Introduction Guide to Vibration

Monitoring
Measurements, Analysis, and Terminology

Summary
This guide introduces machinery maintenance workers to
condition monitoring analysis methods used to detect and
analyze machine component failures. This guide does not intend
to make the reader an analysis expert. It merely informs the
reader about common analysis methods and lays the foundation
for understanding machinery analysis concepts. Moreover, it tells
the reader what is needed to perform an actual analysis on
specific machinery.

JM02001
Jason Mais & Scott Brady
30 pages
May 2002

SKF Reliability Systems

@ptitudeXchange
5271 Viewridge Court
San Diego, CA 92123
United States
tel. +1 858 496 3554
fax +1 858 496 3555
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Internet: www.aptitudexchange.com

Use of this document is governed by the terms

and conditions contained in @ptitudeXchange.
 Introduction Guide to Vibration Monitoring

Introduction Once detected, a cause and effect approach

must be used to take further steps toward
This guide introduces machinery analyzing what caused the problem. Then
maintenance workers to condition develop a condition monitoring based
monitoring analysis methods used to detect program to prevent the problem from
and analyze machine component failures. reoccurring. There are several key
This guide does not intend to make the components that build the foundation for the
reader an analysis expert. It merely informs development a successful condition
the reader about common analysis methods monitoring program. First, know and
and lays the foundation for understanding understand industry terminology.
machinery analysis concepts. Moreover, it
tells the reader what is needed to perform an Vibration (Amplitude vs. Frequency)
actual analysis on specific machinery.
Vibration is the behavior of a machine’s
Rule 1: Know what you do and do not mechanical components as they react to
know! internal or external forces. Since most
rotating component problems are exhibited
Often, a situation arises where the answer is as excessive vibration, we use vibration
not contained within analysis data. At this signals as an indication of a machine’s
point, “I don’t know” is the best answer. A mechanical condition. Also, each
wrong diagnosis can be costly and can mechanical problem or defect generates
rapidly diminish a machinery maintenance vibration in its own unique way. Therefore,
worker’s credibility. Thus, a vibration we analyze the “type” of vibration the
specialist is required to analyze the problem. machine is exhibiting to identify its cause
and develop appropriate repair steps.
Detection vs. Analysis
When analyzing vibration we look at two
The differences between detecting a
components of the vibration signal:
machinery problem and analyzing the cause
frequency and amplitude.
of a machinery problem are vast. Replacing
a new bearing with one that indicates a high
• Frequency is the number of times an
level of vibration may or may not be the
event occurs in a given time period (the
solution to bearing failure. Usually, a
event is one vibration cycle). The
secondary issue developed in the machine
frequency at which the vibration occurs
and is attributing to premature bearing
indicates the type of fault. That is,
failure. To solve the problem, you must find
certain types of faults “typically” occur
the attributing factor or cause of the bearing
at certain frequencies. By establishing
failure (i.e. misalignment, looseness,
the frequency at which the vibration
imbalance). This process is referred to as
occurs, we can develop a clearer picture
finding the root cause of the failure. If this
as to the cause of the vibration.
important step is not followed, you simply
replace the bearing without developing a • Amplitude is the size of the vibration
condition monitoring program. It is essential signal. The amplitude of the vibration
to detect machinery problems early enough signal determines the severity of the
to plan repair actions and minimize fault - the higher the amplitude, the
downtime. higher the vibration, and the bigger the
problem. Amplitude depends on the type
of machine and is always relative to the
© 2004 SKF Reliability Systems All Rights Reserved 2
 Introduction Guide to Vibration Monitoring

vibration level of fully functioning bearing wear, or lost rotor vanes. To

machine! determine precisely which operating
parameter is the contributor, we need to
When measuring vibration we use certain explain the signature of a vibration signal.
standard measurement methods: There are two major components of a
vibration signature: frequency range and
• Overall Vibration or Trending
scale factors.
• Phase
Frequency Range
• Enveloping or Demodulation
Monitoring equipment determines the
• High Frequency Detection (HFD) frequency range of the overall vibration
reading. Some data collection devices have
This guide is divided into several sections. their own predefined frequency range for
Each section explains the key topic and overall vibration measurements. Other data
develops that explanation with examples collectors allow the user to select the overall
that help the reader gain a clear understand. measurement’s frequency range.
A glossary is also provided. Reference the Unfortunately, there is an ongoing debate
glossary for any unfamiliar terms. regarding which frequency range best
measures overall vibration (International
Overall Vibration or Trending Organization for Standardization (ISO) set a
In condition monitoring, the most common standard definition). For this reason, it is
and logical area to begin with is a trend of important to obtain both overall values from
the overall value at which the machine is the same frequency range.
vibrating. This is referred to as trending or
looking at a machine’s overall vibration As an analogy, we can think of frequency
level. range as a bucket or pail. If this bucket is
sitting on the ground when it begins to rain,
Overall vibration is the total vibration some rain falls into the bucket and some rain
energy measured within a specified falls to the ground. The rain that falls into
frequency range. For example, measure the our bucket is within the defined frequency
overall vibration of a rotor and compare the range. The rain that falls to the ground is
measurement to its normal value (norm). outside the defined frequency range.
Then, assess any inconsistencies. A higher
than normal overall vibration reading Scale Factors
indicates that something is causing the Scale factors determine how a measurement
machine or component to increase its level is measured, and are: Peak, Peak-to-Peak,
of vibration. The key to success is Average, and RMS. These scale factors are
determining what that something is. in direct relationship to each other when
working with sinusoidal waveforms. When
Vibration is considered the best operating comparing overall values, scale factors must
parameter to judge low frequency dynamic be consistent. Figure 1 shows the
conditions such as imbalance, misalignment, relationship of Average vs. RMS vs. Peak
mechanical looseness, structural resonance, vs. Peak-to-Peak for a sinusoidal waveform.
soft foundation, shaft bow, excessive

© 2004 SKF Reliability Systems All Rights Reserved 3

 Introduction Guide to Vibration Monitoring

• Peak = 1.0
• RMS = 0.707 x Peak
• Average = 0.637 x Peak
• Peak-to-Peak = 2 x Peak

Figure 1. Scale Factors on a Sinusoidal Vibration Waveform.

The Peak value represents the distance to Do not concern yourself with supporting
the top of the waveform measured from a mathematical calculations, as condition
zero reference. For discussion purposes, we monitoring instrument calculate the values
will assign a Peak value of 1.0. and display the results. However, it is
important to remember to measure both
The Peak-to-Peak value is the amplitude signals on the same frequency range and
measured from the top of the waveform to scale factors.
the bottom of the waveform.
NOTE: For comparison purposes,
The Average value is the average amplitude measurement types and locations must also
of the waveform. The average of a pure sine be identical.
waveform is zero (it is as much positive as it
is negative). However, most waveforms are It is important to collect accurate,
not pure sinusoidal waveforms. Also, repeatable, and viable data. You can achieve
waveforms that are not centered at this by following several key techniques for
approximately zero volts produce nonzero sensor position.
average values.
Measurement Sensor Position
Visualizing how the RMS value is derived Selecting the machine measurement point is
is a bit more difficult. Generally speaking, very important when collecting machinery
the RMS value is derived from a vibration data. Avoid painted surfaces,
mathematical conversion that relates DC unloaded bearing zones, housing splits, and
energy to AC energy. Technically, on a time structural gaps. These areas give poor
waveform, it is the root mean squared response and compromise data integrity.
(RMS). On an FFT spectrum, it is the square
root of the sum of a set of squared When measuring vibration with a hand-held
instantaneous values. If you measured a pure sensor, it is imperative to perform consistent
sine wave, the RMS value is 0.707 times the readings and pay close attention to sensor
peak value. position, angle, and contact pressure.
NOTE: Peak and Peak-to-Peak values can When possible, vibration should be
be either true or scaled. Scaled values are measured as an orthogonal matrix (three-
calculated from the RMS value. positions of direction):

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 Introduction Guide to Vibration Monitoring

• The axial direction (A) plane, vibration readings taken in these three
positions can provide great insight.
• The horizontal direction (H) Measurements should be taken as close to
• The vertical direction (V) the bearing as possible and avoid taking
readings on the case (the case can vibrate
Horizontal measurements typically show the due to resonance or looseness).
most vibration, as the machine is more
flexible in the horizontal plane. Moreover, NOTE: Enveloping or demodulated
imbalance is one of the most common measurements should be taken as close to
machinery problems, and imbalance the bearing load zone as possible.
produces a radial vibration that is part
vertical and part horizontal. Thus, excessive If you choose not to permanently mount the
horizontal vibration is a good indicator of accelerometer or other type of vibration
imbalance. sensing device to the machine, select a flat
surface to press the accelerometer against.
Vertical measurements typically show less Measurements should be taken at the same
vibration than horizontal measurements, as precise location for comparison (moving the
stiffness is caused by mounting and gravity. accelerometer only a few inches can produce
drastically different vibration readings). To
Under ideal conditions, axial measurements ensure measurements are taken at the exact
show very little vibration, as most forces are location every time, mark the measurement
generated perpendicular to the shaft. point with a permanent ink marker. We
However, issues with misalignment and bent highly recommended that the use of
shafts do create vibration in the axial plane. permanently mounted sensors whenever
possible. This assures that data is repeatable
and consistent. The following section
contains mounting specifications for
accelerometers. If permanently mounted
sensors are not possible, use magnetic
mounts.

Angle:

• Always perpendicular to the surface (90°

± 10°)
Pressure:
Figure 2. Standard Position Measurements.
• Magnetic mount: The surface should be
NOTE: These descriptions are given as free of paint of grease.
guidelines for “typical” machinery only.
Equipment that is vertically mounted, or in • Hand-held: Consistent hand pressure
some way not “typical” may show different must be used (firm, but not hard). Please
responses. understand that we do not suggest use of
this method.
Since we generally know how various • Permanent mount: See specifications in
machinery problems create vibration in each Figure 3.

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 Introduction Guide to Vibration Monitoring

Figure 3. Example Spot Face Specifications for Permanently Mounted Sensors

Optimum Measurement Conditions measurements at all extreme rating

conditions on occasion to guarantee there
Ideally, measurements should be taken while
aren’t outlying problems that only appear at
the machine is operating under normal
conditions. For example, the measurement extreme conditions.
should be taken when the rotor, housing, and
Trending Overall Readings
main bearings reach their normal steady
operating temperatures and the machine’s Probably the most efficient and reliable
running speed is within the manufacturer’s method of evaluating vibration severity is to
specifications (rated voltage, flow, pressure, compare the most recent overall reading
and load). If the machine is a variable speed against previous readings for the same
machine, the measurements should be taken measurement. This allows you to see how
at the same point in the manufacturing or the measurement vibration values are
process cycle. This assures the machine’s changing or trending over time. This trend
energy is not extremely variable. comparison between present and past
Additionally, we recommend obtaining readings is easy to analyze when the values
are plotted in a trend plot.

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 Introduction Guide to Vibration Monitoring

Figure 4. Example of a Trend Plot.

A trend plot is a line graph that displays conditions for various wide-ranged
current and past overall values plotted over machinery classifications. Remember that
time. Past values should include a base-line every machine is:
reading. The base-line value may be
acquired after an overhaul or when other • Manufactured differently
indicators show the machine running well.
Subsequent measurements are compared to • Installed differently (foundation)
the base-line to determine machinery • Operated under different conditions
changes. (load, speed, materials, environment)
Comparing a machine to itself over time is • Maintained differently
the preferred method of machinery problem
detection, as each machine is unique in its It is unrealistic to judge a machine’s
operation. For example, some components condition by comparing the current
measurement value against an ISO standard
have a normal amount of vibration that
or other general rule or level. By comparing
would be considered problematic for most
current values to historical values, you are
machines. Alone, the current reading might
able to easily see a machine’s condition
lead an analyst to believe a problem exists,
change over time.
whereas a trend plot and base-line reading
would clearly show a certain amount of
vibration is normal for that machine. Vibration Measurements
Methods
ISO Standards are a good place to start (until Measuring vibration is the measurement of
machine history is developed). However, periodic motion. Vibration is illustrated with
ISO charts also define “good” or “not good” a spring-mass setup in Figure 5.

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 Introduction Guide to Vibration Monitoring

Figure 5. Spring-Mass System.

When in motion, mass oscillates on the It is necessary to select a vibration

spring. Viewing the oscillation as position measurement and sensor type that measures
over time produces a sine wave. The starting the vibration likely to reveal expected failure
point (when mass is at rest) is the zero point. characteristics.
One complete cycle displays a positive and a
negative displacement of the mass in Displacement
relation to its reference (zero). Displacement Measured in mils or micrometers,
is the change in distance or position of an displacement is the change in distance or
object relative to a reference. The magnitude position of an object relative to a reference.
of the displacement is measured as Displacement is typically measured with a
amplitude. sensor commonly known as a displacement
probe or eddy probe. A displacement probe
There are two measurable derivatives of is a non-contact device that measures the
displacement: velocity and acceleration. relative distance between two surfaces.
Displacement probes most often monitor
• Velocity is the change in displacement
shaft vibration and are commonly used on
as a function of time. It is the speed at
machines with fluid film bearings.
which the distance is traveled (i.e.0.2
in/sec). Displacement probes only measure the
• Acceleration is the rate of change of motion of the shaft or rotor relative to the
velocity. For example, if it takes 1 machine casing. If the machine and rotor are
second for the velocity to increase from moving together, displacement is measured
0 to 1 in/sec, then acceleration is 1 as zero even though the machine can be
in/sec2. heavily vibrating.

Thus, vibration has three measurable Displacement probes are also used to
characteristics: displacement, velocity, and measure a shaft’s phase. The shaft phase is
acceleration. Although these three the angular distance between a known mark
characteristics are related mathematically, on the shaft and the vibration signal. This
they are three different characteristics, not relationship is used for balancing and shaft
three names for the same quantity. orbital analysis.
© 2004 SKF Reliability Systems All Rights Reserved 8
 Introduction Guide to Vibration Monitoring

Figure 6. A Dial Gage (Left) Measures Displacement. A Common Displacement Probe (Right).

Velocity The original velocity transducer employed a

Velocity measurements are taken in in/sec or coil vibrating in a magnetic field to produce
mm/sec. Velocity is the measure of a a voltage proportional to the machine’s
signal’s rate of change in displacement. It is surface velocity. Today, with the arrival of
low cost and versatile accelerometers, most
the most common machine vibration
measurement. Historically, the velocity velocity values are obtained by integrating
sensor was one of the first electrical sensors an acceleration reading into the velocity
used for machine condition monitoring. This domain.
is due in part to the resultant of an equal
Acceleration
amount of generated dynamic motion;
velocity remains constant regardless of Acceleration is the rate of change in
frequency. However, at low frequencies velocity. Vibration, in terms of acceleration,
(under 10 Hz) or high frequencies (above 2 is measured with accelerometers. An
kHz), velocity sensors lose their accelerometer usually contains one or more
effectiveness. piezoelectric crystal element and a mass.

Figure 7. Accelerometer.
© 2004 SKF Reliability Systems All Rights Reserved 9
 Introduction Guide to Vibration Monitoring

When the piezoelectric crystal is stressed it Time Waveform Analysis

produces an electrical output proportional to The time waveform plot in Figure 8
acceleration. The crystal is stressed by the illustrates how the signal from an
mass when the mass is vibrated by the accelerometer or velocity probe appears
component to which they are attached. when graphed as amplitude (y-axis) over
time (x-axis). A time waveform in its
Accelerometers are rugged devices that
simplest terms is a record of what happened
operate in a wide frequency range (zero to
to a particular system, machine, or
well above 400 kHz). This ability to
parameter over a certain period of time. For
examine a wide frequency range is the
example, a seismograph measures how
accelerometer’s major strength. However,
much the Earth shakes in a given amount of
since velocity is the most common
time when there is an earthquake. This is
measurement for monitoring vibration,
similar to what is recorded in a time
acceleration measurements are usually
waveform.
integrated to get velocity (either in the
accelerometer itself or by the data collector). Time waveforms display a short time sample
Acceleration units are G’s, in/sec2, or of raw vibration. Though typically not as
m/sec2. useful as other analysis formats, time
waveform analysis can provide clues to
We can measure acceleration and derive
machine condition that are not always
velocity by mounting accelerometers at
evident in a frequency spectrum. Thus, when
strategic points on bearings. These
available, time waveform should be used as
measurements are recorded, analyzed, and
part of your analysis program.
displayed as tables and plots by the
condition monitoring equipment. A plot of
amplitude vs. time is called a time
waveform. Vibration Analysis Methods

Figure 8. Example of a Time Waveform.

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 Introduction Guide to Vibration Monitoring

FFT Spectrum Analysis simplified form, the motor has a shaft and
bearings. The gearbox has several shafts and
A Fast Fourier Transformation (FFT) is
sets of gears.
another useful method of viewing vibration
signals. In non-mathematical terms, the Each component in the diagram vibrates at a
signal is broken down into specific certain, individual rate. By processing the
amplitudes at various component vibration signal using a mathematical
frequencies. As an example, Figure 9 shows formula, an FFT, we can distinguish
a motor (left) coupled to a gearbox (right). between several different rates and
Each piece of the machine has individual determine the which rate vibration coincides
components associated with it. In a with which component.

Figure 9. Frequency Scales Show Component Vibration Signals.

Figure 10. Example of an FFT Spectrum.

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 Introduction Guide to Vibration Monitoring

For example, we measure the signal’s The objective of enveloping or demodulated

amplitude at 10 Hz, then again at 20 Hz, signal processing, as it relates to bearings, is
etc., until we have a list of values for each to filter out low frequency rotational
frequency contained in the signal. The vibration signals and enhance the repetitive
values or amplitudes are then plotted on the components of bearing defect signals that
frequency scale. The number of lines of occur in the bearing defect frequency range.
resolution is the waveform divided by Envelope detection is most commonly used
number of components. The resulting plot is for rolling element bearing and gear mesh
called an FFT spectrum. analysis where a low amplitude, repetitive
vibration signal may be saturated or hidden
An FFT spectrum is an incredibly useful by the machine’s rotational and structural
tool. If a machinery problem exists, FFT vibration noise.
spectra provide information to help
determine the location of the problem. In For instance, when a rolling element bearing
addition, spectra can aid in determining the generates a defect on its outer race, each
cause and stage of the problem. With rolling element of the bearing over-rolls the
experience we learn that certain machinery defect as they come into contact. This
problems occur at certain frequencies. Thus, impact causes a small, repetitive vibration
we can determine the cause of the problem signal at the bearing’s defects frequencies.
by looking for amplitude changes in certain However, the vibration signal is so low in
frequency ranges. energy that it is lost within the machine’s
other rotational and structural vibration
In addition to time waveforms and FFT noises.
spectra, vibration signals can be analyzed
through other types of signal processing Similarly, you can strike a bell and create a
methods to determine specific equipment ringing sound. This ringing is similar to the
problems and conditions. Processing ringing that occurs when a rolling element in
vibration signals via multiple processing a bearing strikes a defect in the bearing.
methods also provides a greater number of However, unlike the bell you cannot hear the
ways in which to analyze the signal and ringing in the bearing, as it may be masked
measure deviations from the “norm.” The by the machine’s other sounds or it occurs at
following section contains examples of a frequency that cannot be detected by the
alternate processing methods. human ear.

Envelope or Demodulated Process This detection method proves to be a

Detection successful indicator of a major class of
machine problems. Faults in roller element
Repetitive bearing and gear-mesh activity
bearings, defective teeth in gearboxes, paper
create vibration signals of much lower
mill felt discontinuities, and electric motor /
amplitude and much higher frequencies than
stator problems are all applications for
that of rotational and structural vibration
enveloping technology.
signals.

© 2004 SKF Reliability Systems All Rights Reserved 12

 Introduction Guide to Vibration Monitoring

Figure 11. Enveloped and Time Waveform Spectrum With Outer Race Defect. Envelope Detection Filters Out Low
Frequency Rotational Signals and Enhances the Bearing’s Repetitive Impact Type Signals to Focus on Repetitive
Events in the Bearing Defect Frequency Range. (For Example, Repetitive Bearing and Gear-Tooth Vibration
Signals.)

Spall

Figure 12. Indication of a Spall (Defect in the Outer Race).

© 2004 SKF Reliability Systems All Rights Reserved 13

 Introduction Guide to Vibration Monitoring

Phase Measurements the exact same type of accelerometer is

used.
Phase is a measurement, not a processing
method. Phase measures the angular
difference between a known mark on a On-line Measurements vs. Off-
rotating shaft and the shaft’s vibration line Measurements
signal. This relationship provides valuable In general, there are two types of
information on vibration amplitude levels, measurement processes: on-line and off-line.
shaft orbit, and shaft position, and is very Acquiring data in an on-line situation
useful for balancing and analysis purposes. requires permanently mounted sensors,
cabling, a multiplexing device, and a
High Frequency Detection (HFD) computer for data storage. On-line
High Frequency Detection (HFD) provides measurements are acquired continuously
early warning of bearing problems. The from the machinery based upon a user
HFD processing method displays a defined collection period. The benefits of
numerical, overall value for high frequency on-line data collection are numerous. On-
vibration generated by small flaws that line data collection allows condition
occur within a high frequency bandpass (5 monitoring and maintenance departments to
kHz to 60 kHz). The detecting sensor’s concentrate their efforts on corrective
resonant frequency is used to amplify the actions and system modification to more
low level signal generated by the impact of readily diagnose problems. Additionally,
small flaws. Due to its high frequency range, permanently mounted sensors do not
the HFD measurement is made with an interrupt the manufacturing process and data
accelerometer and displays its value in G’s. is repeatable and accurate. The disadvantage
The HFD measurement may be performed of an on-line system is the initial cost. It is
as either a peak or RMS overall value. important to keep in mind that the return on
investment of an on-line system is usually
Other Sensor Resonant Technologies realized in a relatively short time period.
There are varying types of technologies that
An off-line measurement program is similar
use sensor resonant to obtain a measurement
to a route-based collection program. In a
similar to HFD. Sensor resonant
route-based collection program, the user
technologies use the sensor’s resonant
defines the types of measurements and
frequency to amplify events in the bearing
machinery to analyze and develops a
defect range. These technologies enhance
roadmap or route of the machinery in the
the repetitive components of a bearing’s
plant. He/she then follows the developed
defect signals and report its condition. The
route to obtain the data needed.
resultant reading is provided by an overall
Additionally, off-line collection requires a
number that represents the number of
handheld analyzer, cabling, and a sensor or
impacts (enhanced logarithmically) the
sensors. Unfortunately, it requires a
system senses.
substantial amount of time to collect route-
As vibration analysis evolves, sensor based data. It also requires manpower from
resonant technology is used less frequently.
the maintenance or condition monitoring
Instead, enveloping or demodulation
department and machine operators. On the
processing is used, as they allow greater
other hand, off-line measurements methods
flexibility within the monitoring system. For
are associated with relatively low costs.
example, resonant technology requires that
© 2004 SKF Reliability Systems All Rights Reserved 14
 Introduction Guide to Vibration Monitoring

Once you make the decision to develop a International Standards

condition based monitoring program, it is Vibration Diagnostic Tables
imperative to follow a standard process to
diagnose, document, and solve plant The following sections contain agreed upon
problems. The development of standards is International Standards as they relate to
defined to help you develop a condition vibration monitoring. These standards are a
monitoring program. basis for developing a condition monitoring
program. However, they are to be used in
conjunction with manufacturer suggested
acceptability levels for specific machines
and industries. Many of the industry or
machine type standards can also be obtained
through condition monitoring or vibration
monitoring companies.

ISO 2372 Vibration Diagnostic Table

(Overhung – Horizontal Shaft)
Excessive Excessive Excessive Excessive

Horizontal Vertical Axial Structural

Vibration Vibration Vibration Vibration

Indicates: Indicates: Indicates: Indicates: Notes
Imbalance YES NO YES NO Horizontal and Axial
> Vertical

Misalignment YES NO YES NO Horizontal and Axial

> Vertical

Looseness YES YES NO YES Vertical Horizontal

Electrical To detect an electrical

Faults problem:
Measured
as Vibration Turn off machine
power and monitor
vibration. If the
vibration immediately
drops, the problem is
electrical.
Note: On an overhung machine, imbalance and Note: YES = ISO 2372
misalignment may display similar characteristics. Unsatisfactory – Unacceptable Levels.
Use phase measurements to differentiate between
the two. NO = ISO 2372
Good – Satisfactory Levels.

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 Introduction Guide to Vibration Monitoring

ISO 2372 Vibration Diagnostic Table

(Vertical Shaft)
Excessive Excessive Excessive Excessive

Horizontal Vertical Axial Structural

Vibration Vibration Vibration Vibration

Indicates: Indicates: Indicates: Indicates: Notes
Imbalance YES NO NO NO Radial > Axial

Misalignment YES NO YES NO Axial > Radial

Looseness YES NO NO YES

Electrical To detect an electrical

Faults problem:
Measured
as Vibration Turn off machine
power and monitor
vibration. If the
vibration immediately
drops, the problem is
electrical.

Note: Radial 1 and Radial 2 positions differ by 90 Note: YES = ISO 2372
degrees. Unsatisfactory – Unacceptable Levels.

NO = ISO 2372
Good – Satisfactory Levels.

Spectrum Analysis Table

The following section contains a list of Use this as a generalized reference chart to
common issue within the vibration gamut. develop your condition monitoring program.
Moreover, it contains a general guide to the Manufacturer reference resources are also
type of measurements used to diagnose available. Please contact them for further
problems, suggested vibration signatures, suggestions and standards of the industry.
and phase relationships of those signatures.

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 Introduction Guide to Vibration Monitoring

Primary Detection Dominant

Phase Relationship
Plane Units Frequencies Comments
(Note: phase ref. within ±30 degrees)

IMBALANCE
90-degree phase shift as sensor is
Acceleration / moved from horizontal to vertical
Mass Radial Velocity / 1x position with no phase shift in the
Displacement radial direction across the
machine or coupling.

Acceleration /
Overhung Axial and
Velocity / 1x Axial reading will be in phase
Mass Radial
Displacement Account for change
in sensor orientation
180-degree phase shift in the when making axial
Acceleration / measurements.
Axial and axial direction across the machine
Bent Shaft Velocity / 1x
Radial with no phase shift in the radial
Displacement
direction.

MISALIGNMENT
Acceleration / 180-degree phase shift in the axial With severe
Angular Axial Velocity / 1x and 2x direction will exist across the misalignment, the
Displacement coupling. spectrum may
contain multiple
180-degree phase shift in the radial harmonics from 3x
direction will exist across the to 10x running
Acceleration / coupling. Sensor will show 0- speed. If vibration
Parallel Radial Velocity / 1x and 2x degrees or 180-degrees phase shift amplitude in the
Displacement as it is moved from horizontal to horizontal plane is
vertical position on the same increased 2 or 3
bearing. times, then
misalignment is
again indicated.
(Account for
Combination Acceleration / 180-degree phase shift in the radial change in sensor
Axial and
of Angular Velocity / 1x and 2x and axial direction will exist across orientation when
Radial
and Parallel Displacement the coupling. making axial
measurements)

MECHANICAL LOOSENESS
Vibration
amplitudes may
vary significantly
as the sensor is
placed in differing
Acceleration /
Axial and 1x, 2x, Phase reading will be unstable locations around
Wear / Fitting Velocity /
Radial 3x…10x from one reading to the next. the bearing.
Displacement
(Account for
change in sensor
orientation when
making axial
measurements)

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 Introduction Guide to Vibration Monitoring

Primary Detection Dominant

Phase Relationship
Plane Units Frequencies Comments
(Note: phase ref. within ±30 degrees)

LOCAL BEARING DEFECTS

With acceleration
measurements,
bearing defect
frequencies appear
as a wide “bump”
in the spectrum.
Acceleration /
Race Defect Radial 4x…15x No correlation. Bearing defect
Enveloping
frequencies are
non-integer
multiples of
running speed (i.e.,
4.32 x running
speed)

GEAR DEFECTS
The exact
frequency relates
to the number of
teeth each gear
Acceleration /
Gear Mesh Radial 20x…200x No correlation. contains times the
Enveloping
rotational speed
(running speed) to
which the gear is
attached.

ELECTRICALLY INDUCED VIBRATION

Defect
Acceleration / Line Frequencies can
AC Motors Radial Velocity / Frequency No correlation. be seen at
Displacement (100 or 120 Hz) exactly twice the
line frequency.

DC Motor
problems due to
broken fields
windings, bad
Acceleration /
SCR SCR’s or loose
DC Motors Radial Velocity / No correlation.
Frequency connections are
Displacement
reflected as
higher
amplitudes at the
SCR frequencies

© 2004 SKF Reliability Systems All Rights Reserved 18

 Introduction Guide to Vibration Monitoring

Conclusion Mitchell, John. Machinery Analysis and

Monitoring. Penn Well Books, Tulsa OK:
This guide simply provides an introduction 1993.
to the field of vibration monitoring and
diagnosis. A few references are suggested SKF Evolution journal, a number of case
for more information and related studies: http://evolution.skf.com
@ptitudeXchange documents.
• Paper Mills Gaining from Condition
Further Reading Monitoring, 1999/4
Barkov A., Barkova, N. "Condition • Paper Mill Gains from Condition
Assessment and Life Prediction of Rolling Monitoring, 2000/3
Element Bearings - Parts I and II". Sound &
Vibration, June pp. 10-17 and September pp. • High Tech keeps Mine competitive,
27-31, 1995. 2001/2

Berry, James E. "How to track rolling • Fault Detection for Mining and Mineral
element bearing health with vibration Processing Equipment, 2001/3
signature analysis". Sound and Vibration, Technical Associates of Charlotte
November 1991, pp. 24-35. (diagnostic charts, background articles and
books): http://www.technicalassociates.net
Hewlett Packard, The Fundamentals of
Signal Analysis. Application Note 243: Vibration Institute: http://www.vibinst.org
1994.
Vibration Resources: http://vibrate.net
Hewlett Packard, Effective Machinery
Measurements using Dynamic Signal
Analyzers. Application Note 243-1: 1997.

© 2004 SKF Reliability Systems All Rights Reserved 19

 Introduction Guide to Vibration Monitoring

Appendix A: Website links

Instruments
Advanced Monitoring Technologies: http://www.amt.nb.ca
ACIDA GmbH: http://www.acida.de
Alta Solutions, Inc: http://www.altasol.com
Bently Nevada: http://www.bently.com
Brüel & Kjær North America: http://www.bkhome.com
Brüel & Kjær Vibro: http://www.bkscms.com
CSI : http://www.compsys.com/index.html
Commtest Instruments : http://www.commtest.com
Dactron : http://www.dactron.com
Development Engineering International : http://www.dei-ltd.co.uk/index.htm
Diagnostic Instruments : http://www.diaginst.co.uk
Entek : http://www.entek.com
G-Tech Instruments Incorporated : http://www.g-tech-inst.com
Icon Research : http://www.iconresearch.co.uk
Indikon Company, Inc : http://www.iconresearch.co.uk
IOtech : http://www.iotech.com
L M S International : http://www.lmsintl.com
Machinery Condition Monitoring Inc : http://www.mcmpm.com
Müller-BBM VibroAkustik Systeme : http://www.muellerbbm-vas.com/eng
OROS : http://www.oros-signal.com
PdMA Corporation : http://www.pdma.com
Predict-DLI : http://www.predict-dli.com
Prüftechnik AG : http://www.pruftechnik.com/main/index.htm
SKF Condition Monitoring : http://www.skfcm.com
SKF Dymac : http://www.dymac.net
Solartron : http://www.solartron.com
SoundTechnology : http://www.soundtechnology.com/home.htm
SPM Instrument AB : http://www.spminstrument.se
Stanford Research Systems : http://www.srsys.com
VMI Vibrations Mät Instrument AB: http://www.vmi-instrument.se/index.htm
Vibrationsteknik AB : http://www.vtab.se
Vibro-Meter : http://www.vibro-meter.com
Windrock, Inc : http://www.windrock.com/Main.htm

© 2004 SKF Reliability Systems All Rights Reserved 20

 Introduction Guide to Vibration Monitoring

Sensors

Entran Accelerometers - Complete on-line catalog. Manufacturing quality accelerometers for 30 years.
http://www.entran.com

National Instruments - Accelerometers - NI allows you to use industry-standard technologies to create

custom measurement and automation solutions that deliver greater productivity, shorter development
time, and lower total costs.
http://www.ni.com

Omega Engineering, Inc. Flow & Level - Omega Engineering, Inc. - world leader in process
measurement & control products. The one stop source for all your pressure, load, and force needs.
http://www.omega.com

Accelerometer Measurement Products - Accelerometer-based sound and vibration measurement

products from IOtech. Free catalog and signal conditioning handbook.
http://www.iotech.com

Accelerometer at Globalspec.com - Find information on accelerometer through SpecSearch, the

powerful parametric search engine that enables you to search for the exact performance characteristics
you need.
http://www.globalspec.com

Data Loggers - Small, Simple, Affordable - 32k data pts/ch, 16 bit - Smallest data loggers available for
temperature, humidity, count, acceleration, voltage, 4-20mA, pressure. Wireless data loggers. Also
rugged, waterproof units.
http://www.microdaq.com

Accelerometers - Manufacturers - On Direct Industry you can browse the list of accelerometers
manufacturers and ask for documentation or a quotation.
http://www.directindustry.com

Signal Conditioning - Strain gage, bridge completion, accelerometer, anti alias filter, excitation,
thermocouple, RTD, software controlled.
http://www.alligatortech.com

Complete line of Low Cost Accelerometers and Inclinometers. - Rieker manufactures a complete line
of Inclinometers, Accelerometers, Tilt Switches, Ball Bank Indicators, Slip Indicators & Safe Curve Speed
Indicators servicing the Construction Industry, Aircraft, and DOT since 1917.
http://www.riekerinc.com

Accelerometers and Acceleration products in Stock at Sensotec - Accelerometers and Acceleration

products from Sensotec. We have general-purpose, piezoelectric, and submersible accelerometers.
http://www.sensotec.com/accelstk.htm

DC-Operated Inclinometers and Accelerometers - DC-Operated Inclinometers and Accelerometers

http://www.schaevitz.com/products/inertial/index.html

ENDEVCO - is the world's leading supplier of dynamic instrumentation systems. - ENDEVCO is the
world's leading supplier of dynamic instrumentation
http://www.endevco.com

© 2004 SKF Reliability Systems All Rights Reserved 21

 Introduction Guide to Vibration Monitoring

New Age Consulting Service, Inc. Nacs.Net web developement, e-commerce solutions, Bandwidth
- New Age Consulting Service, Inc. provides Internet and network consulting services for both business
and personal computing. We specialize in integrating Internet technology with existing networks to suit
your present and future Internet communication...
http://www.summitinstruments.com

ThinkQuest Library of Entries - ThinkQuest is an online program that challenges students, educators at
all levels to develop educational Web sites for curriculum and staff development
http://library.advanced.org/2745/data/meter.htm

HCI Accelerometer - Want to brush up on your aerobatics but think you can't afford the expense or panel
space for an accelerometer? Accelerometer (G-Meter) Order by phone of mail using check, money order,
or credit card. HCI 3461 Dissen Road New Haven, MO. 63068 (573)...
http://www.halcyon.com/wpowers/gmeter.html

Patriot Sensor and Controls Corporation - Patriot Sensors and Controls Corporation (PSCC) is a
leading supplier of Accelerometers, Pressure Transducers, and Linear Motion Transducers. We utilize
state of the art technologies to provide innovative, reliable and versatile sensor solutions for...
http://www.xducer.com

Precision Aligned Tri-Axial Accelerometer with Signal Conditioning - Specification

Accelerometer34103:
http://www.wuntronic.de/accelerometer/34103_sp.htm

A triaxial rate gyroscope and accelerometer - A triaxial rate gyroscope and accelerometer. The
acquisition of extensive kinematics information with a sensor system with minimal external complexity is
important in the field of biomedical and automotive applications,
http://www.stw.nl/projecten/T/tel4167.html

© 2004 SKF Reliability Systems All Rights Reserved 22

 Introduction Guide to Vibration Monitoring

Appendix B: Some Vibration Terminology

1X – The Running Speed of the machine (Fundamental Frequency).

2X, 3X, etc … – The frequency at 2, 3, etc … times the running speed of the machine.

Acceleration – The time rate of change of velocity. Acceleration measurements are usually made
with accelerometers.

Accelerometer – A sensor whose output is directly proportional to acceleration.

Acoustic Emissions – Sound emissions that are emitted when an object or material vibrates.
These emissions may or may not be heard but can be detected with proper equipment.

Aerodynamic and Flow induced Vibration – Air flow from fans and fluid flow pumps induced
vibration each time the fan or pump impeller discharges air of fluid. These pulsing discharges
can be detected at a frequency equal to the shaft speed times the number of fan blades or pump
impellers.

Alarm Setpoint – Any value beyond which is considered unacceptable or dangerous to

machinery operation.

Alignment – A condition whereby the axes of machine components are either coincident,
parallel, or perpendicular, according to design requirements.

Amplitude – The magnitude of dynamic motion or vibration. Expressed in terms of peak-to-

peak, zero-to-peak, or RMS.

Analog-To-Digital Converter – A device, or subsystem, that changes real-world analog data (as
from sensors, for example) to a form compatible with digital (binary) processing.

Anti-aliasing Filter – A low pass filter designed to filter out frequencies higher than ½ the
sample rate in order to prevent aliasing.

Attenuation – The reduction in signal strength over the distance traveled. The amount of
attenuation will vary with the type of material.

Asynchronous – Vibration components that are not related to rotating speed (non-synchronous).

Averaging – In a dynamic signal analyzer, digitally averaging several measurements to improve

statistical accuracy or to reduce the level of random asynchronous components.

Axial – In the same direction as the shaft centerline.

Axial Vibration – Vibration that is in line with a shaft centerline.

Axis – The reference plane used in plotting routines. The X-axis is the frequency plane. The Y-
axis is the amplitude plane.

© 2004 SKF Reliability Systems All Rights Reserved 23

 Introduction Guide to Vibration Monitoring

Balancing – A procedure for adjusting the radial mass distribution of a rotor so that the centerline
of the mass approaches the geometric centerline of the rotor.

Ball Pass Frequency – The frequency generated when a rolling element passes over a flaw in the
inner race, BPFI, or over the outer race, BPFO.

Band-Pass Filter – A filter with a single transmission band extending from lower to upper cutoff
frequencies. The width of the band is determined by the separation of frequencies at which
amplitude is attenuated by 3 dB (0.707).

Bandwidth – The spacing between frequencies at which a bandpass filter attenuates the signal by
3 dB.

Base-line Spectrum – A vibration spectrum taken when a machine is in good operating

condition; used as a reference for monitoring and analysis.

Blade or Vane pass frequency – The number of fan blades or pump vanes times the rotational
speed equals the specific frequency.

Center Frequency – For a bandpass filter, the center of the transmission band.

Centerline Position – The average location, relative to the radial bearing centerline, of the shaft
dynamic motion.

Clipping – A condition reached when the signal amplitude exceeds the limits of the amplifier or
supply voltage. Signal peaks will be rounded or flattened resulting in inaccurate data.

Condition Monitoring – Determining the condition of a machine by interpretation of

measurements taken either periodically or continuously while the machine is running.

CPM – Cycles per minute.

CPS – Cycles per second. Also referred to as Hertz (Hz).

Critical Speeds – In general, any rotating speed that is associated with high vibration amplitude.
Often the rotor speeds, which correspond to natural frequencies of the system.

Cycle – One complete sequence of values of a periodic quantity.

Damping – The absorption of energy that will bring a system to rest when the driving force is
removed.

Decay Rate – The rate at which an object stops vibrating after being struck.

Decibel (dB) – A logarithmic representation of amplitude ratio, defined as 20 times the base ten
logarithm of the ratio of the measured amplitude to a reference.

Displacement – The change in distance or position of an object relative to a reference.

© 2004 SKF Reliability Systems All Rights Reserved 24

 Introduction Guide to Vibration Monitoring

Download – Transferring information to the measurement device from the host computer.

Dynamic Range – The difference between the highest voltage level that will overload the
instrument and the lowest level that is detectable. Dynamic range is usually expressed in
decibels.

Engineering Units – Physical units in which a measurement is expressed, such as in/sec,

micrometers, or mils. Selected by the user.

EU – See ENGINEERING UNITS.

Enveloping Process – The signal processing technique where the higher frequency harmonic
signals are electronically processed to provide a mathematical sum of these harmonics over a
selected range.

Fast Fourier Transform – A calculation method of converting a time waveform to a frequency

display that shows the relationship of discrete frequencies and their amplitudes.

Field – One data item. Examples of fields are POINT Type, Description, etc.

Filter – An electronic device designed to pass or reject a specific frequency band.

FFT – See Fast Fourier Transform.

Frequency – The repetition rate of a periodic event, usually expressed in cycles per second (Hz),
cycles per minute (CPM), revolutions per minute (RPM), or multiples of running speed (orders).
Orders are commonly referred to as 1X for running speed, 2X for twice running speed, and so
on.

Frequency Domain – An FFT graph (amplitude vs. frequency).

Free Running – A term used to describe the operation of an analyzer or processor, which
operates continuously at a fixed rate, not in synchronism with some external reference event.

Frequency Range – The frequency range (bandwidth) over which a measurement is considered
valid. Usually refers to upper frequency limit of analysis, considering zero as the lower analysis
limit.

G (g) – A standard unit of acceleration equal to one of earth’s gravities, at mean sea level. One g
equals 32.17 ft/sec squared or 9.807 meters per second squared.

Gap – (See Probe Gap.)

Gear Mesh Frequency – The frequency generated by two or more gears meshing teeth together.

Global Bearing Defect – Relatively large damage on a bearing element.

Hanning Window – DSA window function that provides better frequency resolution than the flat
top window, but with reduced amplitude accuracy.
© 2004 SKF Reliability Systems All Rights Reserved 25
 Introduction Guide to Vibration Monitoring

Harmonic – A frequency that is an integer multiple of a fundamental frequency. For example

5400 RPM is the third harmonic of 1800 RPM. Harmonics are produced either by an event that
occurs multiple times per revolution, or by a distortion of the running speed component’s pure
sine wave.

Hertz (Hz) – Cycles per second. CPM/60.

Hertzian Contact Zone – In a bearing, the area at which the ball transfers the load on the
raceway.

High Pass Filter – A filter with a transmission band starting at a lower cutoff frequency and
extending to (theoretically) infinite frequency.

Imbalance – A condition such that the mass of a shaft and its geometric centerlines do not
coincide.

Keyphasor Phase Reference Sensor – A signal used in rotating machine measurements,

generated by a sensor observing a once-per-revolution event. (Keyphasor is a Bently-Nevada
trade name.)

Lines – Common term used to describe the filters of a Digital Spectrum Analyzer (e.g. 400 line
analyzer).

Linear, non-linear – When the vibration levels are trended over time and the trend is a straight
line, either rising or falling, the trend is referred to as linear because the amount of increase is the
same for each equal increase in time. A non-linear increase would be the case where, as time
progresses, the amplitude increases or decreases, at a larger and larger amount, each time frame.
Projections can be made from linear trends, they cannot be made from none-linear trends.

Measurement units – Mils. Displacement is measured in mils, a mil is one thousandths of an

inch. Displacement is stated in Peak to Peak. See sine Wave.

IPS. Inches per second. A measurement of velocity, the speed the item being measured is
moving. Velocity is stated in Peak.

G’s. Acceleration . The rate of change of the velocity. A measure of the force being applied to
the item being measured. Acceleration is stated in Peak.

These measurement units are mathematically related. IPS can be derived from the integration of
Gs and displacement derived by integration of velocity.

GE. Enveloped acceleration. A special signal processing method that uses selectable filters and
mathematical processing to enhance very low level signals. Used primarily for bearing and gear
analysis.

Misalignment – A physical condition where the shafts of two coupled units are not parallel
(angular misalignment) or are not in the same vertical and horizontal planes, (offset)
Misalignment will generate a spike on the frequency spectrum at twice the operating speed of the
units.
© 2004 SKF Reliability Systems All Rights Reserved 26
 Introduction Guide to Vibration Monitoring

Low Pass Filter – A filter whose transmission band extends from an upper cutoff frequency
down to DC.

Measurement units – Mils. Displacement is measured in mils, a mil is one thousandths of an

inch. Displacement is stated in Peak to Peak. See sine Wave.

IPS. Inches per second. A measurement of velocity, the speed the item being measured is
moving. Velocity is stated in Peak.

G’s. Acceleration . The rate of change of the velocity. A measure of the force being applied to
the item being measured. Acceleration is stated in Peak.

These measurement units are mathematically related. IPS can be derived from the integration of
Gs and displacement derived by integration of velocity.

GE. Enveloped acceleration. A special signal processing method that uses selectable filters and
mathematical processing to enhance very low level signals. Used primarily for bearing and gear
analysis.

Misalignment – A physical condition where the shafts of two coupled units are not parallel
(angular misalignment) or are not in the same vertical and horizontal planes, (offset)
Misalignment will generate a spike on the frequency spectrum at twice the operating speed of the
units.

Modulating – When the vibration signal amplitude rises and falls over time. For example, a flaw
on the inner race of a bearing will rotate in and out of the load zone. When in the zone, the
amplitude will be high and when it rotates out of the zone the amplitude will fall. In the
frequency spectrum modulating signals will generate sideband harmonics, the spacing of the
harmonics will equal the speed (CPM) of the shaft.

Mounting stud – a threaded screw used to attach a sensor to the structure.

Multi-Parameter Monitoring – A condition monitoring method that uses various monitoring

technologies to best monitor machine condition.

Natural Frequency – The frequency of free vibration of a system. The frequency at which an
non-damped system with a single degree of freedom will oscillate upon momentary displacement
from its rest position.

Noise – Any undesired signal

Non-intrusive examination – The technique of determining the mechanical condition of

equipment without stopping, opening, or modifying the equipment

Non-synchronous – The amplitude sum of all frequencies that are not below 1X or multiples of
1X. See synchronous and sub-synchronous.

© 2004 SKF Reliability Systems All Rights Reserved 27

 Introduction Guide to Vibration Monitoring

Oil analysis – A laboratory technique to analyze the composition of lubricating oil to determine
if any foreign materials are present. Presence of bearing material would indicate wearing of the
bearing and the quantity would indicate the amount of wear. Used primarily on plain bearings.

Orbit – The path of shaft centerline motion during rotation.

Outage – There are two types of outages, planned or forced. A planned outage is when the unit
is shutdown and work is performed as planned. A forced outage is when the unit fails and work
is performed usually on an emergency basis.

Overall – A number representing the amount of energy found between two frequencies. The
frequency range that the overall is derived from and the type (Average, RMS, Peak, Peak-to-
Peak) are usually user selectable.

Overall Amplitude – Total amount of vibration occurring in the frequency range selected.

Overlap Processing – The concept of performing a new analysis on a segment of data in which
only a portion of the signal has been updated (some old data, some new data).

Peak – The maximum positive amplitude shown on a sine curve. See sine wave.

Peak Hold – A menu choice on data collectors. The data collector will continuously collect data
and as the amplitude varies, will capture and hold the latest peak amplitude. This will continue
until the data collection is halted.

Peak Spectra – A frequency domain measurement where, in a series of spectral measurements,

the one spectrum with the highest magnitude at a specified frequency is retained.

Peak to Peak – The sum of the maximum and minimum amplitudes shown on a sine curve. See
sine wave.

Period – The time required for a complete oscillation or for a single cycle of events. The
reciprocal of frequency, F=1/T

Periodic maintenance – Maintenance that is performed on a calendar or some measure of time

basis, i.e., every 12 or 18 months, every so many RPMs, or every so many hours.

Phase – A measurement of the timing relationship between two signals, or between a specific
vibration event and a Keyphasor pulse.

Phase Reference – A signal used in rotating machinery measurements, generated by a sensor

observing a once-per-revolution event.

Phase Response – The phase difference (in degrees) between the filter input and output signals as
frequency varies; usually expressed as lead and lag referenced to the input.

Phase Spectrum – Phase frequency diagram obtained as part of the results of a Fourier transform.

© 2004 SKF Reliability Systems All Rights Reserved 28

 Introduction Guide to Vibration Monitoring

Piezoelectricity – The property exhibited by some materials where a mechanical stress causes the
material to produce an electric charge. Both man made and natural piezoelectric materials are
used in accelerometers.

POINT – Defines a machinery location at which measurement data is collected and the
measurement type.

Position – The average location, relative to the radial bearing centerline, of the shaft dynamic
motion.

Predictive Maintenance – Usually maintenance that is performed again based on a calendar. The
term is usually interchanged with periodic maintenance.

Probe – An eddy-current sensor, although sometimes used to describe any vibration sensor.

Probe Gap – The physical distance between the face of an eddy probe tip and the observed
surface. The distance can be expressed in terms of displacement (mils, micrometers) or in terms
of voltage (millivolts), which is the value of the (negative) dc output signal and is an electronic
representation of the physical gap distance. Standard polarity convention dictates that a
decreasing gap results in an increasing (less negative) output signal; increasing gap produces a
decreasing (more negative) output signal.

Radial – Direction perpendicular to the shaft centerline.

Radical measurement – Measurements taken perpendicular to the axis of rotation to measure

shaft dynamic motion or casing vibration

Radial Vibration – Vibration that is perpendicular to a shaft’s centerline.

Resonance – Resonance – The condition of vibration amplitude and phase change response
caused by a corresponding system sensitivity to a particular forcing frequency. A resonance is
typically identified by a substantial amplitude increase, and related phase shift. See natural
frequency

RMS – Root Mean Square – The measure of energy displayed in a frequency spectrum. It is
derived by squaring each spectrum line, summing the results, and taking the square root of the
sum. It also equals (Peak ) X 0.707. See sine wave.

Rolling element Bearing – Bearings whose low friction qualities derive from lubricated rolling
elements (balls or rollers).

Rotor – The rotating portion of a pump, fan or motor.

ROUTE – A measurement POINT collection sequence.

Runout – The amount of wobble at the end of a rotating shaft.

Run Up/Run Down – The monitoring of machinery conditions during a start up or shut down
process.
© 2004 SKF Reliability Systems All Rights Reserved 29
 Introduction Guide to Vibration Monitoring

SEE Technology (Spectral Emitted Energy) – The analysis process where the high frequency
acoustic signals generated when the rolling element in a bearing passes over a flaw in the bearing
surface. The signals are emitted by the microscopic movement of the metal crystals as they rub
against each other. These signals are then enveloped and presented in the low frequency
spectrum. The display signal will be at the characteristic bearing frequencies, BPFO, BPFI, etc.

Sensitivity – The ratio of magnitude of an output to the magnitude of a quantity measured. Also
the smallest input signal to which an instrument can respond.

Sensor – A transducer that senses and converts a physical phenomenon to an analog electrical
signal.

Setpoint – (See alarm setpoint.)

Sidebands – Evenly spaced peaks centered on a major peak.

Signal Analysis – Process of extracting information about a signal’s behavior in the time domain
and/or frequency domain. Describes the entire process of filtering, sampling, digitizing,
computation, and display of results in a meaningful format.

Spectrum – A display of discrete frequencies and their amplitudes.

Spectrum Analyzer – An instrument that displays the frequency spectrum of an input signal.

Thermocouple – A temperature sensing device comprised of two dissimilar metal wires which,
when thermally affected (heated or cooled), produce a change in electrical potential.

Time Domain – A dynamic amplitude vs. time graph.

Time Waveform – (See Waveform.)

Transducer – A device that translates a physical quantity into an electrical output.

Trend – The measurement of a variable (such as vibration) vs. time.

Trigger – Any event that can be used as a timing reference.

Upload – Transferring data from the measuring device to the host computer.

Vibration – The behavior of a machine’s mechanical components as they react to internal or

external forces. Magnitude of cyclic motion; may be expressed as acceleration, velocity, or
displacement. Defined by frequency and time-based components.

Waveform – A presentation or display of the instantaneous amplitude of a signal as a function of

time.

© 2004 SKF Reliability Systems All Rights Reserved 30