2 - 2 • J (C"\en number) All I :actor 1 rtt'> ~l\e the same :1) 75 b) 50 C) 10 J} 2, c) 5

SAT Math Notes prime f.ictMS, but f\O1 all

Only 25 and 5 ,m: fll(tcll'S ul
SAM[ IDEA. but not ~lt! factors
a, Stc, (' Baba. Ph. D. re,;uh~ for mult1phca11on
75 and 100 llOO 25 IS hUSl.'T
•2008 fR[L for 1nd~1du.1l ; • 2 • 6 (e\i:n numNr) I OCI c~n 11l,;o be lactorcd ~
nr c:hmn:,om use NOi th:c: lnr lktnttn "•· lncludin1:
J • I • 3 \ oJd number) 10 • 10 \nd other 1m1l..111i "urding.s
commcn:101 or onlmc we :? • ? • -' (<:'en numb.:rJ 2 • 5 • 2 • C: l'lfb<lv.ttn or mclud,ni,
@I\ mg the~ pru~ rac:ton
I (If SA l rca.dmt -.cc m, MIC (1111:lll.)I\C counung tbi: lir'.\.l"I
SAT ollcn comban"" scvml of .as 11bt1\c hut m1,,cJ the
,, "w,t-'rt"t'\ 'onbuhu') .c:om ,~ obu,c rulc:<.· nMpnmu ftt~toti, .2S and 50
h~r a lice h-,1 nl \1)()(1 'u\ I lntcgcb Bl I WI I N - 2 11nJ +
(udJ h.ldc.l+c,cn ) • odd Doth tn.-cs m1J ~d .t and :?0 l (-1 ,0 I).., 1101 th<.- -..imc ,.._
v.urJ~ \\1th bncf Jc:lin11tons
L ~ on)' C\ffl nnJ any odd 1n1cgi:_r) ~ •2 und ~ l
nJllm\:t t,, Jc1crm1ne 11 '"~ult fi nd ;\I I lOOllflrtll'IC) ftk.lOl )
(-1. - 1, 0. I , 2), "hii:h
l 111ri:t•n hy m11h1ply1ng pnmc focto~
Po~m, c & ncgAII\C "h\)lc "°' islwa~:. ~"en or odd incluJcs - 2 and 2
(J ' 2) • J 24 (C\CO) 2 • 2 iland
number" and / I RO
2 • 2 • 5•Wand I nclions.
. ~l,-1,-1.0 I 1,J
Multlpl}in~ Po.,lth r 1tnd S • ~ • 2~ 11nJ \ ddlnan,uhrractlni,t
l\tj?llht \umlH•r\ S • ~ • ? ~II Cc1rnmon Jcnom111Jtt,r
'\cj?11th C' '\umhtn
I ell \II ,.~,o \11\ number line. 1 • b • .. • d (oollont) ncc:J.:d
All fltl)IIIH:--t,\IY.J)'S ro~III\/C Or u .c hrutc f11rccw.ind
JI\ ,Jc I 00 hy I 2 .l 8 II
'""'Sm11llc:1 l.arsc1 ➔
All Nc~II\ I! I\ nil-I oth\111\1 2.3,4},6,7,R,Q lhc:n 10 -+-•- t-•
4 l 12 12 12
1.1c:p1t,c sine.: '"" or nn) ( 11 and h1~"T I) OI\ '--r'-'-' t,~
..4 -2 0 .? .s I \ I , 11u111hct uf nq1at1\I! chc:c I. 111r 'I and lo\\Cr) OR can he do~ Cln cakulntc'I'
num~r,CA NU I c:1.11:h tune J1\IJ~-J by •I ) but II
,2 1> ( ,IU.A ll·R th.tn -4
~hc1 ', nc~II\IIY lllll II Al I l.e11,1 l'ommon \1ultiplr, an,\\l!f!\ ore: 111 lrac:lktn.· 11 ,
-1 .t '" C,Rl!All ~ th,m -112 u h, c, and d 111.: ll<JtiJIIH' lhc (L< \I ) c.&,11;1 lo &It) ~ 11h lni.:ttons
lll(IJU..I u, f'll\111\\ L(.1\1 <'r 10 ..nd 12
Order or ()pcl"llliM \
•I • • I • •I • •I 1,POSII IVh 10 • 12 I :!O, n niult1plc Fruc-rinn", ~hlll1tl) ln11
fll~l\11 )1\S {Plc,1~ ( \CUW Ill)
de.tr aunt ~allv) (illOJ enough lvr lklJmj! SO ct,rnmon dcnonur 1111r
()\ t 1':cg.ill\'\: numhcr 01 lln\1 l111c111111s) but l\\ll nc..,~~rih, n«Jcd Muh1ph acr°''
oth.:1 000 number ol the: l..:Ar,I
1',icn1hcm
l •\J'(IOC lll'I
Muh1pli~, 111on llM\IOn
11c:g11IIH"S • ~ C'Q Mlht

u,, 1J111~ IS dk.' 'SllllM: ..,

t 1s1 muh,pk·, ol c:ad1
IO. 20 '\0 10 c;o 60. 70
-·-----
I
,1
2
~
2
12 6
l,•1' 10 n~1 12 'M 3(, 4H 60 ., 3 ◄ 2~
mut11rllcn11vn
Add111c•n Suh1r1Kl1011
1.:ll to 11sti1
6(1 I, I .c!.1,1 (t,mn1on M11l11plc -• - • -·
2 ' I S 120
- ~
rile"\ 1 ol1cn hau th~~
l)lhlll\C, nc ~h\C ...,~1100, On mul11rl~"\:ho1\;c 4uclt1on,, I ooL th1 oppo11u11111c, lo
h 2iit (l,1:•(h )(h)•h~
t,:id~"•mL 11 th~ t~:,,uh ~,t I t M c:.ln he '"und b> \\Pll;mg c-Jn'-d Cchh) uul)
:i • h• c • d ,~ Mf:JII\C lhcn'' back~Jrdi. trom 11n,wcr1",
Uc:1;,1v(4' 11• b • t,.-.,, 1111<1
a • b • b • a J,111 I \\ofT\/ (,,~c OR lhccc t1I D h " J 1, a) 1lO b) io t.) hO JJ l(1 C)IO
flc;l!JII\C)
111'>(\UI llflk'f ell !1Jd1t1<\n m
b) J1\1Jmp ..:.,~h .10,,,cr b) 10
muh1f'h'--:i11011 hut bt.,.1u~ 1111d 12 und chc.1Mm1? •~ lca,1
l'rtrur ~umhtM fnt t llOO\, o,~idln~
• h h a and A nurnhcr d1\I \lhl.. b)' O"lll Y Nu \:\>ITlfflUO cJ.:11111111111.Jlllf
o+h .. h•a 1t<1Cll and I, Crr111nt ( nn1mon hctor (OI n,-cdcJ 1111' ~ond ~,r
75 anJ I()0) bouum fr~cuon lh.:n
w111ch ,ub1n11:hon 1100 di\ h1un
<lnkr in ltld,) Y.OrJ pr,,hlcn\J l~n)C numtk'.N I md All Cmdudm! Mlll IIPI Y
2 tt~ onl) L Vt Ill p11~ oonpn~I lacl<'~ ofbolh
Odd/I-\ t'II o,,rnih OllJ numhl:rJ l ~ 7 II , IJ, 75 l. S ,~ 2~ 2 3 3
I here 01c rule) 17, 1'1. 2J .21l, H , ..... 10<1 2. 4, S IO 20 25. ~O - ♦ .)---
4 · ---
l H
Odd numhcr hen number •
I ,._ ',() l a pn!TI\: number OR finJ lbe prune f..Clllr. the) t ll1pp.:d T
<kid nW'lilcr AL\\ WS h,I\C 111 currunon ,md muh,r,h
Odd OJd E.,cn \hiccJ nu~t, (.l ', I must
Prime hrcton (Trr~) S • S (both 7~ and JOO have
hen ~ I ,en f ,en he cc1ntc:rt'--d Ill pmJ>l.:r
I .actor 100 I WO S'5 in f.'l,tor 11ccl
lr.u.li.•ns <7f2J ~1,n.:
But II'> ~,e. 10 remo:mh.:r b) 2• so OR on multiple choice ~ratwns c) 6, 1 ndd 10 ' i)
u,mi um c:,cn <U oJd numbcr 1 • 2 • 15 que!!IIC.>lb Y.orl. b.1ckw1td~
3 • 2 • S (add numhc!r) 2• 2• 5• S from 110 S\\l!Pi,
3 I • 4 (c,cn number)
Fnctiem. Sq111ri111- C■biDC
Same as multiplying. Multiply
_____ ..
SumofTenns PettHI - Part from WkolC',
but very tarae or small
A $20 shirt on sale fOf 15'/o
off (the full price) costs?
Number or Terms
by self. ~rttlltqC'I
I I I 70+70.70+80+80+80+80-t-80 Whal (pan) is •I 5•1. of 60 Put • Percent • Whole
( Yi) 1 • - • - .. -
2 2 4
--------
8 - (whole)? t X .. SS/100 • 20 = 17
Note the decimal point
Note that ¼ is LESS than ½. 3 • 70+ S • 80 Bui the original 100-/o MINUS
while for numbers greater than .. 76.25
8 .15% • .15/100 or .OOIS the decrease IS the percent
I the square is larger. (85% • I00% • 15'1,)
Difficult w-.:ightcd average Part • Percent • Who le
(½) ) IS
qucsiions use variables (a, b) X • 15/100 • 60 M ■ldplC' (an■Uy 2) pc-ntnt
for the number of students: OR tka■aes
I I I I
-•-·
2 2 2
- - -8 a• 70 + b•80
X • .0015•60
X • .09 ASJOR buys cake, wholesale
a+ b for$1Q and 144:dOO/p to &eJ
Avtt111c-: Aritluwtit Mn• What is 300'/4 of 60? the Cn:sb:eakc retail price. If
May (10mtdaws) / M••• the cake docs noc sell in a
Swno(Tcrms
(always) be trw 300'/o • 300/100 or l week. the store reduces tho
Number ofTcnns Part • P1.-rccnt • Whole fresh-cue rcuil price by 500/4
X is a positive integer. X • 300/100 • 60 and sells u wc,ck-old cakes.
Average S. S, 10, 20: OR A week-old cake costs?
x ?> X MA y be true it' X-2 X • 3 •60 • 180 (It's NOT s 10,
5-t-S+I0+20
- - - - - 10 Bua MUST be true: is r:ALSE.
4 since X could l."qual I. Percent - MIHlaa Pc-rtt■t Solve 11 TWO 5ep1ra1c
16 is what percent of 807 problems. From the first
Mode-: MOllt frequently One false: example (a counter (part • 16, whole • 80) Kntcncc, (underlined). solve
occurrlna number. enmplc) proves a MUST (be for the ftnh-cakc re1ail price.
true) f' At.SE. Part • Percent • Whole This is a simple pcmmt
Mode of s. s. IOand 20 IS 5. increase problem.
16 • X/100 • 80
One true example proves a. X • 20
M"'la■ : l'Jumbcr In middle MAY (be true) TRUE. Par1 • Percent • Whole
OR solve for decimal
when number, ordered from X • ISO(IOO • SIO • SIS
1m11llest to largesl 16 • 0•80
laeq••Hta {X > 6) D • .2, and convm to pcrccnl
Median of Like cqualiti~ (X • 6) by moving decimal point. Then reduce the $ I ~ by .S<Wo.
10, II , 17, 19and20 is 17. anythina done to one ~•de or . 2 • 20% The $ I5 tS now the new whole
the equation, do to the other ( !IOfflCtimcs call m.-w "base").
Median of an EVEN number side. Prtttt1t - Mlmaa Wkek
of 1crms Since there is no EXCEPT when muluplyina or (world■I badlwardt) Tlus second p1n is just •
atnalc middle number. the DIVIDING by I NEGATIVE, 16 is what 20% of what? simple (50%) pcrc-cmt d«.rcasc
median is halfway between twitch inequality sip . (part • 16, percent • 2~/4) pmhlem
the two middle numbers or the (8 > 6)
a\lllfllle or the two middle Multiply both sides by - I is Part • Pen:cnl • Whole Pan • Percent • Whole
numbers. NOT: (•.8 > • 6), but is X • .S0/100 • SIS • $7 ..S
16 • 20/100 • X
( -8 < ·6). X • 80
Median of 10, 13, 19 and 20? Change the whole or base
The two 1n1ddlc numbers are Pertc-at - Part rro111 Wllole when doing multiple percent
What (pan) is Is~. of 60 Percent - IDt'rnst changes.
13 and 19. Hallway between What is I 0-/4 ~ than 907
or the average Is 16. (whole)?
15% • IS/100 or . I5 Many altemate wordinp like: lbd411 - Part to Part. ■o
Wd&ht~ Ave-~ r-1.a y/100 Of move decimal
Aller • I0% increase: from 90'? wllele
A chw of 3 students has an point two spaces to convert: The rauo of apples to oranges
Part • Percent • Whole is 3 to 2. There are 15 apples.
average grade of 70. The
Part • Pcn:cnt • Whole X • 110/100 • 90 • 99 How many onngcs?
other clas.~ of S studmts has an
average of 80. What is the X • 15/100 • 60
OR
ADD the original 100-/4 AND Keep a.pplcs on 1op
average for the school?
the additional 10%, ,I. ,I.
(ti's NO'T 75) X • .15•60
Note the "part" is more 1han 3 I.S X
X• 9 -•- NOT -
the whole if increased.
Assume ALL 3 studcmts in 2 X IS
first clLU goc cuctJy 70. Percents are the: same as
Pffttlll • Ottruw
t t
Assume ALL S fwc in second fraction questions: What keep oranges on bottom
(part) is 3/20 of60 (whole)? Whal is I 5% less than 20?
class got exactly 80.
Many alternate wordinp like;
Compute usual aVffll3e: Part • Fraction • Whole
..... 1
My Advaiccd SAT Mlllh Sc:nuaa,, _ . on OVD• .,_., how to solve hard SAl' 1111th 11o-itll thcsrc nocc:s, F1tieVocabulary.c.i
Cross-multiply to solve for X keep apples on top Common lnnne M■ltiplyi■1 by Zero
if answer not obvious. X .. 10 J, J, Proportions: 0 times anything is 0.
3 18 lfa • b • 0 then a and/orb
You can put all apples on top -=- lfx doubles, y must half to
2 X , Solve for X • 12 (one or both) is zero. This is
or all apples on bouom, but i i keep k constant used in factoring
don't mix in one equation. keep oranges on bouom lfx uiples, y must be 1/3 t.o lf(x-3)(x-S) • 0,
keep k constant (x-3) anc.Vor (x-S) = 0,
Ratios - l ■cha to Mila With 18 apples there are 12 If x goes up z tunes. y mus1 be x•3or x • 5
On a map 2/3 of an inch oranges. I /z to keep k constant
represents 10 miles. S inches fHtoriat Polyaomials
on map is? Now oranges on top Most inverse proportions can FOIL backwards
J. J, be done withoul calculating k. J. zero here
k1.'q> inches on top 3 12 using the above common x 1 + 3x + 2 • 0
.J, J, inverse proportions.
213 S 4 Y Solve forY • 16
- =- x-- 1s t t Guess first t.crms that multiply
10 X keep pears on bottom. Ratn (MPH). l>istaatt to x1 :
i i (.x +_) (x + _) • 0
keep miles on bottom With 18 apples, thcrc arc 16 Rate • Time • Dimnce Guess last terms that multiply
pears or 18/ I6 or 9/8. 20 MPH • 2 Hours = 40 miles to 2:
Can also be soh,-cd by finding (x + 2)(x + I) • 0
I inch • IS miles and Direct Proportion Average MPH. Rate Test to see if outer + inner
multiplying by S (inches). multiplications add lo 3x:
Speed (X) Miles in 30 min (Y) Fast. 40 MPH in morning t:x + 2x • 3x.
Rados • Part to Part. a■d 30 IS driving to school Sl9w, 20 l't does. but if not try guessing
Tolal 60 30 MPH in afternoon tralTIC. other first or last terms.
The ratio of apples to oranges 90 4S What is overage MPH?
is 3 to 2. There is a total of SO (X + 2)(x + I) • 0
Do NOT average 20 and 40
apples and oranges. How In general x •-2orx • -1
for 30.
many oranges'! y • In , k is a constant
k • ½ in this example Assume the school is 40 miles On multiple choice qucstioM:
keep apples on top Y =½ X away. 80 miles round trip. you can work backwards from
,I. ,I. ,I. "' Mile, in 30 min = Yi Speed One hour in morning. Two the answers without using

-------
3
2
i
IS 21
10
't
14
i
30
20
't
Can also be solved as ratio
problem without finding k. At
hours in afternoon.
80 milcs/3 hours=26 2/3 MPH
FOIL:
a)3 b)2 c)l d)0 e)-1
br trying each in the original
lC + 3X + 2 "' 0
keep oranges on boltom 40 MPH. what is di.<1tance in FOIL m■ltlplkadon
30 minutes? First, outer, inner, last
find a ratio that adds up to SO. Oppotit~ Aa&ltt
Keep speed on top are equal. x • x and y • y
(a + b)(c + d) •
On multiple choice problems J, J. first outer inner last
work backward from answers. 30 40 ac + ad +be +bd
Only one answer works. - · - x - 20
IS X '
t t FOIL (■+b) (■+b)
Can also be done with algebra: keep disunce on bottom first outer inner last
Lei 3x be number of apples. a2 + ab + ba + b2 •
Then 2x is number of oranges. On one side: ofa line the:
l■verw Proportien
3x + 2x • SO, where x is the 1
a +2ab + bl angJe:s(x+y) add up to 180°
multiple of the original ratio. Speed (X) Minutes to Travel (half a 360" circle).
60 Miles (Y) k FOIL (1-b) (■-b)
Muldp~ Ratios 30 • 120 • 3600 first outer inner last Given one angle is I 00°:
The ratio of apples to oranges 60 • 60 • 3600 al • ob • ba + b2 =
is 3 to 2. The ratio of oranges
90 • 40 • 3600
to pears is 3 to 4. What is the a1 -2ab + b1
ratio ofapples to pears? In general
It's NOT 3 to 4. xy • k. k is a constant FOIL (■+b) (■-b)
as x increases, y decreases first outer inner last y musl equal 80° to add up lo
Do one ratio at a time: keeping k constant. a2 - ab + ba - b1 • I 80° along a line. X musi
Rearranging: equal 100" because it's
Assume 18 apples. Any y .. k/x and x .. k/y a1- b2 opposite of 100° AND also
number works, but pick a k • 3600 in this example Difference ofTwo Squares becaUK x + y on one side of a
multiple of 3 that will divide
evenly to avoid fractions.
...
.. ,
line must equal 180°.

My Advanced S-AT Milli xmuiar. now on DVD. sho"-s how iosolve hard SAT 11111h wnb tbcx no4a. Fm:Vocabubry.com
Paralld Uaa: SiaiarTriu cles Jr - ... - ,.. triaaps A Sludcnl has IS di shirts
Have same an1le1, but one is and S clean sh1rts m'iis donn
larger or smallct' than other. twice shortest si room. Randomly picking a
shin an the darlc. what is the
All sades ll'C proportlOIIIJ. l probabilify ofptclcina a clean
80-x Use ratio to solve 2s sh,n., (It's not 511S. the r■lto
s-shoncsl of clean to duty shins)
·nus J-4- S Tnang.k IS halrlhc side
Sitt orthe large, 6-8-10 s ..JT Fini ftnd the iotal nu~r o f
similar criangle. outcomes, which tS 20 ( I S
Visualiu p!K1na per■ Uel hnes
on lop of each ot""'.
and Ys are c:qual.
All Xs L:J 3
C-a,w■t
Same shape ( qles) ANO
same 1i,.c (lengths).
diny + S clan)
OK Oulcomcs
·r----
otal Outcomes
-- --5
20 4
Given any one ■• • all
others can be found 4 Contrast with liallar shapes CNnllutn
wnb have lbe same shape Both ll and y
INKt'ln Triaaps (angles) bul noc same size y are positive
(lengths). One sunilar triangle P01.,i\C !
can be larger lhan other. - .+ +,+
s/\s
(x.y) (x,y)
Ll 8

Similar tnana)n have the

P..,.._: l ■tmer A■aln
(numbcr ol'udcs - 2) • 180° X

same Ihm: anJln - Nqaove Pos111vc -

Two equal anales tx) H Tnan•lc, (3 sides) • 180°
Two equal SMks (S)
RectanaJc, (4 • 90") • 360•
oppos11e the equal anatn A s1m1lar 1nan1lc 1nstde a
Same lot square or
(ll.y) (X, y)
T N pt,ve
IUJer similar traanalc:
ANY 4 SJdcd figure. Both l and
Eq•U.tmal Triaacln
Arc always 6()•. fH'. 6()-
Pmtap (S sicks) • SW y are ntpll\C
Iso• for each adchuonal slde
f-lagpole N1(MI (n sades) • (n-2) • 180'" U.S 1• m +b
lle1pl1 rwo Perpendicular l.anca:
AbMa.teV al• y
""'40 Make posmvc ,f nept.ave
s 10

Three equal sidn (s) +-+ 61 10 • Flaapole lle1sJWSO I Jl I • X ,, posit.ave. •X ,rx IS

Three equal ana)es. Solve for flagpole Height• 30 originally nep1jvc
All 60° because C\'Cf)' tnanglc
11 180", and IW /3 • 60" Pyt~n c.n- I sI • s and I .s I • s
Fo, naht (90• ) tnanglc, only
Absolule value i• used for
Atta of a In•• 3-4-5 traangk ~ 1 1 abo\-C "'1lbtn- problem._,
y • - 1/2x • 2
½ base • hetpl
which is half1hr area ofa (lq)1 • (lq)1 • (llypotcnwc)J y • b + I . an aencral
(J)l • (4')' • (5)l Adam (1 • Adam's age) docs y • mx +b
rcc1angk (base• he1ah1) Of not date women (w • date"s
9 + 16 • 25 T T
(lcnglh • widthl •F)moretha ntwoycano lder slope y-maercq,e
6-8-10 tnqle shown above: or )'OWl.l ff than hunsclf
(lq~ + (~)l • (lf.VPOtm&ISC)l When x • 0 (on the y axis), y
(6)' + (8) • ( l0)1 . Ia-w l ~ 2 • b (lhe y-tmcrcq,t)
36 + 64 • 100 wflich is the same u
lw-1 1~ 2 A point on I ltt (X and y).
Plug in numbers for ages to and ctlber slope (m) or the y-
45- - 45• · W trlaapn leSl: tnlc-rccpc (b) can be used to
Side of triqJc as NOT the
(1n lsoscdcs Tnanglc) 117- IS I~ 2 same as find lbe other (m orb) using
hcigbl unless it's a right (90")
triangle: Two equal angles+-+ I 1s. 11 I ~ 2 y-mx + b.
Two equal legs (sides)
Pnpmdjcular hncs cross at
~Wlky - 90° (nghl) antics and lbe

[Z J base
bctl,hl
and Mdc
oftnanaJe s
s ✓2
4
s
Numbcr ofOK Outcomes
Total Nwnbcr ofOutcomct
slope of one (2 m this cue or
m in gcncnl) is the ncpllvc
rcctproeal (one over) of the
ot.hcf"s slope H /2 in thas case
or - 1/m m a,mcr■ I),

Pllee4
My ~ SAT Mlllll ~ -- on DVD. .,_~ hot. to sol\'.: bani SAT fflldl •ldt ~ ~ flftVoc:abau ry~
~:RiRlRII■ lhe line previously used. Dista■tt bdwtt■ 2 Poiats Can also be solved. as a
increuc in y/increase in x (Pythagorean Theorem) backup method or check. by
Adding 2 AFTER/OUTSIDE letting P2 and solving.
y !slope TICE FUCTION 2x moves the Givm any two points (( 1.2)
y • 2x + I line up 2 lO the new y• and (3. 1) choose• third point upoaall - DM1io■
1mercq,1 of 2 Subtracling 2 lO make a naJ,1 triangle by
Rise mo\'d the line do\\--11 2 to the liking the x from one point same base, subtract cxponcnL'I
new y-1ntcrcq,1 of -2: and the y from the other point .~ + al •
---- ---- x Either ( I, I) or (3,2) makes I
right triangle. but (I , I ) is •a • a
I
----- •I
-
shown below.
• ••
If the hnc is clearly graphed.
qftcn it's possible lo easily
y
( 1,.2) ..,~l.
cancel all exccp1 two lop a ·s

count the rise and run bc1\\--ttn

any two points for slope.
~ (3, I )
11. 11
t:1poM11t1 - Railiaa Powen
Mulhply cxponmts
X
Given any two points ( 1.3) (a>)'•
and {0.1) slope 1J n,c/run or
The first y - the ~ond y
-
/\pm lake the funcuon y • 2x
but add or subtnc1 before the lcp of lhe tnanalc arc the
.-.
(a • a • a) • ( • • 1 • 1)
a l• l
The fi111 X - the JCCOnd x performina the f\mc11on change m x and the change m
y. Graptun1 the lnangle may
3- I Original: y • 2x be skipped,
--------•
1- 0
2 N""'" y • 2(x+2) (lcs)1 + (logf • (ll~eitu.'IC),
( I )1 + (2) • (h) Nepttn £1potlftltl
Hither point could be the One m,aJ,t guess (inct>fl"CCtly) S • (h)
1

" finn" point ar the ''l«ond," 1ha1 ld(lina l moves the hnt I
bul the., r~ull ts the aam: up 2 or maybe IO the right 2. ./$ • h I ' •-
a

Slopn. Nttathte. Poslth-e Out lhe C\11\'e shifts left by

two X • - 2 in the now
l\tldpolat of a UM
The midpoint or (1.1) IO (J. 7)
..-.i. In acncraJ . .. • I/ • '
y (put under I aod Jrop the
funcllon aivcs lhe Sil~ rcsuh Is half way be1wum the Xs
ncpt1 ve)
Slope +- I as x • 0 in the onginal. X • 0 (halfway bc1Wttn or avmae
in the nc:w funcuon a1,-es the ol' I ind l is 2) and halfway
ncpl•~ exponents follow U\C
samr rcsuh as x • 2 in the between the Vs (half'-',.Y rule11 for d1vis1on
-----jf,- --- x on1inat bc1wccn or avenge of I and 7
is 4), The midpmnl Is (2,4).
y
CountJ■a Ce■1«11.th-e • •a
l■teaen ------
•••••••
Slopn. Raner (or c<t11JCCu1ivc 11ckets cancel an cxctpt 1wo bouom
y •••
Tickets nwnbcf 9 lhrou(lh I S
Slope + 1/2
X
wm: sold today. Ilow many'! ---·
•••
It's NOT 15-9 o, 6.

For small numbers one can

count 9, 10, 11 , 12, 13, 14, IS a· '
Subtracting (not adding) inside
Slope - 112 lhe function shifts IO the right for 7 llckcts sold
Subtract t IS-9) AND add I IO [1poM■ts (ab)J
The SAT often ICSIS for lhcse count the first ncket sold for 7.
counterintuitive shifts. (ab)' • (ab) •(ab) • a1b 2
Shiftla1 1rapll1 E1po•nt1 - M•hipUcatioe
With any funcrion adding
(5Ublrllellng) OUTSIDE the
function moves the graph up
One can also do lhcse point•
by-point by picking a value for
x. fiodin, y. And plouing 10 .) .., -
same base. add cxponems
In gcnnal, lhc exponent can
be distributed:

(ab)' • a~'
(down).

Take the simplesl function:

sec which way lhe curve
shif\s. Some can be done on 1
calculator if1he fonnuJa is
.s-
(a • a • a) • ( a • a ) •

a }•l
y • 2x. given.
......
My Mvancal SAT Math Smwm. _. on DVD. tJio,t.,, how 10 >Olvc lwd SAT madi 11nth lhcsc ~ FruV()(abulary com
Ellpoae•ts - Sq.an ,... or then she could war the same Cirdtt v..... .
betlt1klet dress thrtt times (AAA. BBB Length• width• he1gh1
or CCC) wear a dress 1w1cc 0 (pi)• 3. 14 approximately
al • b• (AAB. BOA. ,). Because or
rewriting as: rq,e.,tcd sclec~IOIIS, there arc 3
(a• a ) • (b • b • b • b) possibilities for the first dress, h docs DOC matter which side
ifs obvious that a • (b • b) AND 3 possibilities for the is called height or width as
OR take the square root of secood dress and 3 long as you muluply all three.
both sides (halrlhc cxponc:nt) possibilities fo, the third dress.
• • b: Muh.i ply .l • .l • .l • 27. Cin:umfcrcncc • nD • n2R. fo, • cube all three sides arc
length around the same. Volume • Oidc 11
This worb for cube roots or I lard SAT questions may add enalrc circle
any other roots. oddball condllions such as CyU■clen:
Jane can't wear dress A on the Remember it's 3.14 11mcs the
Fracrieaal t:spoants -
Arc squarc:Jcubc... roots
a' 1 • square rooc or a
first night Oo u above but
with only IWO possibilities fc>f
lhe first n1pL
diameter not Lhc radius. Ir you
take 3. 14 umcs the radiu.1.
df'llwn abnvc ouuidc the circle
EJ hcigbl

a' 1 • cube root oh Multiply 2 • 3 • 3 • 18. for easier co..,;son. you can Volume ofCyhndcr •
a 1 n• n'throotofa MC lhal you will only ae1 (Arca o(lop cln:le) • he1&ht
c...w....... c....... halrw.y around the circle
rracuooal c:xponcnu arc •Nrdtnd INMIIPI The top circle and bonom
useful for rcducins. Arca • II R1 circle arc: the llllfflC SIU .
Ap1n, Jane has 3 dresses, but Rcmcmbff ti's the radius
WMlS 10 lake 2 of the 3 on D squared. not the diameter Wv..1 1 eqaatlou:
1np. II""· many poss1bihl1CS ,qua~. If you squatt the
an: lhc«7 diamcta, drawn above outside a + 2b • 3
the cm:lc for CASICf 2a + 6b • 10
U11n1 the power nuscd rule 10 For easy problem., wuh a c~ri!IOO, you act a squarc
multiply c:xponc:nts gives. 1mall number of outcomes. box larltf then the c1n:lc. Multiply both sides of lint
a • b' poss1bihta can be wriucn· equation by 2 and subtr•et
Am Hd Stdon of Clrdn Imm the s.xood equation
AB. AC. BA. RC. CA. CH a.re Ju• frKtio■• .r rirdn.
A 2a • 6b • I0
Jane tw J drcncs (make the Bia bc:fun: yuu an.,"''ff six, 2a + ◄b • 6
drossn A. 0, and C) Wc:anna note that AO and BA arc the ~R
a d1fTcrc:n1 dress llfl th~ same: comb1nauon. L1kewt5c: lb • 4
different nights. how many (AC and CM ond (DC and S«ton ( ~cs, alien) arc b• 2
po!lll1h1l111es7 CD). Crms out the duplicates. fractions of the entire cit1llc'1 Rcplac:c b in any equation to
ana. solve for a. Chc\:k with • and
For easy prnblcms with a OR t:hcrc arc 3 c,p11ons for the Ara arc: ftac1ions of lbc IO&al b in the other «1U11ion.
m111II number ofoutcomes, the first dreo and, 2 opt1c>n.1 for circle's tlrnafttntt.
possib1lit1cs can be wriucn. the accond dress (the two Or m first c:qu1don. isolate a
rem111nina drasc,)
But irukad uf a yin1 1/6 of a a • 3 • 2b
ADC, ACD. Multiply 3 • 2 • 6. But !here circle, quc:soons w,11 say 6()•
an: two ordcnna of each and substitute (l-2b) for a into
HAC. IJCA, A tocal cin:lc: tS 360 •
combinaoon. Dtvtde by l the ""-'Ond equation:
CAB. CDA 60°/360 • • 1/6 2(3-2b) + 6b • 10
(21)
6-,4t, + 6b • 10
OR there: arc 3 ape1ons r« the In ,enaal divide by the
number' of permutations To find the length or an arc. 2b • 4
first nighl (A,B. or C). 2 find the circumference of the
(ordcrinas) of the chCMn b• 2
options for the sttood niaht l<>fal circle and multiply by the
(tht'"'-o rcmainina dressc:s) (smaller) group, which is its
fraction ( 1/6 or 60/360 1n dus Biteder splits into equal parts
and I option for the last night f11C10r111I.
example). cach half the oriainal's size.
(the: one rcmamrns dress)
Multiply 3 • 2 • I • 6.
(Thts is three factonal or 31)
~ Doable toHd. .
5 SludCIU play Chas. To find the area or D sector. PDF ftk- of,.._ Matll Notes
find the area of the total circk is on my site for free:
4 studmlS play football.
and multiply by the fnlclion.
Oddball ldtttie■1 2 students play both chess and www.FlftVecabulary.com
football. How many students?
It's noc 5-t-4 • 9, bccaUSc! this ShnpHfyt111 Sqaare Roots In addition 10 S.000 free SAT
A different question may have
double counts thc students vocabulary wcrds.
unlimited (rc)sclcclion of ./3o • ✓23 • 2• s..Jl
choices. Ir Jane can fe\\Uf who play both. It's 5+4-2 • 7. When pnnung. try uncheckmg
the dresses multiple times. Add sets. subuac:1 imcnection. ,r.ril;'- a~ thc - fit to page" opt ion.
Pa9e•
My A.dvalccd SAT Madi Scrlllrw, - on DVD. shc,oa~ how to ,olve hant SAT 11111111 ,,ntll ~ Ilda. Fn:,cVocabulary ~
An angle is formed when two lines or line segments intersect. Know the following definitions:

• An angle measuring less than 90° is an acute angle.

• An angle measuring 90° is a right angle.
• An angle measuring between 90° and 180° is an obtuse angle.
• An angle measuring 180° is a straight angle.

Know also the following angle sums:

• The sum of any number of angles that form a straight line is 180°.
• The sum of any number of angles around a point is 360°.
• Two angles that add to 90° are called complementary angles.
• Two,angles that add to 180° are called supplementary angles.

Complementary Angles Supplementary Angles

A line that bisects an angle divides it into two equal parts. In the following diagram. !if x = y. then
line I bisects LABC:

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• In the diagram below, five Unes intersect in a point to form five angles. If y = 2x, what is the
va.l ueof x?

The sum of angles around a point is 360°:

X + 3x + y + 2y + 4y = 360
4x + 7y = 360

y = 2x, so we can substitute and solve for x:

4x + 14x = 360
18x = 360
X = 20

• In the diagram below, Une n Is perpendicular to both line/ and line m, and line p bisects
L.RST. What is the value of x?

Because linen Is perpendicular to both/

and m, we can conclude that/ and m are
parallel lines.

Line p bisects L.RST, a right angle, and

divides it into two angles of 45° each. We
can label these on the diagram. m

Because line p intersects two parallel

lines, we lmow that pairs of consecutive
interior angles are supplementary.
Therefore:

X + 45 = 180
X = 135

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Triangle geometry Is the most commonly tested geometry topic on the SAT.

The sum of the interior a.ogles of a triangle is 180°. An extedor angle is an angle that is formed by
extending one side of the triangle. An exterior angle of a triangle is equal to the sum of the two
opposite interior angles. In the following diagram, a + b + c = 180 and d = a + b.

Triangles can be classified by Interior angles and side lengths:

• An acute triangle has three acute angles.
• An obtuse triangle has one obtuse and two acute angles.
• A right triangle has one angle measuring 90°.
• An equilateral triangle has three congruent sides and three congruent angles. All three of
these angles measure 60°.
• An Isosceles triangle has two congruent sides and two corresponding congruent angles.
• A scalene triangle has three sides of different lengths and three angles of different
measures.

Equ/lat~ral

• In the figure to the right, MBC is an equilateral

triangle, !J.EFC is a right triangle, and DF = EF. If the
measure of LDFE Is 20°, what ls the value of x?

Fill in as many of the angle measures as possible with

the given information. MBC is an equilateral triangle,
so each of its interior angles measures 60°.

8 C
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 DF = EF, so llDFE is isosceles and LFDE :!! LPED. A
Because LDFE measures 20° and the interior angles
of a triangle must add to 180°, we can conclude that
LFDE and LPED each measure 80°.

Finally, LEFC measures 90° and LECF measures

60°, so LCEF must measure 30°.

We now have all the information necessary to solve

for x, which lies on a straight line with two other
angles:
X + 80 + 30 = 180
x=10 8 C

The hypotenuse of a right triangle is the side opposite the right angle. If the two legs of a right
triangle have lengths a and band the hypotenuse ha.s a length c, then the Pythagorean Theorem
states that
0 2 + bz = , z

Spedal right triangles have a set ratio among the lengths of their sides, derived from the
Pythagorean Theorem.
• A triangle with angles of 300-60°-90° has a short leg measuring x, a long leg measuring x./3,
and a hypotenuse measuring 2x.
• A triangle with angles of 4S 0 -45°-90° has two legs that each measure x and a hypotenuse
measuring x,/2..
• A 3-4-S right triangle is a right triangle whose sides are in the ratio 3:4:5.

x-/3 X

3x

X X 4x

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 • In the diagram to the right, MBC is a right B
triangle, t..BDC is a right angle, t.lX 8
measures 30°, and AD = 1. What Is the
perimeter of MBC?

MBC, AADB, and ABDC are all 30°-60°-90°

triangles. Because the length of AD is
given, we can find the lengths of AB:
AD= 1 A D C
AB= 2
8

Prom the length of AB, we can find the

lengths of BC and AC:

AB= 2
BC= 2V3
AC= 4

A 0 C
The perimeter of AABCls 2 + 2./3 + 4 =
6 + 2./3. 4

The trlan&le Inequality states that the sum of the lengths of two sides of a triangle is always
greater than the length of the third side.

• lftwo sides ofa triangle measure 4 and 6 units, what could be the length of the third side?

Using the triangle inequality, we know that the length of third side must be less than 10
units:
4 + 6 > X, SO 10 > X

We also know that the lengths of the third side plus either one of the other sides must be
greater than the length of the remaining side:

X + 4 > 6, SO X > 2
X + 6 > 4, SOX> -2

The length of the thl rd side must be greater than 2 but less than 10 units.

If b represents a triangle's base and h represents Its height, the area of a triangle Is
l
A =-bh
2

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• What is the area of the square shown to the right?

We know that a diagonal of a square divides It into 45°-45°-90°

triangles, with sides of length x and a hypotenuse of length x.fi.
Here, the hypotenuse is 16 units long, so we can find the 1length of
each side:
x✓-i. = 16
e✓2
16 16./i
X = .fi. = - 2 - = 8../2

If each side Is 8./i units long, then the area of the square is 8✓2

(8../2)2 = 128

8✓2

• In the quadrilateral ABCD to the right, AB Is parallel to A 2 B

rn, M5 is perpendicular to rn,
and LC measures 60°. If
8D = 4../3 and AB = 2, what Is the area of
quadrilateral ABCD?

If we drop another line from point A perpendicular to

rn, we can break up the trapezoid into a rectangle and
a triangle. The rectangle has side lengths 2 and 4{3,
and the triangle Is a 30°-60°-90° triangle with a long C D
side of length 4../3. Because we know that a 30°-60°-90° Figure not necessarily drawn to scale
triangle has a short side of length x and a long side of
length x../3, we can solve for the short side:
A 2 B
x../3 = 4../3
x=4

We now know that the trapezoid ABCD has a short 4../3

base of length 2, a long base of length 6, and a height
of 4../3. The area of the trapezoid Is
l D
A=-h(a+b) C 4 2
2
1
A=
2 (4✓3)(2 + 6) = 16v'3

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A circle is a set of all points in a plane that are the same distance from a given point. This distance,
from the centre of the circle to any point on the circle, is called the radius. All radii of one circle are
the same length. A line connecting two points on the circle and passing through the centre is called
a diameter. The diameter of a circle is equal to twice the length of the circle's radius.

If dis the length of the diameter and r is the length of the radius. the circumference of a circle is

C = 1rd = 2nr

If r is the length of the radius, the area of a circle is

A= rrr 2

An arc is a segment of the circumference of a circle. Arcs are

measured either in degrees or in units of length. Drawing two radii
from the endpoints of the arc to the centre of the circle creates the
arc's central angle. whose degree measure is equal to the degree
measure of the arc. The ratio between the length of the arc and the
circumference of the circle is equal to the ratio between the degrees
in the central angle and the degrees in the entire circle. If the arc's
central angle measures x 0 and the arc's length is l , then:

L x0
-=--
2nr 360°

A sector Is a region of a circle bounded by two radii and an arc. The ratio between the area of a
sector and the area of the entire circle is also equal to the ratio between the degrees in the central
angle and the degrees in the entire circle. If the sector's central angle measures X° and the sector's
area is A, then:

A line that intersects a ctrde at exactly one point Is called a

tangent The radius drawn from the point of Intersection
to the centre of the circle Is always perpendicular to the
tangent.

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If every vertex of a polygon lies on a circle, then the polygon Is said to be Inscribed In the circle. If
each side of a polygon is tangent to a circle, then the circle is inscri.bed in the polygon.

• In the figure to the right, BC is an arc of a circle whose centre is 8

A. If the length of arc BC is 211' units, what is the area of sector
ABC!'

60 1
The central angle of arc BC Is 60°, which Is
360
= 6of the total
degrees of the circle. The length of the arc Is 2n units, which A
must be ~ the total circumference of the circle. Thus, the
circumference must be 12n units. We can use the
8
circumference to solve for the radius:

C = 2nr
12n = 2m-
r=6 A
6
If the radius Is 6 units, ithe area of the entire circle is 367r units squared. The area of sector
ABC is~ the total area of the circle, so the area of ABC must be 6n units squared.

• In the figure to the right, square GHIJ is inscribed in a circle

whose centre Is K. lf the area of square GH/J Is 16. what is
the area of circle K?

The area of the square is 16, so the length of each side

mustbe.ff6 = 4.
•
K
Drawing a diagonal of the square divides it into two 45°-
450-900 triangles. If each side of these triangles has a
length of 4, then the length of the hypotenuse must be 4../2.

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 SAT GRAMMAR REVIEW

I. Nouns

• Error In subJ«r-verb agrttment These errors occurfrequently in

• Error In noun agreenwnt Identifying Sentence Errors questions.

Tl)e sublect ls the noun that Is "performing" the verb. The verb must agree with the subject In
number. Singular subjects take singular verbs, and plural subjects take plural verbs.
• Your cat bites me. (singular)
• Your cats bite me. (plural)

Sometimes multiple subjects perform the verb together. Thls Is called a compound sublec:t. A
compound subject Is joined together by the word 'and: and takes a plural verb.
• Tony and I went to the store.
• Peter Petrelli and Hiro Nakamura travelled together through time.

If the word 'and' Is not present you have a subject plus one or multiple ta1-alonp. Tag-alongs
often occur with the words and phrases ot in, as well as, with, along with, together with~ in addition
to, no less than, rather than, and like. These do not change the relationship between the true subject
and the verb.
• The Juice In those bottles has expired.
• The house made ofbricks and cement was built by my grandfather.
• Robert along with Hafeez, Michael, and John Is going to see the new Judd Apatow movie.
• My mother, /Ike your parents, enjoys gardening.
• The farmer together with the ml/kman has gone to visit my grandmother.
• Alice os well as Gregory enjoys mathematics.

In addition to subjects, any other corresponding nouns In the sentence must agree in number.
• Parker and Hanley studied hard to become a great lawyer. (incorrect)
• Parker and Hanley studied hard to become great lawyers. (correct)

It ls easy to confuse the singular and plural forms or certain nouns. Here are some to keep straight:
Singular • alumni
• alumnus/ alumna • antennae
• antenna • criteria
• criterion • data
• datum • phenomenon
Plural • medium

lvyGloNl
 • mUlennium • medi.a
• symposium • millennia
• phenomena • symposia

H. Pronouns

• Error In pronoun case

• Error In pronoun-ant«edent agreement These errors occur frequently in
• Error In pronoun-verb agreement Identifying Sentena Errors questions.
• Error In pronoun consistency

Pronouns are words that take the place or and refer back to previously mentioned antecedent
nouns. Like their noun counterparts, pronouns can take a subject or object role in the sentence.
Each personal pronoun has a nominative (subject) and objective (object) case.
• She and / went to the store. (nominative)
Nominative Objective
• Jerry took him and me to the dance. (objective}
I me
we us
If you're unsure, test with a single pronoun.
you you
he him
Who is a subject pronoun, and whom Is an object pronoun.
she her
• Who we"t to the store? (nominative) it it
• Whom did Jerry take to the dance? (objective) they them
who whom
Pronouns that come after a preposition (by, of, for, afur, with,
between, except, without, etc.) are considered obfects of the preposition and take the objective
case.
• Everyone did well on the exam except him and her.
• Sarah left without John and me.
• Please keep this between you and me.
• By whom was thls wonderful short story written?

Constructions with than: whenever a pronoun follows than, It should be In the subJectlve case. A
following verb Is always understood, Ir not always articulated.
• I am taller than he {Is).
• Sarah Is better at math tha.n / (am).

Pronouns must agree In number with their antecedents. ff the antecedent Is singular. the pronoun
must be singular. lrthe antecedent Is plural, the pronoun must be plural.
• A student wUI catch their mistakes Ir they proofread. (Incorrect)

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 • A student will catch his or her mistakes if he or she proofreads. ( correct)
• Students will catch their mistakes if they proofread. (correct)

Verbs must agree in number with subject pronouns. It Is easy to make a mistake with some of the
less basic pronouns. When In a subject position, some of these pronouns always take a singular verb
and others always take a plural verb.
• Each of the apples you bought is bruised. Si.n gular Pronouns
• Everything that my uncle does turns out to be a success. each either
• Neither of the twins knows how to cook. neither someone
• Nobody is at home. anyone everything
• Many are cold, but few are frozen. somebody nobody
anybody everyone
Exception! In neither - nor and either"' or constructions, the Plural Pronouns
verb agrees In number with the closest noun or pronoun. many I few
• Neither the twins nor Laura was willing to take the blame. several I
• Either Mary or her parents are responsible for the flood.

Keep pronouns consistent Don't change between "we," ·you," "they," "he or she: and "one" In a
singl.e sentence.
• If one doesn't study.your grade will drop. (incorrect)
• If one doesn't study, one's grade will drop. (correct)

Ill. Verbs

• Error In verb tense

• Error In verb form or conjugation These errors occur frequently In both
• Misuse ofpassive voice Identifying Sentence Errors and
• Error In gen1nd uqe Improving Sentences questions.

The tense of a verb indicates when the action of the sentence takes place. Use the present tense
for action that Is currently occurring, action that generaJly occurs. and action that takes place In
literature (novels. movies, comics, short stories, poetry, non-Action books, etc).
• I always eat breakfast at home.
• In Shakespeare's play, Macbeth murders Duncan after he hears the prophecy.

There are several ways to Indicate action that occurs In the past Use the reaular past tense for
completed actions In the past. Use the Imperfect past tense (was+ present participle) for actions
that were cont1nuous in the past.

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 • I ran. • I was running.
• Hedrank. • He was drinking.
• Sheswam. • She was swimming.

Both the regular a.nd imperfect past tense can be combined for actions that were slmultaneous in
the past. Connect these with words like as. when, and while.
• I wos swimming when my cell phone rang.
• She broke her arm while skating.

The perfect tense (have + past partJclple)desc.r ibes an action that you have done In the past, but:
are talking about in the present
• Yes. she has seen that movie.
• I have walked one hundred miles and I will walk one hundred more ...

The pluperfect or past perfect tense (had or had been+ past participle) describes action that
occurred before another action In the pas t Do not leap Into the past perfect tense when one of your
actions occurs in the perfect, present. or future tense.
• l will not go with Sohana because I had already seen the movie. (incorrect)
• I didn't go with Sohana because I had already seen the movie. (correct)
• Chris had already read the book, but he will read it again. (Incorrect)
• Chris had already read the book, but he decided to read it again. (correct)

To describe a 'hypothetical action In the past tense, use would rather than will.
• I knew that 1will win the game. (Incorrect)
• I knew that I would win the game. ( correct)

Use the subtunctlve tense (formed by the past tense were) to express wis hes, particularly wtth the
word If.
• If I was you, I would take a vacation. (incorrect)
• If I were you, I would take a vacation. (correct)

Transitive verbs take a direct object. Intransitive verbs take an Indirect object or no object at all.
Certain verbs can be both transitive and intransitive without cha nging form or conjugation:
• I am reading a book. (direct object) • I am reading. (no object)
• He made an error. (direct object) • He made the man cry. (indirect object)

Certain verbs look similar, but have very different forms depending on whether they are transitive
or intransitive. Raise and lay (present tense) take direct objects. Rise and /le do not take direct
objects. However, lay can also be the past tense of lie. The past tense of lay is laid.
• Jill raises her hand. • I lay my coat oo the bed.
• They raised their children well. • I laid my coat on the bed.

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 • The sun rises In the east. • I think I should lie down.
• The farmers rose at dawn. • I lay down Immediately.

The passive voice ls not a verb tense but an Inverted sentence order. In this construction. the noun
performing the action does not appear In the normal subject position. Passive construction often
leads to wordiness and lack of focus; re-write passive sentences In the active voice.
• Another helping was asked for by my friend . (passive)
• My friend asked for another helping. (active)
• Three ftnallsts for the open position have been selected by the administration. (passive)
• The administration has selected three nnallsts for the open position. (active)

Genmdl are - Ing verb forms that act as nouns. Nouns or pronouns preceding gerunds should be In
the possessive case, as they technically modify the gerund rather than act as a subject to a verb.
Gerunds are required In certain Idiomatic phrases,
• He constantly babbling drives me crazy. (Incorrect)
• His constant babbling drives me crazy. ( correct)
• The tiger grow/Ing frightens the small animals. (Incorrect)
• The tiger's growling frightens the small animals. (correct)
• Experts suggest to water your garden later when the sun Is less Intense. (Incorrect)
• Experts suggest watering your garden later when the sun Is less Intense, (correct)

IV. Sentence Structure and Punctuatton

• S.ntfltce fragments
• Run-on •ntenca These errors occur mosc frequently In
• Error In conjunction usage Improving S.ntences questions.
• Error In punctuation: commas#
semicolon&, colons, apostrophes

Clauses come In two forms: Independent and dependent Independent clauses can stand alone as
sentences.
• I saw a movie with Danny.
• We meet for coffee once a week.

Dependent clauses do not stand alone. Instead, they provide extra Interest in the sentence.
• After I complttH my homework, I saw a movie with Danny.
• In our efforts to be good friends, we meet for coffee once a week.

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A dependent dause on its own Is a sentence frapnent, and needs to be altered to make a complete
sentence.
• When I finished this slice of pizza (sentence fragment)
• I finished this slice of pizza. ( complete sentence)
• because I detest Sarah. (sentence fragment)
• Because I detest Sarah, I try to avoid her whenever I can. ( complete sentence)

Independent causes can be separated by periods, connected by semicolons, or jolned by

coordinating conjunctions. If you try to connect two independent clauses with only a comma, you
have a comma splJce. If you try to connect them with nothing, you have a run-on sentence.

• The teacher i.s very angry I think he is going to call my

Coordinatina Conjunctions
friend's parents. (run-on sentence) and or
• The teac her is very angry; I think he is going to call my but nor
friend's parents. (correct) so for
• It was a beautiful day outside, I didn't want to stay In and yet
do homework. ( comma splice)
• It was a beautiful day outside, so I didn't want to stay In and do homework. (correct)
• I finished the slice of pizza. I felt my stomach tum. ( comma splice)
• After I finished the slice of pizza, I felt my stomach tum. ( correct)

An Independent and a dependent clause can be joined together using a subordtnatln1

conjunction. In thls construction, one Idea depends on the other. Coordination and subordination
test our ability to see logical relationships between Ideas. Thus, we
must understand and determine how the Ideas In the clauses work Subordlnat:1n1
together: does one give supporting or contrasting Information? Is Conjunctions
after rather than
there a progression In time and sequence? There might be two or
although since
more ways to express the relationship, but often only one will be
as so that
correct, clear, and concise.
as If than
• It was snowing. but I wore my boots. (Incorrect) as long as that
• Because It was snowing, I wore my boots. (correct) as though though
• Henry tried to read War and Peace In the original Russian, because unless
and It was too difficult. (l.n correct) before until
• Henry tried to read War and Peace In the original Russian, even if when
but It was too difficult. (correct) even though whenever
• Although Henry tried to read War and Peace In the original If where
Russian, It was too dlffkult (correct) If only whereas
in order that wherever
However, consequently, furthermore, therefore, Instead, thus, as a now that while
result and similar words are conjunctive adverbs and cannot be onc,e
used in the same way as coordinating or subordinating

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conjunctions. They can be used to Introduce an Independent clause following a period or a
semic-olon. They can also act as interrupters, separated from the main sentence with commas.
• John didn't read the assigned homework, consequently he failed the exam. (incorrect)
• John didn't read the assigned homework. Consequently, he failed the exam. (correct)
• We decided not to go out tonight, instead we are going to save our money. (incorrect)
• We decided not to go out tonight; inst,ead, we are going to save our money. (correct)
• Sarah is normally clumsy, however she Is a good skater. (incorrect)
• Sarah is normally clumsy; she is, however, a good skater. (correct)

Semi-colons are used in only two contexts: to join two Independent clauses with or without a
conjunctive adverb, or to separate very lengthy items in a list Use a colon to introduce examples or
items in a list
• Four people worked on the project; only one received credit for It. (correct)
• Victoria was frequently tardy; therefore, she received a low grade. (correct)
• Elaine has three daughters; Amy, Michaela, and Christine. (incorrect)
• Elaine has three daughters: Amy, Michaela and Christine. (correct)
• Elaine has three daughters: Amy, who ls studying law at Harvard; Michaela, who is working
as a masseuse; and Christine, who is sUll In high school. (correct)

As we have seen, commas are used to Join together two clauses with a conjunction. Commas are
also used after introductory phrases and around lnternapters (words, phrases, and clauses that
Interrupt and are not essential to the core meaning of the sentence). Commas should never come
between a subject and its verb.
• Mary, decided to relax with a good book. (Incorrect)
• Mary decided to relax with a good book. (correct)
• After a Iona day at work. Mary decided to relax with a 11ood book. (correct)
• Mary a paediatrician really enjoys her work. (incorrect)
• Mary, a paediatrician, really enjoys her work. (correct)

Apostrophes are used to form oontractions by taking the place of a missing letter or number; to
form plurals of letters. figures, and numbers; and to Indicate ownership with an 's. To form a
s
possessive for a noun already ending ln s. add If the noun Is singular; add only an apostrophe Ir
the noun is plural. Keep in mind that not all plural nouns end in s. Show possession In the last word
for names of organizations and businesses, for hyphenated words, and for cases of joint ownership.
• We're going out of town next week. (contraction)
• My husband was in the class of '89. (contraction)
• My street address contains three S's. (plural of a number)
• She has a hard time pronouncing r's. (plural of a letter)
• The drummer's solo was fantastic. (singular possessive)

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 • Mr. Perklns's persuasive essay was very convincing. (singular possessjve)
• The customers' access codes are confidential. (plural possessive)
• Men's shirts come in a variety of neck sizes. (plural possessive)
• Brod andJanet's graduation was three months ago. Ooint ownership)
• I went to visit my great-grandfather's alma mater. (hyphenated word)
• The Future Farmers ofAmerica's meeting was moved to Monday. (name of organization)

Possessive pronouns never use apostrophes. A pronoun with an apostrophe always signifies a
contraction with the word is or are.
• Its fur Is thick. • It's a beautiful day.
• Whose book ls this? • Who's In charge here?
• Your shirt Is a great color. • You 're in a great mood today.
• I enJoyed their presentations. • They're horrible players.
• Is this sandwich yours or theirs?

V. Sentence Loatc

• /tllsplattd modl/fn-s These errors occur most frequently in

• Error In parallel structure Improving Sentnca questions.
• Faul(y comparisons

A modifier Is a word, phrase, or clause that modifies or describes a noun or action In the sentence.
Modifiers need to be placed as dose as possible to the word they are modifying.
• Walking to the store. the street seemed so quiet and peaceful to Laura (incorrect)
• Walkfrtg to the store, Laura thought the street seemed so quiet and peaceful. (correct)
• Unable to beat the enemy through brute force alone, deception seemed necessary. {Incorrect)
• Una bit! to beat the enemy through brute force alone, the anny decided that deception was
necessary. (correct)
• Although a small dog, my sister found her new puppy a big responsibility. (Incorrect)
• Although her new puppy was a small dog, my sister found him a big responsibility. (correct)

When you have multiple Items In a list or In a comparison, these must be stated In a similar-or
paraUel- manner.
• Andrew enjoys swimmirtg, skating. and to play golf. (Incorrect)
• Andrew enjoys swimming, skating, and playing golf (correct)
• Kate is more ambitious, but Emily shows more patience. (incorrect)
• Kate Is more ambitious. but Emlly is more patient. (correct)

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Comparisons must be complete and logical. Always compare similar Items.
• The rooms on the second Ooor are larger than the first Ooor. (incorrect)
• The rooms on the second floor are larger than those on the first floor. (correct)
• Jackson Pollack's paintings are better than any other painter. (Incorrect)
• Jackson Pollack's paintings are better than paintings by any other painter. ( correct)
• Some students prefer watching videos to textbooks. ('Incorrect)
• Some students prefer watching videos to reading textbooks. (correct)
• David Letterman is the best talk show. (Incorrect)
• David Letterman 's talk show is the best talk show. (correct)

Use the comparative ·e r' end.Ing to compare two items. Use the superlative 'est' ending to compare
three or more Items.
• There are two chiJdren in the family. Jo Is tbe elder and Paul Is the younger. (comparative)
• There are four children In the family. Jo Is the eldest and Paul Is theyoungest. (superlative)
• Of the couple, Eric Is the better cook. (comparative)
• Of all of his siblings, Eric is the best cook. (superlative)

Avoid double comparisons and double negatives.

• This is the most longest I've ever waited for a pizza. (Incorrect)
• This Is the longest I've ever waited for a pllza. ( correct)
• This isn't hardly the best pizza In town. (Incorrect)
• This Isn't the best pizza In town. (correct)

VI. Diction

• Wordiness and redundancy These errors occur in both Improving

• Adj«tlw/adwrb confusion ~n~nca and ldentifYlng Sentence
• Con/uSftl word pairs Error questions, though wordiness
• Error In Idiom occurs almost exdusi~ly in Improving
Sentences questions.

Wordiness ls caused by unnecessary "filler" or repetition, Inexact phrases, and overly complicated
sentence structure. The more concise, the better, as long as all the necessary Information Is
conveyed.

Replace the following wordy and redundant phrases with a more concise alternative:
• a lot of-+ many or much • are able to -+ can
• all of a sudden -+ suddenly • atthe present time ➔ rurrently/ now
• along the lines of-+ like • basic fundamentals -+ fundamentals
• any and all -+ all • both of these .... both

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 • dose proximity .... close • often times .... often
• due to the fact that -+ because • on a daily basis ➔ daily
• end result ... result • on account of the fact that ... because
• final destination -+ destination • past history ... history
• final outcome ➔ outcome • rarely ever ➔ ever
• first and foremost ➔ first • take action -+ act
• general consensus ➔ consensus • the majority of ➔ most
• Important essentials ➔ essentials • the reason why -+ the reason
• in order to ➔ to • through the use of-+ through
• in the event that ➔ if • true facts ➔ facts
• in the near future -+ soon • various differences -+ differences
• In the neighborhood of-+ about • with regard to ➔ about/regarding
• last but not least -+ finally • with the exception of-+ except for

Avoid the following wordy phrases and "flller":

• as a whole • by definition
• as the case may be • for all Intents and purposes
• as a matter or fact • It is clear that
• being that • the fact that
• by and large • really, totally, very

Since adjectives and adverbs serve similar functions - they both modify or describe - they are often
confused. Remember that adjectives modify nouns or pronouns while adverbs modify verbs,
adjectives. and other adverbs. Adverbs often end in - /y.
• He was a quick study. • He learned quickly.
• He had a violent temper. • He was a violently angry person.
• I have a good dog, • My dog is well trained.

Use less and amount for non-countable Items (water, air, Intelligence. etc.). Use f~r and number
for Items that can be counted.
• There Is less grass on the soccer field.
• I scored fewer goals than you.
• There Is a greater amount of water In this lake.
• There Is a greater number of ducks on this lake.

Use between when talking about two Items only. Use among for three or more.
• Keep this between you and me.
• There was peace among the three countries.

Other commonly confused word pairs:

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 • accept : receive. agree to • except: exclude
• adapt: evolve • adept: skilled
• affect: verb • effect noun
• allusion: reference • Illusion: false representation
• already: prevlously • all ready. ready to go
• beside: next to • besides: In addition
• conscious: aware • conscience: moral sense
• disinterested: Impartial • uninterested: not Interested In
• eminent: important, esteemed • Imminent: upcoming
• farther. distance • further. quantity
• lauer. second in a list of two items • later. time
• loose: not tight. not fastened • lose: mlsplace
• principal: chief • principle: rule
• than: comparison • then: time

Neither Is always used with nor, and nther Is always used with or. The correct structure following
not on(y Is but also.
• Neither Amanda nor Jarome received an 'A' on that assignment
• Leave your paper either with me or with the front office.
• Not only did he wash the dishes. but he also walked the dog.

An Idiom Is an expression characteristic of a partlcular language. Many Idioms Involve preposition

choice. Using the wrong preposition Is a grammatical error. Be familiar with some of these:
• abide by the rule • comply with a request
• accuse someone ofa crime • contrast with (when noting
• agree on an amendment differences)
• agree to do something • correspond to or with something
• agree with someone (meaning to relate)
• amazement at something • correspond with a person ( meaning to
• appreciation ofsomething communicate)
• argue about or for a proposal • differ from something
• argue with a person • independent ofsomeone or
• apologize for an error something
• approve ofa change • Interested In a .subject
• blame a mistake on a person • oblivious to an Issue
• blame a person for a mistake, • separate from something
• bored with small talk • similar to something
• concerned about or with an Issue • succeed In an endeavour

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