GOVT.

ENGINEERING COLLEGE, AJMER

LISTS OF EXPERIMENTS
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING LAB
1. To determine the PH of the given sample of sewage.
2. To determine the total solids of a given sewage sample.
3. To determine the total dissolved solids of the given sewage
sample.
4. To find out the total settle-able solids of the given sewage
sample.
5. To determine total suspended solids of the given sewage
sample.
6. To find out the quantity of dissolved oxygen present in the
given water sample by Winkler’s method.
7. To determine the biochemical oxygen demand exerted by
the given waste water sample.
8. To find out the chemical oxygen demand of the waste water
sample.
9. To study various sanitary fittings.

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EXPERIMENT-1

AIM: To determine the pH of the given sample of sewage.

PRINCIPLE: Measurement of pH is one of the most important and frequently used in water
chemistry. Practically, every phase of water supply and wastewater treatment, e.g. water
softening, precipitation, coagulation, disinfection, acid-base neutralization is pH dependent.

At a given temperature the intensity of acidic or basic character of a solution is indicated by pH

or hydrogen ion activity. Alkalinity and acidity are the acid- and base- neutralizing capacities of
water and usually are expressed as milligrams CaCO3 per litre.

pH as defined by the Sorenson is –log [H+], negative logarithm of hydrogen ion concentration. It
is the intensity factor of acidity. Pure water is slightly ionized and at equilibrium the ion product
is –

[H+] [OH-] = kw
= 1.01 x 10-14- at 250C …………….(1)
and [H+] = [OH-]
= 1.005 x 10-7

where [H+]= activity of hydrogen ions, moles/L

[OH-] = activity of hydroxyl ions, moles/L and,
kw = ion product of power.
A logarithmic scale is convenient for expressing a wide range of ionic activities. Equation 1 in
logarithmic form is
14
-log10 [H+] + (-)log10 [OH-] = ………………(2)

or pH +pOH = kw
Where pH = -log [H+] -
pOH = -log [OH ]
(here p designates of –log of a number)
Equation 2 states that as pH increases, pOH decreases correspondingly and vice-versa because
pkw id constant for a given temperature. At 250C, ph 7.0 is neutral, the activity of the hydrogen
and hydroxyl ions are equal.

SAMPLE HANDLING AND PRESERVATION

The pH value obtained in the laboratory may not be the same as that of water at the time of
collection of samples due to loss or absorption of gases, reaction with sediments, hydrolysis and

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oxidation or reduction taking place with in the sample bottle. Therefore, the sample should be
analyzed as soon as possible, preferably in the field at the time of sampling.

The pH value may be determined either electrometrically or colormetrically. The electrometric is

more accurate but requires special apparatus. The colormetric method is simple and requires less
expensive apparatus, and is sufficiently accurate for general work.

The basic principal of electrometric pH measurement is determination of activity of the hydrogen

ions by potentiometer measurements using a glass or reference electrode. Contact between the
test solution and electrode is achieved by means of a liquid junction. The electromotive force is
measured with a pH meter that is high impedance voltmeter calibrated in terms of pH.
APPARATUS
The apparatus consists of a pH meter with gladd and reference electrode with temperature
compensation.

REAGENTS
Standard pH buffer solutions from available tables or known amount of chemicals may be used
for the preparation:-

a) Dissolved 3.814 gm of Sodium Borate (Borax) in distilled water and dilute to 1 litre. This
corresponds to pH value of 9.18 at 250C.

b) Dissolved 10.12 gm of Potassium Hydrogen pellets in distilled water and dilute to 1 litre.
This corresponds to pH value of 4.008 at 250C.

PROCEDURE

1. Switch on the instrument and allow it to warm for some period.

2. Press the standby switch.
3. Connect the electrode across the BNC Socket.
4. Clean the electrode with distilled water.
5. Standardized the instrument, by dipping the electrode in pH 4.00 buffer (or any other
standard buffer).
6. Check the electrode against at least one additional buffer of different pH value.
7. Measure the temperature of water and keep the temperature knob at on that temperature and
% slope knob at 100 value.
8. Press pH switch against the display to the pH value of the buffer with CAL knob.

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9. Now the instrument is calibrated and is ready for measuring the pH of unknown solutions.

In the above operation, the slope of electrode is assumed to be 100% but slope may be
sometimes different and it may be adjusted as given below:

1. Calibrate the instrument for any buffer solution (say pH 4.00)

2. Now, check the value of another standard buffer solutions (say pH 9.2) when slope is 100. If
the value displayed differs, it needs adjustment.
3. Adjust the display with % slope control to value displayed + half the difference between the
actual and exact value.
4. Now, again check for pH 4.0. If there is any difference, adjust with CAL knob.
5. Like this, above procedure is repeated till correct values are displayed.

The calorimetric method involves the use of different indicators by visual comparison for pH
determination.

REAGENTS
Prepare the universal indicator by dissolving 0.05 gm of methyl orange, 0.15gm of methyl red,
0.3 gm of Bromothymol blue and 0.35gm of phenolphthalein in one litre of alcohol.
the color changes are:

pH Color
Upto 3 Red
4 Orange Red
5 Orange
6 Yellow
Yellowish
7 Green
8 Greenish Blue
9 Blue
10 Violet
11 Reddish Violet

Take the sample in glass tube and a few drops of Universal indicator in it. Mix it thoroughly and
note the change in color. Compare the colour produced with the standard colour strips available.

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ENVIRONMENTAL SIGNIFICANCE
Significance of pH determination in waste water:

(i) Determination of pH is one of the important objectives in biological treatment of the

waste waters. In anaerobic treatment if the pH goes below 5.0 due to excess
accumulation of acids, the process is severely effected. Shifting of pH beyond 5 to
10 upsets the aerobic treatment of waste waters. In these circumstances the pH can
be adjusted by addition of suitable acids or alkali to optimize the treatment of the
waste water.

(ii) Dewatering of sludges, oxidation of cyanides and reduction of hexavalent chromium

into trivalent chromium also need a favourable pH range.

(iii) pH value or range is of immense value for any chemical reaction. A chemical shall
be highly effective at a particular pH. Chemical coagulation, disinfection, water
softening and corrosion control are governed by pH adjustment.
COMMENTS

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EXPERIMENT -2

AIM: To determine the total solids of the given sample.

PRINCIPLE: Total solids are determined as the residue left after evaporation and drying of the
unfiltered sample

APPARATUS:

1. Evaporating Dishes (Pyrex, porcelain or platinum)

2. Oven
3. Desiccators
4. Water bath

PROCEDURE:

1. A clean porcelain dish is ignited in a muffle furnace and after partial cooling in the air, it is
cooled in a desiccators and weighed.

2. A 100 ml of well-mixed sample (graduated cylinder is rinsed to ensure transfer of all suspend
matter) is placed in the dish and evaporated at 100 0C on water bath, followed by drying in
oven at 103 0C for 1 hour.

3. Dry to a constant weight at 103 0C, cool in a desiccators and weigh.

CALCULATION:
(A – B) x 1000

Total solids (mg/l) = ---------------------------

V

A = Final weight of the dish in mg.

B = Initial weight of the dish in mg.
V = Volume of sample taken in ml.

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OBSERVATION AND RESULTS:

Sample Volume of Initial weight of Final weight of Total Solids

details sample the dish the dish
(ml) (mg) (mg) (mg/l)

APPLICATION OF TOTAL SOLIDS DATA IN ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING:

1. The estimation of total solids in wastewater is useful to determine its suitability for
sewage farming etc.

2. Total Solids determination is used to access the suitability of potential supply of water
for various uses. In cases, in which water softening is needed, the type of softening
procedure used nay be dictated by the total solids content.

3. Corrosion control is frequently accomplished by the production of stabilized water

through pH adjustment. The pH at stabilization depends to some extend upon the total
solids present as well as the alkalinity and temperature.

COMMENTS:

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EXPERIMENT- 3

AIM- To find out Total dissolved solids of the given sample

PRINCIPLE: Total solids are determined as the residue left after evaporation and drying of the
filtered sample.

APPARATUS:

1. Evaporating Dishes (Pyrex, porcelain or platinum)

2. Oven
3. Desiccators
4. Whatman filter paper No. 44
5. Water bath

PROCEDURE:

1. A clean porcelain dish is ignited in a muffle furnace and after partial cooling in the air, it is
cooled in a desiccators and weighed.
2. A 100 ml of filtered sample is placed in the dish and evaporated at 100 0C on water bath,
followed by drying in oven at 103 0C for 1 hour.
3. Dry to a constant weight at 103 0C, cool in a desiccators and weigh.
CALCULATION
(A – B) x 1000 Total
dissolved solids (mg/l) = ---------------------------
V
A = Final weight of the dish in mg.
B = Initial weight of the dish in mg.
V = Volume of sample taken in ml.

OBSERVATION AND RESULTS:

Sample Volume of Initial weight Final weight of Total Dissolved

details sample of the dish the dish Solids
(ml) (mg) (mg) (mg/l)

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APPLICATION OF TOTAL DISSOLVED SOLIDS DATA IN ENVIRONMENTAL
ENGINEERING:

1. Some dissolved organic chemicals may deplete the dissolved oxygen in the receiving waters
and some may be inert to biological oxidation, yet others have been identified as
carcinogens.

2. The total dissolved determination is useful for the sewage to find it’s suitability for
agriculture purpose.

COMMENTS:

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EXPERIMENT-4

AIM- To find out Total Settle-able Solids of the given sample.

PRINCIPLE: The particles in suspension whose specific gravity greater than that of water will
settle under quiescent conditions.

APPARATUS:

1. Imhoff Cone
2. Holding Device

PROCEDURE:

1. Gently fill the Imhoff cone with the thoroughly well mixed sample usually one litre and
allow it to settle.
2. After 45 minutes, gently rotate the cone between hands to ensure that all solids adhering to
the sides are loosened.
3. Allow the solids to settle for 15 minutes more, to make up for a total period of 1 hour.
4. Read the volume of the sludge, which has settled in the apex.
5. Express the results in ml settle-able solids per litre of sample per hour.

CALCULATION:

ml of solids x 1000 Total

Settle-able Solids (ml/l) = ------------------------------
ml of sample

OBSERVATION AND RESULTS:

Sample Detail Volume of sample taken Total Settleable Solids

(ml) (ml/l/hour)

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APPLICATION OF TOTAL SETTLE-ABLE SOLIDS DATA IN ENVIRONMENTAL
ENGINEERING:

1. The settle-able solids determination is used extensively in the analysis of industrial waste
to determine the need for and design of plain settling tanks in plants employing biological
treatment processes.

2. It is also widely used in waste water treatment plant operation to determine the efficiency
of sedimentation units.

COMMENTS:

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EXPERIMENT-5

AIM: To determine Total Suspended Solids of the given sample.

PRINCIPLE: Total suspended solids are determined as the residue left on gooch crucible or a
glass fibre filter after drying in oven.

APPARATUS:
1. Gooch crucible / glass fibre filter
2. Suction apparatus
3. Desiccators

PROCEDURE:
1. A clean gooch crucible is ignited in a muffle furnace and after partial cooling in the air, cools
in a desiccator and weigh (W1).
2. Pour 100 ml of well mixed sample on gooch crucible or glass fibre filter which is kept on
filter flask and apply suction.
3. Wash the gooch crucible with 100 ml of distilled water to remove all soluble salts.
4. Carefully remove the glass fibre filter paper or gooch crucible and dry in an oven at 1050C
for one hour.
5. Cool in a desiccator and weigh (W2).
6. Ignite gooch crucible in a muffle furnace at 6000C for 15-20 minutes.
7. Cool the crucible partially in air until most of heat has been dissipated and then in a
desiccator and record final weight (W3).
CALCULATION:
(W2-W1) x 1000

Total Suspended Solids (mg/l) = ------------------------------

ml of sample taken

(W2-W3) x 1000
Total Volatile Solids(mg/l) = --------------------------------
ml of sample taken

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OBSERVATION AND RESULTS:

Sample Detail Volume of Empty weight of Final weight of Solids(mg/l)

sample taken gooch crucible gooch crucible
(ml) (mg) (mg)

Total Suspended
Solids

Volatile
Suspended Solids

APPLICATION OF TOTAL SUSPENDED SOLIDS DATA IN ENVIRONMENTAL

ENGINEERING:

1. The suspended solids parameter is used to measure the quality of the waste water
influent and effluent.
2. The suspended solids determination is extremely valuable in the analysis of polluted
waters.
3. It is used to evaluate strength of domestic wastewater.

4. It is used to determine the efficiency of treatment units.

COMMENTS:

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EXPERIMENT – 6

AIM: To find out the quantity of Dissolved Oxygen (DO) present in the given sample.

PRINCIPLE: Oxygen present in sample oxidizes the divalent manganous to its higher valency
which precipitates as a brown hydrated oxide after addition of NaOH and KI. Upon acidification,
manganese reverts to divalent state and liberates iodine from KI equivalent to D.O. content in the
sample. The liberated iodine is titrated against Na2S2O3(0.25N), using starch as an indicator. If
oxygen absent in sample, the MnSO4 react with the alkali to form white precipitate Mn(OH)2.

APPRATUS:

1. BOD bottles (capacity 300ml)

2. Sampling device for collection of samples
3. Burette
4. Pipettes

REAGENTS:

1. Manganous sulphate
2. Alkali iodide-azide reagent
3. Starch Indicator
4. Standard sodium thiosulphate(0.25 N)
5. Concentrated Sulphuric acid

PROCEDURE (Winkler method):

1. Take the BOD bottle and collect 300 ml of water sample into it.
2. Add 2 ml of manganous sulphate and 2 ml of alkali iodide-azide solution to the BOD bottle.
The tip of the pipette should be below the liquid level, while adding these reagents.
3. Restopper with care to exclude air bubbles and mix by repeatedly inverting the bottle 2 to 3
times.
4. If no oxygen is present, the manganous ion reacts with hydroxide ion to form white precipitate of
++ ++
Mn(OH)2. If oxygen is present, some Mn is oxidized to M and precipitates as a brown
colored manganic oxide.

++ - 2
Mn + 2(OH) Mn(OH) (white)
++
Mn + 2(OH)- + ½ O2 ---- MnO2 (brown) + H2O

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5. After shaking and allowing sufficient time for all oxygen to react, the chemical precipitates are
allowed to settle leaving clear liquid with in the upper portion.
6. 2 ml of concentrated sulphuric acid is added.
7. The bottle is restoppered and mixed by inverting until yellow color is uniform throughout the
bottle.
++
MnO2 + 2I  4 H+ Mn + I2 + 2H2O

8. A volume of *203 ml is taken into the conical flask and titrate with 0.025 N sodium
thiosulphate solution until yellow coloured iodine turns to a pale straw color.
9. Since it is impossible to accurately titrate the sample to a colourless liquid, 1 to 2 ml of starch
solution is added.
10. Continue titration to the first disappearance of the blue color.

*200 x 300 = 203 ml.

(300 – 4)

CALCULATIONS:

1 ml of 0.025N Na2S2O3 is equivalent to 0.2 mg of O2,

since the volume of the sample is 200 ml.

1 ml of sodium thiosulphate is equivalent to

0.2 x 1000 mg/l = 1 mg/l.

OBSERVATION AND RESULTS:

Sample Temp. of sample Volume Initial Final ml. of D.O. in

details C of burette burette Na2S2O3 mg/l
sample reading ml reading ml Solution
taken ml used

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ENVIRONMENTAL SIGNIFICANCE:

1. Oxygen is poorly soluble in water. It’s solubility is about 14.6 mg/l for pure water at 0 0C
under normal atmospheric pressure and it drops to 7mg/l at 350C. Aerobic bacteria thrive
when free oxygen is available in plenty. Aerobic conditions do prevail when sufficient
D.O. is available within water. End products of aerobiosis are stable and not foul
smelling.

2. While a minimum D.O. of 4 to 5 mg/l is desirable for the survival of aquatic life, higher
value of D.O. may cause corrosion of iron and steel.

3. Higher temperature, biological impurities, ammonia, nitrates, ferrous iron, chemicals

such as hydrogen sulphide and organic matter reduce D.O. value.

4. Algae growth in water may release oxygen during its photosynthesis and D.O. may even
shoot up to 30 mg/l.

5. Drinking water should be rich in D.O. for good taste.

APPLICATION OF DISSOLVED OXYGEN DATA IN ENVIRONMENTAL

ENGINEERING:

1. It is necessary to know D.O. levels to assess quality of raw water and to keep a check on
stream pollution.

2. D.O. test is the basis for BOD test which is an important parameter to evaluate organic
pollution potential of waste.

3. D.O. test is necessary for all aerobic biological waste water treatment processes to control
the rate of aeration.

4. Oxygen is an important factor in the corrosion of iron and steel. D.O. test is used to
control oxygen in boiler feed waters.

5. D.O. test is used to evaluate the pollution strength of domestic and industrial wastes.

6. Determination of D.O. in waste water is useful to identify the nature of biochemical

reactions – whether aerobic which gives out stable end products (H2O and CO2) and do

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not produce any foul smells or anaerobic whose end products are unstable and produce
foul smells( H2S).

COMMENTS:

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EXPERIMENT-7

AIM: To determine Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) exerted by the given waste water
sample.

PRINCIPLE:
The complete oxidation of organic matter takes about 2-3 months but within 10 days nearly 90%
biological oxygen demand is satisfied after which the rate of depletion of oxygen is very slow.in
laboratory usually 5-day BOD is tested within which 70% BOD is satisfied.
The BOD is an empirical biological test. This BOD test may be considered as wet oxidation
procedure in which the living organisms serve as the medium for oxidation of the organic matter
to carbon-dioxide and water.

CnHaObNc + [n+a/4-b/2-3c/4]O2 Bacteria nCO2 + [a/2-3c/2] H2O +cNH3

On the basis of the above relationship, it is possible to interpret BOD data in terms of organic
matter as well as the amount of oxygen used during its oxidation.

REAGENTS:

1. Distilled water
2. Phosphate buffer solution
3. Magnesium Sulphate solution
4. Calcium Chloride solution
5. Ferric chloride solution
6. Sodium thiosulphate solution

PROCEDURE:

1. Place the desired volume of distilled water in a 5 litre flask. Aeration is done by bubbling
compressed air through water.
2. Add 1 ml of phosphate buffer, 1 ml of magnesium sulphate solution, 1 ml of calcium
chloride solution and 1 ml of ferric chloride solution for every litre of distilled water (dilution
water).

3. In case of the waste waters which are not expected to have sufficient bacterial population,
add seed to the dilution water. Generally, 2 ml of settle sewage is sufficient for 1000 ml of

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dilution water.
4. Highly acidic or alkaline samples are to be neutralized to a pH of 7.
5. Add 2 or 3 ml of sodium thiosulphate solution to destroy residual chlorine if any.
6. Take the sample as follows:
Strong waters : 0.1, 0.5, or 1%
Settle domestic sewage : 1, 2.5, or 5%
Treated effuents : 5, 12.5, or 25%
River water : 25% to 100%
7. Dilute the sample with the distilled water and mix the contents well.
8. Take dilute sample into 2 BOD bottles.
9. Fill another two BOD Bottles with diluted (distilled) water alone.
10. Immediately find D.O. of a diluted waste water and diluted water (distilled water).
11. Incubate the other two BOD bottles at 200C for 5 days. They are to be tightly stoppered to
prevent any air entry into the bottles.
12. Determine D.O. content in the incubated bottles at the end of 5 days (120 hours).

CALCULATIONS:
Let initial D.O. of distilled sample = Do
D.O. at the end of 5 days for the diluted sample = D5
Initial D.O. of distilled water (blank) = C0
D.O. at the end of 5 days for the distilled water (blank) = C5
D.O. depletion of dilution water = C0-C5
D.O. Depletion of the diluted water = D0-D5
D.O. depletion due to microbes = (D0-D5)-(C0-C5)

OBSERVATION AND RESULTS:

Sl. Volume Dilution Initial Final D.O. Initial Final 5 days BOD
No. of ratio D.O. of of sample D.O. of D.O. of at 20 0C
sample sample mg/l Blank Blank (mg/l)
(ml) mg/l mg/l mg/l

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ENVIRONMENTAL SIGNIFICANCE:

1. BOD is the principle test to give an idea of the biodegradability of any wastewater sample
and strength of the waste. Hence the amount of pollution can be easily measured by it. It is
the basic criteria for the control of stream pollution.

2. Efficiency of any treatment plant can be judged by considering influent BOD and effluent
BOD so also the organic loading on the unit.

3. If any industrial waste is to be let off into a public sewer municipal cess depend upon the
volume and BOD of the wastewater.

4. Ordinary domestic sewage may have a BOD of 200 mg/l. Any effluent to be discharged into
natural bodies of water should have BOD less than 30 mg/l. This is important parameter to
assess the pollution of surface waters and ground waters where contamination occurred due
to disposal of domestic and industrial effluents. Drinking water usually has a BOD of less
than 1 mg/l and water is considered fairly upto 3 mg/l of BOD. But when the BOD value
reaches 5 mg/l the water is doubtful in purity.

APPLICATION OF BOD DATA IN ENVIRONMENTAL PRACTICE:

1. To determine strength of domestic and industrial sewage.

2. The determination of BOD is used in studies to measure the self purification capacity of
streams and serves regulatory authorities as a means of checking on the quality of
effluents discharged to such waters.

3. BOD of wastes is useful in the design of treatment facilities.

4. It is a factor in the choice of treatment method and is used to determine the size of certain
units, particularly trickling filters and activated sludge units.

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5. It is useful to estimate population equivalent of any industrial wastes which is useful to
collect cess from industrialists for purification of industrial wastes in municipal sewage
treatment plant.

6. It is used to evaluate the efficiency of various treatment units.

7. It is only the parameter to give an idea of the biodegradability of any sample and self
purification capacity of rivers and streams.

COMMENTS:

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EXPERIMENT-8
AIM : To find out Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) of given waste water sample.
PRINCIPLE: The organic matter present in a sample gets oxidized completely by K2Cr2O7 in
the presence of H2SO4 to produce CO2 and H2O. The excess K2Cr2O7 remaining after the
reaction is titrated with Fe(NH4)2(SO4)2. The dicromate consumed gives the O2 required to
oxidation of the organic matter.

APPARATUS:

1. Reflux apparatus
2. Hot plate/heating mantle
3. Burette

REAGENTS:

1. Standard potassiun dichromate 0.25 N

2. Sulpuric acid with reagent (Conc. H2SO4+Ag2SO4)
3. Standard ferrous ammonium sulphate 0.1 N
4. Ferroin indicator
5. Mercuric sulphate

PROCEDURE:
1. Place 0.4 gm of HgSO4 in the reflux flask.
2. Add 20 ml of sample (or an aliquot dilute to 20 ml)
3. 10 ml of more concentrated dichromate solution are placed into flask together with glass
beeds.
4. Add slowly 30 ml of H2SO4 containing Ag2SO4 and mix thoroughly.
5. Connect the flask to condenser. Mix the contents thoroughly before heating. Improper
mixing results in bumping and the sample may be blown out.

6. Reflux for a minimum period of 2 hours. Cool and wash down the condenser with distilled
water.
7. Dilute the sample to make up 150 ml and cool.
8. Titrate excess K2Cr2O7 with 0.1 Fe(NH4)2SO4 using ferroin indicator. Sharp color change from

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blue green to wine-red indicates the end point.
9. Reflux the blank in the same manner using distilled water instead of sample.

CALCULATIONS:
Quantity of Fe(NH4)2(SO4) added for blank = A ml.
Quantity of Fe(NH4)2 (SO4) added for the sample = B ml.
(A-B) x Normality Fe(NH4)2 (SO4) x 8 x1000
COD =………………………………………………….
quantity of sample (ml)

OBSERVATION AND RESULTS:

Sl. Sample Vol. Of Initial Final burette Vol. Of COD of

No. details Sample burette reading ml Fe(NH4)2(SO4)2 the
taken ml reading ml added ml sample
mg/l

ENVIRONMENTAL SIGNIFICANCE:

BOD test has the following disadvantages:

1 BOD can not be determined accurately when toxins are present and conditions are un-
favorable for the growth of microbes.

2 BOD test consumes more time i.e. a minimum of 5 days, whereas COD test is relatively
faster test taking only 3 hours for completion

Drawbacks of COD test are:

1. It is going to oxidize all the organic matter i.e. both readily degradable and which is
relatively biological resistant organic matter as lignin and detergents. Also it includes the
oxygen consumed by inorganic matter as nitrites and sulphides. Hence to differentiate
biodegradable organic matter from biologically resistant compounds is difficult.

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2. Rate of biological oxidation can not be determined by COD test. Thus COD for any waste
shall be higher than its corresponding BOD value. A BOD value close to COD indicates
that the waste is highly biodegradable.

APPLICATION OF COD DATA IN ENVIRONMENTAL PRACTICE:

1. The COD test is used extensively in the analysis of industrial waste

2. It is particularly valuable in surveys designed to determine and control losses to sewer
systems.
3. The test is widely used in in the place of BOD in the operation of treatment facilities
because of the speed with which the results can be obtained.
4. It is useful to assess strength of wastes which contains toxins and biologically resistant
organic substances.
5. The ratio of BOD to COD is useful to assess the amenability of waste for biological
treatment. Ratio of BOD to COD greater than or equal to 0.8 indicates that waste waters
are highly amenable to the biological treatment.

COMMENTS :

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 GOVT. ENGINEERING COLLEGE, AJMER

EXPERIMENT – 9
AIM : To study different types of water supply and Sanitary Fittings.
1. TRAP:
Trap may be defined as a fitting placed at the ends of the soil pipes or the sullage pipe to prevent
the passes of foul gases from the pipes to the outside.
Depending upon their shapes, the traps may be:
(i) P-trap
(ii) Q-trap
(iii) S-trap
(iv) Intercepting trap
(v) Nahani trap

Out of the above three types of traps are shown here. A trap essentially consists of a U-tube,
which retains water, acting as a seal between foul gases inside the pipes and the outside
atmosphere. They are largely used for bathrooms, sinks and lavatories. In all such needs, they are
made with enlarged mouth, so that the waste pipe may be thoroughly flushed out.

2. NIPPLE:
This is used for connecting the piece of pipe. The nipple is a smaller piece than the full length.
Nipple are used to connect the sockets, elbows, enlarger and reducers, end plugs and union
socket etc. They are designated as 20mm, 25mm or so G.I. (galvanized iron) nipple.

3. REDUCER:
It is used to join the pipes of different diameter. When a large size pipe is to be joined to small
size pipe, reducers are used. They are designated as 25mm X 20mm G.I. reducer.

4. TEE:
Tees are used to bifurcate the flow. The bifurcation may be to the same size pipe or different
size. The tee is used in the main line for the connection of the branch line. . The tee is always
perpendicular the main line. They are designated as 25mm X 25mm X 25mm or 25mm X 25mm
X 20mm or so.

5. END PLUG:
It is used at the end of pipelines to stop the flow. It may be internal or external threaded
depending upon the use.

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 GOVT. ENGINEERING COLLEGE, AJMER

6. ELBOW:
This is used to change the direction of pipe line at right angle. The size of the elbow is small.
Whenever a sharp turn is required for example besides the corners of a building elbows are used
though, there is larger head loss compared to the bends.
7. BEND:
The bend is used to change the direction of the line in any direction generally to the right angle.
The size of the bend is larger than the elbow and there is a smooth transaction of flow so the
head loss is lesser. It requires more space to be accommodated and is costlier than the elbow.

8. SOCKET:
The socket is a small piece of G.I. pipe to connect the two similar diameter pipe lengths. It is
generally internally threaded. A special type of socket is known as union socket which had two
detachable collars by which it can be unthreaded without disturbing the whole assembly

9. SOCKET & SPIGOT JOINT:

This type of joint is used to join the same diameter pipe lines for the proper joining of two pipes
cement mortar or the lead is used and it is also used to prevent the leakage.

10. C.I. DETACHABLE JOINTS:

These types of joints are very much useful in connecting A. C. or mild steel etc pipes. They can
be easily repaired or replaced.

11. STONE WARE or SALT GLAZED PIPES:

These pipes are widely used for carrying sewage in the house connection as well as lateral
sewers. They are available in various sizes of 5cm increments from 10 to 30 cm and 7.5cm
increments from 30 to 90cm. Their length is generally 75cm only.
These pipes are manufactured from clay and shales of special quality, which are first pulverised
and mixed with water and salt glazing is done during baking at high temperature.

ADVANTAGES OF PIPES:
i. These pipes are highly resistant to sulphide corrosion.
ii. They are hydraulically very efficient.
iii. They are quite strong in compression.
iv. These pipes are highly impervious and do not allow any sewage to seep out of them.
v. These pipes are quite cheap, durable, easily available and can be easily laid and jointed.

ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING LAB MANUAL

GOVT. ENGINEERING COLLEGE, AJMER

ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING LAB MANUAL