated include that
Meeting the ideal. A survey of ecotourism best
of trophy hunting of threatened species and hunting for
practices (2014) describes 60 case studies from
conservation, along with the impact of hunting tourism on
across the world that exemplify best practices, and
indigenous communities and on wider societies. The IUCN
discusses their contributions to conservation, local
Species Survival Commission guiding principles on trophy
communities, and cultural heritage. For Finland,
hunting as a tool for creating conservation incentives
Metsähallitus has produced Principles of sustainable
(2012) provides guiding principles on the use of trophy
tourism for protected areas (2016). These are intended
hunting as a tool for conserving species and their habitats,
to guide the sustainable tourism operations in
and for the equitable sharing of the benefits. Two case
all national parks, nature sites, and historical sites
studies on hunting in Pakistan and Namibia are included
managed by Parks & Wildlife, Finland. Each principle
within the report. Consequences of recreational hunting
is accompanied by detailed objectives that help in
for biodiversity conservation and livelihoods (2021)
implementing the principles in practice.
was a review of more than 1,000 papers and establishes
24
• Asia and Pacific: The UNWTO’s Compendium of United States (2000) is a book that illustrates country-
best practices and recommendations for ecotourism specific approaches to ecotourism planning, product
in Asia and the Pacific (2012) provides specific case development, and tourism associations.
studies demonstrating ecotourism in practice in
• Latin America: Available in Spanish and developed
the region, and illustrates how tourism operators
for Mexico, Guía para las Mejores Prácticas de
are aiming to meet the principles of sustainable
ecotourismo en áreas protegidas (2003) covers the
tourism. Nature-based tourism and conservation:
concepts, methodologies, and verification criteria for
New economic insights and case studies (2012) is a
the planning, design, and management of ecotourism
book with Australian case studies on tourism and PAs
projects.
and wildlife tourism (e.g., turtles, whales, penguins,
tree kangaroos, glow worms). The book Review of • Developing countries: Ecotourism in the less
nature-based tourism (2003) covers issues in Australia developed world (1998) is a book that shares
including leases and licenses, accreditation, park country case studies from Costa Rica, Kenya, Nepal,
pricing, risk management, breaches, and interactions and Thailand and from the Caribbean and South
with wildlife. Pacific regions.
• Africa: Private sector tourism in conservation areas
in Africa (2019) uses 32 comprehensive case studies Specific Ecosystems and Habitats
from 11 countries to provide guidelines for optimal
benefits and sustainable NBT. The book includes Some books and resources focus on best practice NBT in
descriptions of the various models for the private specific ecosystems and habitats. These include:
sector to engage in tourism in conservation areas in
Africa, and guidance on identifying the most suitable • Marine areas: Best practices for marine wildlife
private sector tourism options to promote long- watching during ecotourism activities (undated) is
term sustainability. Responsible tourism: Critical designed to help coastal tourism operators implement
issues for conservation and development (2008) responsible tourism and environmental stewardship.
contains case studies and analyses from across Global best practices for responsible whale and
Africa, including papers on policies and institutional dolphin watching (2017) aims to assist wild whale-
activities, market demand, the economics of wildlife and dolphin-watching tour operators and destination
tourism, and tourism in transfrontier conservation managers wishing to achieve best practice standards.
areas. Tourism product development interventions It also outlines scientific evidence about the impacts
and best practices in sub-Saharan Africa: Part 1: and benefits of whale and dolphin watching. Marine
Synthesis and Part 2: Case studies (2010) describes ecotourism (2007) is a book that examines the wide
innovative and successful interventions that are range of marine ecotourism resources and considers
making the most effective progress in terms of the vital role of marine ecotourism in raising
sustainable tourism. The case studies include the awareness of the significance of the seas and oceans
wildlife conservancy program in Namibia, hiking to sustainable coastal livelihoods. The book considers
tourism on Mount Kilimanjaro in Tanzania, and the the role of stakeholders and discusses regulation and
safari operators &Beyond and Wilderness Safaris. collaboration within the sector. Marine wildlife and
The report presents the methods, models, and tourism management (2007) is a book that aims to
mechanisms used to leverage tourism for poverty demonstrate that, through scientific approaches to
alleviation, employment generation, and enterprise understanding and managing tourist interactions
development in conjunction with the conservation with marine wildlife, sustainable marine tourism can
of the environment and cultural heritage. be achieved. It considers the demand for marine
wildlife tourism, the impacts of interactions with
• North America: Ecotourism case studies in the marine wildlife, the ethical and legislative context, and
25
Tools andResources
tourism management. The Encyclopedia of tourism

and recreation in marine environments (2008) brings
4.2 Enabling Policy
together the terms, concepts, and theories related to Environment and Planning
recreational and tourism activities in marine settings
as a reference guide. Coral reefs: Tourism, conservation Governments, and their enabling policy and planning
and management (2018) takes a multidisciplinary frameworks, provide the context for NBT to take
approach, including coral reef science, management, place. These frameworks are critically important in
establishing the conditions for tourism, including zoning,
conservation, and tourism perspectives. It provides a
infrastructure, and the involvement of local communities.
global perspective of coral reef tourism issues covering
Laws and regulations can be used to regulate the sector,
many of the world’s most significant reef destinations.
provide direction on benefit sharing, and safeguard
Specific issues addressed include climate change, natural resources, and to fund biodiversity conservation
pollution threats, fishing, island tourism, scuba and the management of PAs.23 Planning for NBT needs
diving, marine wildlife, governance, sustainability, to address elements of rural development and local
conservation, and community resilience. economic development within destinations. When done
well, it can provide a road map for local employment
• Forest areas: Rainforest tourism, conservation and creation, opportunities for local producers and service
management (2017) includes four sections, namely, providers, and for the local ownership and management of
rainforest ecology and management, people, tourism enterprises. Such planning needs to be embedded within
opportunities for tourism development, and threats any broader process of planning of a destination where
to rainforests. Forest tourism and recreation (1999) this exists.24
presents case studies from national parks, peri-urban
forestry, and wilderness management, as well as UNWTO Recommendations on tourism and rural
practitioner-oriented contributions. These illustrate development (2020) aims to support governments
key issues and challenges and potential strategies and at various levels, as well as the private sector and the
solutions. international community, to develop tourism in rural
territories in a way that contributes to inclusive, sustainable,
Box 1: Best practice guidance for snorkeling and resilient development. Such development will ensure
the fair distribution of tourism’s benefits, enhance job
creation, protect natural resources and cultural heritage,
promote social inclusion, and empower local communities
and traditionally disadvantaged groups.
The strategic value of tourism for parks and PA management

responses to planning cycles and growing demands was
the subject of the World Protected Areas Leaders’ Forum
in Australia in 2019. In Getting priorities right for tourism
and protected areas (2019), almost all agencies present
• Good environmental practice: Snorkeling: A reported managing increased visitation at popular
practical advisory note provides guidance for sites and during peak periods, with many reporting
managing snorkeling activities around coral
overcrowding (or overtourism) as a significant challenge.
reefs for tourists and operators.
The agencies believed that this appeared to be, in part,
• The Comision Nacionale Para el Conocimiento related to the rise of social media. Due to the pressures
y Uso de la Biodiversidad (CONABIO) produces of large numbers of visitors to natural areas and visitor
guidance on good snorkeling practices within sites, many agencies are now looking to better balance
its PAs, such as guides for Huatulco and Cabo
their primary role of conservation with the demands and
Pulmo National Parks in Mexico (2016).
26
challenges of tourism and increased visitation. They have recommends that tourism planning in these sites needs to
a need for stronger legal and institutional frameworks to be extended, ideally under a unified framework that allows
establish more coherent and coordinated approaches. some consistency across areas in terms of indicators and
methods. A report on the Impact of tourism on wildlife
Policy Frameworks conservation (2013) aims to support Supreme Audit
Institutions, which can influence governments to make
There are several examples of analyses of policy and management decisions for protecting and conserving
planning contexts for NBT that can be found. Protected wildlife environments. The report provides information on
area regulation and tourism (2022) is a book that wildlife tourism, regulations and international agreements,
provides a review of global conservation and sustainable good practices, and audits related to tourism and wildlife.
development conventions, treaties, and policies and
considers their implications for impacts on management Resources relating to the policy environment for NBT
and regulation. The volume includes descriptions of include the UN Development Programme’s (UNDP)
the regulatory and concession regimes for tourism Tourism concessions in protected natural areas: Guidelines
globally, with detailed case study examples from New for managers (2014), which provides useful guidance
Zealand, Tasmania, and Hawaii. The book proposes a on the enabling environment, including templates for
new conceptual framework, called the Spectra for the policies, laws, and regulations. Books that include chapters
Ecological Regulation of Protected Areas and Tourism relating to policy for NBT include Ecotourism: Principles
(SERPAT). The framework aims to integrate the ecological and practices (2008), The Routledge handbook of
and tourism aspects of protected area regulation, assisting tourism and the environment (2017), and Nature tourism,
decision makers to develop contextually effective laws and conservation, and development in KwaZulu-Natal, South
management plans that avoid over-regulating or under- Africa (2003). For an overview of policy tools, the Baseline
regulating tourism, given the areas’ ecological profiles. report on the integration of sustainable consumption and
production patterns into tourism policies (2019) describes
Tourism planning in natural World Heritage Sites (2017) the types of policy instruments that can be applied during
is a research report that analyzes the level of tourism different phases of tourism development, and which are
planning at 229 natural and mixed World Heritage Sites. It applicable to NBT (see Table 5).
27
Tools andResources
Table 5: Examples of sustainable consumption and production policy instruments in use in tourism destinations at
different stages of the tourism product life cycle25
Types of policy
Phases of tourism life cycle
instrument
Manufacturing Provision of
Extraction of Use and
and production sustainable products,
natural resources consumption
processes services, and works
Regulatory and legal • Regulation of access • Regulations • Regulations • Regulations on

instruments and activities in on water and regarding visitor management
vulnerable areas, energy efficient construction and capacity
cultural and natural technologies, materials and
heritage sites reuse and recycling environmental
of water, use of standards of
renewable energy products
Economic and fiscal • Fees for national • Grants, soft loans, • Funding schemes for • Tourism tax
instruments parks and natural or tax credits for sustainable business earmarked for
reserves, and PAs for investments in development environmental
nature conservation eco-technologies action (e.g., beach
as well as for other (water, energy, etc.) cleaning, waste
attractions and the reduction of infrastructure,
emissions awareness raising)
Communication and • PPPs for sustainable • Corporate social • Certification • Available
voluntary instruments tourism and responsibility in the schemes and information on
networks involving tourism sector guidelines for sustainability
local communities responsible issues and codes of
operations conduct
Considering more challenging conditions for NBT, approaches to zoning for visitation by tourists and
Conservation, land conflicts, and sustainable tourism in researchers. It focuses on the application of strategic
Southern Africa (2022) is a collection of papers that address conservation actions with the use of conditions,
equity, access, restitution, and redistribution. Tackling these indicators, standards, and corresponding preventative
politically sensitive and emotive issues, the contributing and corrective management actions. The article
authors examine the extent to which land reform processes proposes technology and methodology that are more
in different African countries have impacted community-
appropriate for the technical capacity of developing
based tourism. Case studies from Botswana, Namibia,
countries, with illustration in Costa Rica’s Monteverde
South Africa, and Zimbabwe are shared to elaborate these
Cloud Forest Reserve.
issues, including conflicts relating to post-restitution land
rights agreement at Phinda Private Game Reserve in South • The international handbook on ecotourism (2013)
Africa and the dominance of foreign-owned multinational
includes the chapter Ecotourism: planning for rural
companies in tourism concessions of Botswana,
development in developing nations,26 which outlines
sustainable tourism planning processes for NBT. On
International Planning Guidance destination-level planning, it provides guidance on
participatory planning approaches, establishing the
A number of resources provide guidance on planning for right conditions for ecotourism, and using criteria
NBT that can be used in a range of countries. For example: for sustainability. For enterprise planning, the paper
describes options for local economic benefits through
• Condition-based protected area zoning tie to partnerships, employment and training, procurement,
conservation planning and targets (2021) updates and corporate social responsibility.
28
• Sustainable coastal tourism – an integrated planning outlines the business planning process for ecotourism
and management approach (2009) explains how the in order to promote viable business partnerships with
tourism sector can coordinate effectively in the overall communities or private tourism operators. It includes
development of coastal zones and contribute to the sections on zoning PAs for visitor use, site planning,
long-term sustainability of these areas. The report is sustainable infrastructure design, revenue-generating
practical and easy to use and provides an introduction mechanisms, and visitor impact monitoring. It also
to the key tools to be used at different stages of the includes strategies including business considerations,
planning process. the role of conservation managers, developing
• Ecotourism program planning (2002) is a book that partnerships with tour operators, feasibility analysis,
describes the relationship between tour operators and business planning.
and tourists and how service providers can effectively • The Conservation Travel Readiness Scorecard
plan and implement their ideas. The book includes (undated) is a spreadsheet-based model from World
guidance on integrated ecotourism program planning Wildlife Fund (WWF) that can help in the analysis
including design, implementation, and evaluation. of supporting policies for NBT. The scorecard helps
• Ecotourism development: A manual for conservation countries rate their existing capacity to harness
planners and managers; Volume II: The business of tourism as an incentive for community-based
ecotourism development and management (2004) conservation (see illustration in Figure 3).
Figure 3: WWF’s Conservation Travel Readiness Scorecard
Conservation Tourism Conservation

Value & Policy
Readiness
1 Readiness 2 Travel
Potential
3 WWF Country
Readiness 4
TOURISM
Stewardship Rights Business Climate
READINESS Programmatic Fit
Natural Attractions
Natural Resource Destination Marketing Capacity

Market Demand
Management
Government Commitment Commitment
Safety & Security
Priority Region or
Species Infrastructure Partners
WWF Goal Alignment Tourism Training Resources
Regional and National Planning Examining 13 good practice cases and snapshots, the
resource examines only non-consumptive forms of
wildlife tourism (no hunting, fishing, or collection) and
Certain regional and international tools have also been concentrates on viewing wildlife, both terrestrial and
developed. Regional tools include the following:
marine, in the wild.
• Asia and the Pacific: Sustainable development of • Europe: Transboundary ecotourism guidelines for
wildlife tourism in Asia and the Pacific (2020) aims to the Sava River Basin (2013) addresses transboundary
highlight the positive impacts that are a result of the tourism master planning and the management
implementation of sustainable policies and practices of wetlands, sustainable economic development,
within the wildlife tourism sector in Asia and the Pacific. stakeholder involvement and participation, and
29
conserving and enhancing biodiversity. The For materials from specific countries, the following tools
guidelines incorporate three considerations for and examples can be useful:
ecotourism development: 1) a shared goal for
protecting the environment and encouraging • Jordan: The Experiential tourism toolkit (undated) is
sustainable development; 2) a desire to create a intended to be functional and usable for any tourism-
green economy offering green jobs to generate related party interested in identifying and marketing
economic growth; and 3) transboundary local and remote experiences. It provides a series
cooperation. A series of transboundary tourism of practical tools on identifying local tourism hosts,
case studies are shared. conducting training, initial visit assessments, testing
experiences, and lessons learned.
Box 2: Case study example: Transboundary • Namibia: The National policy on tourism and wildlife
ecotourism in the Kangchenjunga Landscape: concessions on state land (2007) provides a practical
Opportunities for sustainable development example of a national policy for outsourcing tourism
through regional cooperation 2019 to non-state actors in the country (e.g., conservancies
and the private sector).
• South Africa: The South African tourism planning

toolkit for local government (2010) supports tourism
planning at a local level. The toolkit outlines a
framework for conducting basic tourism planning at
the local government level with a series of practical
tools to evaluate market demand, economic impact,
and community involvement in order to guide
decision making.
• Tanzania: Tanzania’s tourism futures: Harnessing

natural assets (2015) is a World Bank analysis of a
national tourism sector. It presents challenges and
opportunities for linking tourism and rural economies
and the economic consequences of concentrated
tourism. Recommendations to governments are
provided to maintain and enhance high-value, low-
density tourism, including diversification of the
tourism product. Case study examples of tourism in
the Serengeti ecosystem and Ruaha National Park are
This paper describes work done by the International
used as illustrations. This provides a good example of
Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD)
a diagnostic study of NBT, making the case for future
to assist mountain people in evaluating the potential for
interventions.
transboundary ecotourism between Bhutan, India, and
Nepal. The report reviews options to promote inclusive
growth, strengthen connectivity, and establish PPPs in
the region.
30
market, capability, or expertise. Methods of outsourcing

Box 3: Case study example: Assessment of natural can include concessions, PPPs, leases, licenses, and permits.
resources for nature-based tourism: the case of Deciding whether to insource or outsource depends upon
the Central Coast Region of Western Australia27 current government policy and the capabilities of the PA
(2001) authority in regard to business operations (see Figure 4).29
International Guidance
Forging links between protected areas and the tourism
sector: How tourism can benefit conservation (2005) is a
manual meant to provide practical guidance to managers
of World Heritage Sites and other PAs on better ways of
understanding the tourism industry. It shares effective
step-by-step methods that can be used by PA managers to
develop links with tourism to promote conservation and
site protection. The manual also describes what can be
realistically expected from the tourism industry in terms of
Resources for development of a nature-based support for conservation.
tourism industry were identified and assessed in
the Central Coast region of Western Australia. An The World Bank Group’s An introduction to tourism
assessment framework was developed that used concessioning: 14 Characteristics of successful programs
checklists, matrices, and indicators to establish levels (2016) can be used during the conceptualization of an
of attraction, accessibility, presence of infrastructure, outsourcing program to provide the right conditions for
and environmental degradation. Data was gathered, effectiveness. It describes the importance of key elements
using a checklist approach, to quantify characteristics including conservation of the natural resource base and
of sites. The assessment revealed that the attraction sustainability, community participation and stakeholder
diversity in the region was high, but there was poor engagement, the enabling policy environment and
accessibility, low levels of tourism infrastructure, and concession models, procurement procedures, market
moderate levels of environmental degradation. viability, and management of risk. Other World Bank
tools that have been developed include the International
Finance Corporation (IFC) Anchor Investment Generation
4.3 Concessions and

Manual.30 The manual was developed following
investment facilitation work by IFC in Mozambique and
Partnership Models Sierra Leone. Furthermore, there is a spreadsheet-based

model that has been developed for authorities and
Nature-based tourism often takes place in PAs. The investors to predict commercial viability and the Internal
authorities need to consider the level of NBT services that Rate of Return of investments over concession periods.
are provided, the method of delivery of the service, the During the development of the CBD concession guidelines,
financing for each service, and whether they are insourced training was provided to PA managers on how to use this
or outsourced. With insourcing, PA authority staff both tool, and it became clear that it would be valuable to
deliver and finance the service, functioning like a business others, if made more widely available.31 Subsequently, the
to provide visitor services. For outsourcing, the PA contracts World Bank produced a report on Stimulating sustainable
a third party to deliver a service. Transferring rights to use development through tourism concessions (2019), which
land to other organizations can relieve public agencies presents a series of case studies from Africa, Asia, and
from resource constraints of budget, knowledge of the the Americas and describes enabling conditions needed
31
Tools andResources
Figure 4: Deciding whether to insource or outsource 28
Insource:
Yes PA authority develops tourism
Question 1: Does the PA authority infrastructure itself
have money and personnel to develop
tourism infrastructure?
Outsource: Concession:
No PA authority looks for a partner Seek a partner to invest,
for development develop, and operate facility
Insource:
Yes PA authority manages the
Question 2: Does the PA have tourism services iteself
existing infrastructure and the
mandate/skills/personnel to manage Lease:
and maintain it? Outsource: Contract to outside
No PA authority looks for a operator for use of facilities/
management partner land for a specified period
Insource:
Yes PA authority offers trips and
Question 3: Does the PA want to offer
tours itself
public services, and have mandate/
License:
skills/personnel to do so? Outsource: Contract to outside operator
No PA authority looks for partners for use of facilities/land for a
to offer trips and tours specified period
Permit:
Access provided for a short
time to access the area
for tourism to benefit the environment and communities manuals, and training resources. These guidelines are
that live around protected areas. The report also shares currently available in English, French, Portuguese and
12 action steps to develop nature-based tourism that Spanish. Based on this process, A decision framework on
supports local communities, and also lessons learned from the choice of management models for park and protected
across the examples explored. area tourism services (2019) provides information that can
assist protected area managers in the decision structure
The CBD’s Guidelines for tourism partnerships and for the choice of and implementation of the various
concessions for protected areas (2017) were developed management approaches for the provision of tourism
through a consultative process with PA managers and services in protected areas.
tourism stakeholders. Guidance provided on partnership
types, sources of financing, legal frameworks, and UNDP’s Tourism concessions in protected natural areas:
sustainability is followed by a step-by-step guide Guidelines for managers (2014) provides useful materials
through scoping, design and feasibility, procurement for the design and operation of concession programs. These
and contracting, and contract management. A series of include templates (e.g., for policies, laws, and regulations);
links to other resources is also shared, including country- checklists (e.g., for human resource requirements), and
specific tools used in Africa, such as concession policies, case study examples from across the world (e.g., revenues
32
generated and fees charged). The guidelines make of such partnerships. It raises awareness on the role of
linkages with safeguarding conservation interests and these partnerships in reducing the massive protected
forging business linkages with local communities through area funding gap, catalyzing rural development, and
concessions. supporting job creation. With a heavy emphasis on nature-
based tourism, concessions, and PPPs, the toolkit includes
Considering concessions at a protected-area level, the a resource guide, nine case studies (such as the Makuleke
Collaborative management partnership toolkit (2021) contractual Park in South Africa), and story maps.
launched by the Global Wildlife Program is a resource
guide to support the identification and establishment
Box 4: Case studies on joint ventures and partnerships in conservation areas
Tourism and protected areas: Partnerships in principle and practice (2001) shares a selection of successful partnerships
between commercial tourism and PA managers, with both public and private sector involvement. It identifies the
advantages of expanding such partnerships and the factors that contribute to their success.
Private sector tourism in conservation areas in Africa (2019) includes a series of case studies including on Anvil Bay and
Ndzou camp in Mozambique, Damaraland Camp and Doro Nawas Camp in Namibia, and Witsieshoek Mountain Lodge
and !Xaus Lodge in South Africa.
Joint ventures between communities and tourism investors: experience in southern Africa (2001) reviews experience from
eight joint-venture processes in Namibia within the wider regional context, to identify some key principles and challenges,
such as their high transaction costs.
Damaraland Camp in Namibia is a joint-venture partnership between the Torra Conservancy and the safari company
Wilderness Safaris. The camp is the subject of a case study that explores the venture from an inclusive business approach:
Creating luxury ecotourism with the local community (2014).
Phinda Private Game Reserve represents a transitional partnership model in which the private sector partner continues
to operate, manage, and market the reserve and its lodges, although a portion of the land and asset ownership has been
transferred to the community. The arrangements are described in the paper Strong community partnership through long
term leasing (2014).
33
Tools andResources
Regional and National Guidance stages, with case studies from Argentina and Chile.
Concessioning tools developed for applications in specific • Europe: Sustainable tourism in protected areas: Guide
regions or countries for use by PA authorities and the for tourist companies (2019) is targeted at companies
private sector include the following: operating in PAs managed by Metsähallitus Parks &
Wildlife Finland. It aims to ensure there are uniform
• Southern Africa: Tourism concession guidelines for practices supporting sustainable tourism, mutually
transfrontier conservation areas in the Southern African beneficial and consistent interactions, and high-
Development Community (SADC) (2014) provides a quality marketing and communication.
step-by-step process of development of concessions Tools for evaluating the financial viability of concessioning
in PAs shared by two or more countries. Concession programs are particularly important for both the public
guidelines, policies and procedures, and contract and private sector. The South African National Treasury’s
manuals have been produced for PA authorities in Public-private partnership manual (2005) includes a
Lesotho, Malawi, Mozambique, Namibia, Rwanda, module on managing the tourism PPP agreement, with
South Africa, Swaziland, and Tanzania. Tourism tools for value assessment and economic valuation. This
concessions in protected areas in Mozambique: has been applied to tourism concession processes in the
Manual for operators and concessionaires (2012) country’s national parks and reserves.
provides guidance on the different concession models
and processes available in Mozambique to help them A number of case study examples of concessioning are
work with PA authorities. embedded within the guidelines prepared by the World
• North America: Commercial services guide: National Bank Group, CBD, and UNDP, while further examples can be
Parks Service commercial services program (2018) is found for Latin America, (see Box 6 below) Mozambique,
a detailed step-by-step guide through the design, and New Zealand. For example, the paper Rethinking
procurement, contracting, operation, and monitoring tourism and its contribution to conservation in New
of outsourced services in the United States. Zealand (2017) reviews the impacts of tourism concessions
on the country’s natural capital. It reviews the challenge
• South America: Best practices on tourism concessions of saving threatened species, PA budgets, regulatory
in protected areas from Latin America (2010) presents options for sustainable tourism, and best practices, with
a review of tourism concession components and recommendations for improvement.
34
Box 5: Case study: Best practices on tourism concessions in protected areas from Latin America32 :
Chile (2010)
Chile launched a concession program in Patagonian parks in 2003 and the Atacama region in 2007. Seven
parks were opened to concession operations in Patagonia in 2003/2004. Bidders were provided with a list of
permitted ecotourism activities, including fishing, skiing, skating, hiking or trekking, photographic safaris,
cycling, caving, scuba diving, canoeing, canyoning and river kayaking, hotels and lodges of all classes, and
restaurants including small kiosks. The criteria for judging the suitability of the proposals were as follows:
• Compatibility with the management plan
• Capability to satisfy the demand for ecotourism activities with environmental education, while meeting the
norms in the management plan
• Presentation of a variety of distinct ecotourism options that meet different niche market needs and also
serve those who have reduced mobility or are of an older age
• Development of a project with the highest possible involvement of local communities, including indigenous
and non-indigenous peoples, via direct employment and associated services via contract, including
providers of local arts and crafts
• The environmental viability of the project after the completion of an Environmental Impact Statement
35
Tools andResources
4.4 Destination Management (2022) aims to address the challenges and opportunities
that destination managers face at all stages of tourism
A tourism destination is a geographical area consisting of development. Written primarily to guide destinations that
all the services and infrastructure necessary for the stay do not have broad tourism management experience, it is
of a tourist or for a tourism segment, such as NBT. The intended to be practical; covering the theory of destination
ability of a destination to manage tourism depends on the management, but above all empowering practitioners
implementation of effective management strategies, the to select tools and implement approaches that suit their
scale of demand for visits to the site, the staff and resources circumstances. A series of NBT case study examples are
available for the management of tourism, and the legal included. Tourism destination management: Achieving
and political environment covering nature protection in sustainable and competitive results (undated) is a resource
the countries in which they are located. An example of that helps destinations put in place strategies and programs
a destination approach in Mozambique under a series of that will best tell their unique story and become an inviting
World Bank projects is described in Box 6. host for visitors, no matter what the purpose of their
journey. The tool includes guidance on creating tourism
Destination management handbook: A guide to the inventories, creating clusters, development of destination
planning and implementation of destination management management organizations, visitor information, and
Box 6: Case study: Conservation and development in Mozambique: Lessons from the transfrontier
conservation areas program and new perspectives for the MozBio Program (2015)
This case study provides an overview of process of sequential World Bank projects on conservation and
tourism that have taken place over 15 years in 18 protected areas in Mozambique. The case study includes a
description of the context, pillars of activities, impacts, and lessons learned.
Economic
Landscape Innovative Legal Engaging
Growth and Rural
Approach Partnerships Frameworks Communities
Development
The sustainable The achievement of Innovative partnerships Legal frameworks and The conservation
management of long-term sustainable are promising well-funded local and of natural resources
resources and biodiversity use of natural governance models national institutions and biodiversity are
conservation have resources requires a for the sustainable and with clear mandates are closely linked to the
significant potential to landscape approach long-term management needed to advance the well-being of local
contribute to economic that promotes linkages of Conservation conservation agenda, communities and vice-
growth and rural between different Areas (CAs). These ensure long-term versa. The sustainable
development. Nature- types of land uses and include partnerships funding, and achieve management of
based tourism, sustainable between land actors between national and national conservation CAs should focus on
forest and fisheries, and creates institutional local governments, goals. providing economic
wildlife management, arrangements to private sector, NGOs, alternatives, clarifying
and payment for promote coordination. and communities communities’ land
ecosystem services can around natural assets rights on areas adjacent
generate income for tourism and wildlife to CAs, and offering
rural communities and management entities. incentives for better
contribute to the national management of
economy. resources.
36
online presence. The guide provides a series of NBT concepts that aim to optimize tourism development in
destinations as examples, in addition to other types of an effort to protect natural and socio-cultural resources
destination. Destinations at risk: The invisible burden of and improve the welfare of local people, while enhancing
tourism (2019) describes how destinations need to identify monetary gains and market access. It includes guidance
and account for tourism’s hidden costs. It identifies the on involving local stakeholders, inventories of attractions,
types of destinations that are most vulnerable (see Box 8). infrastructure and services, market demand analysis,
Although not specific to NBT, it provides guidance on how supply and competitiveness, and establishing human
to protect our ecosystems from the environmental impacts and institutional capacity. The toolkit also supports
of tourism. Linking communities, tourism & conservation: environmental, socioeconomic and cultural evaluations,
A tourism assessment process (2005) is a toolkit to and cost benefit analysis. The materials include a series of
help field practitioners to perform a rapid assessment template questionnaires and guiding questions.
and analysis of tourism potential in a destination. The
guidelines and tools provided incorporate sustainability
Box 7: Typology of vulnerable destinations35
A high risk of climate change impacts A fast-growing middle class

which would disproportionately affect a visitor which is driving tourism growth at unsustainable
economy – for instance, island states levels – for instance, in Southeast Asia
High economic dependence on tourism Local government with low capacity to

for instance, in the Caribbean manage tourism development
in terms of budgets and human capital – a
problem that has been found in both advanced
and emerging economies
37
Tools andResources
Guidance for Different Types of Natural Assets

Destination management resources that relate to types of natural assets specifically include:
Protected Areas
The paper Tourism and protected areas (2016) presents a synthesis of the body of work shared at the IUCN’s World Parks
Congresses in 2003 and 2014, including some of the cutting-edge issues, best practices, and inspiring initiatives relating to
sustainable tourism. Looking forward to the following decade, the paper reflects on specific challenges, gaps in knowledge,
and areas for further research and outreach. World Heritage Sites: Tourism, local communities and conservation activities
(2018) provides global case studies relating to economic, sociocultural, and environmental impacts of 1,000 cultural and
natural heritage sites. The Geoheritage tool-kit (undated) is a method, or series of steps, that has been developed to
enable geoheritage practitioners to systematically identify and categorize geological features significance at all scales
and assess their level of significance for science and education. The Geopark tourism tookit for geopark managers (2018)
is designed to help audit the tourist offering and to help compile information to support informed dialogue with other
tourism providers and develop marketing information.
38
Wetlands
Destination wetlands: Supporting sustainable tourism (2012) provides guidance on the associated opportunities and
challenges of managing tourism in and around wetlands, working with the tourism sector, and planning and policies for
wetlands and tourism. The report also shares 14 case studies of wetland tourism from across the world.
Mountains
For alpine areas in Europe, the Background paper on sustainable mountain tourism (2014) covers relevant policies and
responsibilities of institutions, the concept of sustainable tourism in mountains, results of a survey on the topic in 10
countries, and key issues to guide such discussion in the future.
39
Tools andResources
Coastal and Marine Areas
Understanding tropical coastal and island tourism development (2014) provides both case studies and theoretical insights
applicable to the tourism development challenges of tropical coastal and island destinations throughout the world. Topics
include the shortcomings of NBT in Madagascar and successful multi-stakeholder partnerships on Indonesian resort
islands. Nature-based marine tourism in the Coral Triangle: Exploring the potential for low-impact, high-value nature-
based marine and coastal tourism (2015) explains the basis for an NBT project in this region. It describes global and
regional trends in tourism and NBT and the participating countries (i.e., Timor-Leste, Solomon Islands, Papua New Guinea,
Philippines, Indonesia, and Malaysia) and lessons learned from other tourism destination models. The Mediterranean
experience of ecotourism manual: A guide to discover the MEET approach (2016) is a guide to encourage and engage
sustainable local business initiatives around the Mediterranean sea that contribute to PA conservation in the creation
of an ecotourism product. The first part of the guide relates to developing the ecotourism product and the second part
relates to incorporating elements of sustainability.
40
Regional and National Guidance

Resources from destinations in different parts of the world include the following:
Africa
The success of tourism in Rwanda: Gorillas and more (2011), published within the World Bank’s book Yes Africa can (2011),
is a case study that illustrates how Rwanda has established and managed gorilla tourism in the Volcanoes National Park to
provide benefits for communities and for conservation, within the broader context of the country as a whole.
41
Tools andResources
Australia
The Best practice model for low-impact nature-based sustainable tourism facilities in remote areas (2005) aims to establish
an independently verifiable “best practice” assessment system and sustainability criteria for low-impact, nature-based
facilities. It provides a series of case studies on low-impact facilities throughout Australia with the intention of assessing
the implementation of guiding principles and to apply the assessment criteria to such facilities.
Antarctica and the Arctic
Tourism in the polar regions: The sustainability challenge (2007) explains the trends and impacts, proposes an agenda
for sustainable tourism development and outlines principles, guidelines, and selected good practices to conserve these
unique wilderness areas through the regulation and management of tourism. Arctic tourism experiences (2017) focuses
on tourist experiences (e.g., marine adventures, fishing, whale watching, trails, viewing the northern lights) and industry
provision of those experiences.
42
4.5Infrastructure and engineers, it contains illustrative guidelines that help

provide deeper insights into the planning, design,
Facilities and construction processes. Ecolodge planning,
design, and operation handbook (2008) provides
Infrastructure to support NBT can be used to provide comprehensive guidance for the development
accommodation (e.g., lodges, campsites, cabins), support of accommodation looking to embrace a more
access (e.g., roads, hiking trails, boardwalks, bridges, socially and environmentally responsible tourism
signage), enhance the experience (e.g., cliff and treetop business model in Egypt. It includes information
walks, mooring points, viewpoints, visitor centers), about physical areas and standards, corporate policy,
and provide support services (e.g., retail and catering local stakeholder participation, business planning,
facilities).36 physical design, engineering, materials, construction
techniques and procedures, conservation (of energy,
water) and waste management, visitor experience,
Accommodation conservation contributions, and monitoring and
There is a great deal of practical guidance available for evaluation.
planners and investors on sustainable NBT accommodation
Country-specific resources include Guidelines for
(or ecolodges). These include:
developing ecolodges in Myanmar (2017), which describe
• Biodiversity-friendly development: Ecolodges: the planning, design, environmental impact assessment,
Exploring opportunities for sustainable business (2004) construction, and operation of an ecolodge in protected
provides background on the ecolodge marketplace and natural areas. These guidelines address community
(including what tourists are looking for), the business involvement and associated costs of developing in remote
case and financial viability issues, and an overview of areas. Also, Designing and operating an ecolodge in the
the potential positive and negative impacts on the Lao PDR (2005) is written for investors and managers,
environment and local communities. The book also including site selection, use of local building materials,
provides baseline indicators for biodiversity impact accommodation, restaurants, construction advice, interior
and a series of case studies from Kenya, Costa Rica, Fiji, decoration, landscaping, safety and hygiene, staffing,
and Peru. The International ecolodge guidelines (2002) marketing and promotion, examples of bad design, and
contain guidance on site selection, planning and sample architectural drawings.
design of ecolodges, including site evaluations and
selection, physical analysis, master site planning, site
design, and planting design. Building and operating
Visitor Infrastructure and Facilities
biodiversity-friendly hotels (2012) provides guidance Guidance is also available to help natural destinations to
around five key principles for siting and design, and develop supporting visitor infrastructure and facilities.
suggestions for how to integrate biodiversity into This includes:
hotel and resort operations. The principles relate to
an ecosystem approach to development planning, • Visitor centers and interpretation material: Park
managing impacts of hotel developments, designing design guidelines and data (2012) aims to help British
with nature, respecting and supporting local Columbia Parks staff to provide sustainable and
communities, and collaborating with stakeholders. appropriate park recreation facilities, with designs
The guide also provides a series of case studies from that have the least visible impact. They cover park
across the world to illustrate the principless. entrances, roads, parking, day-use areas, camping
areas, trails, signage, infrastructure, and landscaping.
• Accommodation in deserts: Planning, design and The Association of Ecotourism in Romania shares
construction guidelines for desert ecolodges (2011) examples of interpretation materials and visitor
is a manual designed for Saudi Arabia. Intended centers for PAs.
for investors, developers, design professionals, and
43
Tools andResources
• Trail development: Recreational trail planning, climate, equipment, and costs. Similarly, for PAs in
design and management guidelines (2020) is a toolkit British Columbia, Canada, there are Guidelines and
for planning and delivering exceptional sustainable best practices for planning, design and development
trail experiences – either through the creation of of summer off-highway vehicle tracks (2012). The
new trails but also improving and enriching existing Accessibility guidebook for outdoor recreation and
trails. The guidelines provide examples from Australia, trails (2006) shares detailed design and planning
Papua New Guinea, and New Zealand. The Guidelines guidelines to improve access to PA tourism offerings.
for trail planning, design and management (2015)
• Active transportation: The United States National
have been developed for use in Australia. The
Park Service active transportation guidebook (2018)
guidelines can be applied in other destinations, and
aims to help develop opportunities that enhance
include tools for planning trail concepts, evaluating
active transportation in parks. The guidebook’s topics
feasibility, standards, branding, community
include planning and developing infrastructure, such
engagement, interpretation, orientation and safety,
as pedestrian pathways and bike lanes, evaluating
and conditions for success. Track construction and
and improving safety for active transportation modes,
maintenance guidelines (2008) discusses ways
and offering activities and programs that allow park
to manage the construction and maintenance of
visitors to explore by foot, bicycle, or other non-
tracks. Developed for application in New Zealand’s
motorized means.
PAs, it covers a number of principles but recognizes
that implementation depends upon local materials,
Box 8: Case study: Improving trails and visitor experiences in Peaks National Park, St Helena Island (2020)
The Peaks National Park is home to the last remaining fragments of endemic cloud forest habitat on St Helena Island.
It is a premier hiking destination for locals and tourists, but as tourism numbers increased so did the impacts on the
national park. Foot traffic was eroding the trails, the trails were becoming unsafe, and it was beginning to affect the
surrounding habitat. This case study explains how wooden boardwalks, staircases, handrails, and a hiking shelter
were constructed to improve access, safety, and reduce visitor impacts.
44
Figure 5: Active transportation in US national parks37 the tourism industry, tourism revenue and charges,
marketing, and visitor impact management tools (e.g.,
Limits of Acceptable Change, Visitor Impact Management,
Recreation Opportunity Spectrum). It also challenges the
concept of carrying capacity. Tourism and protected area
management: Sustaining resources (2008) is a collection
of technical reports from Australia on visitor management.
The papers provide an understanding of changing
trends and visitor preference, the role of communication
in shaping and enhancing visitor satisfaction, and the
potential of commercial partnerships in achieving park
management goals and satisfying visitor experiences.
Determinants of tourism attractiveness in the national
parks of Brazil (2015) explores the relative importance of
park characteristics on visitor numbers.
Visitor Management Tools

Visitor management tools that can be used by destination
managers (including PA managers) to plan NBT sustainably
include:
• The Visitor use management framework (2016) is

a planning tool that can be incorporated into PA
authority planning and decision making processes. It
describes the development of the approach, desired
4.6 Visitor Management visitor conditions to be achieved, management

strategies to achieve them, and monitoring and
Visitor management is the process of tracking visitor use at evaluation. This is complemented with the Visitor
a destination. There are a number of tools and techniques capacity guidebook (2019), which helps PA managers
for aligning the objectives of NBT destination values (such to collaboratively develop long-term strategies to
as PAs) with planning and management responses to avoid manage the amounts and types of visitor use to
or mitigate negative impacts from tourism. An overview of achieve desired conditions and improve access,
10 principles for tourism and visitor management in PAs connect visitors to key experiences, and protect
and actions is outlined in Table 6. resources. The step-by-step process is elaborated in
the Handbook for sustainable tourism practitioners:
Visitor management (2015) is a chapter in the book The essential toolbox (2021)’s chapters on the Visitor
Protected area governance and management (2015) use management framework.
that provides a comprehensive introduction to visitor
• For World Heritage Sites, UNESCO’s Visitor
management, supplemented with case study examples.
management assessment and strategy tool (VMAST)
This resource addresses types of visitors in different
(2022) helps to establish visitor management
categories of PAs (see Table 7 below and refer to Table
baselines and insights into how site management is
4 on IUCN Protected Area categories), management
achieving against sustainability indicators (including
considerations, sustainable tourism, types of tourism
the SDGs and Global Sustainable Tourism Council
operators, numbers and types of tourists, working with
(GSTC) criteria) and heritage values.
45
Tools andResources
Table 6: Ten principles of tourism and visitor management in protected areas38
Principles Actions
Appropriate management depends on objectives • Ensure management plans include clear appropriate objectives, with
and PA values conservation primary above all
• Establish and agree to objectives through public participation
Proactive planning for tourism and visitor • Provide opportunities for visitors to learn about PA values through
management enhances effectiveness information and programming
• Be cognizant of emerging visitor activity or use pattern that may have
management implications
Changing visitor use conditions are inevitable and • Use zoning explicitly to manage for diverse recreation opportunities
may be desirable • Use knowledge of diversity to make decisions on desirability of tourism
in specific locations
Impacts on resource and social conditions are • Managers must ask: “How much impact is acceptable based on PA
inevitable consequences of human use values and objectives?” Managers must act appropriately to manage
the acceptable level of impact
Management is directed at influencing human • Management actions determine what actions are most effective in
behavior and minimizing tourism-induced change influencing amount, type, and location of changes
Impacts can be influenced by many factors so • Education and information programs, as well as regulations aimed at
limiting the amount of use is but one of many restricting visitor behavior, may be necessary
management options
Monitoring is essential to professional • Enhance public engagement and visitor education by encouraging their
management involvement in monitoring
The decision making process should separate • Decision processes should separate questions of “existing conditions”
technical description from value judgements from “preferred conditions”
Affected groups should be engaged since • Rights-holders and stakeholders of PAs should be involved in identifying
consensus and partnership is needed for values of PAs and developing indicators
implementation
Communication is key to increased knowledge of • A communication strategy is needed to support a proactive or adaptive
and support for sustainability management process
46
Table 7: Indicative visitor uses in protected areas39
Type of visitor Type of visitor use IUCN Protected Area Categories
I II III IV V VI
Volunteers (officially Firefighters and search and rescue personnel      
recognized and
Historic site maintenance and restoration     
supported)
Walking track maintenance     
Introduced plant removal      
Fauna protection such as seasonal bird nesting site    
protection surveillance
Visitor service support such as volunteer campground    
wardens or guides
Researchers, such as those conducting a biodiversity      
assessment
Researchers (officially All aspects of natural heritage research including baseline      
permitted) condition measurement, trends in condition and ecosystem
processes, and social and cultural heritage research
Commercial users Nature-based filmmakers   
(officially permitted)
Visitor access services including pack animals, bicycle taxi,   
bus, aircraft, motor launch, snowmobile, and others
Tourists and Education-focused visitors     
recreationists
(sustainable use) Car-based sightseers, cycling, photography, painting    
Picnicking, walking, bushwalking, camping    
Nature study and cultural awareness   
Orienteering, cross-country running   
Use of official horse riding, mountain biking, four-wheel   

drive, and motorcycle routes
Sustainable use (such as management-approved hunting in 
private protected areas and fishing)
Approved non-powered flight hang gliding, paragliding,   
hot-air ballooning
Water-based activities, fishing, swimming, sunbaking,   
canoeing, boating, sailing, white-water rafting
Snow and ice-based skiers, snowboarders, ice climbers   
Mountaineering and caving    

Spiritual and cultural Formal access and protected areas for spiritual, ceremonial,      
users (officially and cultural reasons such as traditional access routes
endorsed and
supported)
Commemorative users Access to protected areas for commemorative purposes    
(officially endorsed and such as visitors returning to site of cultural significance
supported) within a protected area
47
Tools andResources
• The Mediterranean Experience of Ecotourism (MEET) • A guideline on Maximizing the value of birds and
Network has established the MEET manual (2019) as wildlife for tourism (2015) focuses on tourism
a guide to plan and promote ecotourism activities businesses in the Rift Valley/Red Sea Flyway, an
and measure impacts in Mediterranean Protected ecologically important bird migration area that
Areas. It describes how to establish and maintain extends through the Middle East to Africa. After an
a local ecotourism cluster, the basic components introduction on the relationship between tourism and
and development of an ecotourism product, conservation, the resource discusses how to enhance
monitoring, marketing, and general sustainability and the visitor experience and increase revenues by
conservation considerations. offering new experiences and attracting new tourist
segments. It also includes information on bird-friendly
• The Central Europe Eco-Tourism (CEETO) Manual
practices (including certification) and protecting the
of sustainable tourism governance for protected
destination from tourism impacts.
area managers (2020) provides basic information to
support protected area managers and practitioners • The Congestion management toolkit (2014) provides
so they can realize development and management a list of congestion mitigation solutions and tools to
of sustainable tourism, such as the development of address specific congestion problems and issues in
visitor management plans, stakeholder engagement, PAs, focusing on national parks in the United States.
communication and interpretation, socioeconomic It includes categories of tools and their evaluation,
benefits, certification (at destination and product implementation considerations, and cost and financial
level), visitor safety, and climate change. information, as well as examples of where the tools
have been used and expected outcomes based on
• Visitor management tools within the Handbook
previous applications.
for sustainable tourism practitioners: The essential
toolbox (2021) include chapters on Developing • Accessibility and inclusive tourism development in
targets for visitation in parks and Optimization of nature areas (2021) provides case studies and best
tourism development in destinations: an approach practices from Belgium, Costa Rica, Croatia, Spain, and
used to alleviate the impacts of overtourism in the the Republic of Korea to illustrate different ways of
Mediterranean region. improving accessibility in nature. It includes guidance
on how to identify accessible tourism products and
• The Visitor experience and resource protection (VERP)
services in natural areas, in order to enable tourists
framework: A handbook for planners and managers
who may be physically impaired, elderly, or families
(1997) is designed to provide guidance for those
with young children to travel to natural areas without
undertaking VERP planning.
harming natural environments.
48
NBT can provide ample opportunities for education initiated within destinations (e.g., design, timing,
and interpretation and for engaging people to learn pricing, marketing, monitoring and evaluation) and
about nature and develop positive attitudes towards outside destinations by international tour operators
conservation. The Interpretation handbook and standard (e.g., contracting local partners, supply chains,
(2005) is a procedural manual designed for New Zealand’s product lifecycle), and gives examples of good
Department of Conservation staff, concessionaires, and practice in developing NBT products and associated
volunteers. It provides best practice guidance about tour packages.
communicating clearly, planning interpretation, and
• Ecolodges: Exploring opportunities for sustainable
guided and self-guided techniques. Wildlife interpretation
business (2004) summarizes the findings of two
guidelines (2015) developed in Scotland aim to help tour
studies IFC commissioned. The first study examined
guides, countryside rangers, wildlife conservation staff,
the environmental footprint of ecolodges, while the
and volunteers, with examples of good practices. There
second study evaluated the current and projected
are also interpretation guidelines for specific types of
market demand for ecolodges and assessed their
wildlife tourism, such as Best practice and interpretation
financial viability. With these studies, IFC sought to
in tourism/wildlife encounters: A wild dolphin swim tour
determine whether the environmental impacts and
example (2004).
financial performance of ecolodges are sufficiently
positive to justify IFC’s investing in them as part of its
sustainable development mission.
Nature-Based Enterprise
4.7
• Examining the critical success factors of small
Development operators: Entry to the nature-based tourism sectors
(2006) focuses on the challenges individual businesses
A considerable number of resources are available to face and the type of support required from the early
entrepreneurs and businesses that wish to develop stages to actual business establishment.
commercial NBT enterprises. These include a broad range
of tools specifically designed for developers and investors • The Conservation marketing equation (2015) is a step-
to help establish or strengthen their NBT businesses, such by-step decision support tool with accompanying
as the following: worksheets that can be used to assist conservation
and development professionals in choosing business
• The Practical guide for the development of opportunities (products or services), that conserve
biodiversity-based tourism products (2010) provides biodiversity while reducing poverty for marginalized
a collection of tools and methodologies paired with rural people, such as NBT (see Figure 6).
step-by-step systems for local product developers and
tour operators. The guide considers tourism products
Figure 6: The conservation marketing equation40
1 2 3 4
Step 1: Step 2: Step 3: Step 4:
Select and define your Define product Define regulations/ Define institution/ Conservation
products and market(s) quality, quantity, certification enterprise and value Product
in relation to context Market
and price chain intermediaries
factors (conservation,
socio-economic, and
Readiness
cultural objectives, and
value chains)
49
Tools andResources
Financing Nature-Based Tourism Products

The table below provides an overview of potential sources of finance for NBT, including governments, banks, donors,
and investors. Types of finance include non-repayable grants, loans, equity, and combinations of financial products (or
blended finance).
Table 8: Sources of finance for nature-based tourism, and examples41
Source Principles Actions

Grant finance
Crowdfunding Using an internet-based platform to pitch a Crowdfunding platforms that are used for tourism include
business proposition to a great multiple of investors Indiegogo, Kickstarter, and Goteo. Crowdfunding was
who contribute funds in their individual capacities, used for financial relief during the COVID-19 pandemic,
but cumulatively as a crowd. Investments can be including with Gofundme (Chumbe Reef42), Crowdfunder
debt, equity, or rewards based. May not be available (Mara Noboisho43), JustGiving (Mahenye, Zimbabwe44
in all markets due to regulatory hurdles, and often and Randelin, Tanzania45), and Quicket (!Xaus46 and
small scale. Witsieshoek lodges)47.
Donors and A person or institution who gives assets to another Global Environment Facility (GEF) has a series of
philanthropists person or institution, either directly or through a grant instruments that can be used to finance tourism
trust (local or foreign aid assistance). infrastructure and technical assistance contributing to
conservation of globally significant biodiversity.
The GEF Small Grants Program are made directly to

community-based organizations (CBOs) and NGOs.
The grants have been used to support community-
based tourism and ecotourism, including for strategy
development, feasibility studies, training, establishing
business facilities, tourism infrastructure, and ecotourism
routes.
andBeyond and Singita are luxury lodge groups in

southern Africa that use donations from wealthy clients to
fund tourism facilities (including private lodges and villas)
and conservation.48
The National Geographic Society and Ashoka

Foundation have provided competitive grants for
geotourism projects over three years.49
Debt finance (loans)
Banks Offer debt finance and asset finance, generally at Millennium BIM Bank established a line of credit
moderate interest rates over short- to medium- for investors interested in nature-based tourism in
terms, and on the strength of a company’s balance Mozambique, particularly in and around conservation
sheet and track record, and secured by collateral. areas.51
Development and commercial banks in the country
of a tourism project are the most commonly used Wilderness Safaris raised a bilateral loan from Stanbic
vehicles for debt financing small- and mid-sized Bank Botswana to purchase an ecotourism company in
ventures.50 International development banks also Kenya.52
finance hotels and tourism companies.
The IFC has invested billions of dollars in 260 projects in
89 countries, including supporting tourism concessions in
protected areas in Mozambique and Rwanda.
50

Donors A person or institution who gives assets to another The GEF has a non-grant instruments (NGI) that can be
person or institution, either directly or through a used to finance tourism infrastructure with concessional
trust (local or foreign aid assistance). interest rates, where globally significant biodiversity is
conserved.
Small business Organizations that offer secured loans to small The Small Enterprise Assistance Funds (SEAF) is an
lenders businesses, over short- to medium-terms, at organization that partners with entrepreneurs in
moderate to high interest rates. emerging and transition markets to grow their companies
through customized financial solutions and expert
business assistance.
Impact Devoted to the conscious creation of social impact Eco.business fund invests its money either via
investing through investment. In general, it is project- intermediaries committed to promoting green finance or
or venture capital-focused. Impact investing directly in businesses that pursue sustainable production
blends philanthropy and private equity to more and consumption. The fund provides debt financing and
sustainably achieve philanthropic objectives channels most funds into local financial institutions to
through the development of self-financing support priority sectors including tourism.
initiatives and enterprises that generate triple
bottom line returns. EcoEnterprises Fund is an impact fund with financing
from development finance institutions and individual
investors.53
ESG investing Based on environmental, social, and governance The Aspen Network of Development Entrepreneurs
(ESG) criteria. These criteria act as a set of standards (ANDE) has chapters in East, West, and South Africa.
for a company’s operations, and socially conscious Its activities include supporting entrepreneurs to
investors use them to screen potential investments. identify partnership opportunities.54 Other examples
include Investco Sustainable UK Companies fund and
Starwood Capital.55
Peer-to-peer These match small businesses directly with In Israel, P2P lending companies include B2B oriented
lending (P2P) individuals or organizations who are willing to lend towards loans for the industrial sector, while Tarya,
platforms (or money. Loans tend to be short-term, made up of Blender, and Eloan target the private sector. In the United
crowd-finance) many small investments, and easy and quick to Kingdom, Zopa was one of the first platforms to emerge.56
access. P2P lending often targets borrowers with
low- and mid-level credit ratings.
Equity finance
Initial public An IPO is when a company that has decided to “go Wilderness Safaris was first listed on the Botswana and
offering (IPO) public”(to transition to a publicly traded company) Johannesburg stock exchanges in April 2010, with an
offers up initial shares on a publicly traded market initial public offer and a post IPO equity round in 2018.
such as a stock exchange. Its investors include private equity firms TPG and Satya
Capital.58
Combinations of financial products

Government Can offer grant finance to tourism enterprises, often Industrial Development Corporation, South Africa funds
based on certain incentive schemes. They can also tourism start-ups, expansions, and refurbishments.59
provide loans and guarantees at scale, and to small
businesses, and provide finance indirectly through The US Small Business Administration has lending
state-owned financial institutions. programs for loans, investment capital, surety bonds, and
grants to businesses including tourism.
During the pandemic, Hong Kong’s country parks raised

funds from donors and the Ministry of Environment,
Forestry and Tourism to create a fund to bridge 18 to 24
months. This allowed conservancies and the private sector
to pay at least 50% of their costs.60 Also, Kenya and Kenya
Wildlife Service created an economic rescue package with
grants to 160 community conservancies.61
51
Tools andResources

Donors A person or institution who gives assets to another The European Fund for Sustainable Development Plus
person or institution, either directly or through a (ESFD+) provides a full spectrum of funding mechanisms
trust (local or foreign aid assistance). (both sovereign and private investment), encompassing
grants and technical assistance, financial instruments,
blending, and budgetary guarantees.62 Guarantee finance
is available to governments, public entities, and the
private sector.
Institutional A highly diversified mutual fund for high net-worth The Africa Conservation and Communities Trust (ACCT)
funders investors (pension funds, governments, nonprofit Fund uses a blended capital structure (grants and equity)
organizations, companies), with substantial to help safeguard tourism companies with the highest
amounts of capital to invest. High minimum potential to support critical conservation landscapes and
investment, with loans typically secured at low the communities that depend on them. 64
interest rates and longer terms. The investment
could be in the form of equity, quasi-equity, or debt Conservation International Ventures, LLC is an impact-
finance. 63 first investment fund for conservation businesses. It
provides finances to small businesses that generate
positive financial returns, operating in areas that are
important for people and nature. The principal capital
and returned interest are used for new investments in
environmentally-focused enterprises. 65
Venture Start-up or growth equity (for shares) or secured The most active travel investors globally (2018–21) were
capitalist loan capital (at higher than market interest rates) 500 Startups, Y Combinator, Techstars, Crowdcube, Taiwan
provided by private investors or specialized Startup Stadium, InnoVen Capital, Plug and Play, Intelak
financial institutions to businesses with high Hub, Thayer Ventures, and Accel.66
potential, but with the expectation of high financial
returns over shorter terms. Niche financing with
caveats on scale and complexity.
Angel investor A high net worth individual or very small group The Investors Circle is a group of angel investors through
(to spread risk or increase available funds) who the American Sustainable Business Network. They aim
provides start-up or growth capital in promising to pull together money, expertise, and connections for
ventures, either in exchange for convertible debt people creating a better economy in the United States,
or equity, and helps indirectly with advice and including for tourism.
contacts. Niche financing with caveats on scale and
complexity.
Family and Can provide either equity or debt (sometimes Microenterprises, like family-run bed and breakfasts, and
friends unsecured), usually in small increments, and on community-based enterprises like homestays, require
variable and flexible terms to either kickstart or small investment sums that can be financed by friends
expand a business. This can prove very risky for and family.
relationships.
Two chapters in the Handbook for sustainable tourism in Africa. Getting financed: 9 tips for community joint
practitioners: The essential toolbox (2021) can help nature- ventures in tourism (2014) is a practical guide that explains
based tourism enterprises secure financing, on Feasibility how community joint ventures can move out of the donor-
studies, business plans and predicting returns for new and grant-funded sphere and towards more competitive
lodging facilities, and Funding proposals for new tourism capital markets, with guidance to reduce risk and improve
ventures. their access to commercial finance. The guide highlights
that community joint venture partnerships contain high
Joint venture agreements between private operators and levels of risk, and that this risk usually is too high for banks
community entities have been used as a tool to provide to assume. However, this risk can be reduced to more
equity in tourism businesses to local people, particularly
52
acceptable levels through better market-orientation and return of investment of the nature and adventure tourism
by providing a more competitive enabling environment. compared with mass tourism in the region and presents a
series of case studies from the U.S. Virgin Islands, Australia,
Investing in sustainable nature and adventure-based
Indonesia, Spain, and the Cayman Islands. These analyses
tourism in the Coral Triangle (2017) explores the benefits
are also supplemented by an investment prospectus for
of investing in low-impact, high-value sustainable ventures
nature-based tourism in the Coral Triangle.
by contrast to mass tourism. The paper analyses the
Box 9: Increasing equity of Damaraland Camp for the Torra Conservancy, Namibia
The joint-venture agreement for Damaraland Camp signed in 1996 between the Torra Conservancy and Wilderness
Safaris established that from year 10 to 15 of the partnership, Wilderness Safaris gifted the conservancy 20% equity
in Damaraland Camp per annum, until they owned 100%. The conservancy then chose to sell a portion back to
Wilderness Safaris to form a joint-venture equity partnership. Wilderness Safaris was offered and purchased 60%
of the Camp back from the Torra Conservancy. They are now operating as equity partners with the joint venture
leasing the land from the conservancy for a fee based on a percentage of revenue. Both Wilderness Safaris and
the conservancy invested capital for an upgrade of the camp. The reinvestment of “community capital” into the
project is one of the first instances in Namibia that did not involve donor funding or loans. In 2010, Wilderness Safaris
assisted the conservancy to raise a bank loan of $62,000 based on the collateral of their shareholding in Damaraland
Camp. This money was used to build Damaraland Adventurer Camp, the first instance of a community raising their
own funds for building purposes.
53
Tools andResources
Guidance for Varied Tourism Products

Guidance developed for different types of NBT products include:
Community-Based NBT Operations

Guidelines for community-based ecotourism development
(2001) includes consideration as to whether ecotourism
is an appropriate option for a community, participatory
ecotourism planning, developing viable ecotourism,
and strengthening benefits to the community and
the environment. Community nature-based tourism
development (2011) provides a five-step process
for development, including assessing raw materials,
envisaging the finished product, planning, implementing,
and evaluating success.
Adventure Tourism
Adventure tourism (2006) is an introductory text that looks at commercial adventure tourism products based on nature,
including expeditions, rafting, kayaking, diving, surfing, skiing and snowboarding, ice climbing, horse riding, hiking,
mountain biking, and safaris and wildlife. The book Adventure tourism and outdoor activities management (2019)
provides case studies from successful professionals in the adventure tourism industry and guidance on managing
products and customers. The book also explores sustainable tourism, changing markets, technology, corporate social
responsibility, and climate change. Adventure tourism: The new frontier (2003) uses case studies to examine the
product, the adventure tourist profile, and issues such as supply, geography, and sustainability. International case
studies include gorilla-viewing holidays, trekking on Mount Everest, diving holidays, and Outward Bound packages.
54
Geotourism
Volcano and geothermal tourism (2015) provides a global review and assessment of the sustainable use of active and
dormant volcanic and geothermal environments for geotourism. There are over 1,300 active volcanoes worldwide, some
of which are developed as tourist destinations, such as Mount Fuji in Japan, Teide in Spain, and Yellowstone in the United
States. A National Geotourism Strategy (2021) has been devised that establishes seven strategic goals for geotourism
in Australia.
Marine and Water-Based Tourism

A practical guide to good practice: Managing
environmental impacts in the marine recreation sector
(2003) is a handbook covering practical elements of
marine tourism, such as anchoring, boat operation and
maintenance, waste disposal, snorkeling and diving,
seafood consumption and souvenirs, recreation fishing,
and marine wildlife viewing. Guide to good practices for
sustainable tourism in marine-coastal ecosystems (2011)
presents detailed information about the marine coastal
ecosystem and the environmental resources most used
by tourism activity in the above-mentioned ecosystem. It
analyzes the potential problems of tourism activity and
recommends best management practices to improve
company management. It addresses lodging construction,
management of energy, water, waste and chemicals,
transportation, biodiversity conservation, and suppliers. The book Marine tourism (1998) examines both successful
and unsuccessful tourism in coastal and marine environments with a series of case studies. It includes an overview of
the history, development, and growth of marine tourism and describes the characteristics of marine tourists and the
vendors of these tourist activities, as well as management techniques to reduce negative impacts and maximize benefits.
Water-based tourism, sport, leisure, and recreation experiences (2007) describes a diverse range of water-based activities,
such as sailing, motorized water sports, fishing, diving and snorkeling, rafting and kayaking, and the sustainability of
these ventures.
55
Tools andResources
Desert Tourism
Tourism and deserts: A practical guide to managing the social and environmental impacts in the desert recreation
sector (2006) seeks to promote desert tourism as a leading source of sustainable development. It aims to support the
tourism industry in the development of deserts as tourist destinations, with respect for local populations and sustainable
development criteria.
Mountain Tourism
Tourism and mountains: A practical guide to managing social and environmental impacts of mountain tours (2007) was
created to help mountain-based tour operators and other mountain recreation professionals improve their environmental
and social performance. The handbook provides an overview of mountain ecosystems and communities and a discussion
of the nature and potential impacts of mountain tourism and tour activities. It also includes good practices for a range of
key issues related to mountain tourism and a self-assessment checklist for operators.
56
development guidelines (2020) for the private sector

Box 10: Case study on assessing tourism potential: on the development of ecotourism facilities and
Assessment of nature-based tourism in South experiences in Queensland’s national parks. The
Kelantan, Malaysia (2011) guidelines include best practice criteria, guidance on
conducting site suitability assessments, requirements
for certification from an accredited certification
scheme, and case studies of ecotourism operation in
Australia, Costa Rica, and Namibia.
• Ireland: The Teagasc rural tourism booklet (2016) is a

guideline for farmers in Ireland, providing information
on a range of commercial accommodation activity
and attraction options. It gives guidance for business
planning; strengths, weaknesses, opportunities,
threats (SWOT) analyses; and marketing, with case
studies. The Ecotourism handbook for Ireland
Nature-based tourism components and features (undated) also provides information on the ecotourism
vary considerably from one destination to another. market, business planning and funding, certification,
In Malaysia, the location, quality, and quantity of and marketing.
natural resources and their infrastructure had not • Indonesia: Sustainable tourism around marine
been well documented. An assessment was made protected areas. A practical handbook for imple-
of the potential of natural tourism destinations in mentation in Indonesia (2020) is a tool to empower
South Kelantan, by selecting 15 destinations, such decision makers at all levels with practical actions to
as waterfalls and caves, as case studies. Based on create immediate and lasting change to safeguard
geographical information systems (GIS) application, Indonesia’s remaining pristine marine habitats. It
23 indicators for tourism destination assessment uses the existing rich body of knowledge to provide
were investigated using observation and checklist a practical guide for the application of sustainable
techniques. The destinations were further classified tourism to benefit the existing and emerging marine
based on physical features, infrastructure, and protected areas (MPAs) in the country.
accessibility. The assessment found that GIS • Latin America: Toolkit for sustainable tourism in Latin
application is effective in providing higher quality of America (2005) describes processes that can help
information for natural tourism destinations and can tourism entrepreneurs improve their sustainability by
be an essential tool for decision making. developing new products and services, or improving
existing ones. Through three modules, it provides a
background for the identification of sustainability
issues faced by enterprises and destinations and
recommends actions to overcome them. It also
Regional and National Guidance offers marketing recommendations to position those
products in the market.
Regional and country-specific guidance for NBT product
development and marketing is also available, including for • Southern Africa: The Southern African Development
the following places: Community (SADC) Guideline on cross-border tourism
products in Transfrontier Conservation Areas (TFCAs)
• Australia: The Queensland ecotourism development (2018) provides guidance for the development of
toolkit (2016) helps developers navigate the planning cross-border tourism products. It includes practical
and regulatory process, in Queensland, Australia, evidence-based guidance on a step-by-step process
streamline assessment processes, and ensure that to develop cross-border tourism products with
impacts on sensitive environments are mitigated. The associated templates, in addition to case studies of
toolkit is complemented by Best practice ecotourism good practice.
57
Tools andResources
• United States: Making nature your business (2002) with them, and can also be used as a train-the-trainer
is a step-by-step guide designed for farmers and tool. Green marketing trends (2009) provides an
ranchers in Texas, United States, to help them start overview of green market trends using the language,
NBT enterprises. Nature tourism: A guidebook for research findings, and market segmentation of
evaluating ecotourism opportunities (2009) helps U.S.-based markets to help explain wildlife-friendly
landowners who are considering establishing a products and the role of certification in branding. As
tourism or recreation enterprise. Topics include a complementary tool, New and evolving web-based
options for tourism and recreation businesses, product marketing (2009) helps enterprises to find market
development, financial plans, marketing plans, legal outlets for their wildlife-friendly products. Nature-
and regulatory issues, and safety procedures. Planning based tourism marketing (undated) provides a step-
and managing agritourism and nature tourism by-step guide for businesses to develop their product
enterprises: A handbook (2006) is a how-to manual and service mix, people market identification, price,
for farmers, ranchers, and the professionals who work partnerships, packaging, and promotion.
Box 11: Examples of good practices in nature-based tourism operations

Case studies in ecotourism (2003) is a book with 170 examples of ecotourism, ecolodges, private reserves,
and public parks. The case studies range from the world’s best models to test cases, small and large, unique to
representative and illustrate ecotourism’s achievements and constraints.
Indigenous ecotourism (2006) is a book that examines the key principles of the segment from a diverse range
of case studies drawn from different regions. It analyzes the key factors for sustainable development and the
management of indigenous ecotourism.
Private sector tourism in conservation areas in Africa (2019) uses 32 comprehensive case studies of
accommodation facilities in 11 African countries to provide guidelines for optimal benefits and sustainable NBT.
The book includes descriptions of the various models for the private sector to engage in tourism in conservation
areas in Africa and guidance on identifying the most suitable private sector tourism options to promote long-
term sustainability.
Tourism for development (2018) is a compilation of 23 international good practice case studies that highlight
tourism’s contribution to sustainable development. Among these are nature-based tourism cases, including
Sabyino Community Livelihood Association in Rwanda, El Carlos Ecotourism and Archaeological Centre in
Colombia, and Chumbe Island Coral Park in Tanzania.
Tourism product development interventions and best practices in Sub-Saharan Africa: Part 2: Case studies (2010)
describes the wildlife conservancy program in Namibia, hiking tourism on Mount Kilimanjaro in Tanzania, and
safari operators &Beyond and Wilderness Safaris, among others. A synthesis report based on the case studies is
also available.
Ecotourism and conservation in the Americas (2008) shares 16 case studies and regional overviews from the
United States and Latin America.
Tourism, local livelihoods, and the private sector in South Africa: Case studies on the growing role of the private
sector in natural resources management (2003) examines how changing institutional arrangements and
policies affect poor people’s livelihoods and access to natural resources. Six different scenarios are analyzed to
demonstrate how government, NGOs, the private sector, and rural communities have influenced rural livelihoods
through tourism practices in South Africa, Mozambique, and Zimbabwe.
Wilderness Safaris: Ecotourism entrepreneurship (2018) is a case study from Harvard Business School that
explores whether the African company can find a sustainable growth path that will allow it to profitably expand
its business and meet its shareholders’ interests while achieving its objectives to protect and invest in the
ecosystems and communities.
58
4.8 Impacts of Nature-Based by recognizing tourism as a valuable sector of the

global economy, and for destinations that can catalyze
Tourism development. Nature-based tourism, environment and
land management (2003) looks at the economic, social,
Nature-based tourism can have a variety of impacts, both and environmental consequences of nature-based
positive and negative. The types of impacts are broad in tourism, and its effects on land managers. It discusses
their range, and affect natural resources, local economies, the importance of links and partnerships, as well as the
culture and society, as well as tourists themselves. This conflicts between commercial tourism interests and
section reviews examples of tools, guidance materials, land management agencies.
and illustrations of NBT impacts that can help practitioners
As guidance for NBT businesses, Green your business:
with the difficult task of establishing the balance between
Toolkit for tourism operators (2008) is a Canadian
positive and negative impacts.
handbook that provides user-friendly, accessible, and
practical tips for operators in PAs in becoming more
Environmental Impacts environmentally sustainable. It gives tools for different
business processes (e.g., product development,
All forms of tourism have impacts on the natural marketing, purchasing etc.) and by need (e.g., energy,
environment. The impacts of ecotourism tend to be waste, water, outdoor environment, carbon neutral,
concentrated in areas of highest conservation value, socio-cultural).
hence, the need to manage and minimize these. The
Routledge handbook of tourism and the environment
(2012) explores and critically evaluates the debates
Nature-Based Tourism and Biodiversity
and controversies inherent to tourism’s relationship Nature-based tourism can generate important positive
with nature. Its sections include the philosophical impacts on natural habitats and wildlife, but if not properly
basis of the environment, different types of ecosystems managed, it can damage the natural resources on which
and the negative and positive impacts upon them, it is based. Not only can it undermine the quality and
environmental policy and management mechanisms, integrity of biodiversity, it can also lead to a deterioration
and contemporary and future issues. Environmental of the visitor experience itself. There are a number of
impacts of ecotourism (2004) is a book that reviews the background papers that describe the key issues between
environmental impacts and management of particular tourism and biodiversity. These include the following:
NBT activities, such as hiking and camping, off-road
• UNWTO’s Tourism and biodiversity: Achieving
vehicles, and recreational boats, and impacts specific
common goals towards sustainability (2010) illustrates
to certain ecosystems (e.g., marine environments,
the high value of biodiversity for tourism, outlines
polar coasts, mountain environments). Conservation
current policies, guidelines, and global initiatives in
tourism (2010) is a book that focuses on case studies
which the interrelationship between tourism and
from tourism companies that have made positive
biodiversity is addressed, as well as identifies risks
contributions to the conservation of global biodiversity.
and challenges for the tourism sector from the global
These case studies range from private marine reserves
loss of biodiversity and ecosystem services. The
to bird watching lodges in different regions across the
report includes 10 recommendations for actions on
world. Tourism, recreation and sustainability (2008)
biodiversity and tourism for governments (at national
presents a discussion from leading contributors on the
and destination level), the tourism private sector,
impacts of tourism on local culture and the environment
international organizations, and NGOs.
in sections on frameworks and approaches, tourism
and destinations, and culture. Tourism development • Towards nature positive travel & tourism: Traveling in
and the environment: Beyond sustainability? (2009) harmony with nature (2022) is targeted towards the
explores the tourism-development-environment nexus, travel and tourism industry. It explains the importance
59
Tools andResources
of nature (related to emerging zoonotic diseases and • Biodiversity: My hotel in action (2008) is a guide to
climate change), and how the tourism industry can the sustainable use of biological resources in hotel
identify its impacts and then contribute towards its accommodation. It aims to support positive impacts
protection and restoration. The report outlines a four- of biodiversity through hotel restaurants, guest rooms
phase roadmap towards nature-positive travel and is and public spaces, souvenir shops, hotel gardens, and
accompanied by a toolbox of nature-positive tourism in the broader destination area. The guide includes
resources and case studies. information from TRAFFIC, an NGO working to ensure
that trade in wild plants and animals is not a threat to
• Wildlife-based ecotourism as sustainable conservation
conservation, on sustainable use of specific biological
strategy (2016) is a research report that includes an
resources, such as fish and seafood, wood, and
analysis of 208 wildlife-based ecotourism enterprises.
aromatic plants.
The study reviews ecological, socio-political, and
economic management contexts of the enterprises, • Guidance for a quality nature tourism industry
and describes extensive and varied impacts on (undated) provides practical advice to tourism
wildlife. These include indirect impacts related to the businesses on how to reduce the environmental
reduction of threats and direct impacts resulting from impact of a nature-based business, ensuring local
the tourism activities themselves. communities are integrated into the business models
and visitors respect the surrounding nature and
• The paper Net effects of ecotourism on threatened
cultural heritage.
species survival (2016) explores the effects of tourism
on threatened species, which may rely on NBT for
conservation funding. It uses population viability
Animal Welfare
analyses to calculate the net effects of ecotourism on There has been increasing interest in animal welfare issues
expected time to extinction in the presence of other in tourism, and particularly in relation to the treatment of
anthropogenic threats such as poaching, primary wildlife interactions. Concerns relate mainly to situations
industries, and habitat loss. where wildlife are in captivity, petted, or fed, or where
visitors can interact directly with them, such as swimming
• The relationship between amount of visitor use and
with dolphins or riding elephants. There are concerns that
environmental impacts (2019) is a paper that outlines
social media, and the desire of travelers for photos with
the theory behind establishing visitor capacity in
animals, is fueling interactions with captive animals that
PAs. This is complemented by Impacts to wildlife:
live in poor conditions.67 Furthermore, research suggests
Managing visitors and resources to protect wildlife
that travelers are not good at establishing whether
(2019), which provides an overview of literature on
animals are being well treated or not.68 The book Tourism
the impacts of recreation on wildlife and factors that
and animal welfare (2018) explores the diversity of tourism
influence wildlife responses (e.g., type of activity,
experiences with animals (including shark and elephant
visitor behavior, frequency and magnitude of impacts,
tourism, sport hunting, zoos, and aquariums), and ethics,
timing, and location).
animal rights, and human obligations to animals. The
Resources that can help to enhance the positive impacts Global welfare guidelines for animals in tourism (undated)
of NBT on nature include the following: have six associated manuals, including on animals in
• The guidelines on biodiversity and tourism captive environments (e.g., dolphins and elephants),
development (2004) provide a tool to implement the wildlife viewing, and working animals. The guidelines
Convention on Biological Diversity, an international strive to encourage good practices in animal protection
treaty to promote the conservation of biodiversity, and welfare from travel businesses and suppliers of animal
through tourism, focusing on policy and governance. experiences. These are freely available to Association of
Managing tourism and biodiversity (2005) is a user’s British Travel Agents (ABTA) members and are available
manual on the above guidelines. for purchase by non-members and partners. TripAdvisor
60
has an online portal on Improving animal welfare in from great ape tourism programs and their impacts,
tourism, which provides articles on animal rights, tourism, and guidance for the planning, development, and
conservation, and sustainability. For Airbnb hosts, there are implementation and monitoring of visits. There is also
animal welfare guidelines for Airbnb Experiences (2019). species-specific information for gorillas, chimpanzees,
To guide the tourism sector on purchasing decisions and orangutans.
that support wildlife, the U.S. Wildlife Trafficking Alliance
• Birds: Guidelines of best practice for bird friendly
has published Protecting wildlife by buying informed:
hotels in Egypt (undated) are an attempt to ensure
A corporate toolkit (2017). The guide helps companies
the overall benefit of the Egyptian tourism industry,
to play a role by closing off supply chains, educating the
local communities of the flyway, and migratory birds,
public, and raising awareness of the need to shut down the
including a reduction in the threats posed to birds as
markets for illegal wildlife products. The book Wild animals
they migrate through Egypt. It provides guidance on
and leisure (2018) is a collection of papers that provides an
bird-friendly administration (e.g., laws, marketing, staff
in-depth analysis of the rights and welfare of humans and
development), management and design, and services
wild animals and seeks to improve the conditions under
(e.g., tours and activities). From Australia, there are also
which wild animals interact with and are engaged with by
Best practice guidelines for commercial wild bird feeding
humans.
practices on private land (undated). These guidelines
Guidance for Specific Habitats and Types include information about the legal framework, types of
of Animal feed, risk management, and visitor interpretation.
A series of guidelines have been developed for tourism • Marine tours: A practical guide to good practice for
involving specific types of wildlife or habitats. These marine-based tours (2008) is designed to help marine
include: tour operators improve their environmental and social
performance, as a way to both contribute to marine
• Primates: Best practice guidelines for great ape tourism conservation and the economic development of coastal
(2010) provides information for existing and potential communities, and increase their attractiveness to
great ape tourism sites that wish to enhance the increasingly discerning consumers. A series of tools and
conservation of great apes. It includes lessons learned guides to support shark and ray tourism can be found
61
Tools andResources
in A guide to best practice: Responsible shark and ray Economic and Financial Impacts
tourism (undated), produced by WWF, Project AWARE,
and the Manta Trust. The resources include tools to Nature-based tourism can generate a range of economic
help select sites, evaluate performance, build social and financial impacts. At the national level, PA tourism
licenses, understand market and legal requirements, revenue can contribute to foreign exchange earnings and
and practice responsible provisioning. Guidance is the balance of payments, and these can be used to justify
also provided for management authorities including expenditures on conservation or provide revenue directly
examples of codes of conduct. Specific guidelines are to PA authorities for conservation. The financial benefits
given for different types of rays and sharks, including generated from tourism services can also incentivize local
basking sharks, reef and pelagic sharks, whale sharks, people to care for nature and encourage the private sector
mobulid rays, and stingrays, and shark cage diving. to conserve biodiversity. These benefits may include
ownership and equity in businesses, benefit sharing from
• Coral reefs: A guide to coral reef restoration for tourism revenues, money earned from jobs or the sale of
the tourism sector (2022) provides an overview of products and services to tourists or operators, or corporate
the tourism sector’s engagement with coral reef social responsibility initiatives.
conservation efforts in the Caribbean region, including
results of public opinion research. It presents guiding A number of resources quantify and illustrate the range of
principles and best practices for the tourism sector economic and financial impacts from NBT. These include
to plan and implement coral reef protection and the following:
restoration efforts effectively, and a checklist of best
practices. • Biodiversity, nature-based tourism, and jobs (2012)
• Rivers and waterbodies: Environmental sustainability provides a literature review on the magnitude and
for river cruising (2013) is a best practice guideline range of economic benefits for conservation and local
designed to support this sector around the world. It community incomes from NBT.
offers principles for environmentally sustainable river • The economic impact of global wildlife tourism (2019),
cruising and specific guidance relating to energy, by the WTTC, is an effort to quantify the economic
water, wastewater, solid waste, communications, and value of wildlife tourism. It estimated that its direct
environmental management systems, in addition to economic contribution to world GDP in 2018 was
partnerships and cooperation. River tourism (2009) $120.1 billion, or five times the value of the illegal
uses international cases studies to explore a range wildlife trade (see Box 13).
of perspectives, including heritage, management,
environmental concerns, and marketing. • Towards measuring the economic value of wildlife
watching tourism in Africa (2015) looks at the wildlife-
watching market segment in Africa. Based on a survey
Box 12: Visitor engagement in species
with government institutions and tour operators, the
identification and research
briefing paper considers a range of economic benefits,
iNaturalist is a nature including employment and contributions to nature
app that helps people conservation.
to identify plants and
• Walk on the wild side (2015) is a research article
animals and connect to nature. People can use its
that estimates the global magnitude of visits to PAs.
crowdsourced species identification system and
The analysis found that, in 2015, visits generated
occurrence recording tool to record their own
approximately $600 billion a year in direct in-country
sightings, identify species, and collaborate with
expenditure and $250 billion a year in consumer
others to collect information.
surplus. Notably, these values dwarf current (and
62
typically inadequate) PA conservation expenditures. analysis calculated that IFFs in the wildlife tourism
Benefits from ecotourism to local communities have sector in southern Africa were over $22 billion from
been found to include reductions in hunting and 2006 to 2015, deriving mainly from tax evasion and
increases in wildlife sightings, for example in Lao PDR. trade mis-invoicing.
• The book Economics for the wilds: Wildlife, diversity

and development (1992) provides a theoretical and
practical basis for understanding the value of wild
resources as well as the strategies for conserving
Box 13: Key findings from Economic impact of
them. The book explores specific uses of wildlife and
global wildlife tourism (2019)
their habitats (both sustainable and unsustainable)
and topics including community-based development,
tourism, poaching, and the impact of conservation on
wildlife use.
• Nature tourism, conservation, and development

in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa (2010) provides an
evaluation and policy advice relating to NBT in this
destination. The contributors explore three key issues:
(1) the creation of a true nature tourism economy
that supports biodiversity conservation; (2) the role
of the private sector in contributing to equitable
development, job creation, and conservation
finance; and (3) alternative pricing and other market
mechanisms that can help make nature tourism more
• Wildlife tourism directly contributed $120.1
viable and growth-oriented.
billion in GDP to the global economy in 2018,
• Assessing and valuing the recreational ecosystem or 4.4% of the estimated direct global travel and
services of Germany’s national parks using travel cost tourism GDP of $2,751 billion. This represents
models (2017) uses results from over 24,000 interviews. over five times the value of the illegal wildlife
The research found that the lower-limit consumer trade.
surplus of recreation in German national parks totals • Once additional multiplier effects across the
€385.3 – 621.8 million (including only visitors whose global economy are allowed for, the total
trip decisions were influenced by the parks’ protected economic contribution of wildlife tourism comes
status), while an upper-limit value reached €1.690 to $343.6 billion.
– 2.751 billion (including all visitors). Thus, national
• Over one-third of all direct tourism GDP across
parks generate enormous non-monetary values for
Africa in 2018 attributed to wildlife (36.3%).
German society.
• 21.8 million jobs globally are supported by
• From a different perspective, the report on Assessing wildlife tourism.
the extent and impact of illicit financial flows (IFFs) in
the wildlife and tourism economic sectors in southern
Africa (2017) describes illicit movements of money or
products that are illegally acquired from one country The next two sections describe further examples
to another. The money typically originates from three of resources that cover the contributions of NBT to
sources in the private sector: commercial tax evasion, conservation finance, as well as the financial benefits to
trade mis-invoicing, and abusive transfer pricing. The local communities and economies.
63
Tools andResources
Conservation Finance that if tourists who wish to contribute towards

conservation were identified during marketing and
Revenue raised from tourism, such as entrance fees and booking, then conservation tourism enterprises could
other fees paid for the use of natural and PAs, can directly notify conservation trusts to seek donations.
contribute to their management and conservation.
However, in some areas, funds generated from tourism • Building a wildlife economy (2019) is a working
go to central government treasuries, and conservation paper on the development of nature-based tourism
budgets do not necessarily reflect the level of this income. in Africa’s state PAs. In part, the paper provides a
For example, Estimating tourism’s conservation area synthesis of research on economic impacts of tourism
financing in Mozambique (2016) demonstrated that 93 on the continent, and includes a series of case studies
PAs in the country generated $24.4 million in 2013 from from Kenya, Rwanda, South Africa, Ethiopia, and Costa
tourism-related activities, but only a small portion accrued Rica.
to conservation area management.
• The Economic analysis of rhino conservation in a land-
use context within the SADC region (2005) reviewed
Resources that provide information on the benefits of NBT
the added value that rhinos add to wildlife operations
for financing conservation include the following:
on state and private land in the Southern Africa
Development Community (SADC) through wildlife
• National park entrance fees: A global benchmarking
viewing and trophy hunting, and their impacts on
focused on affordability (2019) reviews data from
community-based tourism and rural livelihoods.
62 countries and establishes that PAs in low-income
countries are on average 30 times less affordable to • Tourism revenue as a conservation tool for threatened
citizens than in high-income countries. This has equity birds in protected areas (2013) is a paper that
implications, and may supress visitation rates, thereby quantifies the contribution of tourism revenue for
reducing the degree to which citizens attach value to, bird species on the IUCN Red List, using a simple
and are willing to support, national parks. accounting method. The paper highlights that
critically endangered bird species rely on tourism
• The Contribution of tourism revenue to financing
more heavily than endangered species, and many
protected area management in Southern Africa (2017)
PAs could enhance their management budgets by
is a paper that assesses the extent to which tourism
promoting birdwatching tourism specifically.
contributes towards biodiversity financing for PA
management in the region. Using country reports • Mapping the global value and distribution of coral
to the CBD, it highlights that, although tourism is reef tourism (2017) estimates that this ecosystem
a significant revenue source for PA authorities in service has a global value of $36 billion per year, from
southern Africa, how it is retained and reinvested back on-reef and associated off-reef activities.
into conservation management remains ambiguous.
• Finance tools for coral reef conservation: A guide
• Private conservation funding from wildlife tourism (2018) highlights that public and private capital, both
enterprises in sub-Saharan Africa: Conservation philanthropic and return-seeking, must be leveraged
marketing beliefs and practices (2018) describes to develop diversified and sustainable self-generated
how some commercial tourism companies provide revenue flows that can drive conservation impact.
substantial funding for private reserves, communal Tourism fees, including entrance fees, permits, and
conservancies, and public PAs, and for anti-poaching, concessions, are among the tools considered.
breeding, and translocation programs. It suggests
64
Box 14: Studies on tourist’s willingness to pay for nature-based tourism71

A number of papers explore visitors’ willingness to pay (WTP) for NBT and to visit natural attractions. These
studies ask respondents to specify how much they are willing to pay to visit an area under different conditions.
The WTP studies have often found that tourists are (1) willing to pay to visit PAs and (2) are willing to pay more
than the established fee. For example:
• Contingent valuation of ecotourism in Annapurna conservation area, Nepal: Implications for sustainable park
finance and local development (2008) found that on average visitors were willing to pay $69, rather than the
actual entrance fee of $27.
• Pricing policy for tourism in protected areas: Lessons from Komodo National Park, Indonesia (2001) found that
although only 6.9% of park fees were recovered, tourists were willing to pay more than 10 times the current
entrance fee.
• Tourists willingness to pay to visit Tanzania’s National Parks: A contingent valuation study (2015) found that
non-residents would be willing to pay substantially higher fees in the Serengeti National Park and that this
would not seriously reduce the level of visitation. It was predicted that phasing-in a $60 increase in the
Serengeti conservation fee over several years could raise an additional $14.8 million by 2020 (equivalent to
increasing the park’s revenue by 57%).
• User fees as sustainable financing mechanisms for marine PAs: An application to the Bonaire National Marine
Park (2010) found the average WTP for annual access ranged from $61 to $134, although the actual fee at that
time was only $10.
• Willingness to pay entrance fees to natural attractions: An Icelandic case study (2008) explores the options for
entrance fees where they were not already in place. The study found that over 92% of the 252 respondents
were willing to pay an entrance fee.
• Tourists’ willingness to pay for wildlife viewing and conservation in Namibia (1999) uses a contingent valuation
approach to explore WTP. The study found that each wildlife viewing tourist contributed an estimated 907
Namibian dollars to national income in the tourism sector at economic prices in 1995. The WTP analysis found
that higher, daily park admission fees could result in the capture of some 18.2 million Namibian dollars new
revenue per annum.
Local Financial and Economic Impacts Examples of destinations and PA authorities that share
information on their economic impacts include:
Local people can benefit from economic linkages with
NBT. This may include through employment, by selling • The Metsähallitus Parks & Wildlife Finland, which
products and services that tourism companies and publishes data on NBT’s economic impacts.
tourists need, or by owning tourism businesses. The
State of the Wildlife Economy in Africa (2021) synthesizes • Scottish Natural Heritage published Assessing
information that illuminates the value of wildlife the economic impacts of nature based tourism
resource to national economies. The report provides in Scotland (2010), based on a review of existing
comprehensive information on ecotourism, hunting, studies. The report found that the total visitor
and fishing, as do specific country reports for Uganda, spending attributable to nature-based tourism per
Kenya, South Africa, Ghana, Rwanda, Tanzania, and year (rounded and after displacement is deducted)
Nigeria. These reports are also accompanied by a Wildlife is £1.4 billion with 39,000 associated full-time jobs
economy resource database. in 2010.
65
Tools andResources
Box 15: Visitor spending effects from national parks in the United States in 202172
The United States National Park Service (NPS) uses the Visitor Spending Effects (VSE) model to calculate the
economic impact of visitation.
In 2021, 297 million park visitors spent an estimated $20.5 billion in local gateway regions while visiting National
Park Service lands across the United States. These expenditures supported a total of 323,000 jobs, $14.6 billion
in labor income, $24.3 billion in value added, and $42.5 billion in economic output in the national economy.
Directly Affected Sectors
Retail (7.1%)
(8.5%) Groceries
(6.4%)
8.7% Transportation
Recreation Industries
(2.4%)
Camping
12.4%
Gas
$20.5 billion
in visitor spending
34.3%
Lodging
20.2%
Restaurants
Contribution to the National Economy
$18.4 $18.2 $20.2 $21.2 $20.5

$15.7 $16.9 billion billion billion
$14.6 billion billion $14.5
billion billion
billion billion
2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021
66
illustrate the nature of local economic impacts from NBT.

• Tourism British Columbia shared information on the
These include the following publications:
Economic value of the commercial nature-based
tourism industry in British Columbia (2004). • Global: Living on the edge: Benefit-sharing from
protected area tourism (2021) is a book that
• Socio-economic effects of concession-based tourism
presents a review of revenue-sharing approaches in
in New Zealand’s national parks (2011) used a tourism
Africa, created through institutional arrangements
inventory and interviews to measure impacts from
used by PAs and tourism enterprises. Case studies
three national parks: Tongariro National Park (TNP),
are included from Brazil, Israel, South Africa, and
Abel Tasman National Park (ATNP), and Fiordland
Zanzibar. The papers highlight the complexity of
National Park (FNP). For every New Zealand dollar
benefit sharing, the importance of identifying all
of turnover generated by the concessions, the study
relevant stakeholders, the challenges of ensuring
found that a further 40 cents, 60 cents, and 30 cents
equity and sustainability, and the critical importance
circulated in the economy in TNP, ATNP, and FNP,
of good governance. The World Bank’s Banking on
respectively.
protected areas: promoting sustainable protected
• The U.S. National Park Service uses the Visitor area tourism to benefit local economies (2021) uses
Spending Effects model to calculate Visitor spending a general equilibrium model for local economy-wide
and economic effects (see Box 15). impact evaluation (LEWIE) to describe direct and
indirect impacts of tourism by integrating models
of actors (businesses and households) within local
Impacts in Developing Countries
economies around PAs in Zambia, Nepal, Brazil, and
In developing countries and rural areas, local people may Fiji. The report quantifies the impacts of PA tourism
not have the necessary level of skills or capital to open and on local economies to show that PAs promote
operate NBT ventures. Therefore, it is important to pay conservation and development. Further elaboration
attention to the design of benefit-sharing mechanisms so is provided in three published country case study
that local communities can benefit and economic benefits reports for Brazil, Nepal, and Zambia:
are maximized. There is a large body of case studies that
67
Tools andResources
– Assessing the economic impact of protected development, while cultivating local community
areas on tourism economies in Brazil (2021) support for conservation in these rural areas.
focuses on Abrolhos Marine National Park and the
• Africa: Revenue sharing from tourism in terrestrial
Whale Coast, and establishes that investment in
African protected areas (2019) is a paper that
the PAs pays off and is good for both biodiversity
reviews the challenges of revenue sharing as well
conservation and development of the local
as four key components of successful revenue-
economy.
sharing systems, namely (1) clear identification of
– Assessing the economic impact of tourism in economic benefits; (2) ensuring that benefits are
protected areas on local economies in Nepal appropriate to the scale of threats to biodiversity;
(2021) sets out to strengthen the economic (3) involvement of communities in decision
case for the government of Nepal to promote making on the structure and process of the
sustainable and inclusive tourism in its PAs by distribution system; and (4) sufficient regulatory
estimating the direct and indirect benefits to and institutional support. The role of private sector
local economies from protected area tourism. ecotourism in local socio-economic development
in southern Africa (2016) describes the results of
– Assessing the economic impact of tourism in
1,785 interviews with local community members
protected areas on local economies in Zambia
living around Wilderness Safaris operations in six
(2021) demonstrates that through the economic
countries, and the local economic impacts that have
benefits it generates, PA tourism is one of the
resulted. Applying inclusive business approaches to
few avenues through which governments can
nature-based tourism in Namibia and South Africa
help support livelihoods and stimulate economic
(2016) is a paper that quantifies the impacts of
68
Damaraland Camp in Namibia and Phinda Private Using an input-output model it was estimated that
Game Reserve in South Africa, through an inclusive approximately 18,000 whale watchers produce an
business approach, focusing on the benefits to low- annual regional economic impact of $0.7 million
income populations. Community involvement and and generate 334 seasonal and 180 year-round jobs.
tourism revenue sharing as contributing factors to
• Asia: Promoting the business of conservation tourism
the UN Sustainable Development Goals in Jozani–
in Southeast Asia (2022) describes conservation
Chwaka Bay National Park and Biosphere Reserve,
tourism opportunities in Southeast Asia, with
Zanzibar (2018) demonstrates the complexity
lessons learned from 12 tourism enterprises in Africa,
of revenue-sharing arrangements necessary for
Latin America, and Asia. The paper recommends
success and explains how to harness sustainable
businesses be designed and executed with a focus
tourism so that it provides benefits beyond the
upon nine core tenets: (i) define the conservation
generation of revenues. Mountain gorilla ecotourism:
storyline; (ii) plan for conservation gains; (iii) define
Supporting macroeconomic growth and providing
and deliver SMART conservation goals; (iv) invest in
local livelihoods (2015) focuses on the Africa Great
financial viability; (v) design for minimal footprint;
Lakes region (Rwanda, Uganda, and the Democratic
(vi) build community partnerships; (vii) maximize
Republic of Congo) and reviews ecotourism-related
supply chain linkages; (viii) educate for engagement
livelihoods and revenue sharing. Focusing on one
with conservation; and (ix) optimize conservation
park where the gorillas live, Community-based
branding, marketing, and sales channels. The
tourism’s contribution towards conservation in
paper references and lists key sustainability tools
Rwanda’s Volcanoes National Park (2022) is a case
and standards to help businesses of all scales
study describing the development of community
design and manage conservation tourism. Nature-
cooperatives operating cultural activities for park
based marine tourism in the Coral Triangle (2015)
visitors. In doing so, the initiative supports over 300
provide baseline data and analysis of tourism and
vulnerable women by providing opportunity to sell
nature-based tourism in six countries: Timor-Leste,
woven baskets to tourists. Living outside the fence
Solomon Islands, Papua New Guinea, Philippines,
(2013) describes a supply-chain analysis undertaken
Indonesia, and Malaysia. The value of wildlife
in the South African Sabi Sand Game Reserve to
tourism around Ranthambhore Tiger Reserve in
establish the range of commercial opportunities
Rajasthan, India, for wildlife conservation and local
available to local entrepreneurs neighboring the
communities (2018) established that tourism and
PAs. Making success work for the poor: Package
associated services in and around Sawai Madhopur
tourism in Northern Tanzania (2009) presents the
generated per annum a total of $33.4 million, while
results of a value chain analysis on safari circuits
revenue from small business enterprises in villages
including climbing Mount Kilimanjaro and the safari
with tourism infrastructure was four times higher
circuit from Arusha to the Serengeti National Park.
than non-tourism villages. Wildlife conservation
In particular, the paper explores the proportion of
ecotourism in Name Et-Phou Louey National Park,
tourism expenditure that reaches the poor, and
Lao PDR (2021) describes how ecotours in the
options to boost this value (see Figure 7).
park have been designed to create direct links
• Latin America: The nexus between governance between conservation and tourism. Collectively,
and the economic impact of whale-watching (2018) local employment and financial incentives, provide
reviews the case of the coastal lagoons in the El incentives for wildlife protection.
Vizcaíno Biosphere Reserve, Baja California, Mexico.
69
Figure 7: Cost components of safari and mountain climbing packages in Tanzania73
A typical mountain-climbing holiday ($1,376 in-country A typical safari holiday ($1,826 in-country spend)
spend)
3% 4% 7%
1%
6%
9%
6% 37%
47% 13%
18%
14%
16% 19%
Park fees Tour operator margins Wages & tips Accommodation Park fees Tour operator margins
Accommodation Food & beverages Transport Transport Wages Cultural goods & services
Cultural goods & services Food & beverages
Economic Impact Assessment Tools for project managers and others to develop economic
Nature-Based Tourism analyses through the collection, analysis, and
reporting of tourism spending data at local and
Tools that are in development to support the assessment of national levels. The tool is built on the foundations
financial and economic impacts of tourism in PAs include: of the U.S. National Park Service’s Money Generation
• Visitors count! Guidance for protected areas on Model and is currently being reviewed by the GEF’s
calculating visitor numbers and their economic impact Scientific and Technical Advisory Panel. A case study
(2021) was developed by members of the IUCN World applying the approach is described in Economic
Commission on Protected Areas (WCPA) Tourism and impacts of tourism in protected areas of Brazil (2017)
Protected Areas (TAPA) Specialist Group, with UNESCO and also in Economic effects assessment approaches:
and the European Union This tool provides guidance Tourism economic model for protected areas (TEMPA)
and examples of visitor counting, surveys, economic for developing countries (2021).
analysis, and reporting approaches. Application of the Evaluating a special nature-based tourism event (2002)
approach is described in the book chapter Economic evaluates the economic impact of an NBT event, “Great
effects assessment approaches: US National Parks Salt Lake Bird Festival,” and provides the questionnaire
approach (2021), and a massive open online course is template for use by others. Box 16 provides examples of
forthcoming from the EU. the value of birding tourism in different countries and
• The Tourism economic model in protected areas options to maximize value.
(TEMPA) is an assessment tool that aims to guide
70
Box 16: The value of birding tourism in different countries and maximizing tourism potential74
• In 1999, the Costa Rican Tourism Institute estimated that 41% of its $1 billion tourism revenues was from
tourists who came primarily for the purpose of birdwatching.
• In 1997, South Africa received between 11,400 and 21,200 birdwatchers per year who contributed $12 to
$26 million to the South African economy.
• A study of villages in Poland that have established stork nesting colonies indicated that tourists spent
an average of $60 per visit (excluding travel costs) and $120 per visit (including travel costs) as a result of
viewing the storks.
• A study by the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds (RSPB) in the U.K. estimated that each tourist spends
£4.92 on a day trip and £55.96 on a visit to view birds.
The figure below shows a range of options to maximize value from birding tourism:
Enhance the
enjoyment
of existing
Increase
Increase customers
revenue
revenue by by offering
attracting existing
new types of tourists new
tourism experiences
Build
Maximize
partnerships
potential of
with credible
the grounds to
conservation
attract birds
organizations
Engage
Plan new and staff and
refurbish existing communication
infrastructure in a in valuing the
bird-friendly way contribution
Embrace of birds
bird-friendly
operating
practices
71
Tools andResources
Social and Cultural Impacts • The relationship between amount of visitor use and
social impacts (2019) is a paper that discusses the role
Social and cultural impacts of tourism can include changes of social conditions on visitor experience, crowding,
to the living standards and in the value and pride that and social norms.
people have for natural assets. Tourism can encourage
the conservation of culture, arts, and crafts, and promote • Indigenous ecotourism (2006) is a book that examines
aesthetics, spirituality, health, and other values of well- the key principles from a diverse range of case studies
being. Environmental education for visitors and local of community involvement and ownership drawn
people can be used to foster better understanding of the from different regions of the world.
cultural heritage value of natural resources.75 Background • Private sector tourism in conservation areas in Africa
papers on social and cultural impacts of tourism include (2019) includes descriptions of the social and cultural
the following: impacts of 32 NBT enterprises.
• The IUCN’s Best Practice Guidelines on Tourism • Chapters within Responsible Tourism: Critical issues for
and visitor management in protected areas (2018) conservation and development (2008) address local
provides guidance on generating wider economic livelihoods and community-based NBT in southern
benefits for communities from tourism, and reviews Africa. These include the “Impacts of wildlife tourism
NBT’s social and cultural impacts. on rural livelihoods in southern Africa”76 and “Local
72
impacts of community-based tourism in southern • A book chapter on Planning for optimal local
Africa.” 77 involvement in tourism and partnership development
in the in the Handbook for sustainable tourism
• Tourism, health, wellbeing and protected areas (2018)
practitioners: The essential toolbox (2021) contains
is a book that shares a series of case studies discussing
guidance on conceptualizing, planning, and
best practices for park and PA tourism development
delivering optional local involvement in tourism and
and their contributions to the health and well-being of
partnership development. In the same volume, the
visitors and local communities.
chapter on Social and cultural impact assessment of
• Mental health benefits of nature-based recreation: tourism presents a shift in handling the complexities
a systematic review (2019) of 51 articles observed of embracing an authentic understanding of both the
positive associations between NBT and mental cultural and social dimensions of sustainable tourism.
health, including improvements in affect, cognition,
• The Rural tourism toolkit (undated) is designed to
restoration, and well-being, and decreases in anxiety
help local leadership in Colorado, United States, to
and depression symptoms.
take an objective look at their communities and
determine future directions. It provides information
Tools for Local Community Impact on the benefits of rural tourism, tools for community
Assessments assessment and action planning, and best practices
and case studies.
Tools developed for leaders in tourism destinations to
maximize benefits to local communities from NBT include • The Implementation plan for socioeconomic monitoring
the following: program in the National Park System (2019) outlines a
method for evaluating the socioeconomic impacts
• Guidance for natural and cultural resource managers
of U.S. parks on visitors and the public. It includes
and community leaders (undated) aims to assess
guidance on survey methods and provides a
the impact of developing NBT on communities and
standardized questionnaire.
identifies how communities can be involved in the
planning process, before assessing the current tourism • A practical guide to good practice for marine-based
situation and potential. tours (2008) is designed to help marine tour operators
improve their environmental and social performance
• The Operational guidelines for community-based
to both contribute to marine conservation and the
tourism in South Africa (2016) provide step-by-
economic development of coastal communities,
step guidance for the development of community-
and to increase their attractiveness to increasingly
based tourism and the modification of private sector
discerning consumers.
structures to establish partnerships with community
entities. The guidelines include a series of NBT case
studies and useful guidance on troubleshooting
potential challenges.
73
Box 17: Case studies of community-based ecotourism
• Reserva Bosque La Tigra: A replicable model for sustainable and community based ecotourism (2022)
explains how the model contributes to the conservation of biodiversity by restoring the forest and improving
ecological connectivity in Costa Rica. Consequently, healthy ecosystems allow the creation and design of
ecotourism products and environmental education activities that are the basis of Bosque La Tigra’s business
model.
• Maggie breaks into Tanzania’s male-dominated world of wildlife tourism (2021) shares the story of Maggie
Duncan Simbeye, who became the first Tanzanian woman to own and operate her own tour company in the
country.
• Empowering artisanal fishermen in manta ray ecotourism (2015) is a case study from Peru. To promote
protection of mantas, local fishermen have been empowered through workshops, financial and technical
support, and promotion of ecotourism services. The efforts have improved awareness and appreciation for
manta conservation, while promoting alternative incomes for local communities.
• Balancing environment conservation and economic gain through community based tourism (2018) describes
the Sugba lagoon tourism project. This helped communities realize that environment conservation and
income generation are directly related. The income earned from tourism is helping to augment the income of
the families, while addressing the issue of declining fish stocks that threatened food security and livelihoods.
• Una tourism cluster – raising awareness of the importance of preserving natural resources, by linking them
to people’s livelihood (2019) describes the establishment and support to Una Tourism Cluster in Bosnia and
Herzegovina. Clusters worked with 27 members to establish an eco-market; provide grants program to fund
new tourism facilities; branding and standardization; and strengthening the capacity of TC Una members. 300
families directly benefit as cluster members or employees of hotels/restaurants, while more than 1,000 people
indirectly benefit.
4.9 Risk Management and Nature-based tourism in peripheral areas: Development or

disaster? (2005) examines problems of NBT development
Climate Change in peripheral areas, including sub-polar areas, alpine areas
and forests, mountains, islands, and coastal environments.
Risk management involves the forecasting and analysis of The book considers the opportunities that nature-based
potential financial and non-financial risks and identifying tourism provides as the basis for peripheral region
procedures to mitigate or eliminate their impact. Risks development. Similarly, Ecotourism’s promise and peril:
can arise at the local, national, or international levels A biological evaluation (2017) considers the impacts
and be either internal or external to an NBT initiative.78 that visitation can have on wildlife, including behavioral,
Nature-based tourism, in addition to mountain, island, and physiological, ecological, and evolutionary impacts. The
coastal tourism, is especially vulnerable to shifting climatic book also synthesizes the current state of knowledge
conditions, which are likely to change the suitability of regarding best practices for reducing human impacts on
destinations to certain tourist activities.79 wildlife. Tourism in changing natural environments (2019)
74
explores how the impacts of climate change, natural and Climate change and its impacts on tourism (1999) reviews
man-made disasters, economic instability, and other macro- the impacts of climate change for a series of international
environmental factors can have profound implications holiday destinations visited by United Kingdom tourists. It
for local and global economies, fragile ecosystems, and examines the extent to which climate change may affect
human cultures and livelihoods. From Africa, Wildlife- the environment al systems of the Maldives, European
based tourism and climate: Potential opportunities and Alps, Eastern Mediterranean, Southern Spain, Scotland,
challenges for Botswana (undated) highlights the decline European Lakes, South and East Africa, Australia, Florida,
of wildlife due to human activities in southern Africa. It and Brazil. Climate action through regeneration: Unlocking
describes how fragmentation of wildlife habitats, combined the power of communities and nature through tourism
with increased climate variability due to climate change, (2022) is a white paper that outlines practical examples,
poses a risk to the sustainability of a wildlife-based tourism available support, and clear action steps so that travel
product in Botswana. The publication calls for the need to businesses can take action today to begin utilizing the
consider adaptation measures in this sector, and to seek power of nature-based solutions to draw down emissions
alternative tourism attractions and products. A report on and help destinations adapt to climate change.
Figure 8: Tourism related-threats in protected areas80
Tourist Behavior Tourism Infrastructure and Policies
• Quiet natural experience: Noise pollution (e.g., • Freshwater systems: Excessive wastewater and
for high quality visitor experience
ATTRACTIONS IMPORTANT
from motor vehicles) water pollution

• Wilderness experience: Trailside littering • Clean beaches: Solid waste disposal and sewage
• Plant communities/habitat: Soil erosion from • Coral reefs: Anchoring practices of boats
trampling • Viewscapes: Air pollution (e.g., from motorized
• Coral reefs: Inappropriate diving and vehicles)
snorkeling • Wilderness experience: Inappropriately sited
• Wildlife viewing: Inappropriate wildlife viewing buildings, roads, and other infrastructure
practices (e.g., visitors are too close, too many, • Stargazing: Inappropriate lighting
too loud)
• Bird habitat: Excessive fuel wood consumption • Freshwater biodiversity: Overuse of freshwater
resources
CONSERVATION OBJECTIVE
• Vegetation: Trampling in sensitive ecosystems

• Coral reefs: Inappropriate diving and snorkeling • Coral reefs: Excessive wastewater and water
pollution
• Bird nesting: Inappropriate wildlife viewing
practices (e.g., visitors are too close, too many, • Migratory birds: Destruction of important habitat
too loud) (e.g., mangroves) for tourism infrastructure
• Target species: Inappropriate feeding of wildlife, • Sensitive areas: Inappropriately sited buildings,
creating problem individuals roads, and other infrastructure
• Natural systems: Introducing invasive alien • Sea turtles and migratory birds: Inappropriate
species through horses, hiking shoes, boats lighting
• Native fish: Fish stocking practices
75
Tools andResources
4.10 Monitoring and • Indicators of sustainable development for tourism

destinations: A guidebook (2004) provides detailed
Evaluation technical guidance on the value of indicators in
measuring tourism’s impacts. The guidebook includes
Effective monitoring and evaluation (M&E) of NBT allows indicators that can be used in NBT, including tourism
managers of NBT destinations and enterprises to measure as a contributor to nature conservation.
progress against selected variables to identify areas
of success and failure. This information can be used to • Ecotourism tracking tool in monitoring and evaluation
adapt management approaches to improve the level of of ecotourism sites or projects in the Philippines (2017)
performance overall. is a tool for operational tourism enterprises. It aims to
standardize sets of criteria and parameters in M&E of
ecotourism sites and projects to ensure environmental
Box 18: Case Study: Assessment of natural friendliness. The tool includes ratings checklists and
resources for nature-based tourism: the case of
questionnaire tools to help with the evaluation of
the Central Coast Region of Western Australia
policies, operational management, socio-cultural and
(2001)
biological features, ecotourism products and services,
economic benefits, financing/enterprise building, and
facilities.
• A question of balance: Green is the new black (2009)

is a self-audit workbook developed by the Tourism
Industry of Nova Scotia to provide tourism operators
with helpful environmental information, best
practices, and a method for conducting self-audits.
While not specific to NBT, it addresses environmental
management issues and tools for energy and water
conservation, waste management, and enhancing
socioeconomic benefits.
This journal paper provides a case study and the
• A toolkit for monitoring and managing community-
development and application of an evaluation
based tourism (2007) is designed to provide readers
framework to NBT activities at a destination level. The
with the know-how to set up and run a monitoring
framework evaluates operations based on attractions,
program for a community-based tourism project. It
access, supporting infrastructure, and level of
gives step-by-step guidelines, supported by a wide
environmental degradation. Finally, it highlights
range of case studies, to enable readers to conduct
some of the difficulties associated with establishing
their own monitoring project.
objective resource evaluation techniques for nature-
based tourism. • Importance-performance analysis (IPA) to inform
visitor management at marine wildlife tourism
Monitoring Tools for Nature-Based Tourism destinations (2020) explains how to investigate and
enhance visitor satisfaction in the short-term and for
Many useful tools are available to help design and longer-term sustainability of the industry through
implement M&E for NBT. The DestiMED project has visitor-informed tourism management. Its application
compiled a Report on available monitoring tools (2018) is illustrated for Nature-based tourism development
as a global review of current and past tourism monitoring in coastal wetlands of Sri Lanka (2021) in the Ramsar
and certification programs for tourism in PAs. Some of the listed Maduganga Mangrove Estuary.
tools include the following:
76
• Chapters in the Handbook for sustainable tourism Monitoring Tools for Protected Areas
practitioners: The essential toolbox (2021) provide
step-by-step guidance on monitoring approaches, For tourism in PAs, the following specific monitoring
including biodiversity and stressors rapid assessment tools are available:
and Designing and delivering wildlife viewing
protocols that enhance sustainability. • Threshold of sustainability for tourism within
protected areas: A quick guide for protected
• Research and monitoring provide valuable area practitioners (2011) introduces a tourism
information that can be used to make evidence- management framework called the “threshold of
based decisions to improve tourism facilities and sustainability.” It is designed to enable managers
visitor management. For example, The Effects of to take rapid action to mitigate the most critical
Recreational Camping on the Environmental Valu threats, while beginning to lay a solid financial
es of National Parks in Sri Lanka (2021) found that foundation for tourism within PAs. It includes a
significant levels of environmental degradation were series of steps, including assessment of threats,
evident at campsites due to biophysical impacts of identification of actions, assessing tourism finances
human use and recreation, and the level of impact and the broader enabling environment, developing
was unrelated to level or frequency of use. Similarly, a communications strategy, and implementing and
Understanding the impact of recreational disturbance monitoring actions.
caused by motor vehicles on waterbirds: a case study
from the Bundala Wetland, Sri Lanka (2022) found that • Visitor counts! Guidance for protected areas on
resting and foraging birds responded to recreation assessing visitation and its economic impact
vehicles up to 100 meters from them, and therefore (2021) aims to establish standardized guidelines
recommended a minimum setback buffer of 100 for measuring the economic impacts of tourism in
meters between wetland birds and recreational PAs. It contains guidance on undertaking visitor
vehicles. counting, expenditure surveys, economic analyses,
and reporting the findings for the public and policy
makers.82
Box 19: Citizen science for monitoring of NBT81 • Developed in South African PAs, the Sustainable
nature-based tourism assessment toolkit (2003)
PA managers can use citizen science, a form of provides a mechanism for tangibly and transparently
protected area-based volunteerism that supports measuring management, environmental, social, and
research efforts, to develop effective interventions economic characteristics of NBT in a reliable and
for resource management issues. Citizen scientists comparable way.
can be tourists who have traveled to a PA specifically
for this purpose or local outdoor recreationists who • The Global database protected areas visitors
enjoy leisure opportunities in PAs while contributing (GD-PAVIS) (see Figure 9) aims to be a new tool to
their energy and skills to science. In Australia, the improve the reporting on sustainable tourism in
Victoria Marine National Park and Sanctuary started protected and conserved areas. Information compiled
the Sea Search citizen science project to gather in the database will help report on several global
information about the health of the network of indicators (e.g., tourism use, tourism value, and
Victoria’s marine parks and sanctuaries. Similarly, tourism-related economic impacts of PAs), generate
the University of York in the United Kingdom used knowledge on tourism and PAs, support decision
volunteers to document sightings of over 250 species making of governments in relation to sustainable
of invertebrates. tourism strategies in PAs, and strengthen capacity
of park managers to develop appropriate systems to
store and manage information on sustainable tourism.
77
Tools andResources
Figure 9: Global Database Protected Areas Visitors (GD-PAVIS)83
Visitor Reporting
1 2 3 4 5
Introduction Site Information Visitation Data Data Collection Methd Complete
Certification and Standards is a book that considers the topic of quality control
and accreditation in ecotourism, with a broad range
Certification aims to foster responsible environmental, of examples and case studies. The book describes the
social, and cultural behavior and provide a good quality mechanisms that can be implemented to ensure quality
product to consumers. Certification provides a mechanism in all aspects of the industry, namely, PAs, businesses,
through which enterprises can be recognized as having products, and tour guides. Similarly, Ecotourism and
met voluntary standards of performance that meet certification: Setting standards in practice (2002) explores
or exceed baseline standards or legislation, following the concepts underlying certification and highlights case
independent third-party verification.84 studies of certification schemes around the world. Tourism
in protected areas: Developing meaningful standards
A simple user’s guide to certification for sustainable (2016) discusses partnerships between conservation and
tourism and ecotourism (2010) is designed for those who tourism and how these partnerships could unfold through
wish to understand how certifying sustainable tourism the work of the IUCN Green List and the Global Sustainable
and ecotourism works or how to begin the process. Tourism Council.
Quality assurance and certification in ecotourism (2007)
Box 20: Case Study: Assessment of nature-based tourism business and tourist demand in Vlora Bay and
Karaburun-Sazan National Marine Park, Albania (2016)
This study identifies and evaluates

nature-based sustainable tourism-
related certification schemes
available in or appropriate for
Albania. The study evaluated
tourist demand and tourist
satisfaction in Vlora Bay, the
level of information available on
Karaburun-Sazan marine protected
area (MPA), and approaches to
nature-based initiatives. It provides
lessons learned for other MPA
evaluations and copies of applied
questionnaires.
78
There are hundreds of standards and certification programs

globally, but there are particularly reputable examples for Box 21: Use of certification to ensure best practice
NBT. The Global Sustainable Tourism Council (GSTC) has NBT in protected areas in Australia85
recognized and accredited certification programs for NBT,
including those aligned with the following:
• GSTC standards for hotels and tour operators:

Such as the European Ecotourism Labeling Standard,
Ecotourism Australia’s ecotourism standards, the
Ecotourism Ireland Certification Program, Ecotourism
Kenya’s Eco-rating Certification Scheme, Global
Ecosphere Retreats from The Long Run, the Korean
Ecotourism Standard for Accommodations and
Tours, the Japan Ecolodge Association, and TOFTigers
Initiative’s Pug Mark Eco Certification. The Asian
Ecotourism Standard for Accommodations is currently
under review for recognition. Travelife for Tour
Operators also audits elephant camps to ensure that
they treat elephants well. The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park has implemented
a High Standard Tour Operator program for a
• GSTC standards for destinations: Such as the Green
number of years, so that the majority of visitors
Destinations Standard (including ecotourism and
to the reef are led by certified operators. The park
PA destinations), Korean Ecotourism Standard for
rewards and encourages tour operators to become
Destinations, and the Mountain IDEAL Destinations
certified by Earthcheck and Ecotourism Australia
Standard.
through longer licenses, exclusive access to sensitive
Additionally, the Wildlife Friendly Enterprise Network sites, and promotional opportunities. These no-cost
sets standards for gorilla-friendly and sea turtle-friendly approaches demonstrate to operators that being
tourism. Their gorilla-friendly standard is currently being sustainable, and independently certified as being so,
used by the International Gorilla Conservation Program to makes business sense.
establish new training materials for guides, trackers, and
porters in Rwanda.
79
5
COVID-19 Pandemic
80
I
n March 2020, the World Health Organization officially protected and conserved areas around the world are
declared the novel coronavirus (COVID-19) outbreak a being impacted by COVID-19, including in relation to
global pandemic.86 The pandemic led to an abrupt tourism. The paper proposed a call for action towards
halt in all tourism globally, caused by a combination of a more sustainable pathway, including re-building
international travel restrictions, domestic lockdowns, stronger and more effectively.
and closures of protected areas that aimed to slow the
• COVID-19 and conservation: Crisis response strategies
spread of the virus. The pandemic drove a systemic shock
that benefit people and nature (2021) is a briefing
with widespread implications for the survival of wildlife
paper that suggests strategies to alleviate the
tourism, conservation financing, and poverty.87
pandemic’s adverse effects on conservation in the
The NBT sector was hit hard by travel restrictions, with Global South. Proposed policy responses included
severe and systemic repercussions for conservation giving local people a greater say in the use of their
and local livelihoods. Travel restrictions led to declines territories by tourists while reducing the dependence
in revenues normally used for conservation finance, for of conservation funding on tourism markets, and
salaries of tourism employees, and also for entrepreneurs reassessing interactions of visitors with wildlife to
and small businesses that provide products and services reduce the risk of zoonotic disease emergence and
within the tourism value chain.88 A plethora of research transmission.
articles and opinion pieces emerged during this period. To
• Resolution 130 on Strengthening sustainable tourism’s
catalogue this growth, a compendium of over 1,500 online
role in biodiversity conservation and community
resources was compiled into COVID-19 and sustainable
resilience (2021) is a motion that was adopted at the
tourism: Information resources and links (2020), with NBT
2020 World Conservation Congress. The motion calls
materials on resilience and recovery, market research and
on the IUCN and its members to commit dedicated
intelligence, impacts on tourism and destinations, and
attention to nature-based tourism, including ensuring
virtual tours. An overview of the impacts and implications of
that NBT incorporated conservation and biological
the pandemic was compiled in The future of nature-based
monitoring and diversified sustainable livelihoods,
tourism: Impacts of COVID-19 and paths to sustainability
and established more sustainable financing
(2021). This analysis offers examples of pathways towards
campaigns to support key biodiversity assets during
sustainable recovery, including using virtual tours and
tourism industry recessions.
new tourism products for domestic visitors. Further
synthesis was provided during the online symposium
on Crisis response & recovery: Nature-based tourism,
biodiversity, and livelihoods (2021). This event brought
5.2 Impacts of the pandemic
together global experts to address challenges relating to on nature-based tourism
NBT, biodiversity, and livelihoods, and provide examples
of solution-oriented outcomes. The event recordings and During the first two years of the pandemic, a series of
a suite of resource links are available online. studies were undertaken to understand the magnitude and
character of impacts on NBT, and associated implications
for the environment, economies, and society. Resources
5.1 Policy papers that provide syntheses of these studies include:
International agencies have compiled policy analyses to • Tourism in protected areas amid the COVID-19
support strategic responses to the COVID-19 pandemic pandemic (2021), which aims to share experiences
and its impacts on NBT. They include the following and examples from around the world on the impacts
noteworthy materials: of the COVID-19 pandemic on protected area
tourism; and considers how to build resilience within
• Editorial essay: COVID-19 and protected and protected area tourism as a regenerative conservation
conserved areas (2020) provides a snapshot of how
81
COVID-19 PANDEMIC
tool. The paper draws on resources including The impact of COVID-19 on domestic and international
collapse of tourism and its impacts on wildlife tourism tourism activity in geoparks in Indonesia. Also,
destinations (2020). Reimagining resilience: COVID-19 and marine tourism
in Indonesia (2021) applied a Sustainable Livelihoods
• The future of nature-based tourism: Impacts of
Framework (SLF) to examine the social structures,
COVID-19 and paths to sustainability (2021) describes
agency, and livelihood capital of the surrounding
both positive and negative impacts observed globally
socio-ecological systems in Wakatobi National Park.
on protected areas and conservation (including wildlife
crime and land use change), tourism businesses, and • Namibia: COVID-19, conservation, and tourism in
local livelihoods, with numerous examples and further Namibia’s conservancies: Socioeconomic and land-
links. Travel demand for NBT and adventure tourism use impacts is a chapter within Conservation, land
experiences rapidly grew once travel restrictions were conflicts, and sustainable tourism in Southern Africa
lifted – including among domestic visitors. (2022). It describes the socioeconomic impact of the
drop in tourism caused by the pandemic, particularly
For regional analyses, COVID-19 and protected area
for tourism employees, craft producers, and those
tourism: A spotlight on impacts and options in Africa (2021)
benefiting from game meat distribution from trophy
and Latin America (2021) are based on a global survey
hunting.
of tourism operators. The regional reports describe the
impact of COVID-19 on wildlife tourism in protected areas, Several analyses have focused particular attention on the
considering implications for protected areas, the tourism financial and economic impacts caused by the removal
sector, and local communities. Country case studies have of NBT from national and protected area economies.
also included the following: The Banking on protected areas: promoting sustainable
• Antarctica: Is COVID-19 helping or hindering eﬀective protected area tourism to benefit local economies (2021)
management of Antarctic tourism? (2022) presents uses a general equilibrium model for local economy-wide
a summary of Antarctic tourism activity during the impact evaluation (LEWIE) to describe direct and indirect
COVID-19 pandemic and a SWOT analysis of the impacts of tourism by integrating models of actors
future challenges and opportunities COVID-19 poses (businesses and households) within local economies
for those operating in such a remote wilderness area. around protected areas in Zambia, Nepal, Brazil, and Fiji.
Complementary country reports are also available on
• Crete: Sustainable tourism development – The
mountaineering village initiative (2021) is the story Assessing the economic impact of tourism in protected
of Milia Mountain Retreat that reflects changes in areas on local economies in Zambia (2021) and Nepal
tourism demand worldwide accelerated by the (2021). Data is presented on the monthly loss of income
COVID-19 pandemic. Located in Western Crete, it has from no tourism (as was the case during the height of
seen a significant increase in domestic tourists and the pandemic) demonstrating that poor households
a strong growth of demand from travelers seeking suffered the greatest losses (see Figure 10). The analyses
authentic experiences in the Mediterranean. recommend promoting sustainable tourism in protected
areas within COVID-19 economic recovery plans and
• Indonesia: The post COVID-19 tourism dilemma for
providing investment that supports jobs and support
geoparks in Indonesia (2021) provides a brief account
and rapid assessment, utilizing qualitative data, of the economic development, while also protecting biodiversity.
82
Figure 10: Modeled monthly income loss from no tourism89
25
19.9
20
Income loss, millions USD
15
10
5 3.8 3.8
1.3
0.7
0
Zambia Zambia Nepal Brazil Fiji
Lower Zambezi South Luangwa Chitwan Abrolhos Marine Mamanuca
National Park Park Islands
Error bars represent 95% confidence intervals

Source: World Bank data
Note: The data used in the LEWIE analysis was collected in 2019, prior to the pandemic. The modeling of a “no tourism” scenario (to mimic the
COVID-19 pandemic) uses that data.
With ongoing data collection, the African Nature-Based

Tourism Collaborative Platform gathers information
5.3 Nature-Based Tourism
on how communities and small and medium-sized Recovery and ResIlience
enterprises (SMEs) are involved in nature-based tourism,
their financial and staffing situation prior to COVID-19, Prior to the pandemic, sustainable tourism guidance
and how the pandemic has affected these and their emphasized the need for diversification of products and
resulting needs. Data is available for 11 southern African source markets to reduce the impact of shocks (e.g., from
countries and country case study reports have been natural disasters, political turbulence, financial recessions
produced for Botswana, Kenya, Malawi, Mozambique, etc.). In the wake of COVID-19, practitioners established
South Africa, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia, and Zimbabwe. further guidance to support the adaptation of NBT
The platform aims to help connect funders to the destinations and operators, to help them adapt, survive,
communities and small and medium enterprises most in and improve their resilience. For example:
need of funding support.
83
COVID-19 PANDEMIC
• Tourism and visitation to protected areas amid • Blue tourism in islands and small tourism-dependent
COVID-19: Guidance for protected area authorities coastal states: Tools and recovery strategies (2022) is
and managers (2021) provides pragmatic suggestions a synthesis of literature on the impact of COVID-19
for protected area managers and authorities on on Small Island Developing States (SIDS) by region.
operating tourism safely amid the COVID-19 crisis. The note includes a practical summary of COVID-19
Guidance is accompanied by supplementary links to recovery pathways that will help SIDS develop
sources and further information. more competitive and sustainable tourism sectors.
Illustrated with real-world examples, the guidance
• The future of nature-based tourism: Impacts of
note incorporates best practices and lessons learned
COVID-19 and paths to sustainability (2021) describes
on reopening to tourism over three phases: short-,
forms of innovation and resilience-building by NBT
medium-, and longer-term sustainability, before
operations, including using the use of virtual tours and
presenting some strategic pathways for “Building
establishing tourism products for domestic visitors.
Bank Bluer,” and introducing the Blue Tourism
Case studies shared include agritourism operations
Resource Portal — a database and e-library of
that shifted focus towards agricultural sales to boost
information about blue tourism.
incomes and artisans who began making fabric masks
to reduce transmission of the virus. • Mitigating zoonotic disease transmission with a One
Health approach to gorilla conservation and gorilla
• Tourism destination management in a post-pandemic
tourism (2022) is a case study that explains how
context: Global issues and destination management
the Conservation Through Public Health program
solutions (2021) is a book that describes issues and
helps to reduce dependence of local people on
challenges faced by tourism destinations, exposing
natural resources to meet basic needs of food and
emerging trends and proposing novel management
fuelwood. This reduces threats to mountain gorillas
solutions in order to develop coping capacities and
and other wildlife and their habitats by addressing
build resilience against the effects of potential
poverty and hunger, which drive poaching and
future pandemics.
illegal activity.
• Ten principles for sustainable destinations: charting
• COVID-19 health and safety guidelines (2021)
a new path forward for travel and tourism (2022)
were produced for the adventure travel industry,
describes how the uncertainties of the pandemic
in addition to specific nature-based experiences
allowed destinations time to do the inclusive
including trekking, cycling, rafting, camping,
conceptual work, allocate resources, and adjust
cultural tours, small lodges, small vessels cruising,
business models before travelers return in full. The
skiing and snowboarding, and wildlife experiences,
10 principles are set out to guide decision makers in
in addition to an overarching guideline for the
their pursuit to “build back better,” including in NBT
industry.
settings.
• Virtual protected area experiences in Africa: Status
• Tacking the issues of overcrowding post-pandemic,
and potential for post-COVID-19 resilience (2022)
the book Overtourism: Lessons for a better future
reviews virtual tours and experiences as a proxy for
(2021) incorporates case study chapters on protected
travel while physical travel is challenged. The paper
areas and World Heritage Sites in Brazil, Canada,
considers the current status of virtual tours for
China, Ecuador, Laos, Nepal, Peru, Tanzania, and the
African PAs, and their potential as a mechanism to
United States. It aims to help destination re-think how
sustain interest and promotional presence online and
to replace unmanaged crowds with sustainable travel
generate revenue for conservation and livelihoods
that enriches destinations and local communities.
while travel restrictions remain in place.
84
• Mountain tourism – towards a more sustainable path An example of new styles of destination planning in
(2021) highlights the important role that tourism can light of the COVID-19 pandemic comes from Australia in
play in valuing the natural and spiritual heritage of the Glen Innes Highlands destination management plan
mountains and the cultural diversity and traditional (2021), which describes the destination, its strengths
practices of mountain peoples. Consumer appetites and challenges, and presents a development and brand
for destinations that are outdoors and less crowded framework, strategies and actions, and a monitoring
have increased in the wake of the pandemic, and framework for NBT. The plan responds to the increased
these changes usher in new opportunities for demand for visitation to natural areas by people who
mountain destinations to rebuild a greener and more want to challenge themselves; be outdoors and active;
sustainable form of tourism and rethink their products reconnect as families; and interact socially with locals and
and services. other travelers.
• Opportunities for transforming coastal and marine New financial vehicles have also emerged to support NBT
tourism: Towards sustainability, regeneration and destinations, enterprises, and the livelihoods they support.
resilience (2022) considers the socioeconomic These include:
argument for shifting to a more sustainable tourism
• The Africa Conservation and Communities Tourism
model as part of recovery efforts from the global
(ACCT) Fund is a COVID-19 relief facility providing
pandemic. The report provides a holistic assessment
high-impact loans to conservation tourism operators
of the current state of coastal and marine tourism
in Sub-Saharan Africa. The fund seeks to ensure these
and draws on 32 case studies and examples from 23
companies will survive the shorter-term impacts of the
countries to identify a set of priorities designed to
COVID pandemic and subsequently provide support
help catalyze systemic change in destination-wide
in rapidly restoring and growing their economic
management through strategic investment and
contributions to communities and conservation.
intervention by governments to support sustainable
The fund aims to use a blended capital structure to
recovery from the global pandemic.
help safeguard tourism companies with the highest
• Slightly differently, Barcoding Galapagos: Recording potential to support critical conservation landscapes
and mitigating COVID-19 impacts using key workers and the communities that depend on them, while
in eco-tourism (2021) describes how naturalist guides delivering quantified, scientifically sound impact
(women and men equally) without income during the outcomes and targeting to deliver a financial return to
pandemic were trained to catalog the biodiversity of impact investors.
the Galapagos using DNA sequencing technology.
• Conservation International’s African Conservancies
By providing infrastructure and scientific training
Fund was established in 2020 to fund conservancies
(cash for training), the process built local capacity and
across Africa and achieve the triple impact on climate,
resilience, with positive implications for wildlife and
biodiversity conservation, and social upliftment for
ecosystem conservation.
communities.
85
6
Training Materials
86
T
raining materials and resources are increasingly finance, enterprise development, scientific, academic,
available through online courses and webinars. volunteer, and educational travel, with case studies
Some of the free-to-use resources are from the Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Ethiopia, Mali,
described here: Montenegro, and Uganda. The course on Tourism and
conservation – sustainable models and strategies
The IUCN has established a free Massive Online Open provides an online workbook that focuses particularly
Course (MOOC) on Valorisation of protected area on sustainable marine tourism. It gives guidance on
resources, which contains three modules dedicated business planning, operations and management, staff
to the IUCN Best Practice Guidelines on Tourism training, and sales and marketing (see Figure 11). All of
and visitation in protected areas: Guidelines for the other courses can be applied to a variety of forms of
sustainability (2018). tourism, including NBT.
Training toolkit. Sustainable tourism in protected areas: Lastly, the Travel Foundation has produced a case study
Resources for trainers and facilitators (2021) provides on Whale shark guide training in Mexico (2008) that
supporting materials and resources for trainers with was conducted to help boat trip operators conserve
different levels of experience in training, facilitation, or whale sharks.
capacity building, as well as a collection of resources
that both experienced and inexperienced trainers can Relevant webinars on elements of NBT include
use. The toolkit can be used to support face-to-face, the following:
online, or “blended” learning, and complements an
The Society of Outdoor Recreation Professionals offers
online training platform.
webinars to members and non-members on topics
The European Union provides free online training for including establishing trail systems, partnerships
members of the European Ecotourism network. The with federal agencies, visitor use monitoring and
courses supporting NBT include ecotourism training management, and understanding economic impact
for businesses and ecotourism training for evaluators in studies.
English and other languages.
The IUCN’s World Commission on Protected Areas
A course manual for Interpretation techniques and (WCPA)’s Tourism and Protected Areas Specialist
ecotourism management training has been developed Group (TAPAS Group) hosts webinars on NBT topics
under the Mediterranean Experience of Ecotourism with partners. These are available on topics including
(MEET) Project. This includes guidance on the international perspectives on visitor use management;
development of interpretation for NBT. the Visitor Use Management Framework, tourism
concessions and partnerships, certification tools and
Colorado State University’s website includes a number standards for protected areas management, and more
of training materials and management tools, including than just signs on designing visitor heritage experiences.
adaptation of the Recreation Opportunity Spectrum for
use in Latin America. The Global Wildlife Program has hosted a webinar
series since 2016 that covers NBT-related issues.
The U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) Relevant webinar topics include sharing benefits from
has established a series of online training resources protected area tourism with local communities (2022),
on sustainable tourism. These include courses on collaborative management partnerships for protected
tourism and conservation, project development, areas (2021), and estimating the economic impact of
destination management, tourism investment and protected area tourism on local economies (2021).
87
Tools andMaterials
Training Resources for Nature-Based Tourism
Figure 11: Contents of the course “Tourism and conservation – sustainable models and strategies”
01 02 03 04 05 06
Improve Tourism Increase Increase Income Increase Increase Tourism- Increase
Operations and Conservation Diversification Monitoring and Generated Conservation
Guidelines Awareness and Research Conservation Partnerships
3.1 Target resource
Constituencies Financing
1.1 Promote extractors with 4.1 Increase the role 6.1 Develop
sustainable tourism 2.1 Increase sustainable tourism of local residents 5.1 Utilize partnerships
guidelines with awareness and employment in monitoring & sustainable tourism between protected
visitors conservation research profits to support areas, NGOs, and
3.2 Develop
support of visitors conservation universities
1.2 Promote sustainable tourism
activities
sustainable tourism 2.2 Increase products that 4.2 Increase the 6.2 Develop
guidelines with awareness and directly mitigate role of visitors 5.2 Develop travel partnerships
travel industry conservation conservation in monitoring & philanthropy between protected
support of local threats research programs areas and
1.3 Promote
residents communities
sustainable tourism 5.3 Develop
guidelines within 2.3 Link benefits of conservation-
protected areas sustainable tourism themed brands and
to the community merchandise
as a whole
5.4 Promote
mandatory
or voluntary
protected area
entrance/user fees
88
7
Networks and
Institutions
89
Networks and Institutions
T
here are a diversity of public sector and nonprofit product development. It shares examples of interpretation
organizations that provide information and materials and visitor centers for PAs.
technical support on NBT.90 Provided below is
an overview of notable institutions and networks that
support knowledge development, capacity building and
Center for Responsible Travel
training, and awareness raising in the sector. (CREST)
CREST is a global non-profit organization dedicated to
Adventure Travel Trade Association increasing the positive global impact of responsible
(ATTA) tourism. CREST provides evidence-based research and
analysis to governments, policymakers, tourism businesses,
The largest global network of adventure travel leaders, non-profit organizations, and international agencies to
including around 30,000 individual guides, tour operators, solve the most pressing problems confronting tourism,
lodges, travel advisors, tourism boards, destination the world’s largest service industry. Their website hosts
marketing and management organizations, outdoor resources on climate change, biodiversity and cultural
educators, gear companies, and travel media who share heritage, overtourism, the wealth gap, and responsible
a belief and commitment to sustainable tourism. ATTA travel.
also published a series of COVID-19 health and safety
guidelines for nature-based activities.
Center for Protected Area
Management (CPAM)
American Trails
CPAM at Colorado State University in the United
American Trails is a nonprofit organization that advances States contributes to the conservation, planning, and
the development of diverse, high-quality trails and management of the world’s PAs and the landscapes and
greenways to benefit people and communities. Their seascapes that connect them through capacity building,
website and resource library provide comprehensive applied research, and technical collaboration with the
online sources for planning, building, designing, funding, organizations that help manage them and the communities
managing, enhancing, and supporting trails, greenways, whose well-being depends on them. CPAM’s website
and blueways. They also have a learning center with includes a number of training materials and management
training events and a webinar series. tools, including adaptation of the Recreation Opportunity
Spectrum for use in Latin America.
Asian Ecotourism Network
This association aims to provide networking opportunities Chico Mendes Institute for
to organizations in Asia. They also host an ecotourism Biodiversity Conservation
standard.
(ICMBio)
As part of the Ministry of Environment in Brazil, ICMBio
Association of Ecotourism in conducts a range of work on NBT. In 2018, ICMBio
Romania managed 12.4 million visitors in 334 protected areas. The
agency develops initiatives including community-based
This association is a partnership for nature conservation
tourism, large concessions, and long-distance trails, as
and tourism development among tourism associations,
well as measures the economic impacts of visitation in PAs.
NGOs, nature conservation projects, and travel agencies
The institute has done considerable work on Assessing
in Romania. It has activities for promotion and marketing,
economic impacts of visitor spending in protected areas
public awareness, ecotourism certification, strategies, and
of Brazil (2017).
90
Children and Nature Network DestiMED

The Children and Nature Network aims to increase equitable DestiMED is a project that brings together 13 protected
access to nature so that children – and natural places – areas to collectively manage and promote ecotourism in
can thrive. They invest in leadership and communities the Mediterranean basin. The project aims to help create
by sharing evidence-based resources, scaling innovative standards and monitoring methods, design ecotourism
solutions, and driving policy change. packages, and develop guidelines for sustainable tourism
management.
Conservation International (CI)

CI is a nonprofit organization that works to protect
Ecoclub
nature for the benefit of all, through s
cience, policy, Ecoclub is a forum for people who operate ecolodges
and partnerships with countries, communities, and and ecotourism businesses, are ecotourism practitioners,
companies. They supported the development of resources or who have a general interest in ecotourism. The forum
such as A practical guide to good practice: Managing provides useful resources and discussions, as well as
environmental impacts in the marine recreation sector announcements from ecolodges. Audit reports of Ecoclub
(2003). EcolodgeTM members, who complete a questionnaire,
provide evidence to support their claims, and pass a
remote audit.
Conservation Travel
Conservation Travel provides a resource hub for
conservation travel and aims to educate the travel industry
Ecotourism Australia
and travelers to promote better, innovative practices Ecotourism Australia is a nonprofit organization focused on
supporting conservation goals globally. Their platform encouraging environmentally sustainable and culturally
allows people to submit tools, case studies, and research responsible tourism. They design and deliver certification
and reports. programs for tourism products and destinations and
organize conferences and master classes. Their Ecotourism
resource hub includes business tools, destination and
Conservation Finance Alliance ecotourism plans, and guidance on PA management,
(CFA) indigenous tourism, and visitor accessibility. They have
a linkage with the booking platform Bookdifferent. The
The CFA is an alliance of conservation finance experts,
organization has a Geotourism Forum for its members to
practitioners, and organizations that produces resources
advise how geotourism can best be promoted and inspire
including those that relate to NBT, such as Finance tools
environmentally sustainable and culturally responsible
for coral reef conservation: A Guide (2018).
tourism.
Department of Conservation, New European Ecotourism Network

Zealand (EEN)
New Zealand’s Department of Conservation is the This is a network of relevant stakeholders aiming to
government agency responsible for conserving the ensure that ecotourism services in Europe contribute
country’s natural and historic heritage. The Department’s to conservation and sustainability. EEN supports the
website hosts a series of useful procedures and practical development and implementation of the European
Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) to support NBT in Ecotourism Labelling Standard (EETLS), an initiative that
protected areas. These include on interpretation and track ensures baseline standards of quality in ecotourism. The
construction and maintenance. EETLS has been officially recognized by the GSTC. DestiNet
91
Figure 12: DestiNet’s Tourism 2030 Green Travel Maps App 91
to Tourism 2030 also acts as a knowledge networking Geological Society of Australia

portal for sustainable and responsible tourism, with
subscription options. Topics include natural heritage This society is a membership organization, that provides
and biodiversity, destination management, value chain information on geotourism, including best practices on
management and fair trade, cultural heritage, climate geotrails in Australia and a Geoheritage toolkit.
change, knowledge/networking/training/education,
certification, and marketing. The site includes a
searchable database of tourism stakeholders promoting
Global Ecotourism Network (GEN)
sustainable tourism, as well as a Global Certification GEN is a global group of ecotourism pioneers and
Quickfinder that helps tourism businesses, destinations, practitioners. Through their website and social media,
and tour operators to find those certificates that are they share the latest information and initiatives related
available to them in their country. This is linked to a to ecotourism.
Green Travel Map, with an associated app, showing
where certifications are based across the world. In
Europe, the initiative aims to have all tourism in Global Sustainable Tourism
protected areas certified by 2030, as a goal under SDGs Alliance (GSTA)
12, 13, 14, and 15.
GSTA is a partnership of leading organizations in the
sustainable tourism field working together with USAID
Forum Advocating Cultural and missions to apply a holistic and market-driven approach
Eco-Tourism (FACET) to sustainable tourism development. The alliance has
a series of online training resources on sustainable
FACET is a Western Australian network and information tourism.
resource for people interested in cultural tourism,
NBT, and ecotourism. The forum promotes events,
conferences, and awards through its website.
92
Global Sustainable Tourism Interagency Visitor Use

Council (GSTC) Management Council
The GSTC establishes and manages global sustainable The council includes representatives of six United States
standards, known as the GSTC Criteria. There are two government agencies and aims to provide guidance on
sets: Destination criteria for public policy makers and visitor use management policies and to develop legally
destination managers, and Industry criteria for hotels defensible and effective interagency implementation tools
and tour operators. The criteria are guiding principles for visitor use management. The council produces a number
and minimum requirements that any tourism business of visitor management frameworks and guidebooks,
or destination should aspire to reach in order to protect including Visitor use management framework (2016), the
and sustain the world’s natural and cultural resources, Visitor capacity guidebook (2019), and other technical
while ensuring tourism meets its potential as a tool for resources. The council has conducted webinars with the
conservation and poverty alleviation. Their criteria have IUCN WCPA TAPAS Group to provide an overview of the
been used by a number of certification bodies to certify visitor use management framework and its application.
NBT enterprises and destinations (including PAs) across
the world. GSTC provides members with access to training
programs and events.
Journal of Ecotourism
An international journal focusing specifically on
Griffith Institute for Tourism ecotourism and nature-based tourism, it seeks to advance
the field by examining social, economic, and ecological
Based at Griffith University in Australia, this institute’s aspects at different scales and in different regions of the
strategic research areas include sustainable tourism and world. The journal publishes peer-reviewed conceptual,
visitor experience design and evaluation. Its website shares theoretical, and empirical research, especially where it
research reports such as Tourism planning in natural World contributes to planning development, management, and
Heritage Sites (2017). good practices.
IUCN’s World Commission on Linking Tourism & Conservation

Protected Areas (WCPA)’s TAPAS (LT&C)
Group) LT&C is a membership organization that facilitates an
educational global network of tourism and conservation
The TAPAS Group is a volunteer network that aims to
ambassadors. Their website includes case studies of
provide a platform for PA practitioners to share expertise
projects and initiatives from across the world that illustrate
and knowledge, enhance sustainability awareness,
examples of financial or political support, or education
facilitate collaboration and dialogue, and foster innovative
activities.
solutions to support sustainable tourism in PA systems.
Globally, the TAPAS Group has over 700 volunteer
members, and the group coordinates the development of The Long Run
knowledge tools (including best practice guidelines and
tourism concession guidelines), webinars, and events, and A membership organization of NBT businesses committed
shares best practices through its website, resources page, to driving sustainability, which offers the Global Ecosphere
social media, and online resources directory. More broadly, Retreats standards, recognized by the GSTC. Their approach
IUCN also hosts the Panorama platform, which shares case revolves around the 4Cs of conservation, community,
study solutions to address ecological, environmental, culture, and commerce.
climate, and social challenges, including several on NBT.
93
Luke Natural Resources Institute on coral reefs and identifying economic opportunities for
communities and conservation.
Finland
This institute promotes bioeconomy and sustainable use The National Association for
of natural resources. Their work on NBT has addressed
forest tourism and the recreational use of nature.
Interpretation (NAI)
The NAI is a nonprofit professional organization dedicated
MEET Network to advancing the profession of heritage interpretation,
currently serving about 7,000 members in the United
A network of conservation and tourism organizations States, Canada, and over 30 other countries. Individual
collaborating on a vision of the Mediterranean as a leading members include people working at parks, museums,
ecotourism destination, that benefits nature conservation nature centers, zoos, botanical gardens, aquariums,
and local communities. MEET has produced a series of historical and cultural sites, commercial tour companies,
tools including the MEET Ecotourism Standard (2019- and theme parks.
2021), an Ecotourism Footprint Assessment methodology
(2018), an Ecotourism Footprint calculator, and a journal
paper on Ecological Footprint and tourism: Development National Geographic
and sustainability monitoring of ecotourism packages in National Geographic is a membership organization that
Mediterranean Protected Areas (2022). provides resources and links for travel professionals,
travelers, and destination residents. In particular, they
Metsähallitus Parks & Wildlife house information relating to geotourism, which has
similar characteristics to sustainable NBT.
Finland
Metsähallitus is the PA authority in Finland. Its website National Park Service, United States
includes information about NBT’s economic impacts. They
also provide resources to support NBT such as Principles Within the U.S. Department of the Interior, the National
of sustainable tourism for protected areas (2016) and Park Service is responsible for managing national parks. In
Sustainable tourism in protected areas: Guide for tourism addition to providing information for visitors, the service
companies (2019). also gives information for educators and produces a series
of natural resource publications and visitor spending
effects reports.
Namibian Association of CBNRM
Support Organizations (NACSO) One Planet Sustainable Tourism
NACSO aims to provide quality services to rural Program
communities seeking to manage and utilize their natural
resources in a sustainable manner. This includes training The objective of the One Planet Sustainable Tourism
support on NBT. Its website hosts resources on joint- Program (STP) is to enhance the sustainable development
venture tourism development and product development. impacts of the tourism sector by 2030, by developing,
promoting, and scaling up sustainable consumption and
production practices that boost the efficient use of natural
The Nature Conservancy (TNC) resources while producing less waste and addressing
TNC is a global conservation nonprofit organization the challenges of climate change and biodiversity. The
dedicated to conserving the lands and waters on which STP program shares resources through the One Planet
all life depends. Its work includes NBT initiatives, including Clearinghouse online platform including those on NBT.
94
This provides a visible snapshot of the tools and solutions Relief International
that can support countries in their shift to sustainable
consumption and production. Relief International is a nonprofit organization that
works with fragile countries and communities suffering
from recurrent man-made or natural crises that impede
Pacific Asia Tourism Association human development. One of their areas of support is in
(PATA) economic development, and enterprise development,
including ecotourism projects including in natural areas
PATA provides a series of case studies on environmental
of Bangladesh.
and social performance of NBT at an activity, operator, and
destination level in the Asia Pacific region.
Responsible Tourism Institute
Planeta.com This association and international NGO support
tourism actors. They organize events, offer training, and
This online resource provides coverage of conscious living
undertake research and project development (including
and travel and hosts information and news relating to NBT.
on NBT). They use their Biosphere certification program to
measure sustainability of the SDGs.
Planeterra
Planeterra is a nonprofit organization established by Society of Outdoor Recreation
the adventure travel company G Adventures. It invests Professionals
in social enterprise, healthcare, conservation, and
emergency response projects. Their projects aim to meet The Society of Outdoor Recreation Professionals aims to
needs of travelers, including relating to meals and food, promote and support outdoor recreation professionals in
tours and experiences, handicrafts, accommodation, and research, planning, management, and policy development
transportation. in the United States. They have a website and resources on
outdoor recreation, and offer webinars to members and
non-members.
PUP Global Heritage Consortium
PUP supports communities in the protection and Tourism Action Coalition for a
management of natural and cultural heritage through an
action learning network and evolving integral approaches
Sustainable Ocean (TACSO)
and tools. Their work is applied in four main areas: public The Coalition is born as a response to the High Level Panel
use planning, heritage interpretation, research and self- for a Sustainable Ocean Economy Transformations, and
reflection, and toolmaking. brings together businesses, financial sector, NGOs, and
IGOs, leading the way towards a sustainable tourism ocean
economy. TACSO hosts the Blue Tourism Resource Portal,
Rainforest Alliance including numerous NBT materials.
The Rainforest Alliance is a nonprofit organization that
works at the intersection of business, agriculture, and
forests. They work with farmers and forest communities
TOFTigers
to improve livelihoods, protect biodiversity, and adapt to TOFTigers aims to advance the welfare of wild animals
climate change. Tourism activities include certification, threatened with extinction through the loss or degradation
training courses, guidelines for marine-based tours, and of their wild habitats, and to promote the protection,
certification for ecotourism. expansion, and improvement of those habitats. Their
95
website hosts a number of practical resources for Wildlife Friendly Enterprise

accommodation providers, destination management
companies, and travel companies including publications Network (WFEN)
and presentations. Their tools include an online action WFEN helps to conserve threatened wildlife and
plan for sustainability of NBT. The organization has contribute to the economic vitality of rural communities.
commissioned research on the value of wildlife tourism They have established a series of standards that form the
around tiger reserves in order to inform policy and basis for certification programs focused on NBT, including
research. Certified Gorilla FriendlyTM Tourism and Certified Sea
Turtle FriendlyTM Tourism. Travelers can also make a
The Travel Foundation Gorilla Friendly Pledge to play a role in the protection of
their health and behavior. They also produce resources
This nonprofit organization aims to work in partnership on green marketing trends and conservation marketing.
with businesses and governments to generate greater
benefits for people and the environment. Their resources
hub includes information on wildlife and the environment, Wildlife Tourism Australia
including whale shark guide training. Wildlife Tourism Australia is a nonprofit association
representing tourist operations, educators, researchers,
Wildlife Conservation Unit businesses, and societies that support sustainable wildlife
tourism in Australia. Its website provides information on
(WildCru) tours and accommodation, news and events, issues, and
WildCru forms part of the University of Oxford and is a resources.
university-based conservation research unit. The unit
has conducted research on wildlife tourism, in particular World Animal Protection
relating to the lack of ability of visitors to accurately judge
the animal welfare abuses of wildlife attractions. This nonprofit organization lobbies for animal welfare,
including in NBT.
Wildlife Conservation Society

World Cetacean Alliance
The Wildlife Conservation Society is a nonprofit
organization that aims to conserve the world’s largest wild The Alliance shares Global best practices for responsible
places in 16 priority regions across the world that house whale and dolphin watching, and has certification
more than 50 percent of the world’s biodiversity. WCS has programs for Whale Heritage Sites and whale watching.
worked in 245 protected areas and has a Conservation
Enterprise Development Program. For example, it has
a co-management agreement with the government of
World Wildlife Fund (WWF)
Mozambique for Niassa National Reserve, which manages The WWF Network focuses on six key goals related to
and coordinates tourism concession contracts and the climate and energy, food, forests, freshwater, oceans,
development and promotion of tourism. and wildlife. WWF has invested $11.5 billion in more than
13,000 conservation projects.
96
8
Conclusion
97
Conclusion
T
his review demonstrates that there are hundreds visitor management planning approaches are available
of informational resources and institutions that can (see section 4.6), there is a lack of agreement among
support governments, practitioners, the private practitioners over the most appropriate approaches
sector, and communities to develop sustainable NBT and to use (e.g., limits of acceptable change vs. carrying
to bolster the recovery and resilience of NBT following the capacity). There is an urgent need from many natural
COVID-19 pandemic. destination managers to identify and be able to apply
practical tools and approaches that provide solutions
One of the consultees remarked that, “More than the
to overtourism (sometimes driven by social media) (see
availability of resources and tools, it is the awareness and
section 4.2) and also as a result of the surge in interest
use of existing tools by project managers and specialists
in NBT following the COVID-19 pandemic (see section 5).
where greater effort is needed. Greater understanding
In this regard, the measurement of the impacts of NBT
of the critical nature of the conservation dimension of
(section 4.8) and the monitoring of the same (section
nature-based tourism is needed, and guidance on how to
4.10) are essential to assess the risks of overtourism and
integrate this with project design.” This point is reinforced
to inform research-based decisions on further growth or
by numerous requests from other consultees for resources
adaptation of NBT in PAs. Specifically, these tools need to
that already exist.
be designed so they can be applied reliably and quickly,
and in line with best practices. There is an opportunity for
8.1 Gaps in resources and the World Bank to support the application and training in
the use of applied and practical tools, such as the Visitor
priorities Use Management Framework (see section 4.6). Ideally,
this would be undertaken in conjunction with destination
An extensive list of outstanding gaps in resources was managers (e.g., PA authorities, destination marketing
identified during the compilation of this report and organizations), technical experts, major online travel
from the consultation process (see Table 9). Using the agencies, and social media platforms. Such activities
two metrics: (a) strategic and game-changing, and (b) would be integrated into the World Bank’s design and
directly corresponding to the needs of practitioners, supervision of projects incorporating NBT globally (see
the top four priorities for intervention were identified section 3.1).
as follows:
Climate change and NBT

Overtourism and undertourism
Few technical resources and guidance materials on climate
Many PA managers are grappling with the task of change mitigation and adaptation for the tourism sector
offering tourism to their constituencies, while ensuring are specific to NBT. Many of these tools and resources for
that the conservation objectives are prioritized. While this topic relate to making all tourism more sustainable,
some are trying to establish tourism in new or emerging particularly in terms of reducing greenhouse gas
destinations, others need to adapt to rapid growth in emissions. For NBT destinations, the issues are particularly
visitation, and the environmental and social pressures important given the implications for global climate change
that this induces. There are numerous resources on NBT, for habitats, wildlife, and tourist behavior. While Climate
what it is and how it should be developed, accompanied action through regeneration: Unlocking the power of
by destination-wide best practices (see section 4.1). communities and nature through tourism (2022) is a step
However, there is a need to go one step back and guide PA in this direction, there is an urgent need for practical tools
managers on how to assess whether NBT is a viable option that allow natural destination managers, NBT operators,
in terms of demand analysis. In addition, while a series of and travelers to understand, avoid, and mitigate climate
98
change impacts. In particular, advice is needed on how Cross-cutting issues of gender and
NBT practitioners can integrate mitigation and adaptation
approaches into the project design and implementation digital technology
process (e.g., integrated carbon offsetting tools, climate- While these have been addressed for tourism in general,
proofing NBT investment approaches, green-building they require further research within NBT. The global tourism
practices, and low-carbon travel strategies) and retrofitting workforce has a high proportion of female employees,
existing facilities and infrastructure. demonstrating its ability to generate revenue for women
in poor communities; however, gender inequality
Hunting persists and has been exacerbated by COVID-19 in some
destinations.92 Digital and technological innovations offer
Although contentious, there is a need to address challenges opportunities for tourism enterprises to expand market
associated with sport and trophy-hunting tourism (see access, such as through online booking platforms and
section 4.1). Global standards need to be established for virtual safaris. Their application and efficacy in rural, natural
sustainable hunting, coupled with evidence of its impacts areas needs to be further studied, particularly in light of
on conservation and livelihoods. Furthermore, information the COVID-19 pandemic and the use of virtual safaris for
is needed for the public and media to clarify the differences people whose movement is often restricted (e.g., elderly
between illegal poaching of wildlife and legal hunting, and people, school children).
to present evidence to support decision makers.
Table 9: List of key gaps in resources cutting across the priority areas of intervention
Category Gap
Best practices and toolkits • Consolidation of industry-wide, globally endorsed wildlife viewing guidelines to reduce
confusion over the large number available
• Translation of existing resources and toolkits into other languages, including Arabic,
Chinese, French, Portuguese, and Spanish
• Specific tools on NBT and gender
• Global standards for sustainable hunting
Enabling policy and planning • Guidelines on how to assess whether NBT is a viable option for PAs (demand assessments)
environment • Tools to help destination managers balance conservation management approaches
with technologies and social media that are driving changes in visitation with increasing
speed and complexity
• Examples of policies, laws, and regulations that can be used by PAs to benefit financially
and sustainably from tourism, with associated case studies. These can be particularly
useful if there are legal limitations for public entities regarding receiving funds
• Guidance linking NBT to broader issues of environmental security, peace building, and
creating resilience to climate change
• Models for effective inter-organizational collaboration among/between park/PA agencies
and national/state/local tourism offices and destination organizations. These would
include guidance on institutional framework and coordination to reduce fragmentation
of efforts and conflicting approaches, including contestation of authority
99
Conclusion
Category Gap
Concessioning and institutional • Step-by-step toolkits on tourism concessions, with template agreements between
frameworks community and private sector available online (i.e., operating agreements, management
agreements, shareholding agreements)
• Minimum policy and NBT product design requirements for non-state land to capture
revenues from NBT, including for private and community-owned land
• Situational analysis and database development of tourism concessions in PAs, and
assessment of their relative contribution to protected area budgets and local job creation
Destination management` • Support for PA managers that lack resources to produce up-to-date tourism management
plans, or the financial and human resources to implement them
Infrastructure and facilities • Tools that help to identify and address the “maintenance gap” where there is a lack of
investment, to support authorities unable to keep up with depreciating assets and the
associated risks to sites and visitors
• Guidance on climate-resilient and low-emission NBT infrastructure design and build
Visitor management • Awareness-raising materials for tourists, tour operators, and tourism promoters (e.g.,
online booking platforms) to have a better understanding of which forms of NBT truly
support conservation
• Case study evidence that experiences gained from NBT can change attitudes and
behaviors (e.g., single-use plastic, forest clearing, climate change, etc.)
• Tools that help destinations and enterprises reach NBT markets without compromising
them thorough overtourism and negative impacts
• Tools that can be used to reduce conflict between tourists and local residents
• Training tools and application for practical visitor management approaches such as the
Visitor Use Management Framework
Nature-based tourism enterprise • Examples of funding sources and incentives for rural communities, small businesses,
development and emerging entrepreneurs to meaningfully engage in NBT (e.g., access to finance,
incentives)
• Concise guidance briefs linked to focused resources for the private sector on establishing
and operating sustainable NBT
• Tools for financial institutions on concessional finance that support conservation and
livelihood development
Impacts of nature-based tourism • Information on the environmental management of NBT (e.g., energy and water use, waste
management), as opposed to tourism in general
• Economic valuation tools for determining financial cost to NBT due to environmental
degradation (e.g., marine plastic pollution, climate change, illegal hunting)
• Establishing how much adequate conservation in the presence of tourism would cost
Risk management • Tools that identify NBT’s vulnerabilities of natural hazard risks (i.e., flood, drought, etc.)
• A unified risk management system to improve the legal security of NBT, including
negotiation with insurance companies, public administration, and financing systems
• Simple tools for calculating carbon dioxide emissions of NBT activities to communicate it
to tourists and visitors to reduce and offset their impacts
Monitoring and evaluation • Implementation of tourism impact monitoring and mitigation plans to avoid overtourism
• Open-source monitoring tools for public programs and PAs that can be used to track
impacts and that incorporate the GSTC criteria and which can be applied by practitioners
and through citizen science initiatives
• Resources to cover the costs of monitoring and evaluation
• Datasets or analyses that link environmental conditions to tourism outcomes
100
Category Gap
COVID-19 Pandemic • Guidance on establishing and operating virtual safaris and other virtual NBT experiences
for use when travel restrictions are in place and to help people with restricted travel
options to participate (e.g., children, the elderly)
• Tools to support diversification of NBT products, promotion, and source markets towards
local and regional visitors to improve resilience to future shocks
Training & awareness-raising • Information for the public on the differences between illegal poaching of wildlife and
materials legal hunting
• Training for PA agencies and tourism promotion agencies on NBT planning, particularly
on cloud-based spatial planning, prioritization, and management tools
• Training on sustainable tourism for NBT guides and operators, including on maximizing
the positive environmental and socioeconomic benefits
• E-learning tools for training and professional developing for tourism, and practical
applications for use in remote rural areas (e.g., linked to systems like Lobster Ink)
Networks and institutions • Networks in North African and Arab countries on NBT.
8.2 Providing a Home for database aims to make it easier for practitioners to use
a search function and be able to filter out only those
Resources resources that are applicable to their project or site. The
database will be updated as a home for NBT resources
This analysis highlights the challenge in the dissemination and tools. The database is complementary to TACSO’s
and awareness raising of materials that are already in the searchable e-library, the Blue Tourism Resource Portal.
public domain. The report’s parallel interactive resource
101
9
Endnotes
102
Section 2
1
The GWP works across over 30 countries in Asia, Africa, and Latin America to support actions on the ground to
combat illegal wildlife trade and promote wildlife-based economies.
2
Héctor Ceballos-Lascuráin, Tourism, ecotourism and protected areas: The state of nature-based tourism around the world
and guidelines for its development (IUCN, Gland, Switzerland, and Cambridge, United Kingdom, 1996).
3
Xavier Font, Janet Cochrane, and Richard Tapper, ”Pay per view: understanding tourism revenues for effective
management plans” (Leeds, United Kingdom: Leeds Metropolitan University, report for the WWF, 2004).
4
Yu-Fai Leung, Anna Spenceley, Glen Hvenegaard and Ralf Buckley , ”Tourism and visitor management in protected
areas: Guidelines for sustainability”, Best Practice Protected Area Guideline Series No. 27 (IUCN, Geneva, 2018),
https://portals.iucn.org/library/node/47918.
5
Global Ecotourism Network (2016) Definition and key concepts: Our definition: https://www.
globalecotourismnetwork.org/definition-and-key-concepts/.
6
Dilys Roe, Nigel Leader-Williams, and Barry Dalal-Clayton, “Take Only Photographs, Leave Only Footprints: The
Environmental Impacts of Wildlife Tourism”, IIED Wildlife and Environment Development Series No. 10 (IIED, 1997).
7
“Wildlife Tourism”, Wikipedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wildlife_tourism.
8
“Geotourism”, National Geographic, https://www.nationalgeographic.com/maps/geotourism/.
9
"Adventure Travel". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Cited in https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adventure_travel
10
Louise D. Twining-Ward et al., “Supporting sustainable livelihoods through wildlife tourism (English)”, Tourism for
Development Knowledge Series (Washington, DC: World Bank Group, 2018), http://documents.worldbank.org/
curated/en/494211519848647950/Supporting-sustainable-livelihoods-through-wildlife-tourism.
Section 3
11
Making Tourism More Sustainable, A Guide for Policy Makers (Madrid, Spain: UNEP and UNWTO, 2005).
12
Using Google, Google Scholar, ResearchGate and social media.
13
The website of the World Travel & Tourism Council, https://www.wttc.org, accessed June 15, 2019.
14
Leung, ”Tourism and visitor management”; Hannah Nielsen and Anna Spenceley, “The Success of Tourism in Rwanda:
Gorillas and More”, in: Punam Chuhan-Pole and Manka Angwafo (eds.) “Yes Africa Can: Success Stories from a
Dynamic Continent”, (Washington, DC: World Bank, 2011), 231-249.
15
“Ramping up Nature-based Tourism to protect Biodiversity and Boost Livelihoods”, (Washington, DC: World Bank
Group, 2017), https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2017/05/22/ramping-up-nature-based-tourism-to-
protect-biodiversity-and-boost-livelihoods.
16
“Ramping up Nature-based Tourism to protect Biodiversity and Boost Livelihoods”, (Washington, DC: World Bank
Group, 2017), https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2017/05/22/ramping-up-nature-based-tourism-to-
protect-biodiversity-and-boost-livelihoods.
17
André Rodriguez de Aquino and Carmen Lahoz Rallo, “Sharing Paradise: Nature-Based Tourism in Mozambique.”
World Bank Blogs, December 11, 2017, https://blogs.worldbank.org/nasikiliza/sharing-paradise-nature-based-
tourism-in-mozambique.
18
“Harnessing the Potential of Nature-Based Tourism for Poverty Reduction”, (Washington, DC: World Bank Group,
2015), https://pubdocs.worldbank.org/en/137751449520243805/ENR-2015-Nature-Based-Tourism.pdf.
19
“Tourism and the Sustainable Development Goals – Journey to 2030, Highlights” (UNWTO, 2017).
20
“Tourism and the Sustainable Development Goals – Journey to 2030, Highlights” (UNWTO, 2017).
21
“Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011-2020 and the Aichi Targets” (CBD, 2010), https://www.cbd.int/doc/strategic-
plan/2011-2020/Aichi-Targets-EN.pdf, accessed 15 February 2017; Leung, ”Tourism and visitor management”.
Section 4
22
Leung, et al ”Tourism and visitor management”.
23
Louise D. Twining-Ward et al., “Supporting sustainable livelihoods through wildlife tourism (English)”, Tourism for
103
Endnotes
Development knowledge series (Washington, DC: World Bank Group, 2018).

24
Anna Spenceley and Edward W. (Ted) Manning, “Ecotourism: planning for rural development in developing nations”,
In: Roy Ballantyne and Jan Packer (eds) The International Handbook on Ecotourism (Edward Elgar Pub, 2013).
25
“Baseline Report on the Integration of Sustainable Consumption and Production Patterns into Tourism Policies” table
1.2, 22 (Madrid: UNWTO, 2019).
26
Anna Spenceley and Edward W. (Ted) Manning, “Ecotourism: planning for rural development in developing nations”, In:
Roy Ballantyne and Jan Packer (eds) The International Handbook on Ecotourism (Edward Elgar Pub, 2013), chapter 23.
27
Julianna Priskin “Assessment of natural resources for nature-based tourism: The case of the Central Coast Region of
Western Australia”, Tourism Management (2001), 22 (6), 637-648.
28
Anna Spenceley, Susan Snyman, and Paul Eagles, "Guidelines for tourism partnerships and concessions for protected
areas: Generating sustainable revenues for conservation and development" (Report to the Secretariat of the
Convention on Biological Diversity and IUCN, 2017).
29
Spenceley, Snyman, and Eagles, "Guidelines for tourism partnerships”.
30
This used to be available on http://www.s-an-d.co.za/test/Anchor/index.asp, www.tourisminvest.org but is now
offline.
31
This tool was developed by Delano Caras, and has been modified by World Bank Consultant Peter John Massyn and
others for application in destination including South Africa (Madikwe and iSimangaliso) and in Rwanda (Nyungwe).
32
Megan Epler Wood, “Best practice for tourism concessions in protected areas: Case studies from Latin America” (DAI
Project 1000282, 2010).
33
The website of Global Sustainable Tourism Council, https://www.gstcouncil.org/gstc-criteria/glossary/.
34
Font, “Pay per view”.
35
Megan Epler Wood, Mark Milstein, and Kathleen Ahamed-Broadhurst, “Destinations at Risk: The Invisible Burden
of Tourism” (Travel Foundation, Cornell University’s Centre for Sustainable Global Enterprise and EplerWood
International, 2019).
36
Leung, et al ”Tourism and visitor management”.
37
“National Park Service Active Transportation Guidebook”, https://www.nps.gov/subjects/transportation/upload/
UPDATED_NPS_Guidebook_July2018_Final_UpdateSept2018-WEB_lowres-2.pdf.
38
Leung, et al “Tourism and visitor management”.
39
Anna Spenceley et al., “Visitor management”. In: Graeme L. Worboys et al. (eds) Protected Area Governance and
Management (ANU Press, Canberra, 2015).
40
Ann Koontz, “The Conservation Marketing Equation: A manual for conservation and development professionals”
(EnterpriseWorks/VITA, USAID, 2008).
41
In Spenceley, A. (2022) Policy analysis of development financing options for support NBT and linked local
livelihoods in target countries and Sub-saharan Africa, Report to Prospect/COWI and adapted from Wright, M.
(2021) Funding proposals for new tourism ventures, in Spenceley, A. (2021) Handbook for sustainable tourism
practitioners: The essential toolbox, Edward Elgar, pp 110-129., including material from Cohen, J. and Scott, G. (2020)
Environmental, Social, and Governance (ESG) criteria. Accessed March 2, 2020 at https://www.investopedia.com/
terms/e/environmental-social-and-governance-esg -criteria.asp; and from World Bank (2014) Getting financed:
9 tips for community joint-ventures in tourism, Available at: https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/
handle/10986/21698/959240WP00PUBL050NamibiaonlineFINAL.pdf?sequence=1.
42
Gofundme (2020) Help protect Chumbe Reef. Available at: https://www.gofundme.com/f/help-protect-chumbe-reef
(Accessed: September 28, 2020)
43
Crowdfunder (2020) Coming together for Mara Naboisho COVID-19 appeal. Available at: https://www.crowdfunder.
co.uk/coming-together-for-mara-naboisho (Accessed: September 28, 2020).
44
JustGiving (2020a) We’re raising £5,000 to Ride4ranges and Mahenye Charitable Trust. Available at: https://www.justgiving.
com/crowdfunding/chilogorgesafarilodge?utm_id=107&utm_term=E8qzVxJvz (Accessed: September 28, 2020).
104
45
JustGiving (2020b) Randilen Wildlife Management Area Team. Available at: https://www.justgiving.com/fundraising/
randilen-wildlife-management-area (Accessed: September 28, 2020).
46
Quicket (2020a) !Xaus Lodge relief fund. Available at: https://www.quicket.co.za/events/103622-xaus-lodge/#/
(Accessed: 28 September 2020).
47
Quicket (2020b) Witsieshoek Mountain Lodge relief fund. Available at: https://www.quicket.co.za/events/103719-
support-witsieshoek-mountain-lodge/#/ (Accessed: 28 September 2020).
48
Tazawa, M. (2017) Ecotourism investment begins to flourish, Conservation finance network, August 29, 2017.
Available at: https://www.conservationfinancenetwork.org/2017/08/29/ecotourism-investment-begins-to-flourish.
49
Philipps, J. and Falkner, J, (2011) op. cit.
50
51
World Bank (2020) Mobilising private finance for nature, Available at: https://thedocs.worldbank.org/en/
doc/916781601304630850-0120022020/original/FinanceforNature28Sepwebversion.pdf.
52
Africa Global Funds (undated) Wilderness Safaris raises USD35 m bilateral loan from Stanbic Bank Botswana https://
www.africaglobalfunds.com/shop/product/wilderness-safaris-raises-35m-bilateral-loan-from-stanbic-bank-botswana/.
53
Tazawa, M. (2017) op. cit.
54
55
Price, K. (2022) ESG already driving investment decisions, 4 May 2022, Hospitality insights, Available at: https://www.
hospitalityinsights.com/esg/esg-already-driving-investment-decisions.
56
Klein, G. Shtudiner, Z, and Zwilling, M. (2021) Why do peer-to-peer (P2P) lending platforms fail? The gap between P2P
lenders’ preferences and the platform’s intentions, Electron. Commer. Res. 1-30, doi: 10.1007/s10660-021-09489-6.
57
Minney, T. (2010) Wilderness Safaris public offer aims for BSE and JSE Africa Board, African Capital Markets News,
Available at: https://africancapitalmarketsnews.com/wilderness-safaris-public-offer-aims-for-bse-and-jse-africa-
board/; and Payne, A. (2010) Wilderness Safaris IPO to hoist Botswana’s image, Sunday Standard, 7 March 2010,
Available at: https://www.sundaystandard.info/wilderness-safaris-ipo-to-hoist-botswanaocos-image/; Exchange rate
WWP to USD average in 2020 0.146725 from https://exchangerates.org/bwp/usd/in-2010.
58
Crunchbase (2022) Wilderness Holdings, Available at: https://www.crunchbase.com/organization/wilderness-holdings.
59
Industrial Development Corporation (2020) How we fund businesses in the tourism & services industry, Available at:
https://www.idc.co.za/tourism-services/.
60
Spenceley, A. (2021) Tourism and visitation to protected areas amid COVID-19, European Union, Available at https://
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PDF/source-214862990.
61
Olingo, A. (2020) ‘Coronavirus: Kenya sets aside Sh500 m to save tourism’. Nation. 18 March 2020. Available at: https://
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62
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63
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64
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Endnotes
67
e.g., Natasha Daly, “The hidden cost of wildlife tourism.” National Geographic, June 2019 issue, https://www.nationalgeographic.
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68
e.g., Tom P. Moorhouse et al., “The customer isn’t always right—conservation and animal welfare implications of the
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69
Adapted from Leung et al, ”Tourism and visitor management”.
70
71
Adapted from Anna Spenceley, Andrew Rylance, and Sadiki Laiser, ”Protected area entrance fees in Tanzania:
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72
The website of the National Park Service, https://www.nps.gov/subjects/socialscience/vse.htm
73
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74
“Maximising the value of birds and wildlife for tourism: A guide for tourism businesses in the Rift Valley/Red Sea Flyway”
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75
76
Anna Spenceley, “Impacts of wildlife tourism on rural livelihoods in southern Africa”, In: Anna Spenceley (ed) Responsible
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77
Spenceley, “Impacts of wildlife tourism”, 285-30.
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81
Leung et al, ”Tourism and visitor management”, Box 5.1.
82
Currently in development. Due for publication in 2020.
83
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Section 6
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90
This list does not include private sector businesses or donor organizations.
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107
108
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3 Why is Nature-Based Tourism Important? 15

4 Tools and Resources 20

4.7 Nature-Based Enterprise Development 49

Figure 3: WWF’s Conservation Travel Readiness Scorecard 29

Abbreviations and Acronyms

All currency in this publication is in U.S. dollars unless otherwise indicated. 5

2.1 Purpose of the Review 2.2 Scope

Table 1: Nature-based tourism terms and definitions

Often based in natural environments, adventure tourism activities include mountaineering,

Figure 1: Nature-based tourism topics

Enabling policy Governance and Concessioning Destination Infrastructure Visitor

Nature-based Impacts of Risk COVID-19 Monitoring and

Figure 2: Types of nature-based tourism tools and resources

Information resources: Certification systems for Toolkits and how-to

Table 2: Where to find resources responding to your needs

What do you want to know? Go to this section of the report

What is NBT, and why is it important? Section 3

How do I plan NBT in a destination? Section in 4.2 on international planning

Are there destination-level tools for NBT planning? Section 4.4

How do I determine whether NBT is viable in a destination? Section 4.4

What do you want to know? Go to this section of the report

How does NBT affect conservation financing? Section 4.8

What are the gaps in information to be aware of? Section 8

2.3 Target Audience 2.4 Approach

on Nature-Based Tourism through a component on wildlife-based economies, with

revenues to be economically viable and attractive

Table 3: Sustainable Development Goals and their relevance to tourism20

Goal Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) How tourism has an impact

Goal Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) How tourism has an impact

Nature-Based Tourism and adventure tourism. Topics covered include securing

visitor experiences, and practices, such as chapters relating Protected Areas

V) Protected Landscape/ Landscape/seascape • Tourism is usually a management objective

Wildlife Tourism there is a substantial lack of evidence regarding how

The book Wilderness of wildlife tourism (2017) is a

tourism management. The Encyclopedia of tourism

The strategic value of tourism for parks and PA management

Regulatory and legal • Regulation of access • Regulations • Regulations • Regulations on

Figure 3: WWF’s Conservation Travel Readiness Scorecard

Conservation Tourism Conservation

Natural Resource Destination Marketing Capacity

WWF Goal Alignment Tourism Training Resources

• South Africa: The South African tourism planning

• Tanzania: Tanzania’s tourism futures: Harnessing

market, capability, or expertise. Methods of outsourcing

4.3 Concessions and

Partnership Models Sierra Leone. Furthermore, there is a spreadsheet-based

Figure 4: Deciding whether to insource or outsource 28

Box 4: Case studies on joint ventures and partnerships in conservation areas

• Compatibility with the management plan

Box 7: Typology of vulnerable destinations35

A high risk of climate change impacts A fast-growing middle class

High economic dependence on tourism Local government with low capacity to

Guidance for Different Types of Natural Assets

Coastal and Marine Areas