1

Natural Numbers :
Real Numbers
(iii) Prime numbers are numbers greater
(i) Natural number are a part of the than 1 that only have two factors, 1
number system, including all the and the number itself.
positive numbers from 1 to infinity. (iv) If you divide a prime number by a
(ii) Natural numbers are also known as number other than 1 and itself, you
counting numbers because they do will get a non-zero remainder.
not include zero or negative Composite Number :
numbers.
(i) composite numbers are numbers
(iii) The set of natural numbers includes
that have more than two factors.
only i.e., 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, ……….∞.
(ii) The numbers which can be
Whole Numbers : generated by multiplying the two
(i) The number consisting of zero (0) smallest positive integers and
and all natural numbers are called contain at least one divisor other
whole numbers. than the number ‘1’ and itself are
(ii) The set of whole numbers includes known as composite numbers.
only i.e., 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, These numbers always have more
……….∞. than two factors.
(iii) The examples of composite
Whole numbers numbers are 6, 14, 25, 30, 52, etc.
{0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 ...} such that
Composite
Factors
numbers
Natural numbers
{1, 2, 3, 4, 5 ...} 60 1, 2, 3, 6
14 1, 2, 7, 14
25 1, 5, 25
Prime Number : 30 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 10, 15, 30
52 1, 2, 4, 13, 26, 52
(i) A number that can be divisible by 1
and by itself only. In all the above examples, we can
(ii) Example of prime number are 1, 3, see the composite numbers have
5, 7, 11, …….. etc. more than two factors.
 1.2 Short Notes GATE ACADEMY ®

Composite Number Rational Number :

from 1 to 50 (i) a rational number is a type of real
4, 6, 8, 9,10,12,14,15,16, number, which is in the form of p/q
18, 20, 21, 22, 24, 25, 26, where q is not equal to zero (q  0)
27, 28, 30, 32, 33, 34, 35,
(ii) Any fraction with non-zero
36, 38, 39, 40, 42, 44, 45,
denominators is a rational number.
46, 48, 49, 50.
(iii) Some of the examples of rational
 Key Point
numbers are 1/2, 1/5, 3/4, and so on.
A prime number is a positive integer greater
 Key Point
than 1 that cannot be written as a product of two
distinct integers which are greater than 1. The number “0” is also a rational number, as
Zero (0) is considered as neither prime nor a we can represent it in many forms such as 0/1,
composite number because it does not have any 0/2, 0/3, etc. But, 1/0, 2/0, 3/0, etc. are not
factors. rational number, since they give us infinite
values.
Difference Between Prime Number
and Composite Number : Irrational Number :
Prime Number Composite Number (i) An irrational number is a real
A prime number is A composite number number that cannot be expressed as
a natural number is a natural number or a ratio of integers.
greater than 1 that a positive integer that (ii) We cannot express any irrational
has only two has more than 2 number in the form of a ratio, such
factors - 1 and the factors. as p/q, where p and q are integers, q
number itself. ≠ 0.
A prime number is A composite number (iii) The common examples of irrational
divisible only by 1 is divisible by all its numbers are π, √2, √3, √5 … etc.
and the number factors. For example,
itself. For example, 12 is divisible by 1, 2,  Key Point
3 is divisible only 3, 4, 6, and 12. Is Pi (π) an irrational number ?
by 1 and 3.
Yes, Pi (π) is an irrational number because it is
2 is the smallest 4 is the smallest neither terminating nor repeating decimal. Also,
prime number. composite number. Pi is not equal to 22/7 as 22/7 is a rational
A prime number A composite number number while pi is an irrational number. The
cannot be written can be written as the value of π is 3.141592653589………...
as the product of product of two
two distinct smaller positive Integer Number :
positive integers. integers. (i) An integer is a whole number (not a
Examples: 2, 3, 5, Examples: 4, 6, 8, 9, fractional number) that can be
7, etc. etc. positive, negative, or zero.
GATE ACADEMY ® Engineering Mathematics : Real Numbers 1.3
(ii) Examples of integers are: -5, 1, 5, 8, 24
97 etc.
Types of Integers : Integers come in
three types,
(i) Zero (0) : Zero is neither a positive
nor a negative integer. It is a neutral
number i.e. zero has no sign (+ or-).
(ii) Positive Integers : The positive
integers are the natural numbers or
also called counting numbers. The
positive integers lie on the right side Fundamental theorem of arithmetic
of 0 on a number line. Example of Every composite number can be written
positive integers are 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, as the product of primes and this
7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, factorisation is unique, apart from the
17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, order in which the prime factors occur.
26, 27, 28, 29, 30,….
 Key Point
(iii) Negative Integers : The negative
Fundamental theorem of arithmetic, is also
integers are the negative of natural
called unique factorisation theorem.
numbers. The negative integers lie
on the left side of 0 on a number Composite number = Product of prime numbers.
line. Example of negative integers Any integer greater than 1 either be a prime
are -1, -2, -3, -4, -5, -6, -7, -8, -9, - number or can be written as a unique product of
10, -11, -12, -13, -14, -15, -16, -17, prime numbers.
-18, -19, -20, -21, -22, -23, -24, -25,
Highest common factor (HCF) and
-26, -27, -28, -29, -30,…..
Least common multiple (LCM) :
Non - Integer Number :
To find the HCF and LCM by prime
If a number divides another number factorisation method, firstly express the
exactly (without leaving any remainder), given two or more numbers into the
then the number which divides, is called product of prime numbers separately.
a factor of the number that has been
Highest common factor (HCF) :
divided,
HCF of two or more numbers = Product
Example : 2, 3, 6,12 are the factors of
of the smallest power of each common
24. Here, 2 and 3 are primes and factors
prime factor involved in the numbers.
of 6. So, 6 is a factor of 12 and 12 is a
factor of 24. This chain of factors is Least common multiple (LCM) :
represented in form of a tree called LCM of two or more numbers = Product
factor tree. of the greatest power of each prime
Thus, 24  2  2  2  3 factor involved in the numbers.
 1.4 Short Notes GATE ACADEMY ®

 Key Point (iii) If we add or subtract an irrational

number to another irrational
For any two positive integers a and b, we have
number, then we always get an
HCF (a, b)  (LCM)(a, b)  a  b
irrational number (an exception
ab
 HCF (a, b)  could be 2  2  0 , which is
LCM (a, b)
rational).
ab (iv) If we multiply or divide an
or LCM (a, b) 
HCF (a, b) irrational number by an irrational
number, then the answer may be
Real Number :
rational or irrational.
Rational and irrational numbers are (v) If we multiply or divide a rational
called real numbers. Different number by another rational number,
components of real number can be then the answer will always be
understood with the following flow rational.
diagram 
Real Numbers

Rational numbers Irrational numbers

– 3, 0, 7, 11  3 4
, , , ... 2, 5 3, – 6, 2  5,...
2 5 7

Integers Non-integers
...,  2,  1, 0,1, 2, ... 11  5  3
..., , , ,...
2 7 5

Negative integers Whole numbers

...,  3,  2,  1 0,1, 2,3,...

Zero number Natural numbers

1, 2, 3,...
[Positive integers]

(i) Let P be a prime number and a be

a positive integer. If P divides a 2
, then P divides a.
(ii) 2 is a irrational number.
(i) If x and y are any two rational
x y
numbers, then is rational
2
number between them.
(ii) If x and y are any two distinct
irrational numbers, then xy is an
irrational number between them.
 2
Polynomial :
Polynomials
(iv) A polynomial of degree three, is called
cubic polynomial.
(i) A polynomial in one variable x, is
(v) A polynomial of degree four, is called
an algebraic expression of the form
biquadratic polynomial.
p( x)  a n Xn  a n 1X n 1  a n 2 X n 2
Real Number :
...  a 2 X 2  a1X  a 0 where,
A real number k is said to be a zero of
a 0 ,a1 ,a 2 ,...,a n , are constant and
polynomial f ( x) , if f (k )  0 .
these are also called coefficients of
7
polynomial and a i  0 , where Example : n is a zero of
5
i  a,1,..., n.
 7 
(ii) The exponent of the highest degree Polynomial p( x)  5x  7 , since p    0 .
 5 
term in a polynomial, is known as
its degree.  Key Point
1 (i) A linear polynomial has at most one
Example : f ( x)  5 x  is a
3 zero.
polynomial in variable x of degree 1. (ii) A quadratic polynomial has at most two
Zero polynomial : zeroes. In general, a polynomial of
(i) A polynomial of degree zero, is degree n has at most n zeroes.
called zero polynomial. (iii) If a polynomial p(x) of degree n, has n
(ii) A polynomial which contains only zeroes than its graph will intersect X-
constant term, is called a zero axis at n different points.
polynomial.
(iv) Zero of a polynomial p(x) is precisely
 Key Point the abscissa of the point where the graph
(i) The degree of zero polynomial is not intersects X-axis.
defined.
Graph of a Linear Polynomial :
(ii) A polynomial of degree one, is called
linear polynomial. Graph of a Linear Polynomial Let us
(iii) A polynomial of degree two, is called consider a linear polynomial y  ax  b .
quadratic polynomial. Every quadratic All these values of x and y are marked on
polynomial can have atmost two zeroes. the graph paper.
 2.6 Short Notes GATE ACADEMY ®
By joining all the markings we get the A and A' , then x - coordinate of points
required graph, which is found to be a of intersection of curves are known as
straight line. ‘zeroes’ of f ( x).
Y
Case II : If graph of f ( x)  ax2  bx  c
y  ax  b intersect the X-axis at one point only,
X' X then f ( x) will have only one ‘zero’ the
O x-coordinate of point of contact.
Y
Y

Y'
X' X
O X' X
Graph of Quadratic Polynomial : O

The graph of quadratic polynomial Y'

Y'

(ax  bx  c) is - shaped, called as

2
Case III : If graph of
parabola. f ( x)  ax  bx  c neither touch nor
2

(i) If a  0 in polynomial ax 2  bx  c intersect the X-axis, then f ( x) will not

, then the shape of parabola is have any real zeroes.
opening upward () . Y Y

Y
X' X X' X
O O

X' X Y'
O Y'

Relationship between the Zeroes and

a0
Y' the Coefficients of Polynomial :
(ii) If a  0 in polynomial ax 2  bx  c
, then the shape of parabola is
opening downward () .
Y

X' X
O

a0
Y'

Three Cases of Graph : (i) If  and  are the zeroes of a quadratic

polynomial, then quadratic polynomial
The graph of ax 2  bx  c has three
will be k[ x2  (sum of zeroes) x 
cases, which are given below.
product of zeroes]
Case I : If graph of f ( x)  ax2  bx  c
intersect the X-axis at two distinct points i.e., k[ x2  (  ) x  ]
GATE ACADEMY ® Engineering Mathematics : Polynomials 2.7
(ii) If ,  and  are the zeroes of a
cubic polynomial, then cubic
polynomial will be k[x3 – (sum of
zeroes)x2 + (sum of product of
zeroes two at a time)x – product of
zeroes]
i.e.
k[ x3  (    ) x2  (    ) x  ] ,
where k is a real number.
Division Algorithm :
If p(x) and g(x) are any two polynomials
with g( x)  0 , then we can find
polynomials q(x) arid r(x) such that
p( x)  g( x)  q( x)  r( x)
i.e., Dividend = (Divisor × Quotient)
where, r( x)  0 or degree of r( x)  0
degree of g(x).
The process of division can be
understand easily with the help of this
flow chart.
Divide p(x) by g(x), where
degree p( x)  degree g( x )

If r(x )  0, If r( x)  0
then division
is complete

If degree r(x ) < degree g( x ), If degree r( x )  degree g( x ),

then division is complete then divide again


 3
Algebraic Expression :
Pair of Lines Equations
in Two Variables
(ii) Any pair of values of x and y which
(i) A combination of constants and satisfies the equation
variables, connected by four ax  by  c  0;
fundamental arithmetical
a  0, b  0 , is called a solution
operations +, –, × and , is called
an algebraic expression. of linear equation of two variables.
Example : 6 x2  5 y 2  2 xy is an (iii) Two linear equations in the same
algebraic expression. variables x and y, are called pair of
(ii) An algebraic expression with eign linear equations in two variables.
‘equal to’ (=), is called an equation. The general form of pair of linear
Without an equal sign, it is an equations in two variables x and y is
expression only. a1 x  b1 y  c1  0 and
Example : 6 x  12  0 is an equation but
a 2 x  b2 y  c2  0
only 6 x  12 is an expression.
(i) Linear equation : (iv) Let us consider two linear equations
An equation which involves only as
one variable with highest power 1, a1 x  b1 y  c1  0 and
is called a linear equation in that
a 2 x  b2 y  c2  0
variable.
Example : Each of the equation given Case I : Two line will intersect at one
below is a linear equation in one point.
variable.
a1 b1
(i) 5x  18  3  4 x If  , then the graph will
a 2 b2
y 1 y  5
(ii)   6 y represent two intersecting lines.
2 4
Solution (or root) of the Linear Equation: In this case, there is only one point of
(i) A value of the variable which when intersection which is unique. A pair of
substituted for the variable in the linear equations in two variables having
equation, makes its two sides equal, unique solution, is called consistent pair
is called a solution (or root) of the of linear equations. Hence, intersecting
linear equation in one variable. lines have one solution.
GATE ACADEMY ® Engineering Mathematics : Pair of Lines Equations in Two Variables 3.9
Y

a1 x  b1 y  c1  0

a2 x  b2 y  c2  0
X' X Substitution Method :
O
Steps used in this method to solve a pair
Y' of linear equations are given below.
Case II : Two line will not intersect Step I : Find the value of one variable
i.e., they are parallel. say x (or y) in terms of other variable i.e.,
a1 b1 c1 y (or x) form an equation.
If   , then the graph will
a2 b2 c2 Step II : Substitute this value of x (or y)
represent two parallel line. Thus, system in other equation, then it reduces to a
has no solution. linear equation in one variable ie., in
A pair of linear equation having no terms of y (or x) which can be solved
solution, is called inconsistent pair of easily.
linear equations. Step III : Substitute the value of y (or x)
Y obtained in step II in the equation which
is used to obtain the value of the other
a1 x  b1 y  c1  0 variable in step I.
Elimination Method :
Steps used in this method to solve a pair
X' X
O of linear equations are given below.
a2 x  b2 y  c2  0 Step I : Firstly, make the coefficient of
Y' one variable (x or y) numerically equal
Case III : Two lines will be coincident. by multiplying both equations by some
a1 b1 c1 suitable non-zero constant.
If   then the graph will
a 2 b2 c2 Step II : Now, add or subtract both
represent two coincident lines. Thus, equations, so that one variable is
system has infinitely many solutions. eliminated and remaining equation has
one variable.
 Key Point
Step III : Solve the equation in one
(i) There are infinite points of intersection. variable to get the value of this variable
(ii) A pair of linear equations having infinite (x or y).
distinct solutions, is called dependent Step IV : Substitute this value (x or y) in
pair of linear equations. any one of the given equations to get the
Behaviour if lines representing a pair of value of other variable.
linear equations in two variables and 
conditions for consistency :
 4 Quadratic Equations
Definition of Quadratic Equation : Quadratic Formula :
If p( x)  ax2  bx  c is a quadratic Let the quadratic equation be
ax  bx  c  0 , where a, b and c are
2

polynomial, then p( x)  0 i.e., real numbers and

ax2  bx  c  0 , a  0 is called a b  b2  4ac
quadratic equation. a  0, x  .
2a
Roots of a Quadratic Equation : This equation ax2  bx  c  0 has two
Let the roots of a quadratic equation roots say  and  and it is given by
ax2  bx  c  0 be  and  . b  b2  4ac
 and
Sum of the roots 2a

Coefficient of x b b  b2  4ac
      
Coefficient of x 2 a 2a
Nature of Roots of a Quadratic Equation
and Product of the roots
For a quadratic equation
Constant term c
    ax  bx  c  0 ,
2
the expression
Coefficient of x 2 a
(b  4ac) is discriminant. It is denoted
2

Solution of Quadratic Equation by by D.

Factorisation :  D  b2  4ac
Let the factors of Case I : When D  0 i.e. b2  4ac  0
ax2  bx  c  (Ax  B)(Cx  D) If D  0 i.e. b2  4ac  0 , then
Now, ax2  bx  c  0 b  0
x
 (Ax  B)(Cx  D)  0 2a
b b
 Ax  B  0 or Cx  D  0  x ,
2a 2a
B D So. The quadratic equation has two
 x or x  
A C equal real roots or repeated roots.
GATE ACADEMY ® Engineering Mathematics : Quadratic Equations 4.11
Case II :
When D  0, i.e. b2  4ac  0

If D  b2  4ac  0 , then

b  D b  D
x and
2a 2a
So, the quadratic equation has two
distinct real roots.
Case III :
When D  0 i.e. b2  4ac  0

If D  b2  4ac  0 , then there is no real

number whose square is b2  4ac . So,
the quadratic equation has nor real roots.
Completing the Square :
If the quadratic equation is of the form
ax2  bx  c  0 , where a  0 and the
quadratic expression is not factorable
and try to complete the square.
Method : If a  1 , then divide all terms
by a. Further proceed the following steps
Step I. Shift the constant to the right
side.
Step II. Find half of b which means b/2.
2
b
Step III. Add   on both sides of the
2
equation.
Step IV. The left side of an equation
becomes a perfect square.
Step V. Further taking the square root
and simplify it, which gives out the
factor.

 5 Arithmetic Progressions
Definition of Quadratic Equation : Step IV : If a n 1  a n is independent of
(i) Sequence some numbers arranged in n, then the given list of numbers (or
definite order, according to a definite sequence) is an AP, otherwise not.
rule are said to form a sequence. To find the General Term of an AP :
(ii) Progression Sequences which follow (nth term of an AP) Let the AP series be
a definite pattern are called a,a  d,a  2d,a  3d,.... with common
progressions. There are three types difference d.
of progressions. In this chapter, we
Here, first term, T1  a  a  (1 1)d
shall learn only Arithmetic
Progression.  nth term, Tn  a  (n 1)d
Arithmetic Progression (AP) : nth Term if an AP from the End :
A sequence in which each term differs Let the AP series be
from its preceding term by a constant, is a,(a  d),(a  2d),...,(i  2d),(l  d), l
called an arithmetic progression, written
 nth term from the end  l  (n  1)d
as AP. This constant is called the
common difference of the AP. To find the Arithmetic Mean between
Two Numbers :
Method
Let the given numbers be a and b.
To Check an AP When Algebraic
Formula for General Term is Given Let A be the AM between a and b.
Sometimes an algebraic formula for the 1
 AM between a and b  (a  b)
general term of the sequence is given 2
and we have to check that this sequence To Find the Sum of n Terms of an AP :
is an AP or not. Let an AP having n terms, in which first
For this, we use the following steps term = a, common difference = d and last
Step I : Consider the algebraic formula term = l.
as a n . . n
Then Sn  (a  l ) and
2
Step II : Replace n by (n + 1) in a„ to
get a n 1. a
Sn  [2a  (n  1)d]
2
Step III : Find a n 1  a n .

 6 Triangles
Definition of Quadratic Equation : Two triangles are said to be similar
Similar Figures : triangles, if their corresponding angles
(i) Two geometrical figures are said to are equal and their corresponding sides
be similar figures, if they have same are proportional (i.e., the ratios between
shape but not necessarily the same the lengths of corresponding sides are
size. equal).
(ii) A shape is said to be similar to other, e.g., If in ABC and PQR
if the ratio of their corresponding A  P, B  Q, C  R
sides is equal and the corresponding AB BC AC
And  
angles are equal. PQ QR PR
Similar Polygons : Then, ABC PQR
Similar Polygons Two polygons of the where, symbol is read as, 'is similar
same number of sides are similar, if : to'.
(i) All the corresponding angles are Conversely
equal and
If ABC is similar to PQR , then
(ii) All the corresponding sides are in
A  P, B  Q, C  R
the same ratio (or proportion).
H G AB BC AC
D C And  
6 and 9 PQ QR PR
A 8 B
E F
Basic Proportionality Theorem (BPT)
12

If only one condition from (i) and (ii) is or Thales theorem :

true for two polygons, then they cannot If a line is drawn parallel to one side of
be similar. two figures : a triangle to intersect the other two sides
The ratio that compares the in distinct points, then other two sides
measurements of two similar shapes, is are divided in the same ratio.
called the scale factor or representative Converse of basic proportionality
fraction. It is equal to the ratio of theorem :
corresponding sides of two figures. If a line divides any two sides of a
triangle in the same ratio, then the line
We can use the ratio of corresponding
must be parallel to the third side
sides to find unknown sides of similar (converse of basic proportionality
shapes. theorem).
6.14 Short Notes GATE ACADEMY ®
A (v) Vertically Opposite Angles :
The following pair of angles are
F called vertically opposite angles.
D E
(a) 1 and 3 (b)  2 and  4
(c) 5 and 7 (d) 6 and 8
B C Mid-point theorem :
Let us consider two parallel lines I and The line segment joining the mid-points
m and draw one transversal line t, of any two sides of a triangle is parallel
which intersect l and m at P and Q. to the third side.
t Angle bisector theorem :
The internal bisector of an angle of a
4
1 triangle divides the opposite side
l
3 internally in the ratio of the sides
P 2
8 5 containing the angle.
m
7 Q 6 Similar Triangles :
Two triangles are said to be similar, if
(i) Corresponding Angles : corresponding angles are equal and
The angles on the same side of a corresponding sides are in the same ratio
transversal line are known as the i.e., they are proportional.
corresponding angles, if both lie AAA Similarity :
either above the two lines or below
If two angles of one triangle are
the two lines, i.e.,
respectively equal to two angles of
(a) 1 and 5 (b)  2 and 6 another triangle, then the two triangles
(c)  4 and 8 (d) 3 and 7 are similar (because by the angle sum
(ii) Alternate Interior Angles : property of a triangle, their third angle
The following pairs of angles are will also be equal) and it is called AAA
called pairs of alternate interior (or AA) similarity.
angles SSS Similarity :
(a) 3 and 5 (b)  2 and 8 In two triangles, if sides of one triangle
(iii) Consecutive Interior Angles : are proportional to the sides of. the other
The pairs of interior angles on same triangle, then their corresponding angles
side of the transversal line are are equal and hence the two triangles are
called pair of consecutive interior similar.
angles. SAS Similarity :
(a)  2 and 5 (b) 3 and 8 If one angle of a triangle is equal to one
(iv) Alternate Exterior Angles : angle of the other triangle and the sides
including these angles are proportional,
The following pair of angles are
called alternate exterior angles. then the two triangles are similar.

(a) 1 and 7 (b)  4 and 6
 7
Coordinate System :
Coordinate Geometry
 Key Point
In the figure, the line XOX' is known as The distance of any point P (x, y) from the origin
the X-axis and YOY' is known as Y-axis.
O (0, 0) is given by OP  x 2  y 2 .
The point O is called the origin. For any
point P (x, y), the ordered pair (x, y)is
Section Formula :
called the coordinate of point P. The
distance of a point from Y-axis is called Let P(x, y) be a point on the line segment
its abscissa and the distance of a point joining A( x1 , y1 ) and B( x2 , y2 ) such
from X-axis is called its ordinate. that it divides AB internally in the ratio
m: n. The coordinates of the point P are
Y given by
P (x , y )
mx2  nx1 my2  ny1
ordinate = y

x and y 
mn mn
This is known as section formula.
abscissa = X
A( x1, y1 ) m n B( x2 , y2 )
X' O (0, 0) X P( x, y )

 Key Point

(i) If the point P divides the line segment

joining A( x1 , y1 ) and B( x2 , y1 ) internally
Y' in the ratio k : 1, its coordinates are given
Distance between Two Points :  kx  x ky  y 
by  2 1 , 2 1 
 k 1 k 1 
The distance between two points
P( x1 , y1 ) and Q( x2 , y2 ) is given by (ii) The coordinates of the mid-point of the
line segment joining the points A( x2 , y1 )
PQ  ( x2  x1 )2  ( y2  y1 )2
x x y y 
and B( x2 , y2 ) are  2 1 , 2 1 
This result is known as distance formula.  2 2 
 7.16 Short Notes GATE ACADEMY ®
Points of Trisection :
Trisection means a line is dividing into
three equal parts. Let
AP  PQ  QB  x
Then, AP  x
PB  PQ  QB  x  x  2x
 AP : PB  x : 2 x  1: 2
And QB  x
Then, AQ : QB  2 x : x  2 :1
P Q
A B
Y'
Hence, to find the points of trisection,
we find two points P and Q which
divides AB in the ratio 1 : 2 or 2:1,
respectively.

 8 Trigonometry
(c) Tangent A or tan A
Trigonometry Ratio :
(i) The ratios of the sides of a right Side opposite to A

angled triangle with respect to its Side adjacent to A
acute angles, are called  P  BC
trigonometric ratios. Trigonometric  i.e.,  
 B  AB
ratios are also called T - ratio.
(d) Cosecant A or cosec A
(ii) Trigonometric ratios of A in right
Hypotenuse
angled ΔABC are defined below. 
Side adjacent to A
C
 H  AC
 i.e.,  
Side opposite to  A
[i.e., perpendicular (P)]

 P  BC
)
(He

(e) Secant A or sec A

us
t en

Hypotenuse
po


Hy

Side adjacent to A
 H  AC
 i.e.,  
A B  B  AB
Side adjacent
to A [i.e., Base (B)] (f) Cotangent A or cot A
(a) Sine A or sin A Side adjacent to A

Side opposite to A Side opposite to A

Hypotenuse  B  AB
 i.e.,  
 P  BC  P  BC
 i.e.,   Similarly trigonometric ratios of ZC are :
 H  AC
(b) Cosine A or cos A AB
(a) sin C 
AC
Side adjacent to A
 AB
Hypotenuse (b) tan C 
BC
 B  AB
 i.e.,   (c) cos C 
BC
 H  AC
AC
8.18 Short Notes GATE ACADEMY ®
AC (vi) As, the hypotenuse is the longest
(d) cosec C 
AB side in a right angled triangle, the
value of sin A or cos A is always less
AC
(e) sec C  than 1 (or in particular equal to 1)
BC
whereas the value of sec A or cosec
BC A is always greater than or equal to
(f) cot C 
AB 1.
C 1 1
• sin A  , cosec A 
cosec A sin A
Side adjacent to A
)
(H

1 1
e

• cos A  ,sec A 
us

[i.e., Base (B)]

t en

sec A cos A
po
Hy

1 1
• tan A  , cot A 
cot A tan A

A B sin A
Side opposite to C
• tan A 
cos A
[i.e., Perpendicular (P)]
cos A
(i) In an isosceles right AABC, right • cot A 
sin A
angled at B, the trigonometric
ratios obtained by taking either Values of Trigonometric Ratios for Some
ZA or ZC, both give the same Specific Angles :
value.
(ii) The value of each of the
trigonometric ratios of an angle does
not depend on the size of the
triangle. It only depends on the
angle.
(iii)It is clear that the values of the
trigonometric ratios of an angle do
not vary with the lengths of the sides
of the triangle, if the angle remains
the same.
(iv) If one of the trigonometric ratios of Here   undefined
an acute angle is known, then (i) The value of sin  increase from 0 to
remaining trigonometric ratios of 1 and cos  decrease from 1 to 0,
that angle can be determined easily. where 0    900 .
(v) Each trigonometric ratio is a real (ii) In the case of tan  , the values
number and has no unit. increase from 0 to  , where
0    900 .
GATE ACADEMY ® Engineering Mathematics : Trigonometry 8.19
(iii) In the case of cot  , the values Representation of a trigonometric ratio
decrease from  to 0, where in terms of any other Trigonometric
0    900 . ratio :

(iv) In the case of cosec 9, the values

decrease from  to 1, where
0    900 .
(v) In the case of sec , the values
increase from 1 to  where
0    900 .
(vi) Division by 0 is not allowed,
since 1/0 is indeterminate (not
defined).
Trigonometric Identity :
An equation is called an identity when it 
is true for all values of the variables
involved. Similarly, an equation
involving
trigonometric ratios of an angle is called
a trigonometric identity, if it is true for
all values of the angle involved.
For any acute angle  , we have

(i) sin 2   cos2   1 or

sin 2   1  cos2  or cos2   1  sin 2 

(ii) sec2   tan 2   1or1  tan 2 

 sec2  or sec2  1  tan 2 

(iii) 1  cot 2   cosec2 or

cosec2  cot 2   1or cot 2 

 cosec2  1

 Key Point

sin 2   (sin )2 but sin 2  (sin 2 ) The same is

true for all other trigonometric ratios.
 Some Applications
9
Line of Sight :
of Trigonometry
• In generally, the angle of elevation
When an observer looks from a point O (depression) of the same object be
at an object P, then the line OP is called different at different points.
the line of sight. • The angle of elevation (depression)
Angle of Elevation : increase as the observer moves towards
The angle which the line of sight makes the object.
with the horizontal line through O, is • If the angle of observer moves towards
called the angle of elevation of P (object the perpendicular line, then angle of-elevation
above horizontal line) as seen from O. increases and if the observer moves away from
P
the perpendicular line, then the angle of
elevation decreases.
ht
sig
of

• If the height of tower is doubled and the

ne
Li

Angle of elevation distance between the observer and the

A
O foot of the tower is also doubled, then
Angle of Depression : the angle of elevation remains same.
The angle which the line of sight makes
with the horizontal line through O, is  Key Point
called the angle of depression of P Trigonometric Ratios in a Right Angle Triangle
(object below the horizontal line) as seen Perpendicular BC
(i) sin A  
from O. Hypotenuse AC
Horizontal line
A O Base BC
Angle of (ii) cos A  
depression Hypotenuse AC
Perpendicular BC
Line of sight (iii) tan A  
Base AC
P Hypotenuse AC
(iv) cosec A  
 Key Point Perpendicular BC
Hypotenuse AC
• Numerically the angle of elevation is (v) sec A  
equal to the angle of depression. Base AB
The angle of elevation and the angle of Perpendicular AB
• (vi) cot A  
depression both are measured with Base BC
horizontal. 
 10 Circle
Circle : Alternate segment :
A circle is a collection of all points in a The segment opposite to the angle
plane which are at a constant distant formed by the chord of a circle with the
from a fixed point. In the given figure, 0 tangent at a point is called the alternate
is the centre and OA is the radius of the segment for that. i.e., BAX and
circle and AB is the diameter of the BCA are the angles in alternate
circle. segment. Similarly, CAY and ABC
are the angles in alternate segment.
B A
O B C

Some Basic Definitions :

X A Y
Chord : A line segment joiningany two
Concentric circle :
points on a circle is called a chord of
Circles having the same centre are called
the circle
E concentric circles.
Radius B
D
R
Diameter B
Chord
A
C O r
F Tangent

P A Q
The maximum length of the chord is Number of Tangents from a Point on a
equal to the length of the diameter. Circle :
Secant : The number of tangents drawn from a
A line intersect the circle in two points point to a circle depends upon the
is called secant of the circle. position of the point with respect to the
Tangent : circle. So, three cases are possible.
A line touches the circle at only one Case I : When point 'P' lies outside the
point is called tangent to the circle. circle
Cyclic quadrilateral : If point P lies outside the circle, 'then
If all vertices of a quadrilateral lie on a two tangents can be drawn to the circle
circle is called cyclic quadrilateral. from point P.
 10.22 Short Notes GATE ACADEMY ®
e nt (ii) The length of tangents drawn from
Tang
T
an external point to a circle are
P equal.
(iii) The perpendicular from the centre
T Ta of a circle to a chord bisect the
ngent
chord and its vice-versa.
Hence, there are exactly two tangents
(iv) Equal chord of a circle are
from a point lying outside the circle.
equidistant from the centre and its
Case II : When point 'P' lies on the circle
vice-versa.
If point P lies on the circle, then there is
(v) The angle in semi-circle is a right
one and only one line which touch the
angle.
circle in one point, all other lines meet
the circle in more than one point. (vi) The angle subtended by an arc of
the circle to the centre is twice the
angle subtended by the
circumference of the circle
(vii) Angles in the same segment of a
P Tangent circle are equal.
(viii)The sum of any pair of opposite
Hence, there is one and only one tangent
angles of a quadrilateral is 180°.
to the circle passing through a point P
(ix) If two circles touch each other
lying on the circle and this point P will
internally (externally), then the
be its point of contact.
Case III : When point ‘P’ lies inside the point of contact lies on the line
through the centres.
circle
If a point P lies inside the circle, then any (x) If two circles intersects in two
line passing through the point P will points, then the line through the
intersect the circle at two points. centres is the perpendicular bisector
of the common chord.
(xi) Let PT be a tangent to the circle at
P point T.
No
tangent B

A
Hence, there is no tangent to a circle
passing through a point lying inside the P
T
circle.
From external point P, draw a line
Important Theorems :
which intersect the circle at two points
(i) The tangent at any point of a circle
A and B, then PA  PB  PT 2
is perpendicular to the radius

through the point of contact.
 Area Related
11 to Circles
Circle : Area Enclosed by Two Concentric
If r is the radius of a circle, then Circles or Area of a Circular Track :
(i) Circumference of the circle  2πr If R and r are the radii of two concentric
units circles, then area enclosed by them (area
(ii) Area of the circle  r 2 sq units of circular track formed by them)
 πR 2  πr 2  (R 2  r 2 ) Sq units
r
A B
O
r
Semi-circle : A
O R
If r is the radius of a circle, then
(i) Perimeter of the semi-circle
1 Sector of the Circle :
  2πr  2r  πr  2r units.
2 Let r be the radius of a circle with centre
(ii) Area of the semi-circle O. Let the arc AB of the circle subtend
1 an angle  at the centre, so that AOB is
 r 2 sq units.
2 the corresponding sector(shaded).

r
A O B
O
Quadrant of a Circle :
If r is the radius of a circle, then  r
(i) Perimeter of the quadrant
1 πr A B
  2πr  2r   2r units.
4 2 r 
(i) Length of the arc (AB) 
(ii) Area of the quadrant 1800
1 units.
 r 2 sq units.
4 (i) Perimeter of the sector = Length of
A
the arc + Diameter of the circle
 r  
 0 
units.
O B  180 
 11.24 Short Notes GATE ACADEMY ®

r 2 
(ii) Area of the sector  sq
3600
units. (ii) Area of minor segment ACB =
Segment of the Circle :
Area of sector OACB-Area of
r 2 1 2
A segment of a circle is the region  AOB   r sin 
bounded by an arc and a chord including 3600 2
the arc and the chord. 1 2   
 r   sin  
S 2  1800 
Major
Segment
(iii)Area of major segment = Area of
O circle  Area of minor segment
 r 2  1 2 
r 2   0
 r sin  
 360 2 
Minor
A Segment B
r 2 1 2
R  r 2   r sin 
3600 2
The segment containing the minor arc
ARB is called a minor segment and the  Key Point
remaining segment containing the major • If a chord subtends a right angle at
arc centre, then area of the corresponding
 1
ASB is called the major segment.     r2.
Let r be the radius of a circle with centre segment  4 2 
O. Let a chord AB make a minor • If a chord subtends on angle of 60° at
segment ACB, i.e., the region bounded centre, then area of the corresponding
by the arc ACB and the chord AB. Let segment
AOB   .  3 2
    r .
(i) Perimeter of the minor segment 6 2 
ACB = Length of the arc + 0
Length of chord AB • If a chord subtends an angle of 120 at the
centre, then area of the corresponding
r 
  Length of chord AB  3 2
1800    r
 3 4 
S segment


O
r


A B

C
 Surface Areas
12 and Volume
Surface Areas and Volumes of Various (ii) Total surface area =
Solids : 2(R  r)(h  R  r) sq units.
(ii) Curved surface area
 2Rh  2rh  2rh(R  r) sq units.
R

For Hollow Sphere

Let R and r be the outer and inner radii
of the hollow sphere.
Volume of the hollow sphere
Some More Formulae : 4
 (R 3  r 3 )cu units .
(i) Diagonal of a cuboid 3

= l2  b 2  h 2

(ii) Diagonal of a cube = 3a

For Hollow Cylinder :
Let R and r be the external and internal
radii of the hollow cylinder and h be the
height.
(i) Volume of the hollow cylinder
 (R 2  r 2 ) h cu units.
 13 Statistics
Mean : Mode :
The arithmetic mean (or simple mean) of a The observation which occurs most
set of observations is obtained by dividing frequently among the given observations
the sum of the values of observations by the i.e., the value of the observation having
number of observations. The mean of n maximum frequency is called mode.
observations x1 , x2 , x3 ,....., xn is Example : Mode of the numbers 2,
Mean 3, 4, 4, 6, 6, 6, 6, 7 and 9 is 6 because it is
n repeated maximum number of times i.e., 4
x1  x2  x3  ......  xn X i times.
( x)   i 1

n n Modal Class :
Direct method : In grouped data, a class having maximum
Let x1 , x2 ,...... xn be n observations with frequency is called modal class then mode
is a value inside the modal class and it
respective frequencies f1 , f 2 ,........, f n
n
is given by the formula.
fx i i  f1  f 0 
Then, mean ( x)  i 1 Mode  l    h
n
 2 f1  f 0  f 2 
f
i 1
i
Where,
Assumed mean method : l  Lower limit of the modal class.
f d h  Size of the class interval (assuming
Mean  a  i i
f i
(all class sizes to be equal).
where, a  assumed mean di  xi  a
f1  Frequency of the modal class.
= deviation from assumed mean
Step deviation method :
f0  Frequency of the class preceding the
fi ui modal class.
Mean = a  h
fi f 2  Frequency of the class succeeding
Where, the modal class.
a  Assumed mean;  Key Point
i  xi  a = deviation from assumed Mode can be less, equal or more than the mean
mean of the data.
h  class width.
 13.26 Short Notes GATE ACADEMY ®
Median : where,
Median is defined as the middle most or the I = lower limit of median
central value of the variable in a set of class
observations, when the observations are n = number of observations.
arranged either in ascending or descending order cf = cumulative frequency of class
of their magnitudes. Let n be the number of preceding the median class.
observations. Then, arrange the data in f = frequency of the median class.
ascending or
h = class width (assuming class
descending order. Now, size to be equal).
Case I : If n is odd, then Median = Value of the
th
 n 1  
  observation.
 2 
Case II : If n is even, then
th th
n n 
Median = Mean of the   and   1
2 2 
1
observation   Value of
2
 n  th  n  th 
     1   .
 2   2  
Cumulative frequency :
(i) Cumulative frequency is the sum of all
previous frequencies upto the current
point.
(ii) Cumulative frequency distribution is of
two types-less than type and more than
type I.
Median class :
(i) In grouped data, we find the cumulative
n
frequencies of all the classes and , where
2
n  number of observations.
(ii) Locate the class whose cumulative
frequency is greater than
 n n
 and nearest to  . This class is
 2 2
called median class.
n 
  cf 
median  l  2  h
 f 
 
 14 Probability
Probability : Elementary Event :
Probability is the study of the chances An event having only one outcome of
(or likelihood) of events . happening. By the random experiment is called an
meansof probability, the chance (or elementary event.
likelihood) of events is measured by a
number lying from 0 to 1. Example : In tossing of a coin, the
possible outcomes are head (H) and tail
Experiment :
(T). Getting H or T are known as
An operation which produces some well
elementary events.
defined outcomes, is called an
experiment. Example : Tossing a coin, Occurrence of an Event :
throwing a dice, etc. An event E associated to a random
(i) Random experiment : If an experiment is said to be occur (or
experiment is repeated under happen) in a trial, if the outcome of trial
identical conditions and they do not is one of the outcomes that favours E.
produce the same outcomes every
Example : If a die is rolled and the
time, then it is said to be random (or
outcome of a trial is 4, then we say that
probabilistic) experiment.
event getting an even number has
(ii) Deterministic experiment : If an
happened (or occurred).
experiment is repeated under
identical conditions and they Probability of an Event :
produce the same outcomes every (or Probability of occurrence of an
time, then it is is said to be Event) If E is an event associated with a
deterministic experiment. An event random experiment, then probability of
for an experiment is the collection of E, denoted by P(E), represents the
some outcomes of the experiment. chance of occurrence of event E.
We generally denote it by capital
Example : If E denotes the event of
letter E.
getting an even number in a single throw
Example : Getting an even number
of a die, then P(E) represents the chance
in a single throw of a die is an event.
of occurrence of event E, i.e. the chance
This event would consist of three
of getting 2, 4 or 6.
outcomes, namely 2, 4 and 6.
GATE ACADEMY ® Engineering Mathematics :Probability 14.29
Compound Event : Impossible Event :
A collection of two or more elementary An event which is impossible to occur,
events associated with an experiment is called an impossible event and
is called a compound event, probability of impossible event is
Example : In the random experiment of always zero.
tossing of two coins simultaneously, if Example : In throwing a die, there are
we define the event of getting exactly only six possible outcomes 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
one head, then it is a collection of and 6. Let we are interested in getting a
elementary events (or outcomes) HT number 7 on throwing a die. Since, no
and TH. So, it is a compound event. face of the die is marked with 7. So, 7
Theoretical : cannot come in any throw. Hence,
getting 7 is an impossible event.
(Classical) Definition of Probability Let
0
us assume all the outcomes of an Then, P (getting a number 7) =  0
experiment are equally likely and E is an 6
event associated with the experiment, Sure Event or Certain Event :
then the theoretical probability (or An event which is sure to occur, is called
classical probability) of the event E is a sure event or certain event and
given by probability of sure event is always 1.
Number of outcomes Example : Suppose we want to find the
probability of getting a number less than
favourable to E
P(E)  7 in a single throw of a die having
Total number of outcomes
numbers 1 to 6 on its six faces. We are
n (E) sure that, we shall always get a number

n (S) less than 7, whenever we throw a die. So,
(i) Probability of an event can never be getting a number less than 7 is a sure
negative. event.
(ii) The sum of the probabilities of Then, P (getting a number less than 7)
complementary events of an 6
 1
experiment is 1. 6

i.e. If E and E are complementry events.
Then, P(E)  P( E )  1
or P( E )  1  P(E)
or P(E)  1  P( E )
where, P(E) represents the probability of
occurrence of an event E and P( E )
represents the probability of non-
occurrence of an event E.