The Process of Territorial Unification

The territorial unification ushered in a revival of the imperial power, which had declined
during the Zemene-Mesafint. This occurred after a series of battles and human and material
losses. A leading figure in the overall process was Kasa Hailu of Quara who later became
Emperor Tewodros II of Ethiopia. Kasa’s mission to create a unified state goes back to the
time when he was a shifta. It is better to trace the origin of Kassa's ideas to the tradition of a
once unified Ethiopian state. The myth behind his throne name "Tewodros" makes this clear

As indicated above, the man who ended the Zemene Mesafint was Kasa Hailu. He started his
career by assisting his half-brother, Dejjazmach Kinfu in defeating the Egyptians at Wad
Kaltabu (in present-day eastern Sudan) in 1837. As he acquired military and political strength
and experiences, he started mobilizing his own army in the area and fought battles in his own
right. In 1848, Kasa fought against the Egyptians at a place called Dabarki (again in present
Sudan). Although they showed extraordinary courage, Kasa’s forces lost the battle owing to
the Egyptians’ superior military organization, discipline, and better arms. Notwithstanding
his defeat, Kasa drew a lesson pertaining to the importance of a modern army. On the other
hand, Kasa’s fame was spreading in the area and became a major concern to the Warra-Sheh
(Yejju) ruling house. As a result, they decided to pacify Kasa through marriage arrangement.
Hence, Kasa married Mentwab, the daughter of Ras Ali II and he was appointed the governor
of Quara. However, Kasa felt that he was not well treated by Ras Ali and his mother, Etege
Menen, and hence, he resumed his shiftnet resulting in a series of battles. Accordingly, Kasa
defeated Dejjach Goshu Zewde of Gojjam at Gur Amba on November 27, 1852; Birru
Aligaz, Aben, Yazew and Belew, the four dejjazmachs sent by Ras Ali, at Taqusa (Gorgora
Bichign) on April 12, 1853; Ras Ali at Ayshal on 29 June 1853 and Dejjazmach Wube of
Simen and Tigray at Deresge on 8 February, 1855. After defeatingthe major regional lords
one after another, he was anointed by Abune Salama, the Coptic bishop at Deresge Mariam
on 9 February 1855, with the throne name of Tewodros II (1855-1868), King of Kings of
Ethiopia.
Tewodros pursued his victory at Deresge by marching to the south. He subsequently marched
first to Wollo and then to Shewa. He wanted to create a strong central government by
appointing individuals (both hereditary and non-hereditary) who would be totally
accountable to him. However, he faced resistance soon after he came to power. After the
inclusion of Shewa, rebellions broke out in several regions such as in Gojjam, Simen, Wag
and Lasta, Shewa, Wollo, and Tigray. Externally, he was involved in a serious diplomatic
crisis following the imprisonment of a handful of Britons and other Europeans. As a result,
the British government sent an expeditionary force to free those prisoners and punish the
emperor. In a battle that took place at Maqdela, Emperor Tewodros committed suicide on
April 13, 1868.
Following the death of Emperor Tewodros, three contenders to the throne emerged; namely,
Wagshum Gobeze of Lasta, Kasa Mircha of Tigray and Menilek of Shewa. Gobeze took state
power immediately after Tewodros as Emperor Tekle-Giorgis II (1868-71). Although
attempts were made to create a smooth relation between the Emperor and Kasa Mircha, the
quest for state power put them in enmity and it was brought to an end following a battle at
Assam (near Adwa) in July 1871, in which the latter became victorious. Kasa, who became
Emperor Yohannes IV in January 1872, embarked on a state building project with an
approach that differed from that of Tewodros. Yohannes IV (1872-1889) attempted to
introduce a decentralized system of administration, permitting regional rulers to exercise a
great deal of autonomy. A good example of this was his recognition of Menilek as Negus of
Shewa in 1878 by the Liche agreement. Similarly, Yohannes designated Ras Adal Tesema of
Gojjam as Negus Tekle-Haymanot of Gojjam and Kafa in 1881. He succeeded in achieving
the unity of the predominantly-Christian provinces including Wag and Lasta, Simen,
Begemidr, Amhara Saynt, Gojjam, Wollo, Shewa, and the Mereb Milash for quite some
time.

Emperor Yohannes IV sought to end the religious controversy within the EOC as well as
effect religious unity in the country as a whole. In this regard, he presided over the Council
of Boru Meda (1878) where Tewahdo was declared the only doctrine of the EOC. This was
followed by a campaign to convert Muslims and adherents of other religions into Orthodox
Christianity. Accordingly, the leading Wollo leaders such as Mohammed Ali and Amede
Liben heeded the Emperor's call, rather reluctantly, converting to Christianity and changing
their names to Ras Michael and Dajjach Hayle-Mariam, respectively. Others accepted the
Emperor's demand outwardly but remained Muslims, becoming "Christians by day and
Muslims by night". Others resisted and fled Wollo to Arsi, Gurage, Jimma and the Sudan
while others revolted under the leadership of Sheikh Tola (Talha) Jafar that led to harsh
measures of Emperor Yohannes IV.

Externally, Emperor Yohannes faced challenges from Egyptians, Italians, and the Mahdists at
different times. He lost his life fighting the latter at Metemma in 1889. Although the Emperor
had designated Mengesha Yohannes as his successor, rivalry for power split the monarch's
camp and thus, Mengesha was unable to make a viable bid for the imperial throne. As a
result, the throne was assumed by Negus Menilek of Shewa who became Emperor Menilek II
(1889-1913). Ras Mengesha refused to submit to Emperor Menilek. The tension was
resolved after Menilek led a campaign to force Mengesha's submission in 1889. Ras
Mengesha was appointed as governor of Tigray after a temporary arrangement in which Ras
Mekonnen Wolde Mikael ruled the area for about a year.

B. Territorial Expansion
As indicated above, Emperor Tewodros II, Emperor Yohannes IV and others made state
building their mission and struggled to achieve that goal. Yet, the most successful was
Menilek of Shewa. This was because Menilek had, among other factors, access to modern
firearms. The control of resource rich areas that enabled the emperor to build military muscle
as well as the determination of his generals counted for his successes. The process of
territorial expansion by Menilek can be discussed in three phases i.e. when he was king of
Shewa (1865-89), from 1889-96 and the aftermath of Adwa (1896-1900).

Before the 1870s, Menilek had already incorporated the Tulema and eastern Mecha Oromo
territories after controlling local leaders notably Ashe Rufo of Salale, Dula Ara’e of Gullale,
Tufa Muna of Gimbichu, Ture Galate of Soddo and others. Meanwhile, other Oromo elites
such as Ras Gobena Dache, Fitawrari Habte-Giorgis Dinagde, Dejjach Balcha Safo (Abba
Nefso) and others worked towards the formation of the modern Ethiopian state.
In 1875-76, the northern Gurage, the Kistane, peacefully submitted to Menilek because of
their religious affinity and geographical proximity to the Kingdom of Shewa, and for fear of
their local rivals notably the surrounding Oromo. On the other hand, the western Gurage, led
by Hasan Enjamo of Qabena, which had elements of Hadiya-Gurage coalition, strongly
resisted Menilek's force until Ras Gobena broke their resistance in 1888.

Menilek's territorial expansion to western and southwestern regions was concluded through
both forceful and peaceful submissions. In the regions south of the Abbay River, particularly
in Horro Guduru, Ras Adal Tesema of Gojjam had already established his control over the
region since the mid1870s. Although he faced stiff resistance from Moti (King) Abishe Garba
of Horro, Adal’s force ambushed Abishe and his entourage at a place called Kokor. Thus,
Ras Adal (Nigus Tekle-Haymanot since 1881) controlled the region until 1882, when he was
defeated at Embabo by Menilek's commander, Ras Gobana.
After the Battle of Embabo, Leqa-Naqamte, Leqa-Qellem, and Jimma Abba Jifar submitted
to Menilek peacefully, who promised them to recognize and maintain their autonomy.
Meanwhile, Garbi Jilo (of Leqa-Billo), Tucho Dano (Leqa-Horda), Ligdi Bakare
(LeqaNaqamte), Genda Busan (Sibu-Sire), Mardasa Konche (Nonno Migira), and Turi Jagan
(Nonno Rogge) formed a coalition and defeated Menilek's army led by the Nadew brothers,
Dasta, Dilinesaw and Tesemma at the Battle of Gurra Doba. Similarly, west of the Dhidhessa
River, an alliance of Wachu Dabalo of Sibu, Jorgo Dagago of Noole Kabba and others fought
Menilek's local allies like Moroda and Amante Bakare at Sambo Darro. Later, however, they
were defeated.
In the Gibe region, Firissa of Guma fought Menilek's army from 1889 to 1901. The imperial
army faced similar resistance from Abba Bosso of Gomma, although defeated by Ras
Demisew Nesibu in early 1900. Also, Ras Tesemma Nadew’s force incorporated Ilu Abba
Bor into the imperial state after fighting with Fatansa at Qarsa Gogila.
Of all the campaigns Nigus Menilek conducted before he became emperor, perhaps, the most
sustained bloody wars were those against the Arsi Oromo. It took six different campaigns
from 1882-6 to control this vast region. Menilek encountered fierce resistance from the Arsi
Oromo led by notables like Sufa Kuso, Damu Usu, Lenjiso Diga, Gosa Dilamo and Roba
Butta. Initially, the Arsi Oromo defeated Menilek's force at Dodota and Qalata. Yet, with
intelligence service of local supporters, Ras Darge Sahile-Selassie's force defeated the Arsi
Oromo at the battle of Azule on 6 September 1886. The battle of Azule was followed by what
is known as the Anole incident of 1887, which inflicted heavy damage on the Arsi. [There is
disagreement among historians on the veracity of the incident and on whether there is a need
to highlight it, as the campaigns of territorial expansion were often attended by atrocities as
was the case for instance in Kafa and Walayta].

In the east, Menilek's commander, Dejjach Wolde-Gabra'el, fought against the Itu in 1886
and incorporated Chercher. A year later, Dejjach Mekonnen’s army marched into Harar. The
resisting forces of Emir Abdullahi (r.1885-1887) of the Harari and Bakar Ware of the Eastern
Oromo were defeated in the final engagement at Chalanqo on 6 January 1887. This was
followed by the appointment of Dejjach (later Ras) Makonnen Wolde Mikael as governor of
the province by Emperor Menilek II.
The Great Famine or Kifu Qen (Evil Day) of 1888-92 also contributed to Menilek's territorial
expansion to parts of southern Ethiopia. Accordingly, Menilek's army occupied DawuroKonta
and Kambata in 1889 and 1890, respectively. From the early 1890s to 1894, Menilek's army
controlled Bale, Sidama, Gamo Gofa and Wolayta. In the campaign to Wolayta, Emperor
Menilek and many notables such as Ras Mikael of Wollo, Fitawurari Gebeyehu Gurmu, Liqe
Mekwas Abate Buayalew, Dejjach Balcha Safo, Ras Wolde-Giorgis, and Abba Jifar II of Jimma
participated. Wolayta's resistance led by Kawo (King) Tona against Menilek's force was defeated
in 1894 in which large number of people lost their lives. This was followed by the incorporation
of Gedeo, Borana and Konso into the imperial state.
Menilek's force incorporated Kafa, Borana Beni-Shangul, and Gambella after the battle of
Adwa. The process of the incorporation of Kafa paralleled the Wolayta experience in terms
of human cost. In 1897, the king of Kafa, Tato Gaki Sherocho, fought and lost to Menilek's
army led by Ras Wolde Giorgis. Beni-Shangul was incorporated after the Battle of Fadogno
in 1897/98. This was followed by the occupation of Maji in 1898/99. Tesema Nadew also
controlled Baro (Sobat) and Nasir in Gambella around this time.

The process of territorial expansion was consummated with the signing of boundary
agreements with the neighboring colonial powers that continued until 1908. Most of these
treaties were signed after the victory of Adwa.
After Menilek, the process of centralization and establishing a unitary state continued by
abolishing regional autonomies in the early decades of the twentieth century. In the process,
Wollo (after the battle of Segele in 1916 when Nigus Mika’el was defeated), Begemedir
(after the battle of Anchim at which Ras Gugsa Wole was defeated in 1930), Gojjam in 1932
and Jimma in 1933 were reduced to mere provinces by Teferi-Mekonnen (Haile-Sillassie I).
6.3. Modernization Attempts
The period from 1800 to 1941 also witnessed efforts to adopt western ideas and technology
by Ethiopian monarchs. Although several Ethiopian regional rulers were interested in
European technologies, Emperor Tewodros had relatively better information/contact about
western technologies than his predecessors. He was well aware of the importance of
European technologies to transform his people and country. For this purpose, he attempted to
approach Europeans for the introduction of western science and technologies.

It is apparent that, Kasa’s defeat by the well-trained and equipped Egyptian troops at the
Battle of Dabarki in 1848 had made him think putting the country “on an equal footing with
European powers.” As a monarch, Tewodros took a number of military, administrative and
socio-economic reform measures. As regards the army, Tewodros introduced military titles,
like Yasr Aleqa, Yamsa Aleqa, and Yeshi Aleqa. Besides, he tried to organize and replace the
regional armies of the Zemene-Mesafint with salaried national army. Furthermore, he tried to
manufacture firearms at his workshop, Gafat (near Debre Tabor) with the help of European
missionaries and artisans. At Gafat, about 35 cannons were produced of which the biggest
one was known as “Sebastopol." He also tried to build a small navy in Lake Tana. The
administrative reforms of Tewodros were focused on the centralization of power and
securing financial base. He introduced a policy of “general pacification”, warning that
everyone should return to his lawful vocation, the merchant to his store, and the farmer to his
plough. He tried to separate church and the monarchy. He tried to reduce the amount of land
held by the church as well as the number of priests and deacons serving every church.
brought him into conflict with the EOC, which precipitated his downfall.

In the case of socio-economic reforms, he began the construction of Ethiopia’s first

embryonic road network to link Debre Tabor with Gondar, Gojjam, and Maqdela. He also
attempted to put an end to the slave trade. Other reform attempts include land reform and
banning of polygamy. The use of Amharic writing became more developed, and a traditional
library was established at Maqdala, all of which contributed to the development of literary
Amharic.. He wrote letters after letters to different foreign powers including to Queen
Victoria using Amharic language. With regard to religion, he tried to solve the doctrinal
controversy that continued from the 17th century within the EOC. However, his reforms were
not fully materialized owing to internal oppositions and external challenges. Emperor Yohannes'
reign also witnessed several important reforms and innovations. Among these, he was the first
Ethiopian monarch to appoint foreign consul who served as his representative in London. He
hired a French mechanic, a Hungarian gunsmith, and an Italian construction worker to assist his
modernization efforts of the country. Furthermore, he sent some individuals abroad for modern
education. He was also the first to introduce modern style vaccine against smallpox replacing
traditional inoculation. His reign also witnessed
extensive treatment of syphilis in several towns.

Modernization attempts of the reign of Emperor Menilek had diverse elements. The post Adwa
period was marked by the establishment of a postal service and telecommunications/ the
telephone-telegraph system, the construction of railway line from Djibouti to Addis Ababa, the
opening of a bank (the Bank of Abyssinia) and the introduction of silver coin. In terms of
administration, the emperor introduced European style ministerial system/ministers in 1907.
Accordingly, he appointed Afe-Nigus Nesibu Meskelo (Minister of Justice), Azazh Metaferia
Melke-Tsadiq (Minister of Imperial Court), Bejirond MulugetaYigezu (Minister of Finance),
Fitawurari Habte-Giorgis Dinagde (Minister of War), Negadras Hailegiorgis Weldemikael
(Minister of Commerce and Foreign Relations), and Tsehafe-Tizaz Gebreselase Welde Aregay
(Minister of Pen). His reign also witnessed the opening of a hotel in 1907 (Itege Hotel), a
modern school (Menilek II School in 1908) and the foundation of Russian Red Cross hospital in
1906 and Russian-run hospital (Menilek II Hospital) in 1910.

After Emperor Menilek II faced permanent ailment that incapacitated him, he designated and
eventually proclaimed Lij Iyasu and Ras Tesemma Nadew as heir to the throne and regent,
respectively. During his short stay in power, Lij Iyasu (1913-16) also took several reform
measures. The reforms are the banning of the Quragna system, a system that involved
chaining the applicant and defendant as well as creditor and debtor until justice was settled.
He tried to amend Leba Shay, a customary mode of detection of criminals or theft. He
introduced municipal police called Tirnbulle. He introduced a policy of auditing of
government accounts, and he tried to integrate Ethiopian Muslims into the administration
structure. His rule also witnessed the introduction of a flourmill that functioned mechanically
and private industrial enterprises like sawmill, a grinding-mill, a tannery, a soap-factory, etc.
During the Dual Rule of Empress Zewditu and Ras Teferi (r. 1916-1930), there were several
modernization attempts in broader scope. The two rulers namely Ras Teferi and Empress
Zewditu had different views towards western culture. Because of his close link with
foreigners, Ras Teferi had keen interest in modernization by which he wanted to boost the
country’s image on the international stage. This was marked by the entry of Ethiopia into the
League of Nations and his grand tour to Europe in 1923 and 1924, respectively. Some
remarkable reforms based on European model took place following his coronation as
Emperor Haile-Selassie I in 1930. Some of the reforms were the centralization of the
government, promulgation of Ethiopia’s first constitution in 1931 (despite its drawbacks),
establishment of Imperial Body Guard in 1930, with the help of Belgian military mission and
the opening of Ethiopia’s first Military Academy at Holeta with the help of a Swedish
military mission in 1934.
6.4. Socio-Economic Developments
The period from 1800 to 1941 was also marked by changes in socio-economic conditions
including trade, slavery and slave trade, agriculture, urbanization and manufacturing. Factors
for these changes included the socio-economic dynamics in the region and the world.
6.4.1. Agriculture and Land Tenure
The nineteenth and early twentieth centuries were times when agricultural economy grew and
the demand for land for cultivation and grazing increased. The system favored the powerful
groups to control land that resulted in the change of property right on the preexisting land
tenure system. The role of agriculture in the local economy and the politics of the period
could be understood from the territorial competition and expansions to control surplus
producing areas. This altered people's relation to land, making some privileged and others
unprivileged.
The quest for land and surplus production was one factor for territorial expansion by Menilek
in the late nineteenth century. Land was required, among others, to settle and feed the
warriors and their families. Hence, the incorporation of the southern half of the country into
the imperial state resulted in the redefinition of access to resources in these regions. The state
institutionalized different forms of surplus expropriation and mechanisms to ensure political
control in the regions that had peacefully submitted and those that resisted. The former
relatively enjoyed self-administration but were subjected to pay qurt-gibir (fixed tax). The
latter were placed under the naftegna-gabbar/gabbar-naftegna system whereby local peoples
were made to pay tribute to the former. Gradually, the naftegna-gabbar system led to the
evolution of a new tenure regime in the forcefully incorporated areas. Literally, naftegna
means a person with a gun. In this context, naftegna refers to soldiers of different social
backgrounds who were stationed in the southern territories under the imperial banner. In the
latter case, the major force of change was the settlement and exploitative nature of the system
that altered both settlement pattern and agricultural system. One effect of the institution of
the naftegna-gabbar system was the creation of classes like landlords, ballabat, gabbar and
tenants. The landholders were largely government agents while the local population was
reduced in time into gabbar and later tenants.

One major factor that brought change to agricultural practices including land tenure system
was the beginning of the qalad system (land measurement) in the 1890s. Land measurement
affected access to agricultural resources in diverse ways including changes to customary
rules of access to land. Qalad introduced new practices in which certain social classes gained
access to land while at the same time it resulted in the dispossession of the local peasantry in
parts of the south. Later, land was categorized into lam (cultivated), lam-taf (partlycultivated)
and taf (uncultivated) to facilitate taxation.
6.4.2. Slavery and Slave Trade
Earlier in this unit, we have learned that both local and long-distance trade had flourished in
the nineteenth century. The major commodities traded were ivory, slaves, civet, and gold.
Slavery and slave trade had long history in Ethiopia and the Horn. Most slaves in Ethiopia
were kept as domestic slaves and some were sold to Egypt and the Middle East and the
Ottoman Empire through the Sudan, the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden ports. During the
nineteenth century, in some parts of Ethiopia, slaves were required for agricultural works, in
the army and as sources of revenue through selling into slavery. Thus, several regional and
local rulers enslaved people for these purposes. Slaves were traded as commodities in local
and international markets. For instance, in 1837 slave raiders captured Bilile from Guma and
sold her to a German prince, Herman Pickler Muskau at Cairo who changed her name to
Mahbuba and made her his mistress. Similarly, Hika (later Onesimos Nasib) was kidnapped
in 1869 in Hurumu when he was four years old. He was sold at Massawa, later freed by a
Swedish mission, after which he translated the Bible into Afan Oromo at Menkulu (in
Eritrea). Aster Gano was also sold into slavery from Limmu. However, in 1886, she was
emancipated and assisted Onesimos in the translation of the Bible.

During the nineteenth century, slave trade expanded in Ethiopia and the Horn due to
increased demand for slaves in foreign markets largely in the Middle East. This was followed
by the emergence of market centers from Bonga to Metemma and Massawa. Selling slaves
was source of revenue for many local chiefs. Slaves were acquired through raiding,
kidnapping, war captivity, debt bondage, and purchase from open markets. Major sources of
slaves were southern and southwestern parts of Ethiopia.
Emperors Tewodros II, Yohannes IV and Menilek II tried to stop the slave trade although
not slavery itself. In 1923, Ras Teferi banned slave trade which eventually came out in a
decree in 1924 to emancipate slaves. This was followed by the establishment of the Office for
the Abolition of Slavery in 1932. Freed slaves were kept under the overall supervision of
Hakim Warqineh Eshete. The Italians proclaimed the abolition of slavery immediately after
their occupation of the country. After liberation, the Emperor issued a new decree in 1942
abolishing any forms of slave trade and the institution of slavery itself.. The impact of
slavery was obviously social and economic deterioration of the source areas, families and
suffering of the slaves themselves.
6.4.3. Manufacturing
In many cultures in Ethiopia and the Horn, there were age-old indigenous ways of
producing/making tools. Such manufacturing activities involved simple procedures and
techniques and produced limited quantity of items. For instance, different items like
furniture, dresses and food including local drinks, were produced and processed by using
traditional techniques involving manual labor.
One result of the contact with the industrialized world from the mid nineteenth century was
the introduction of manufacturing technologies. Although evidences do not trace the exact
period of the beginning of modern industry in Ethiopia, there is a consensus that the strong
interest of rulers in the region for the introduction of western technologies and the subsequent
contacts with the industrial world since the mid nineteenth century contributed to the
introduction of manufacturing industries.

The beginning of diplomatic relations and opening of legations in the post-Adwa period was
followed by the coming of many expatriates, who either came with the skill or became agents
of the introduction of modern manufacturing. Foreign citizens from Armenia, Greece, Italy
and India also brought entrepreneurial capacity to develop manufacturing industries locally.
Among modern manufacturing industries, Holeta Grain Mill and Massawa Salt Processing
were set up in 1896 and 1904, respectively. Up to 1927, about 25 factories were established
in Addis Ababa, Dire Dawa, Asmara and Massawa. These included cement factories, wood
and clay workshops, tanneries, soap and edible oil plants, ammunition factories, breweries,
tobacco processing plants and grain mills. Private entrepreneurs established most of them.
Among these, Artistic Printing Press and Ambo Mineral Water plant were established before
the Italian occupation. After 1928, including in the short lived Italian occupation, more than
ten manufacturing industries were set up.
6.4.4. Urbanization
The period from the early nineteenth century to 194l marked the evolution of towns
stemming from political, socio-economic, demographic and ecological factors. During the
period, the expansion of both local and long distance trade since the early nineteenth century
had transformed old markets and socio-political centers into towns in Ethiopia and the Horn.
In this case, several towns located on the long-distance trade in western Ethiopia grew into
towns. In addition, the beginning of railway connecting Djibouti and Addis Ababa as of 1917
was followed by the evolution of several fast growing towns. Towns including Dire-Dawa,
Adama, Mojo, Bishoftu and others were results of the extension of the railway and the
expansion of trade. On the other hand, politico-religious centers in several parts of the region
evolved into towns. This was true mainly in the northern parts of Ethiopia. Many centers that
once served as "royal camps" evolved into towns and parallel to this many towns declined
with the demographic change when "royal camps" shifted to other centers. One of the towns
that grew through such process was Addis Ababa. Empress Taytu Betul chose the place for
its hot springs, Fel-Wuha (formerly called Hora Finfinne). Similarly, as of the late nineteenth
century, in southern Ethiopia, a number of towns emerged when Menilek's generals
established garrisons in suitable locations in order to maintain control of the occupied
provinces. The presence of the governors and soldiers made such areas permanent areas of
politico-economic and religious activities. Such centers of administration known as katamas
(garrison towns) became centers of trade and eventually grew into towns. Towns including
Gobba, Ticho, Gore, Arjo, etc were garrisons that grew into towns. During the Italian rule
(1936-41), several of the above towns grew in size and other new towns evolved because of
socio-economic and political developments of the period.
6.5. External Relations
6.5.1. Agreements and Treaties
One consequence of the Zemene-Mesafint was the end of the 'close door policy’ that was
introduced by Emperor Fasiladas (1632-1667). Thus, beginning from the early 1800s,
regional rulers made independent foreign contacts and signed treaties. During the nineteenth
century, the agents of these external relations were mainly travelers. Travelers came to
Ethiopia and the Horn with the motives of adventure and scientific research. They were also
sometimes involved in fostering friendship and trade relation on behalf of their governments.
Some of them, however, came with covert mission of colonialism. Meanwhile, various rulers
of Ethiopia and the Horn had also dispatched their own delegations to various countries of
the world.

One of the earliest private travelers was Henry Salt who reached the court of Ras WoldeSelassie
of Tigray on 28 August 1805. He came for scientific reasons, but he claimed that his mission was
to establish friendship between Great Britain and Ethiopia. He returned to Ethiopia in 1809 and
concluded agreement with the Ras. Several British travelers including Christian Kugler also
arrived in the 1830s. Travelers from Germany like Eduard Ruppell (a scholar) arrived in 1846;
Captain W.C. Harris, leading an official British mission visited Shewa. John Bell and Walter
Plowden in the 1840s, the Italian Geographic Society in 1869 and the like arrived for trade
relation and scientific purposes.

The result of these contacts was the agreement between Negus Sahle-Selassie of Shewa and
British Captain W. Harris in 1841 as well as with the French Rochet d’Hericourt, in 1843. In
addition, Walter Plowden also signed treaty with Ras Ali in 1849.

Furthermore, other regional lords had contacts with religious centers in the Middle East,
particularly with Jerusalem. During the period, Egyptians threatened the Ethiopian religious
community settlement at Deir Al-Sultan in Jerusalem. As a result, in the early 1850s, strong
lords like Ras Ali and Dejjazmach Wube sent letters to Queen Victoria of England to request
support against the Egyptians. External relations during the reign of Tewodros II seemed
more elaborate and oriented towards obtaining western technology and military support to
defend against foreign aggression. As with his predecessors, Emperor Yohannes IV tried to
create strong relations with Europeans. The major concerns of Emperor Yohannes IV were
the restoration of the lost territories, the delimitation of boundaries and the defense of the
sovereignty of the state against the threat and interference by foreign powers. When he
confronted external challenge like Egypt, he tried to solve through negotiation than war. War
was his last choice as he fought with Egypt in 1875/76 and Mahdists Sudan in 1889.
One of the major diplomatic relations Yohannes concluded was Hewett /Adwa Treaty. It was
a treaty signed between the Emperor and the British Rear Admiral William Hewett on behalf
of Egypt on 3 June 1884 at Adwa. The purpose was to safely evacuate Egyptian troops
through Ethiopia who were trapped by the Mahdists troops along the Ethio-Sudanese border.
In return, Bogos was to be restored to Ethiopia and the latter was to freely use Massawa for
the transit of goods and firearms.
Based on the agreement, Emperor Yohannes facilitated the safe evacuation of Egyptian
troops through his territory. Britain restored Bogos to Ethiopia. However, Britain secretly
transferred Massawa from Egypt to Italy in February 1885. One consequence of the treaty
was Mahdists' determination to avenge Yohannes that led to the battle of Metemma on 9
March 1889, which claimed his life.
In terms of diplomatic relations and repulsing external threats, Emperor Menilek II was more
successful through maintaining the balance among powerful forces of the period. While he
was king of Shewa, he established commercial relation with Italy that later helped him to
acquire military equipment.
Menelik’s relations with Italy reached its climax with the signing of the Wuchale Treaty. It
was drafted by Count Pietro Antonelli and signed on 2 May 1889, at Wuchale, Wollo
between Emperor Menilek II of Ethiopia and Antonelli on behalf of Prime Minister Crispi of
Italy. The treaty has twenty articles and was written both in Amharic and Italian languages.
When Ras Mokonnon vistited Italy after the signing of the treaty, the Italians made him sign
an additional convension, which introduced the phrase “effective occupation” of Italy to
legitimize the territories that the Italians had come to occupy after the treaty. As a result,
based on the Italian version of Article XVII, Italy announced that all foreign powers had to
deal with Ethiopia only through Italy. European powers gave recognition to this Italian claim
except Russia. In January 1890, the Italian government formally declared Eritrea as its
colony.
Italian action to colonize Ethiopia through a combination of tricky treaties, persuasion and
subversive methods failed. This was because Menilek publicly abrogated the Wuchale Treaty
in February 1893 and Tigrian lords including Ras Mangasha Yohannes, Ras Sebhat Aragawi
and Dajjach Hagos Tafari, who the Italians were hoping to use, began to fight against the
Italians collaborating with Emperor Menilek. Italian determination to occupy Ethiopia and
Ethiopian resistance against colonialism led to the battle. Finally this led to the Battle of
Adwa, where the Ethiopians won a decisive victory. After the victory of Adwa, different
foreign countries opened their legations at Addis Ababa to establish relations on official
basis.
Furthermore, Emperor Menilek made boundary agreements with the then neighboring
colonial powers like French-Somaliland (the present day Djibouti) on 20 March 1897, with
British-Somaliland (now Somaliland) on June 1897, with Anglo-Egyptian Sudan on 15 May
1902, with the Italian colony of Eritrea on 10 July 1900 and also with British East Africa
(Kenya) in 1907 and Italian-Somaliland in 1908. These boundary agreements shaped modern
Ethiopian boundary.
International politics of the twentieth century also shaped Ethiopia’s foreign relations. For
instance, during the First World War (1914-18) Lij Iyasu showed a tendency to side with the
Central Powers (Germany, Austro-Hungary, and Ottoman Empire) believing that the defeat
of the Allied powers (France and Britain) would allow Ethiopia to push Italy out of Eritrea
and Somalia. He also befriended the Somali nationalist leader, Sayyid Mohammed Abdille
Hassan, against Italy and Britain. Sayyid Mohammed Abdille Hassan (1864-1920) led the
Somali against the European occupation. He tried to attract mass support through his PanSomali
movement. In the history of the Somali, he is recognized as a forerunner of modern Somali
nationalism.
One of the successes of Ethiopia’s foreign relation in the early twentieth century was her
admission to the League of Nations in 1923. A year later, Teferi made his grand European
tour, which shaped his ideas of modernization. Ethiopia’s entry into the League of Nations,
however, did not save her from Italian invasion in 1935/36.
6. 5. 2. Major Battles Fought Against Foreign Aggressors and Patriotism
Ethiopian people fought several battles against foreign threats during the period under
discussion. The following section discusses patriotism, determination and cooperation as well
as the successes and limits of Ethiopian peoples in the course of defending their country.
The Battle of Dabarki (1848): Dabarki was fought between Kasa Hailu of Qwara and
Egyptian forces in 1848. Although the forces led by Kasa Hailu lost the battle, the military
imbalance particularly, the modern artillery and discipline of Egyptian troops gave him a
lesson to modernize his military force, acquire modern technologies. This later initiated him
to widen his vision and mission when he became emperor.
The Battle of Maqdela (1868): Tewodros II had early relation with Britain through two
British citizens, Walter Plowden and John Bell. His main aim was to obtain help against
foreign threats. In 1862, he sent a letter to Queen Victoria requesting assistance through
Consul Cameron. Cameron came back to Ethiopia via Egypt without bringing any response.
Suspecting him of plotting with Egypt, Tewodros imprisoned Captain Cameron and other
Europeans. On learning of the imprisonment of the Europeans, Queen Victoria sent a letter
through Hormuzd Rassam, which did not satisfy Tewodros.
After some communications, the British parliament decided to take military action.
Subsequently, 32,000 troops led by Sir Robert Napier were sent through Massawa. This force
reached Maqdela guided by Dejazmach Bezibiz Kassa of Tigray (later Emperor Yohannes).
Although Wagshum Gobeze did not make any attempt to fight the British, he did not join
them. On April 10, 1868, up to 8,000 Tewodros’ soldiers including his general Gebriye were
defeated by the British at the battle of Aroge. On April 13, 1868, Tewodros committed
suicide at Maqdela. This was followed by the burning of his fortress and looting of
manuscripts, religious and secular artifacts including his crown by the British troops.
The Battles of Gundet and Gura
In the nineteenth century, Egyptians showed a keen interest to occupy Northeast Africa with
the ambition of controlling the source of the Nile. Following their occupation of the Sudan in
1821, they moved to occupy Ethiopia on several occasions. For instance, in 1875, Khedive
Ismail Pasha sent his troops to invade Ethiopia in three directions. Mohammed Rauf Pasha
led the Zeila front and the result was the occupation of the Harar Emirate between 1875 and
1885. Werner Munzinger, the architect of the whole of Ismail’s scheme for invasion of
Ethiopia, led about 500 Egyptian troops equipped with cannons and rocket tubes through
Tajura. But, Munzinger and his troops were all killed by the Afars at the Battle of Odduma.
Finally, Colonel Arendrup and Arakel Bey led another 2,000 well-armed troops through
Massawa. Emperor Yohannes IV and Ras Alula mobilized about 20,000 forces and
encountered the Egyptians at the Battle of Gundet (16 November 1875) where the Egyptian
troopswere severely defeated. Notwithstanding their setback, Egyptians again reorganized
their forces and sent their army to invade Ethiopia. However, the Ethiopian forces again
defeated them at the Battle of Gura (7–9 March, 1876).
It is important to understand that some Europeans and Americans were in the service of
Egyptians. For instance, the architect of the whole of Ismail’s plan, Werner Munzinger, was a
Swiss born adventurer and former French Consul in Northeast Africa. Colonel Arendrup
himself was a Danish Citizen, and General Charles Stone was fellow American.
The Battle of Dogali
During the late nineteenth century, Europeans had interest to control the Red Sea area. With
the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869, the Red Sea region acquired great strategic and
commercial importance. One of the colonial powers with interest in the Horn of Africa was
Italy. The relations Italy had with the Horn began when an Italian private shipping company
(Rubatino) bought the port of Assab from the local chiefs in 1869. In 1882, the port of Assab
was transferred to the Italian government. In 1885, Britain secretly transferred Massawa from
Egypt to Italy. By using these bases as springboard, Italy began to penetrate into northern
Ethiopia. Subsequently, the Italian forces occupied Sa’ati, Aylet and Wia in the then Mereb
Milash region. However, they were defeated decisively at the Battle of Dogali by Ras Alula
Engida, Emperor Yohannes’s famous general and right hand man. Following this battle,
Italy signed a Treaty of Neutrality with Menilek in October 1887 in a bid to isolate Emperor
Yohannes.
The Battle of Metemma
As indicated above, the Hewett Treaty caused clashes between the Mahdist and Ethiopian
forces that lasted from 1885 to 1889. The first clash was at Kufit between Ras Alula and
Uthman Digna in September 1885. Initially, the Ethiopian force was victorious. In January
1887, Yohannes ordered Nigus Tekle-Haymanot of Gojjam to repulse the Mahdists. A year
later, the Mahdists led by Abu Anja, defeated Nigus Tekle-Haimanot’s troops at Sar- Wuha
in Dembia. However, when Emperor Yohannes IV was in northern Ethiopia to check the
Italian advance to Mereb Milash, he heard of the Mahdists advance up to Gondar. The
Mahdists caused a lot of destruction on churches and monasteries, including the killing of the
clergy and the laity. At this important juncture, Nigus Menilek and Nigus Tekle-Haimanot
conspired against the emperor, instead of directly facing the Mahdists. As a result, Emperor
Yohannes faced what can be called a triangular tension, namely the Italians in the north, the
Mahdists in the west and northwest, and his two vassals in the center.
Hence, on March 9, 1889, the Emperor marched to Metemma where he died fighting the
Mahdists. Evidently, it has to be noted here that internal divisions and acrimonies among
rulers would result in a huge cost to the country and its peoples. Among others, Maqdela and
Metemma are very good testimonies.
The Battle of Adwa and Its Aftermath
The disagreement on the Wuchale Treaty finally led to the big battle between Ethiopia and
Italian forces. This was because Italians were determined to colonize Ethiopia whereas
Ethiopians were ready not to give in. To meet their intention, the Italians crossed the Mereb
River, arrived at Adigrat, and proceeded to Emba-Alage. Following Emperor Menilek's
proclamation for general mobilization, about 100,000 troops from every part of the country
gathered at Wara-Illu (in today’s South Wollo).People marched to the front irrespective of
gender, regional, and ethnic differences to fight against the Italian aggression. The force led
by Fitawrari Gebeyehu Gurmu defeated the Italians at Emba-Alage and forced them to
retreat to Mekelle. In January 1896, under the leadership of Ras Mekonnen, the Ethiopian
forces defeated Italians at Mekelle. At Mekelle, the Italians were brought under seige
denying them of access to a water well which they used. The strategy was commonly called
the “siege of Mekelle” and was considered to be designed by Empress Taytu. After some
negotiations, the besieged Italian troops were set free and joined their compatriots at Adwa.
A month later, Ethiopian forces led by Emperor Menilek, Empress Taiytu and war generals
like Ras Mikael, Ras Makonnen, Ras Alula, Ras Mangasha and Negus Tekle-Haymanot and
others encountered the Italians at Adwa. The result of this battle was a decisive victory for
Ethiopians but a huge blow to the Italians, which doomed their colonial ambition over
Ethiopia. At this battle, about 8,000 Italian fighters were killed, 1,500 wounded and 3,000
were captured. On the Ethiopian side, about 4,000-6,000 troops are said to have been killed.

Consequently, Italy recognized the independence of Ethiopia by the treaty of Addis Ababa
that was signed on October 26, 1896. A number of powers of the time (including Italy,
France, Britain, Russia, the United States, Germany, Belgium, Turkey, and others) also
recognized the independence of Ethiopia and opened their legations in Addis Ababa.
Despite different interpretations on the results of the battle of Adwa, the heroic national
campaign, cooperation, and common successes of peoples of Ethiopia had a positive
implication for success and national integration. The victory assured independence and
national pride. It has thus become a source of pride for Ethiopians, Africans and the black
race in general.
Furthermore, the victory of Ethiopians at Adwa has had an enduring legacy in the relations
between freedom fighters and colonizing powers. The victory of black people over white
colonizers initiated entire Africans fighting against colonialism. The well-known Pan-Africanist,
Marcus Garvey, inspired his followers in his “Back to Africa” movement with the
success of Ethiopians. He used phrases like “Ethiopia thou land of our fathers” and
Ethiopianism became a symbol of anti-colonial movements.
 6. 5. 3. Italian Occupation (1936-41) and the Patriotic Resistance
A. Background
Following their defeat at Adwa in 1896, the Italians suspended their expansionist colonial
policy in Northeast Africa for a short time. However, they were just waiting for the right time
to fulfill their ambitions in any possible way. Italy eventually got its ideological strength in
1922, when Fascists led by Benito Mussolini held power. The Fascists were determined to
restore the power and glory of ancient Roman Empire by avenging Italy’s shameful scar at
Adwa.
Initially, Mussolini did not disclose his ambition against the sovereignty of Ethiopia rather he
was playing diplomatic ‘cards’ till the coming of the ‘right time.’ To achieve their goal of
occupation of Ethiopia, Italians followed two policies as was the case before the Battle of
Adwa; ‘subversion’ and ‘rapprochement’. The policy of subversion aimed at affecting the
unity of the empire via sowing dissatisfaction in Tigray, Begemedir, Gojjam and Wollo. This
responsibility was entrusted to Corrado Zoli, the governor of Eritrea (1928-1930). The Italian
legation in Addis Ababa, headed by Guiliano Cora led the policy of ‘rapprochement’, a
pseudo reconciliation tactic which was trying to persuade the Ethiopian government to
establish cordial relations between the two countries. For instance, the signing of the 1928
Italo-Ethiopian Treaty of Peace and Friendship was the manifestation of the success of the
rapprochement policy. Here, beside their legation in Addis Ababa, the Italians had also
consulates in provincial towns such as Dessie, Adwa, Debre Markos and Gondar. These
consulates played a significant role in propagating dissatisfaction and gathering vital military
and political intelligence. In addition to such preparations, the Fascists were also able to get
indirect diplomatic support from Britain and France for their colonial project in Ethiopia.

Here, although it is difficult to pinpoint one particular year when the decision was made by
Mussolini to launch the intended invasion, 1932 appears to have been a crucial year.
Mussolini who made all necessary preparations to launch an invasion against Ethiopia was
only searching for a pretext, and then fortunately he found it in the Walwal incident. The
Walwal Incident (5 December 1934) was the result of the post-Awa boundary agreement
limitations: lack of demarcation on the ground and lack of effective administrative control in
the frontier regions. However, the Italians refused to give back Walwal and even attacked the
Ethiopian soldiers who were stationed nearby. Thus, this situation gave birth to the Walwal
Incident.
Surprisingly, although the number of Ethiopians dead during this border clash was three
times as high as the Italians, it was Italy, which demanded totally unreasonable apology and
reparation from Ethiopia. Then, Ethiopia that refused to accept Italy’s demand took the
matter to the League of Nations and a period of diplomatic wrangling followed to resolve the
dispute. However, in the meantime Mussolini, who already got the desired excuse, was
finalizing his preparations to launch a total invasion.
B. The 1935 Invasion and After
After they completed their preparations, the Italians waged their aggression via two major
fronts: the northern and the southern Front. The war was started in the northern Front when the
Italians crossed the Mereb River on October 3, 1935 and launched a three pronged
invasion and controlled Adigrat, Adwa and Mekelle. In January 1936, the Ethiopian counter
offensive force marched north through three fronts. Ras Emiru Haile-Selassie led the western
front, Ras Kasa Hailu (also commander of the entire northern front), Ras Seyum Mengesha
led the central front, and Ras Mulugeta Yigezu (War Minister) led the eastern front.

On January 20, 1936, the Ethiopian army launched a major offensive against the Italians
intending to isolate Mekelle, but failed to realize its objective due to lack of coordination among
the above-mentioned commanders. On January 24, the Ethiopian force lost to the
Italians at the first Battle in Temben. This was followed by an attack on the Ethiopian force,
which was stationed in what seemed to be an impregnable natural fortress of Amba-Aradom,
to the south of Mekelle. The Italians scored yet another decisive victory in which the
commander of the Ethiopian army, Ras Mulugeta Yigezu, lost his life. Besides modern
weapons, the Italian force had superiority in the air. Moreover, the forces of Ras Kasa and
Ras Seyum were outnumbered by the Italian troops. This resulted in another defeat at the
Second Battle of Temben (27-29 February 1936). Ras Kasa and Ras Seyum narrowly
escaped and joined the Emperor at Korem.
On the western front, the Ethiopian army under Ras Emeru put strong resistance against the
advancing force of the Italians. Thanks to Ras Emeru’s better leadership quality, the number
of death of Ethiopian soldiers was less than what it had been in the northern front.
A series of battles between the Ethiopian and Italian forces in the northern Front culminated
in Maychew on 31 March 1936. Although the Ethiopian army (especially members of the
Kebur Zebegna) under the command of the Emperor put strong resistance against the Italians,
they were not able to conclude the battle with victory. Many Ethiopian soldiers lost their
lives from ground and air bombardment during the battle. Then the Italian forces controlled
Dessie and Addis Ababa on 4 April 1936 and 5 May 1936, respectively.
The Ethiopian army in the Southern Front was better equipped and well led. Ras Desta
Damtew (in the south) and Dejazmach Nesibu Zamanuel (in the southeast) were leaders of
the Ethiopian troops in this Front.
The Ethiopian army lost to the Italians at two major battles in the Southern Front: Qorahe
(November 1935) and Genale Dorya (12-14 January 1936). In the ensuing battles, the
Askaris (recruited from Eritrea) deserted the Italians and joined the Ethiopian force which
boosted the moral of Ras Desta’s troops. Ras Desta continued to challenge the Italians until
he was captured and executed in early 1937. The number of soldiers the Italians lost during
the fighting in the Southern Front was larger than the North, which slowed their advance to
the center; Badoglio entered Addis Ababa before Graziani even crossed Harar.
On 2 May 1936, the Emperor fled the country and three days later the Italians entered Addis
Ababa. Between Haile Selassie’s departure and the Italian entry, Addis Ababa was beset by
burning of buildings, looting and random shooting. The major targets of the violence were
the rich, foreigners and the imperial palace. Many foreigners saved their lives by taking
refuge in foreign legations.

Here, the entry of the Italian forces into the capital in the middle of such chaos was a relief
for both the foreigners and the natives since the Italians were able to bring peace and order to
the city. At this juncture, some scholars suggested that the Italians deliberately delayed their
entry so that the people of the city would consider them as ‘angels’ of peace, and easily
accept their rule. Anyway, after their control of the capital, Marshal Badoglio immediately
reported the situation to Mussolini. Benito Mussolini announced to the people of Italy and
the world about their control of Ethiopia using the phrase “Ethiopia is Italian!”
The Italians immediately merged Ethiopia with their colonies of Italian Somaliland and
Eritrea. Then, they named the combination of their colonies Italian East Africa (IEA) or
Africa Orientale Italiana (AOI). The newly formed Italian East Africa had six administrative
regional divisions that replaced former international boundaries. These were: Eritrea
(including Tigray) with its capital at Asmara; Amhara (including Begemidr, Gojjam, Wollo
and Northern Shewa) with its capital at Gondar; Oromo and Sidama (including Southern and
Southwestern provinces) with its capital at Jimma; Eastern Ethiopia with its capital at Harar;
Somalia (including Ogaden) with its capital at Mogadishu; Addis Ababa (later changed to
Shewa), the capital of the entire Italian East Africa.
During the Italian occupation of Ethiopia, the following Italians served as governors of
Italian East Africa successively: Marshal Badoglio (till the end of May 1936), Marshal
Graziani (till February 1937), and finally Amadeo Umberto d’Aosta (the Duke of Aosta).
Generally, a top-heavy bureaucracy and corruption characterized the Italian administration of
IEA. For instance, the last governor of IEA, the Duke of Aosta himself characterized 50% of
his officials as inept and 25% as thieves. Marshal Badoglio himself reportedly pocketed
about 1,700,000 Maria Theresa Thalers confiscated from the Bank of Ethiopia, in the
immediate aftermath of the conquest. In the economic respect, the Italians weakened and
destroyed non-Italian foreign firms and replaced them with governmental enterprises that
controlled the industry, trade and agriculture.

The Italians were relatively successful in the sectors of trade and industry as compared to the
agricultural sector. For instance, they planned to settle Italian farmers in selected Ethiopian
areas such as Wegera, Chercher and Jimma. However, their agricultural plan failed (they
only accomplished 10%) due to their failure to secure the control of the rural areas due to the
patriotic movement.
As indicated above, the Italian administrative control was largely confined to urban areas due
to the strong patriotic resistance. Thus; their legacy was also largely reflected in the towns
than the rural areas, which were actually out of Italian effective rule. Generally, the legacy of
the Italian rule can be summarized in the following brief points:
Architecture- the Italians left an indelible mark in towns such as Addis Ababa,
Jimma, Adwa, Gondar, Desse, Harar, Asmara, Mogadishu and others
Introduction of urban facilities like clean water and electricity;
Social legacies (expansion of prostitution, adoption of European habits-including
eating and dressing styles, and adoption of Italian words);
The consolidation of cash economy;
Road construction and development of motor transport;
The sense of division, deliberately fostering ethnic and religious tensions etc.
C. The Patriotic Resistance Movement
The five-year Italian occupation (1936-41) was not a smooth experience. Rather, the
Ethiopian peoples opposed them in a number of ways. Among others, the patriots gave them
hard times largely in rural areas. They continuously harassed them. Ethiopian patriots
continued their resistance in almost all regions and by all ethnic groups of the empire with
varying degree of intensification. The first phase of resistance was the continuation of the
war itself. Among the highlights of this phase was the resistance waged by three commanders
of the Southern Front, Ras Desta Damtew, Dejjach Beyene Merid and Dejjach Gebre
Maryam Gari. An extension of this phase was a five pronged assault on the capital in the
summer of 1936. The campaign involved two sons of Ras Kasa Hailu (Asfawesen and Aberra),
the veteran of Adwa Dejjach Balcha Safo, Balambaras (later Ras) Abebe Aregay,
and Dejjach Fikre-Mariam Yinnnadu.
However, it failed because of lack of effective means of transportation and radio
communication. Abune Petros, the Bishop of Wollo, who was the spirit behind the patriots was
executed and became a martyr of the resistance. The killing of the bishop was unheard
of in Ethiopia and shocked the nation, arousing the indignation of the people, especially the
clergy.
The second phase covers from 1937 to the end of the Italian occupation in 1941. On 19
February 1937, two young Ethiopian patriots, Abreha Deboch and Moges Asgedom, hurled a
bomb at Graziani in the Genete-Le’ul palace compound at Sidist Kilo, wounding him
seriously and killing some others. This was followed by a reign of terror waged by the Black
Shirts; who chopped off heads, burnt down houses with their inhabitants, and disemboweled
thousands in Addis Ababa. According to Ethiopian official accounts, about 30,000
Ethiopians of different ages, classes and sex were killed in three days’ campaign. Special
targets of the Fascist terror were educated Ethiopians (including many members of the Black
Lion Organization). The EOC also became a target. For instance, on 21 May 1937, in the
monastery of Debre Libanos alone, 297 monks were executed. The elimination of the
intelligentsia was to create 'the missing generation' in Ethiopia's intellectual and political
history.
This Fascist terror marked the transition from the conventional patriotic resistance to
guerrilla warfare that could eventually weaken the enemy forces. Different guerrilla units
kept the Italian troops under constant harassment.

As the Fascist regime became intolerable to Ethiopians, there also arose women who led their
own army in the guerrilla wars, like Woizero Lekyelesh Beyan, whose career as a guerrilla
fighter ended in January 1941, when she was captured after an Italian air bombardment.
Woizero Kebedech Seyoum (a daughter of Ras Seyum Mengesha and the wife
of Dejazmach Abera Kasa), started her patriotic activity before the fall of Addis Ababa to the
Italians. Thus, when her husband was fighting in the northern front, she maintained peace
and order in the province of Salale representing her husband.
Although it lacked coordination, patriotic resistance to Italian rule took place in the country
in numerous forms and tenacity. There was no unified command structure. In most provinces
of the country, similar acts of resistance were observed. Eritreans too were joining the
resistance in big numbers. A comprehensive list and explanation on each patriot in a module
such as this would not be possible.
However, hereunder an attempt has been made to list a few patriots that we think can
represent different parts of Ethiopia. Dejjazmach Umar Samatar, Colonel Abdisa Aga,
Dejjazmach Belay Zeleke, Dejjazmach Gebrehiwot Meshesha, Dejjazmach Abbbai Kahsay,
Woizero Shewareged Gedle, Zeray Dires, Colonel Jagama Kello, Woizero Sinidu Gebru, Ras
Amoraw Wubneh, Lij Haile Mariam Mamo, Ras Abebe Aregay, Dejjazmach Habte Mariam,
Colonel Belay Haile-ab, Major Matias Gemeda, Captain Yosef Nesibu, Blatta Takele
Wolde-Hawaryat, Dejjach Geresu Duki, Bekele Woya, etc.
The struggle continued but it suffered from serious internal weakness. The resistance was
handicapped by the Ethiopian collaborators called the Banda who exercised their corrosive
activities in different areas. Another weakness of the resistance movement was that it was
divided and that there was no one national organization to coordinate the activities of the
many patriotic groups dispersed in many parts of the country. Relations between guerrilla
groups were characterized by parochialism and jealousy. Some guerrilla groups spent more
time fighting one another than attacking the declared enemy.

Despite these weaknesses, the patriots carried on a persistent resistance against Italian
fascism, until suddenly they got external support from Britain in 1941. Ethiopian struggle for
independence was associated with World War II, when Italy declared war on France and
Britain on 10 June 1940. Mussolini decided to enter the war on the side of Germany in the
hope of securing outside support; the internationalization of the conflict was a good
opportunity. For Haile-Sellassie too, the situation was important. His requests for assistance were
finally answered by the British government that decided to drive out Italians from East
Africa.
On July 12, 1940, London recognized the Emperor as a full ally. The British launched a
three-pronged attack on the Italians. In the north, General William Platt led the forces that
attacked the Italians in Eritrea. In January 1941, Colonel Sandford and Major Wingate
accompanied the Emperor from the Sudan into Gojjam at the head of British and Ethiopian
troops called the Gedeon force. General Cunningham led the attack from Kenya. The
advances were rapid largely due to the demoralization that the patriots had caused on the
Italian forces. Emperor Haile-Selassie entered Addis Ababa on 5 May 1941, exactly five
years after Italian entry to the capital.