MT (N) 121

ALGEBRA,MATRICES AND VECTOR ANALYSIS MT(N)121
ALGEBRA,MATRICES AND
VECTOR ANALYSIS
MT(N)121
DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS
SCHOOL OF SCIENCES UTTARAKHAND
OPEN UNIVERSITY HALDWANI,
UTTARAKHAND
263139
COURSE NAME: ALGEBRA,MATRICES AND
VECTOR ANALYSIS
COURSE CODE: MT(N) 121
Department of Mathematics
School of Science
Uttarakhand Open University
Haldwani, Uttarakhand, India,
263139
Algebra, Matrices and Vector Analysis MT(N) 121
Board of Studies- 2023

Chairman
Prof. O.P.S. Negi
Honorable Vice Chancellor
Prof. P. D. Pant Prof. Harish Chandra Prof. Manoj Kumar

Director Professor Professor and Head
School of Sciences Department of Mathematics Department of Mathematics, Statistics
Uttarakhand Open University Institute of Science and Computer Science
Haldwani, Uttarakhand Banaras Hindu University G.B. Pant University of Agriculture &
Varanasi Technology, Pantnagar
Prof. Sanjay Kumar Dr. Arvind Bhatt Dr. Jyoti Rani
Professor Programme Cordinator Assistant Professor
Department of Mathematics Associate Professor Department of Mathematics
Deen Dayal Upadhyaya College Department of Mathematics Uttarakhand Open University
University of Delhi Uttarakhand Open University Haldwani, Uttarakhand
New Delhi Haldwani, Uttarakhand
Dr. Kamlesh Bisht Dr. Shivangi Upadhyay
Assistant Professor(AC) Assistant Professor (AC)
Department of Mathematics Department of Mathematics
Uttarakhand Open University Uttarakhand Open University
Editor
Prof. Naveen Bhagat Dr. Arvind Bhatt Dr. Shivangi Upadhyay
Department of Mathematics Associate Professor Assistant Professor (AC)
M.B. Govt. P.G. College Department of Mathematics Department of Mathematics
Haldwani, Uttarakhand School of Sciences, School of Sciences, Uttarakhand
Uttarakhand Open University Open University
Unit Writer Block Unit

Dr. Jyoti Rani I 1
Assistant Professor
Department of Mathematics, School of Sciences,
Uttarakhand Open University, Haldwani
Dr. Kamlesh Bisht I,V 2,12,13,14
Assistant Professor (AC)
Department of Mathematics School of Sciences,
Uttarakhand Open University, Haldwani
Dr. Surendra Vikram Singh Padiyar II 3,4,5,6
Assistant professor
M.B. Govt. P.G. College
Haldwani, Uttarakhand
Dr. Shankar Lal III, IV 7,8,9,10,11
H.N.B. Garhwal University, SRT Campus,
Tehri Garhwal, Uttarakhand
Course Title and Code : Algebra,Matrices and Vector Analysis (MT(N) 121)
Copyright : Uttarakhand Open University
Edition : 2024
Published By : Uttarakhand Open University, Haldwani, Nainital- 263139
*NOTE: The design and any associated copyright concerns for each unit in this book are the sole responsibility of the author.
ALGEBRA, MATRICES AND VECTOR ANALYSIS MT(N) 121
CONTENTS
ALGEBRA, MATRICES AND VECTOR ANALYSIS

MT(N) 121
BLOCK I: THEORY OF EQUATIONS Page No. 01

Unit 1 Relations Between the Roots and The Coefficient of an Equation 02-28
Unit 2 Solutions Of Cubic and Biquadratic Equations 29-62
BLOCK II: ALGEBRA OF MATRICES Page No. 63
Unit 3 Algebra of Matrices 64-105

Unit 4 Determinants 106-138
Unit 5 Application of Matrices 107-176
Unit 6 Eigen Values and Eigen Vectors 177-207
BLOCK III: TRIGONOMETRICAL AND HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS Page No. 208
Unit 7 Exponential and Trigonometrical variables 209-247
Unit 8 Hyperbolic function 248-276
Unit 9 Inverse Hyperbolic and Trigonometric function and logarithm of complex 277-305
number
BLOCK IV: SUMMATION OF SERIES AND INFINITE PRODUCT Page No. 306
Unit 10 Summation of Series 307-338
Unit 11 Infinite product and Gregory’s series 339-370
BLOCK V: VECTOR ANALYSIS Page No. 371
Unit 12 Vectors Multiple products and Differentiation of vectors 372-410
Unit 13 Gradient, Divergence and Curl 411-437
Unit 14 Green’s, Gauss’s and Stoke’s theorems 437-479
COURSE INFORMATION
The present self learning material “Algebra,Matrices and Vector Analysis” has been
designed for B.Sc. (Second Semester) learners of Uttarkhand Open University, Haldwani.
This self-study material was created to increase learners access to excellent learning
materials. There are 14 units in this course. Relations Between the Roots and The
Coefficient of an Equation and Solutions Of Cubic and Biquadratic Equations are the
focus of the first unit and second unit respectively. Algebra of Matrices, Determinants,
Application of Matrices and Eigen Values and Eigen Vectors is covered in Unit 3,4,5 and
Unit 6. Unit 7 explained Exponential and Trigonometrical variables. Units 8 and 9 each
provided an explanation of Hyperbolic function and Inverse Hyperbolic and
Trigonometric function and logarithm of complex number. Summation of Series is the
topic of unit 10. The concepts of Infinite product and Gregory’s series is presented in
Units 11. Discussion of Vectors Multiple products and Differentiation of vectors,
Gradient, Divergence and Curl and Green’s, Gauss’s and Stoke’s theorems in the last
three units. This subject matter is also employed in competitive exams. Simple, succinct,
and clear explanations of the fundamental ideas and theories have been provided. The
right amount of relevant examples and exercises have also been added to help learners to
understand the material.
BLOCK-1: THEORY OF EQUATIONS
Uttarakhand Open University Page 1
UNIT 1: RELATION BETWEEN THE

ROOTS AND ITS COEFFICIENTS OF AN
EQUATION
CONTENTS:
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Objectives
1.3 Introduction to Algebric equation
1.4 Synthetic equation
1.5 Fundamental theorem of Algebra
1.6 Remainder and Factor theorem
1.7 Relation between the roots and its coefficients of an equation
1.8 Particular Cases
1.9 Cube root of unity
1.10 Root with sign changed
1.11 Roots multiplied by a constant
1.12 Reciprocal Roots
1.13 Reciprocal equation
1.14 Descrate‟s Rule of signs
1.15 Summary
1.16 Glossary
1.17 References
1.18 Suggested Reading
1.19 Terminal questions
1.20 Answers
1.1 INTRODUCTION:-
In this unit we will discuss about the relationship between the roots
(solutions) of a polynomial equation and its coefficients is a fundamental
concept in algebra. Vieta's formulas are named after François Viète, a
16th-century French mathematician who made significant contributions to
algebra. These formulas provide a bridge between the roots of a
polynomial and the coefficients that define it. They are applicable to
polynomial equations of various degrees, including both real and complex
roots.
The core idea behind Vieta's formulas is that the roots of a polynomial
equation hold valuable information about its coefficients, and vice versa.
By examining the coefficients, you can deduce properties of the roots,

such as their sum and product, and by knowing the roots, you can
determine relationships among the coefficients.
The main components of Vieta's formulas include:
Sum of Roots Formula: This formula relates the sum of the roots of a
polynomial to its coefficients. It expresses how the coefficients of the
polynomial's terms are connected to the negative of the sum of its roots.
Product of Roots Formula: The product of the roots is linked to the

coefficients as well. This formula shows how the constant term and
leading coefficient of the polynomial impact the product of its roots.
Special Cases for Quadratic Equations: Vieta's formulas are especially

useful for quadratic equations, where they simplify to provide
straightforward relationships between the roots and coefficients.
These formulas are not only essential for solving polynomial equations but
also find applications in various mathematical and scientific disciplines,
such as algebra, calculus, engineering, and physics. They serve as a
powerful tool for simplifying polynomial expressions, analyzing
polynomial properties, and understanding the behavior of functions
defined by polynomial equations.
1.2 OBJECTIVES:-
After studying this unit, you will be able to

 To understand the Synthetic division.
 Lernear will be able to solve relation between roots and the
coefficients of an equation.
 To understanding the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra.
 To Solve the Reciprocal roots.
1.3 INTRODUCTION TO ALGEBRAIC

EQUATIONS:-
An algebraic equation is a mathematical statement that uses one or
more variables and mathematical operations to express that two
expressions are equal. An algebraic equation is also known as a
polynomial equation because both sides of the equal sign contain
polynomials. An algebraic equation is built up of variables, coefficients,
constants as well as algebraic operations such as addition, subtraction,
multiplication, division, exponentiation, etc. These equations are

fundamental in algebra and are used to represent relationships between
quantities or unknowns. Algebraic equations typically take the form:
Expression =Expression
In this equation, you have two sides, each containing algebraic
expressions, and an equal sign between them, indicating that the two
expressions are equal. The goal in solving algebraic equations is usually to
find the values of the variables that satisfy the equation, making it true.
If there is a number or a set of numbers that satisfy the algebraic equation
then they are known as the roots or the solutions of that equation. In
this unit, we will discuss about algebraic equations, their types, examples,
and how to solve algebraic equations.
Fig.1 Algebraic Equations
The general form of the algebraic equation is
where is a positive integer.

The term which does not contain , is called the constant term or
absolute term.
An equation is knows as complete when all powers of to are
present in it, and incomplete when some of these powers are missing. An
incomplete equation can be made complete by supplying the missing
terms with zero coefficients. Thus the incomplete equation
This form is complete equation.

An equation is said to be numerical if all roots coefficients are numbers
while it is called algebraically if its coefficients are algebraic symbols.
Hence is numerical equation while
is an algebraic equation.
Degree of equation: The degree of an algebraic equation refers to the
exponent of the highest power of occurring in the equation. Thus
.
where is of third degree. Here's how the degree is determined for
different types of equations:
 Linear Equation: The degree of a linear equation is 1 because the
highest power of the variable is 1. For example
In this equation, the degree is 1 because the variable is raised

to the power of 1.
 Quadratic Equation: The degree of a quadratic equation is 2
because the highest power of the variable is 2. For example

to the power of 2.
 Cubic Equation: The degree of a cubic equation is 3 because the
highest power of the variable is 3. For example

to the power of 3.
 Higher-Degree Equations: Equations with degrees greater than 3
are called higher-degree equations. For example:
1. A quartic or biquadratic equation has a degree of 4.
2. A quintic equation has a degree of 5.
3. A polynomial equation of degree has the highest power of
as .
Important Notes on Algebraic Equations:
1. An algebraic equation is an equation where two algebraic
expressions are joined together using an equal sign.
2. Polynomial equations are algebra equations.
3. Algebraic equations can be one-step, two-step, or multi-step
equations.
4. Algebra equations are classified as linear, quadratic, cubic, and
higher-order equations based on the degree.
1.4 SYNTHETIC DIVISION:-

To find the quotient and the reminder when a polynomial is divided by a
binomial.
This method was given by Horner.
Suppose be a
polynomial of degree and let it be divided by the binomial . If
be the quotient and R reminder,
then the coefficient Q and R can be exhibited in the following manner.
Synthetic division is a method used to perform polynomial long division

for dividing a polynomial by a linear factor of the form , where
is a constant. This method simplifies the division process and is often used
when dividing polynomials quickly.
Rule for Synthetic division:
1. Write the polynomial in standard form, with all terms present,
including any missing terms with coefficients of .
2. Identify the divisor, which should be in the form where
is a constant. For example, if you have as the divisor,
then is .
3. Set up the synthetic division tableau. This is a compact form of
writing the coefficients of the polynomial and simplifying the
division process. Draw a long horizontal line and write the
divisor's constant, , to the left of the line. Above the line, write
the coefficients of the polynomial in descending order of their
degrees, leaving no gaps for missing terms. If there are missing
terms, use as the coefficient.
4. Start the synthetic division process:
a. Bring down the first coefficient (the coefficient of the
highest-degree term) below the line.
b. Multiply this value by (the divisor's constant), and write
the result below the next coefficient.
c. Add the result to the next coefficient above the line and write
it below.
d. Repeat this process for all coefficients, moving from left to
right.
 The numbers below the line after completing the synthetic division
represent the coefficients of the quotient polynomial. The last
number is the remainder.
 Write the quotient polynomial, omitting any leading zero
coefficients.
 The result of the synthetic division provides both the quotient
polynomial and the remainder of the division. If the remainder is
zero, it means that is a factor of the original polynomial.
Otherwise, the remainder represents the remainder of the division.
SOLVED EXAMPLE
EXAMPLE1: Find the quotient and Reminder when

is divided by
SOLUTION: The given polynomial is not complete. First we make it
complete by supplying the missing terms with zero coefficients i.e. we obtain
it as
Now
The quotient
and Reminder

is divided by
complete by supplying the missing terms with zero coefficients i.e. we get
Now
The quotient
and Reminder

is divided by
complete by supplying the missing terms with zero coefficients i.e. we write
Now
9
The quotient
and Reminder
is divided by
complete by supplying the missing terms with zero coefficients i.e. we write
Now
The quotient
and Reminder
1.5 FUNDAMENTAL THEOREM OF ALGEBRA:-

The fundamental theorem of algebra states that every non-constant single
variable polynomial with complex coefficients has at least one complex
root. This is true for polynomials with real coefficients, since every real
number is a complex number with imaginary part equal to zero.
THEOREM1: Theorem n number of roots: Every equation of a degree

has roots and no more.
Proof: Suppose
be an equation of degree
Let be the root of equation, then from (1), we have
or
where is a function of of degree , such that
Further let be a root of the equation Then we can write
Where is a function of of degree .
Continuing this process, we obtain
Thus has roots .

If take takes any different value from then .
Hence has roots .
REMARKS:
a. All the roots of are not necessarily real, some
roots may be complex.
b. All the roots of are not necessarily distinct, some
roots may be repeated.
c. If more than roots of , then
THEOREM2: Theorem on complex roots: In an equation with real
coefficients complex roots occur in conjugate pairs.
Or
If is a root of the equation , then is also a root of

the equation.
SOLUTION: Suppose
Where are real, be an equation of degree

Suppose be complex root of . Now
Let be the quotient and be the remainder when be

divided by . The reminder must be first degree as
divisor is of the second degree.
{ }
Substituting in (2)
Since is the roots of .Now equating real and imaginary

parts
and
and
{ } { }{ }
Hence is also root of .
1.6 REMAINDER AND FACTOR THEOREM:-
REMAINDER THEOREM: If a polynomial be divided by

until a reminder independent of is obtained, this remainder is equal to
, which is the value of when
The remainder is denoted by and quotient by .
Hence
Taking , we obtain If the division is exact.

FACTOR THEOREM: If is zero, the polynomial has the
factor . In other words, if is the root of is a factor
of
Example: 2 is the root of So is a factor of .
SELF CHECK QUESTIONS-1

a. Find the quotient and remainder when divided by
.
b. Find the quotient and remainder when
divided by
1.7 RELATION BETWEEN THE ROOTS AND ITS

COEFFICIENTS OF AN EQUATION:-
Let us consider
be a polynomial of degree . Suppose be the roots. then
the we have
* ∑ ∑ ∑
∑
+
Now from (1), we get
∑
Thus, we obtain
∑ Sum of all roots
∑ Sum of the products of the roots taken two at a time
∑ Sum of the products of the roots taken three at a time
∑ Sum of the products of the roots taken at a time
Product of all the roots
Note:
a. If the equation is incomplete, we should first make it complete
by supplying the missing terms with zero coefficients.
b. The above relations between the roots and its coefficients of an
equation do not enable us to solve the equation unless some
other relations between the roots are given.
1.8 PARTICULAR CASES:-

. Relation between the roots and coefficients of a quadratic, cubic and
biquadratic equation.
“Vieta's formula relates the coefficients of polynomials to the sums

and products of their roots, as well as the products of the roots taken
in groups”
 Quadratic Equation: Let be the roots of quadratic

, then .
If the sum and be the product of roots of quadratic equation
then the equation will be .
 Cubic Equation: Let be the roots of cubic
, then
∑ and .
 Bi-quadratic Equation: Let be the roots of cubic
, then
1.9 CUBE ROOTS OF UNITY

Suppose
Now cubing both side, we obtain or , then
Therefore the remaining two cube roots of unity are the roots of quadratic
√ √
These are .
If one root denoted by thus are the cubic roots of unity and
therefore the roots of equation
We obtain
and .
SOLVED EXAMPLE
EXAMPLE1: If be the roots of the cubic

.Find the value of .
SOLUTION: If are the roots of the cubic

then
∑ and .
∑ ∑ ∑
[ ∑ ∑ ]
[ ] .
EXAMPLE2: Solve the equation , two of the

roots being the ratio .
SOLUTION: The root of the given ratio is and .
or
Now from (1), we obtain
Putting the value of in (2), we obtain
( )
or
When
Hence the required roots are
( ).
EXAMPLE3: Solve the equation being

given that it has a pair of roots whose sum is zero.
SOLUTION: Let be the root of the given equation.
And also let

Now from (1) and (5), we have
From (3) and (6), we obtain
From (4) and (7), we get
or
Now and are the roots of the quadratic
or
Again and are the roots of the quadratic
or or
√ √
√
Hence the required roots are .
√
EXAMPLE4: Find the condition that the equation
Should have two roots connected by the relation
SOLUTION: Let be the root of the given equation.
∑
∑
∑
And also let
From (1) and (5), we have
From (3), (5) and (6), we obtain
or
Again from (4), we get
or
Now from (4), we get
Which is required condition.

a. Find the condition which must be satisfied by coefficients of
the equation
When two of its roots are connected by the relation

ans
b. Solve the equation , the root
being in geometrical progression.
1.10 ROOTS WITH SIGN CHANGED:-
To transform an equation into another whose roots are roots of the given
equation with their sign changed.
Let us consider be roots of given equation
Then
Now Let be a root of the required transformed equation. Then .
Replacing by ) in (2)
[
] [ ]
From (3), is clear that are the roots of the equation.
EXAMPLE: Change the sign of the roots of the equation
SOLUTION: The given equation is
Changed the sign of every alternate term of (1), we have
1.11 ROOTS MULTIPLIED BY A CONSTANT m:-

To transform an equation into another whose roots are roots of the given
equation multiplied by the constant m.
Then
Now Let be a root of the required transformed equation.

Then ,
Replacing by ) in (2), we obtain
Multiplying both sides by , we obtain
where are the roots of the equation
EXAMPLE: Transform the equation into

another with integral coefficients and unity for the coefficient of the first
term.
The equation (1) multiplied by .Then
Since the least value of to remove the fractional coefficients is
So substituting in above equation
1.12 RECIPROCAL ROOTS:-

To transform an equation into another whose roots are the reciprocals of

the roots of the given equation.
Then
Now Let be a root of the required transformed equation.

Then ,
Replacing by ) in (2), we obtain
Multiplying both sides by , we obtain
Or
Which shows that are the roots of the equation
Which is required the solution.
EXAMPLE: Find the equation whose roots are the reciprocals of the
roots of the equation
.
.
Replacing by , the required equation is
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
Or
1.13 RECIPROCAL EQUATION:-

“An equation which remains unaltered by changing into is called a
reciprocal equation.”
Or
Let be an equation of roots . if are
also roots of the same equation, then such equation are known as
reciprocal equations.
Suppose the given equation be
Then
Is equation whose roots are the reciprocal of equation (1)

Comparing (1) and (2)
Hence or
Case1: If , then, we get
Which is known as reciprocal equations of the first type.
Case2: If , then, we obtain
Which is known as reciprocal equations of the second type.
A reciprocal equation of first type and even degree is called a standard

reciprocal equation.
Note:
a. If is a reciprocal equation of first type and odd
degree, the is always a root. If we remove the factor
corresponding to this root, we obtain a standard
b. If is a reciprocal equation of second type and odd
degree, then is always a roots. If we remove the factor
corresponding to this root, we obtain a standard

c. If is a reciprocal equation of second type and even
degree, then and are roots. If we remove the
factor corresponding to these roots, we obtain a
standard reciprocal equation.
SOLVED EXAMPLE
EXAMPLE1: Solve the equation
.
6
Dividing by , we have
( ) ( )
Substituting in above equation and simplifying, we get
On solving or
When
Similarly
Hence the root of given equation are

.
EXAMPLE2: Solve the equation .

.
[ ]
[ ]
i.e.,
From (1) can be written as
Dividing by we obtain
( ) ( )
{( ) } ( )
Substituting we get
When
√
( √ )
Again when
√
( √ )
Hence the roots of the given equation are
( √ ) ( √ )
1.14 DESCARTE’S RULE OF SIGNS:-

To determine the nature of some of the roots of a polynomial equation it is
not always necessary to solve it; for instance, the truth of the following
statements will be readily admitted.
1. If the coefficients of a polynomial equation are all positive, the
equation has no positive root; for example, the equation
cannot have a positive root.

2. If the coefficients of the even powers of are all of one sign, and
the coefficients of the odd powers are all of the opposite sign, the
equation has no negative root; thus for example, the equation
cannot have a negative root.

3. If the equation contains only even powers of and the
coefficients are all of the same sign, the equation has no real
root; thus for example, the equation
.
4. If the equation contains only odd powers of and the
coefficients are all of the same sign, the equation has no real
root except thus the equation 7
has no real root except .
Suppose that the signs of the terms in a polynomial are

; here the number of changes of sign is 7. We shall
show that if this polynomial is multiplied by a binomial
(corresponding to a positive root) whose signs are , there will be
at least one more change of sign in the product than in the original
polynomial.
Writing down only the signs of the terms in the multiplication, we
have the following:
Here in the last line the ambiguous sign is placed wherever there
are two different signs to be added.
Here we see that in the product
1. an ambiguity replaces each continuation of sign in the original
polynomial;
2. the signs before and after an ambiguity or set of ambiguities
are unlike;
3. a change of sign is introduced at the end.
Let us take the most unfavourable case (i.e., the case where the
number of changes of sign is less) and suppose that all the ambiguities
are replaced by continuations; then the sign of the terms become
and the number of changes of sign is 8.

We conclude that if a polynomial is multiplied by a binomial
(corresponding to a positive root) whose signs are there will be at
least one more change of sign in the product than in the original
polynomial.
If then we suppose the factors corresponding to the negative and
imaginary roots to be already multiplied together, each factor
corresponding to a positive root introduces at least one change of sign;
therefore no equation can have more positive roots than it has changes of
sign.
Again, the roots of the equation are equal to those of
but opposite to them in sign; therefore the negative roots of
are the positive roots of but the number of these

positive roots cannot exceed the number of changes of sign in
that is, the number of negative roots of cannot exceed the
number of changes in sign in of
All the above observations are included in the following result, called
Descarte’s Rule of Signs.
In any polynomial equation , the number of real positive roots

cannot exceed the number of changes in the signs of the coefficients of the
terms in , and the number of real negative roots cannot exceed the
number of changes in the signs of the coefficients of .
SOLVED EXAMPLE
EXAMPLE1: Show that the equation ha at least

four imaginary roots.
SOLUTION: Suppose
We see that there are only three changes of sign in then
cannot have more than three positive roots.
Again
We see that has no change of signs. Therefore the equation

cannot have any negative root. Thus the maximum number of real roots of
the equation is 3. But this equation is of degree 7.Hence at least
complex roots.
EXAMPLE2: Locate the situation of the roots of the equation

.
SOLUTION: The equation is
.
The equation is
\The has only one change of sign and so the equation

Cannot have more than one positive root.
We have
Since and are of opposite signs, therefore the positive root lies
between 1 and 2.
Again has two changes of signs and so the equation can
not have more than two negative
Again we have
roots.
Since and are positive signs, therefore one negative root lies
between -1 and 0. Again and are also of opposite signs and
so one negative root lies between and .
Hence all the three roots of given equation are real and lie in the open
intervals and
1. If be the roots of the equation , then

the value of expression is
a. -9 b. 0 c. 7 d. -8
2. If be the roots of the equation

are in A.P then the mean root is equal to
a. 3 b. -3 c. 5 d. -5
3. Let be the roots of the equation

. If then the value of is
a. -8 b. -6 c. 6 d. 4
4. If two root of the equation are in the ratio

3:2, then all the roots shall be
a. – b. c. d.
5. If two root of the equation are equal, then

all the roots shall be
a. b. c. d.
6. If are the roots of the equation , then the equation

whose roots are and is
a. b. c.
d.
7. The number of the positive roots of the equation

is
a. 0 b. 1 c. 2 d. 3
8. The number of real roots of the equation is

a. 2 b. 0 c. 1 d. 4
9. Let be the roots of the equation

, then ∑ ( )
10. Let be the roots of the equation ,

then
11. The number of changes of signs in is
12. The equation can at most positive

roots. (one)
13. The equation has complex
roots.(four)
14. The equation cannot have more than
positive roots. (three)
15. The equation cannot have any negative
root.T
16. The equation cannot have any negative roots. F
17. The equation have no real roots. T
18. The equation has at least six complex
roots. T
19. The equation has two negative roots. F
20. The equation has no positive roots. F
1.15 SUMMARY:-
In this unit we studied the relation between the roots and
coefficients of a polynomial equation is described by sum of roots
formula, product of roots formula, Introduction to algebra equation,
reciprocal roots , reciprocal equation, remainder and factor theorem,
Roots with sign changed and Descrate's rule of signs . These formulas
provide a fundamental connection between the roots (solutions) of a
polynomial equation and its coefficients.
1.16 GLOSSARY:-
 Descrate's rule of signs
 Algebra equation
 Remainder and factor theorem
 Roots with sign changed
1.17 REFERENCES:-
 Spiegel, R. Murray "Vector Analysis, Schaum‟s Outline Series,

1959.
 Shanti Narayan(2003) A Textbook of Vector Calculus. S. Chand
Publishing.
 Erwin. Kreyszig(2009) Advanced engineering mathematics, 10th

edition.
 Sri Sreehari T and Mr. Jafar T.K(2019) Theory of equations and
Abstract Algebra.
1.18 SUGGESTED READING:-

 A.R.Vasishtha(2016-17) Elementary Algebra &Trigonometry.
 Kenneth Hoffman & Ray Kunze(2015)Linear Algebra (2nd
edition). Prentice-Hall.
 Shanti Narayan and P. K. Mittal. A textbook of matrices. S. Chand
Publishing, 2010.
 https://sist.sathyabama.ac.in/sist_coursematerial/uploads/SMTA52
04
1.19 TERMINAL QUESTIONS:-

(TQ-1) Show that the equation cannot have more
than three real roots and prove that it must have three real roots.
(TQ-2) Change the signs of the roots of the equation
.
(TQ-3) Find the equation whose roots are the reciprocals of the roots of
the equation .
(TQ-4) Change the sign of the root of equation
.
(TQ-5) Form the equation whose roots are the reciprocals of the roots of
the equation .
(TQ-6) Find the equation whose roots are twice the reciprocals of the
roots of
(TQ-7) Solve the reciprocal roots
1. .
2.
(TQ-8) Solve the equation , whose roots are
in the arithmetical progression.
(TQ-9) Solve the equation , should have its roots
in harmonic progression.
(TQ-10) The roots of the equation are α and β. Without
solving for the roots, find
1. b. c.
(TQ-11) Find the quotient and Remainder of the following when
1. is divided by .
2. is divided by .
3. is divided by .
4. is divided by .
5. is divided by .
6. is divided by .
1.20 ANSWERS:-
SELF CHECK ANSWERS-1

1.
2.

1.
2. ( )
1. b 2. a 3. c 4. c 5. c
6.c 7. b 8.a 9. – 10.
11. 3 12. One 13. Four 14. Three 15. T
16. F 17. T 18.T 19. F 20. F
TERMINAL ANSWERS
(TQ-2)
(TQ-3)
(TQ-4)
(TQ-5)
(TQ-6)
√
(TQ-7) a. √ √ b. ( )
(TQ-8) 1,4,7
(TQ-9)
(TQ-10) a. b. c.
(TQ-11)
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
UNIT 2: SOLUTIONS OF CUBIC AND

BIQUADRATIC EQUATIONS
CONTENTS
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Objectives
2.3 Cardan‟s method of solving the cubic equation
2.3.1 Application of cardan‟s method to numerical equations
2.4 Euler‟s solution of the biquadratic equations
2.5 Descarte‟s method of solving a biquadratic equation
2.6 Ferrari‟s method of solving biquadratic equation
2.6 Summary
2.7 Glossary
2.8 References
2.9 Suggested Readings
2.10 Terminal Questions
2.11 Answers
2.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous unit learners have learned about the root of the
equation of two or more than two degree, synthetic divisions, solution of
quadratic equations by different methods.
In this unit we will learned about the solution of cubic equation

(polynomial of degree 3) and bi-quadratic equation (polynomial of degree
4). Solutions of cubic equation will be solved by using cardon‟s method
and solutions of biquadratic equations are solved by using, Euler‟s
method, Descarte‟s method and Ferrari‟s method.
2.2 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit learners will be able to,
 Solve the cubic equation by using Cardan‟s method.

 Solve the biquadratic equation by using Euler‟s method
 Solve the biquadratic equation by Descarte‟s method
 Solve the biquadratic equation by Ferrari‟s method.
2.3 CARDAN’S METHOD OF SOLVING THE

CUBIC EQUATION
Let the cubic equation be
… (1)
Removing the second term and multiplying the roots by a, the equation (1)
can be reduced to the form
… (2)
Where ( ) , G and H have their usual meanings i.e.,
And
⁄ ⁄
Let us assuming that .
… (3)
⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄
Cubing both sides of (3), we have ( )
⁄ ⁄
i.e.,
… (4)
Comparing the coefficient in (2) and (4), we get
⁄ ⁄
or and
Hence u and v are the root of the quadratic .

… (5)
√ √
Solving (5), we get ,
... (6)
Now by taking cube root we shall get three values of the cube root of u,
⁄ ⁄ ⁄
namely, , and . Similarly, we shall get three values of
⁄ ⁄ ⁄
the cube root of v, namely , and . If we take all possible
⁄ ⁄
combinations, we shall get nine values of the expression
which is a root of the equation (2). But a cubic should have only three
⁄ ⁄
roots. Therefore, while combining the values of and we should
⁄ ⁄
not forget that they are also connected by the relation .
⁄ ⁄
From this relation we get . Putting the value of in (3), we
⁄
get ⁄
the other two values of z being obtained by replacing
⁄ ⁄ ⁄
, and respectively.
Thus if z1, z2 , z3 are the roots of the cubic (2), we have
H
z1  u1/3  1/3
 u1/3  v1/3 ,
u
H H
z2   u1/3    u1/3   2 1/3   u1/3   2 v1/3 ,
u 1/3
u
H H
z3   2 u1/3    2 u1/3     2 u1/3   v1/3 ,
u
2 1/3
u1/3
Where,  
1
2
 
1
1  3i and  2  1  3i
2
 
Having found the values of z, we can find the values of x by the relation z=
ax+b.
2.3.1 APPLICATION OF CARDAN’S METHOD TO

NUMERICAL EQUATIONS
When G 2  4 H 3  0 or = 0 i.e., when the cubic has two imaginary or two

equal roots, then the values of u and v as found from the quadratic in t are
real. Now by some suitable arithmetical process we can extract the cube
roots of real quantities and thus we shall get the values of u1/3 and v1/3 . But
if G 2  4 H 3  0 i.e., if all the roots of the cubic are real and different, the
values of u and v are not real. Now there is no general arithmetical
process for extracting the cube root of complex number and consequently
Cardan‟s method fails to give the solution of a cubic all of whose roots are
real and different. This was called by older mathematician irreducible
case of Cardon’s solution. However in this case we can make use of
DeMoiver‟s theorem of Trigonometry to find the values of the cube roots
of complex numbers.
A i A i
Let G  A, G 2  4H 3   B 2 , so that u   B and v   B
2 2 2 2
1/3 1/3
A i  A i 
 z    B   B
2 2  2 2 
A B
Now put  r cos  and  r sin  , so that
2 2
A2  B 2 G 2  G 2  4H 3
r2    H 3
4 4
B     G  4 H 
2 3
And tan   
A G
 z   r cos   ir sin     r cos   ir sin  

1/3 1/3
  2n     2n     2n     2n    

 r1/3 cos    i sin    cos    i sin  
  3   3   3   3  
 2n   
 2r1/3   , where n  0,1, 2.
 3 
Hence the root of the equation in z are
  2     4   
2r1/3 cos , 2r1/3 cos  1/3
 and 2r cos  ;
3  3   3 
  2     2   
i.e., 2r1/3 cos , 2r1/3 cos  1/3
 and 2r cos  ;
3  3   3 
  2   
i.e., 2( H )1/2 cos , 2( H )1/2 cos  .
3  3 
Working rule to solve the cubic equation by Cardon’s method
To solve the cubic equation a0 x3  a1 x 2  a2 x  a3  0 by Cardon‟s method,

we generally follow the following steps.
Step 1:First, we did the coefficient of is equal to zero by diminishing

a
its root by h   1 , where n = degree of equation.
na0
Then we get the cubic equation of the form z 3  3Hz  G  0

… (1)
Sometimes the given cubic is of the type a0 x3  a1 x 2  0 x  a3  0 i.e., the

1
coefficient of x is equal to zero. In this case, we replace x  and
z
construct the cubic equation of the type equation (1).
Step 2: In this step, we assume z  u1/3  v1/3 be the solution of cubic

equation (1). After cubing both side we get the equation
z 3  3u1/3v1/3 z  (u  v)  0 . Then, we compare this equation by (1) and find
the value of uv and u  v .
Step 3: Since we know that, if u and v are the roots of the quadratic
equation then that equation can be written as t 2  (u  v)t  uv  0 . Then,
put the value of uv , u  v and solve the quadratic equation to find the
value of u and v.
Step 4: The following will be the roots of the given cubic equation
z 3  3Hz  G  0 ,
u1/3  v1/3 , u1/3   2v1/3 ,  2u1/3  v1/3 where

 1 3 2  1 3
     i  ,      i  .
 2 2   2 2 
So, the roots of the cubic equation a0 x3  a1 x 2  a2 x  a3  0 will be find

out by the changes in the roots of z 3  3Hz  G  0 as we have the relation
between x and z.
SOLVED EXAMPLES
Example 1: Solve the cubic x3  18 x  35  0 by Cardan‟s method.
Solution: The given equation is x3  18 x  35  0

… (1)
Since, the given cubic equationis also in the form of z 3  3Hz  G  0 .
Let z  u1/3  v1/3 be the solution of the cubic (1).
Now, cubing both side we get
z 3  u  v  3u1/3v1/3 (u1/3  v1/3 )
z 3  3u1/3v1/3 z  (u  v)  0
… (2)
Comparing equation (1) and (2) we get
3u1/3v1/3  18 and (u  v)  35
 u1/3v1/3  6 and u  v  35
 uv  63  216 and u  v  35
Let u and v are the roots of the quadratic equation then,
t 2  (u  v)t  uv  0 i.e., t 2  35t  216  0
On solving the given quadratic, we get t  8, 27
Let, u  8, then u1/3  2
Similarly, v  27, then v1/3  3
So, the root of the cubic (1) are
u1/3  v1/3  3  2  5
 1 3  1 3 5 3
u1/3   2v1/3  2    i   3    i     i
 2 2   2 2  2 2
  1 3 
      i 
  2 2  
 
 2    1  i 3  
 

  2 2  
 1 3  1 3 5 3
And  2u1/3  v1/3  2    i   3    i     i
 2 2   2 2  2 2
Example 2: Solve the cubic equation 9 x 3  6 x 2  1  0 by Cardan‟s

method.
Solution: The given cubic equation is 9 x 3  6 x 2  1  0

… (1)
Since in the given cubic equation the coefficient of x is zero. So, to

transform the cubic equation of the form z 3  3Hz  G  0 , we replace
1
x .
z
The transformed cubic equation is,

3 2
1 1
9    6   1  0
z z
i.e., z3  6z  9  0
… (2)
z 3  u  v  3u1/3v1/3 (u1/3  v1/3 )
z 3  3u1/3v1/3 z  (u  v)  0 … (3)
3u1/3v1/3  6 and (u  v)  9
 u1/3v1/3  2 and u  v  9
 uv  23  8 and u  v  9
t 2  (u  v)t  uv  0 i.e., t 2  8t  9  0
On solving the given quadratic, we get t  1,8
Let, u  1, then u1/3  1
Similarly, v  8, then v1/3  2
The root of the cubic (2) are
u1/3  v1/3  2  1  3
 1 3  1 3 3 3
u1/3   2v1/3  1   i   2    i     i
 2 2   2 2  2 2
  1 3 
      i 
  2 2  
 
 2    1  i 3  
 

  2 2  
 1 3  1 3 3 3
And  2u1/3  v1/3  1   i   2    i     i
 2 2   2 2  2 2
1 2 2
, ,
3 3  3i 3  3i
1 (3  3i ) (3  3i)
i.e., , ,
3 6 6
Example 3: Solve the cubic equation x3  15 x 2  33x  847  0 by Cardan‟s

method.
Solution: The given cubic equation is x3  15 x 2  33x  847  0

… (1)
Since, the given cubic equation is not in the form of z 3  3Hz  G  0 . So,
first we remove the second term of the equation (1) by diminishing its root
by
a1 15
h  5
na0 3.1
The synthetic division procedure is given below:
5 1 -15 -33 847
- 5 -50 -415
1 -10 -83 432

- 5 -25 Page 36
1 -5 -108
- 0
Now, the transformed equation is z 3  108 z  432  0 , where z  x  5

… (2)
The transformed equation is of the type z 3  3Hz  G  0 . So, let

z  u1/3  v1/3 be the solution of the cubic (2).
z 3  u  v  3u1/3v1/3 (u1/3  v1/3 )
z 3  3u1/3v1/3 z  (u  v)  0
… (3)
3u1/3v1/3  108 and (u  v)  432
 u1/3v1/3  36 and u  v  432
 uv  363 and u  v  432
t 2  (u  v)t  uv  0 i.e., t 2  432t  363  0
432   432   4  36 
2 3
By Sridharacharya method, t 
2
i.e., t  216
 u  216, v  216 then u1/3  6 and v1/3  6
u1/3  v1/3  6  6  12
u1/3   2v1/3  6  6 2  6(   2 )  6

1     2  0 
And  2u1/3  v1/3  6 2  6  6( 2   )  6
Hence roots of the given cubic (1) are
12  5,6  5,6  5 i.e., -7, 11, 11.
Example 4: Solve the cubic equation 27 x3  54 x 2  198 x  73  0 by

Cardan‟s method.
Solution: The given cubic equation is 27 x3  54 x 2  198 x  73  0

… (1)
Since, the given cubic equation is not in the form of z 3  3Hz  G  0 . So,
first we remove the second term of the equation (1) by diminishing its root
by
a1 54 2
h  
na0 3.27 3
-2/3 27 54 198 -73
- -18 -27 -116
27 36 174 -189
- -18 -12
27 18 162
- -18
27 0
Now, the transformed equation is 27 z 3  162 z  189  0 or z 3  6 z  7  0

… (2)
2
Where, z  x 
3
The transformed equation is of the type z 3  3Hz  G  0 . So, let

z  u1/3  v1/3 be the solution of the cubic (2).
z 3  u  v  3u1/3v1/3 (u1/3  v1/3 )
z 3  3u1/3v1/3 z  (u  v)  0
… (3)
3u1/3v1/3  6 and (u  v)  7
 u1/3v1/3  2 and u  v  7
 uv  8 and u  v  7
t 2  (u  v)t  uv  0 i.e., t 2  7t  8  0
By simplifying we get, t  8,  1
Let, u  8 and v  1
u1/3  v1/3  2  1  1
 1 3  1 3 1 3 3
u1/3   2v1/3  2    i   1   i     i
 2 2   2 2  2 2
  1 3 
      i 
  2 2  
 
 2    1  i 3  
 

  2 2  
 1 3  1 3 1 3 3
And  2u1/3  v1/3  2    i   1   i     i
 2 2   2 2  2 2
Hence the root of the given cubic equation (1) are,
2 1 3 3 2 1 3 3 2
1 ,   i   ,  i
3 2 2 3 2 2 3
1 7 3 3 7 3 3
,  i,   i
3 6 2 6 2
Example 5: Solve the cubic equation x3  3x  1  0 by Cardan‟s method.
Solution: The given cubic equation is x3  3x  1  0

… (1)
Since, the given cubic equation is also in the form of z 3  3Hz  G  0 .
z 3  u  v  3u1/3v1/3 (u1/3  v1/3 )
z 3  3u1/3v1/3 z  (u  v)  0
… (2)
3u1/3v1/3  3 and (u  v)  1
 u1/3v1/3  1 and u  v  1
 uv  13  1 and u  v  1
t 2  (u  v)t  uv  0 i.e., t 2  t  1  0
1  1  4.1.1
2
By Sridharacharya method, t 
2
1  i 3
i.e., t 
2
1
1  i 3  1  i 3  3
Let, u  , then u1/3   
2  2 
1
 1  i 3   1  i 3  3
Similarly, v    then v  
1/3

 2   2 

1 1
 1  i 3  3  1  i 3  3
x  u1/3  v1/3      
 2   2 
1 3
Let r cos   and r sin  
2 2
2
Then, r 2  1 or r  1 and tan    3 or  
3
x  r1/3  cos  i sin     cos  i sin   

1/3 1/3
 
x  (1)1/3 cos(2n    )  i sin(2n    )  cos(2n    )  i sin(2n    ) 

1/3 1/3
 
By DeMoiver‟s theorem,  cos  i sin    cos(n  )  i sin(n  )

n
 (2n    ) (2n    )   (2n    ) (2n    ) 

x   cos  i sin   cos  i sin 
 3 3   3 3 
(2 n    )
x  2cos
3
2
Putting value of   and n  0,1, 2
3
2 8 14
Hence required roots are 2cos , 2cos and 2cos
9 9 9
2.4 EULER’S SOLUTION OF THE

BIQUADRATIC EQUATIONS
Let the general form of the biquadratic equation is
a0 x 4  a1 x3  a2 x 2  a3 x  a4  0 … (1)
be transformed in the form of z 4  6 Hz 3  4Gz  (a0 2 I  3H 2 )  0

… (2)
where z  a0 x  a1
we assume z  p q r
squaring both sides, we get
[ z 2  ( p  q  r )]  2  p q q r r p 
… (3)
again,squaring both sides we get
z4  2 z 2 ( p  q  r )   p  q  r   4  pq  qr  rp  2 p q r
2
  p q r 
 
 z 4   2 p  z 2  8 z p q r    p   4  pq   0
2
… (4)
Now, comparing the coefficient of z of equation (2) and (4), we get
G G4
 p  3H , p q r   2
or pqr 
4
a0 2 I
 p  4 pq  a0 2 I  3H 2 or  pq  3H 2 
2
and
4
The cubic equation whose three roots are p, q, r be written as
t 3  ( p  q  r )t 2   pq qr  rp  t  pqr  0
On putting the values of coefficient, equation will become
 2 a0 2 I  G 2
t  3Ht   3H 
3 2
 t 0
 4  4
… (5)
This equation is known as Euler’s cubic.
As we know that G 2  4 H 3  a0 ( HI  a0 J )
Dividing both side by 4 and simplifying the equation
G2 a 2 HI a03 J
  H3  0 
4 4 4
… (6)
From (5) and (6)
 2 a0 2 I  a0 2 HI a03 J
t  3Ht   3H 
3 2
 t H 
3
 0
 4  4 4
a0 2 I a 3J
(t  H )3  (t  H )  0  0
4 4
Putting t  H  a0 2 , we have
a0 4 I a 3J
a06 3    0  0 or 4a06 3  Ia0  J  0 … (7)
4 4
Equation (6) is called reducing cubic of the biquadratic equation.
Remark: In the Euler‟s cubic equation, G occurs in even powers, so if

biquadratic equation occurs of the type
z 4  6 Hz 2  4Gz  (a0 2 I  3H 2 )  0
Then its Euler‟s cubic would have been the same as that of the given
quadratic and therefore the two will have the same reducing cubic.
2.5 DESCARTE’S METHOD OF SOLVING A

BIQUADRATIC EQUATION
Let the general form of the biquadratic equation is

a0 x 4  a1 x3  a2 x 2  a3 x  a4  0 … (1)
Removing the second term from (1) and multiplying the roots by a0 . Then
thereduced equation can be written in the form
f ( z )  z 4  6 Hz 2  4Gz  a0 2 I  3H 2  0 where z  a0 x  a1
… (2)
Let z1, z2 , z3 , z4 are the roots of the equation (2). Since coefficient of z 3 is
zero in (2), so sum of the roots i.e., z1  z2  z3  z4  0
Or z1  z2  ( z3  z4 )  p (say)
Also we assumed that z1z2  q and z3 z4  q '
 f ( z )  (z 2  pz  q)(z 2  pz  q' )
… (3)
Comparing the coefficient of equation (2) and (3)
q  q'  p2  6H ,
… (4)
p(q  q ' )  4G
…(5)
and qq '  a0 2 I  3H 2
… (6)
Since we have, (q  q' )2  (q  q' )2  4qq'.
16G 2
  p 2  6H   4  a0 2 I  3H 2 
2
 2
p
Or p 2 ( p 4  12 Hp 2  36 H 2 )  4 p 2 (a0 2 I  3H 2 )  16G 2  0
Or p 6  12 Hp 4  4 p 2 (12 H 2  a0 2 I )  16G 2  0
This being cubic equation in p 2 can be solved generally by trial

method and having found p 2 we can find the values of q and q ' . Thus, the
quadratic factors of f ( z ) are known. Hence, we can find the roots of
f ( z )  0 and consequently f (x)  0 .
The above cubic equation in p 2 can be put as
( p 6  12 Hp 4  48 p 2 H 2  48H 3 )  4a0 2 I ( p 2  4 H )  16G 2  64 H 3  16a02 H  0
Or ( p 6  4 H )3  4a0 2 I ( p 2  4 H )  16(a03 J )  0
[ G 2  4 H 3  a0 2 HI  a03 J ]
Putting p 2  4 H  4a0 2 , we get 4a03 3  Ia0  J  0 .
This equation is called reducing cubic which is same as found earlier.
Note: We find the value of p 2 by trial i.e., we try to put those numbers
which are whole squares like 1, 4, 9, 16 etc.
Working rule to solve the biquadratic equation by Descarte’s method
To solve the biquadratic equation a0 x 4  a1 x3  a2 x 2  a3 x  a4  0 by

Descarte‟smethod, we generally follow the following steps.
Step 1:First, we did the coefficient of is equal to zero by diminishing

a
its root by h   1 , where n = degree of equation.
na0
we get the biquadratic equation of the form
f ( z )  b0 z 4  b1 z 2  b2 z  b3  ( z 2  pz  q )( z 2  pz  q ' ) , where z  x  h
… (1)
Step 2: In this step, we equate the both side coefficient of equation (1) i.e.,
q  q'  p2  l
 q  q'  p2  l
p (q '  q)  m
m
 q'  q 
p
And qq'  n
Using the equation (q'  q)2  (q  q' )2  4qq'
We get a cubic equation in the variable p 2 . For simplification we assume

that p 2  t (say) and we get a cubic equation in t.
Step 3:Using trial method, we put whole squares number like 1, 4, 9, 16

etc. to solve the cubic equation in t.
Step 4:Finding the value of p, q, q' , we find the root of equation (1) by
using the equation
z 2  pz  q  0 and z 2  pz  q'  0 .
After finding the roots in z , we find the roots in x by the relation z  x  h

and get the required roots of the biquadratic equation
a0 x 4  a1 x3  a2 x 2  a3 x  a4  0 .
Solved Examples
Example 6: Using Descarte‟s method solve the biquadratic equation

x 4  8 x3  12 x 2  60 x  63  0 .
Solution: The given biquadratic equation is x 4  8 x3  12 x 2  60 x  63  0

… (1)
In the given equation (1), first we remove the second term of the
equationby diminishing its root by
a1 8
h  2
na0 4.1
2 1 -8 -12 60 63
Department of-Mathematics
2 -12 -48 24
1 -6 -24 12 87
- 2 -8 -64
Now, the transformed equation in which coefficient of x3 is zero,
f ( z )  z 4  36 z 2  52 z  87  0 , where z  x  2
… (2)
Equation (2) can also be written as

z 4  36 z 2  52 z  87  ( z 2  pz  q)( z 2  pz  q' ) … (3)
Equating both side coefficient we get,
q  q '  p 2  36
 q  q '  p 2  36
p(q '  q)  52

52
 q'  q 
p
qq '  87
Since it can be written that, (q'  q)2  (q  q' )2  4qq'
522
  ( p 2  36)2  348
p2
Let t  p 2 then, t 3  72t 2  948t  2704  0
Since t  4 (i.e., p  2 ) satisfies the above cubic equationt.
q  q '  4  36  32
So we get,
q '  q  26
Solving these we get, q  3 and q'  29
Now, from equation (2)
( z 2  2 z  3)( z 2  2 z  29)  0
 z 2  2 z  3  0 or z 2  2 z  29  0
 z  3,1,1  30
Hence, x  z  2  1, 3, 3  30

x 4  3x 2  42 x  40  0 .
Solution: The given biquadratic equation is x 4  3x 2  42 x  40  0

… (1)
In the given equation (1), the coefficient of x3 is already zero.
Now, f ( x)  x 4  3x 2  42 x  40  ( x 2  px  q)( x 2  px  q ' ) … (2)
Equating both side coefficient of equation (2) we get,
q  q '  p 2  3
 q  q'  p2  3
p(q '  q)  42

42
 q'  q 
p
qq'  40
422
 2
 ( p 2  3)2  160
p
Let t  p 2 then, t 3  6t 2  169t  1764  0
Since t  9 (i.e., p  3 ) satisfies the above cubic equationt.
q  q'  6
So we get,
q '  q  14
Solving these we get, q  10 and q '  4
f(x)  (x 2  3x  10)(x 2  3x  4)  0
 x 2  3x  10  0 or x 2  3 x  4  0
2  i 31
 x  1, 4, , which are the required roots.
2

x 4  6 x3  9 x 2  66 x  22  0 .
Solution: The given biquadratic equation is x 4  8 x3  12 x 2  60 x  63  0

… (1)
Here in (1), first we should remove the second term of the equation by
diminishing its root by
a1 6 3
h  
na0 4.1 2
But in the synthetic division it will very difficult to diminish the root by
3/2. To remove this complication, we first multiply the root by 2.
The transformed equation is,
y 4  12 y 3  36 y 2  528 y  352  0 where y  2 x

… (2)
Now diminishing the roots by 3 using synthetic division.
3 1 -12 -36 528 -352
- 3 -27 -189 1017
1 -9 -63 339 665
- 3 -18 -243
1 -6 -81 96
- 3 -9
1 -3 -90
- 0
Now, the transformed equation in which coefficient of x3 is zero,
f ( z )  z 4  90 z 2  96 z  665  0 , where z  y  3 … (3)
Equation (3) can also be written as

z 4  90 z 2  96 z  665  ( z 2  pz  q)( z 2  pz  q' )
Equating both side coefficient we get,
q  q '  p 2  90
 q  q '  p 2  90
p (q '  q)  96
96
 q'  q 
p
qq '  665
962
  ( p 2  90)2  2660
p2
Let t  p 2 then, t 3  180t 2  5440t  962  0
Since t  36 (i.e., p  6 ) satisfies the above cubic equation t.
q  q '  36  90  54
So we get,
q '  q  16
Solving these we get, q  35 and q'  19
( z 2  6 z  35)( z 2  6 z  19)  0
 z 2  6 z  35  0 or z 2  6 z  19  0
 z  3  2 7,  3  2 11
 y  6  2 7,  2 11
Hence, roots of required equation (1) are x  3  7,  11
2.6 FERRARI’S METHOD OF SOLVING

BIQUADRATIC EQUATION
Let f ( x)  ax 4  4bx3  6cx 2  4dx  e  0 , be a biquadratic equation.
Let we consider
f ( x) 
1
a
 ax  2bx  c  2a    2Mx  N  
2 2 2
Now compare both side coefficient of like power of x, we get
M 2  b 2  ac  a 2 … (1)
MN  bc  ad  2ab … (2)
N 2  (c  2a )2  ae … (3)
 (b 2  ac  a 2 ) (c  2a ) 2  ae  (bc  ad  2ab ) 2  M 2 N 2  (MN) 2 
Or 4a3 3  (ae  4bd  3c3 )a  ace  2bcd  ad 2  eb2  c3  0
Or 4a 3 3  Ia  J  0 … (4)
Here, equation (4) represents the equation of reducing cubic from which
we can evaluate the value of  . Then we find the value of M and N. Thus
the given biquadratic can be written to the quadratic equation as,
ax 2  2(b  M ) x  c  2a  N  0 … (5)
And ax 2  2(b  M ) x  c  2a  N  0 … (6)
Let 1,2 ,3 be the three values of  which satisfies the equation (4) and
corresponding values of M be M1, M 2 , M 3 and those of N be N1, N 2 , N3 .
Let  ,  be roots of (6) and  ,  be the roots of (5) when M , N , have the
values M1 , N1 ,1 respectively. Then
2 c  2a1  N1
     (b  M 1 ) and  
a a
… (A)
2 c  2a1  N1
     (b  M 1 ) and  
a a
4 
        M1 
a

similarly,         M 2 
4
…
a 

4
       M3 
a 
(I)
2c 
     41 
a

 4 2 
2c
and     … (II)
a 

2c
     43 
a 
From (I) we get,
4
 ( M 2  M 3  M 1 )  (2  2         )
a
 (3       )  (4    )
 4b  4
  4    (a  b)
 a  a
From (A) and From (I), we have
a  b   M 1  M 2  M 3 
a  b  M 1  M 2  M 3 
… (III)
a  b  M 1  M 2  M 3 

a  b   M 1  M 2  M 3 
2 N1 
   
a 

2 N 2 
and     … (IV)
a 

2 N3 
   
a 
Solved Example
Example 9: Using Ferrari‟s method solve the biquadratic equation

x 4  2 x3  7 x 2  8 x  12  0 .
Answer: The given biquadratic equation is
x 4  2 x3  7 x 2  8 x  12  0 … (1)
Adding x 2 both side to (1) to make the perfect square, we get
x 4  2 x3  x 2  7 x 2  8 x  12  x 2
( x 2  x) 2  8 x 2  8 x  12
( x 2  x   ) 2  8 x 2  8 x  12   2  2 ( x 2  x)
( x2  x   )2  (8  2 ) x 2  (8  2 ) x   2  12 (2)
Since, R.H.S is a perfect squarei.e., B 2  4 AC  0 , from which we get

cubic in  by which  can be found.Although it is not easy to solve the
cubic in  , so we use the other method. If the R.H.S. is to be a perfect
square, then coefficient of x 2 and constant term are also be perfect square.
To solve this cubic by trial method we put the coefficient of x 2 perfect
1 1 1
squares numbers like 1, 4, 9, 16, , , etc. and also see the value of 
4 9 16
obtained thus also makes the constant term a perfect square number.
7
Let 8  2  1 i.e.,    .
2
Since, this value makes the constant term also in perfect square i.e.,
1
 2  12  .
4
Now, put the value of  in equation (2).

2 2
 7  1
f ( x)   x 2  x     x    0
 2  2
i.e., ( x 2  2 x  3)( x 2  4)  0
 x  2,  3,1.

x 4  8 x3  12 x 2  60 x  63  0 .
Answer: The given biquadratic equation is x 4  8 x3  12 x 2  60 x  63  0

… (1)
Adding 16x 2 both side to (1) to make the perfect square, we get
x 4  8 x3  16 x 2  28 x 2  60 x  63
( x 2  4 x) 2  28 x 2  60 x  63
( x 2  4 x   ) 2  28 x 2  60 x  63  2 ( x 2  4 x)   2
( x 2  4 x   )2  (28  2 ) x 2  (60  8 ) x   2  63
… (2)
Now we put 28  2  1, 4,9 i.e., a perfect square number and see that for
which value of  , constant term of the equation becomes a perfect square.
27 19
   , 12, 
4 2
Here it can be easily seen that for   12 , we have the constant term
 2  63  144  63  81 , which is perfect square number.
Now, put the value of  in (2). Then the reducible equation is,
( x 2  4 x  12)2  4 x 2  36 x  81  (2 x  9)2
( x 2  4 x  12) 2  (2 x  9) 2  0
x 2
 4 x  12  2 x  9  x 2  4 x  12  2 x  9   0
x 2
 6 x  21 x 2  2 x  3  0
On solving we get, x  3  30,3,  1

x 4  10 x3  44 x 2  104 x  96  0 .
Answer: The given biquadratic equation is

x 4  10 x3  44 x 2  104 x  96  0 … (1)
Adding 25x 2 both side to (1) to make the perfect square, we get
x 4  10 x3  25 x 2  44 x 2  104 x  96  25 x 2
( x 2  5 x) 2   19 x 2  104 x  96
( x 2  5 x   ) 2   19 x 2  104 x  96  2 ( x 2  5 x)   2
( x2  5x   )2  (19  2 ) x 2  (104  10 ) x   2  96

… (2)
Now we put 2  19  1, 4,9 i.e., a perfect square number and see that for
which value of  , constant term of the equation becomes a perfect square.
23
   10, ,14
2
Here it can be easily seen that for   10 , we have the constant term
 2  96  100  96  4 , which is perfect square number.
Now, put the value of  in (2). Then the reducible equation is,
( x 2  5x  10)2  x 2  4 x  4  ( x  2)2
( x 2  5 x  10) 2  ( x  2) 2  0
x 2
 5 x  10  x  2  x 2  5 x  10  x  2   0
x 2
 6 x  8 x 2  4 x  12   0
On solving we get, x  2  i 2 2, 4, 2
Self Cheque Questions
1. If solution of the cubic equation z 3  6 z  7  0 is z  u1/3  u1/3 then if

u  8 and v  ......
2. In the solution of the biquadratic equation x 4  bx3  cx 2  dx  e  0

by Descarte‟s method, we first remove the second term by
diminishing its roots by h, then h = ……..
3. In the solution of the biquadratic equation x 4  8 x3  9 x 2  8 x  10  0

by Descarte‟s method, we first remove the second term by
diminishing its roots by h, then h = ……..
4. Roots of the equation f ( x)  0 if

f ( x)  x 4  3x 2  6 x  2   x 2  2 x  2  x 2  2 x  1 are ……
5. If 1  i 2 and 1  2 are the roots of the biquadratic equation

x 4  2 x 2  8 x  3  0 , then other two roots are ………
6. If x 4  8 x 2  24 x  7  ( x 2  px  q)( x 2  px  q ' ), then

q  q'  p 2  8, p(q'  q)  ............... and qq'  7
2.7 SUMMARY
After completion of this unit learners are able to solve the,
 Cubic equation by using the Cardan‟s method.
 Biquadratic equation by using the Euler‟s method.

 Biquadratic equation by using the Descarte‟s method.
 Biquadratic equation by using the Ferrari‟s method.
2.8 GLOSSARY
 Cardan‟s method
 Euler‟s solution
 Descarte‟s method
 Ferrari‟s method
2.9 REFERENCES
 Guilbeau, Lucye (1930), "The History of the Solution of the Cubic

Equation", Mathematics News Letter, 5 (4): 8–
12, doi:10.2307/3027812, JSTOR 3027812
 Press, W. H.; Teukolsky, S. A.; Vetterling, W. T.; Flannery, B. P.
(2007), "Section 5.6 Quadratic and Cubic Equations", Numerical
Recipes: The Art of Scientific Computing (3rd ed.), New York:
Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-88068-8
 Rechtschaffen, Edgar (July 2008), "Real roots of cubics: Explicit
formula for quasi-solutions", Mathematical Gazette, Mathematical
Association, 92: 268–
276, doi:10.1017/S0025557200183147, ISSN 0025-
5572, S2CID 125870578
2.10 SUGGESTED READING
 500 years of NOT teaching THE CUBIC FORMULA. What is it

they think you can't handle? – YouTube video
by Mathologer about the history of cubic equations and Cardano's
solution, as well as Ferrari's solution to quartic equations
2.11 TERMINAL QUESTION

Objective Question
1. If the solution of the cubic equation x3  12 x  65  0 is x  u1/3  u1/3 ,

then which of the following will be the quadratic equation whose
roots are u and v.
a) t 2  64t  65  0 b) t 2  65t  64  0
c) t 2  65t  64  0 d) t 2  65t  64  0
2. If we diminish the rootof the cubic equation

64 x3  144 x 2  108 x  27  0 by h, then what will be the value of h to
remove the second term of the equation.
3 4
a) h b) h
4 3
3 4
c) h d) h
4 3
3. Find the values of q and q ' if

x 4  8 x 2  24 x  7   x 2  px  q  x 2  px  q '  and p  4
a) q  1, q '  7 b) q  7, q '  1
c) q  1, q '  7 d) q  7, q '  1
Fill the correct option to make the following statement complete and
correct.
1. If the solution of the cubic equation z 3  3Hz  G  0 is z  u1/3  u1/3

and if u  v  G then uv  …
2. If the solution of the cubic equation z 3  21z  344  0 is z  u1/3  u1/3

then u and v are the roots of the quadratic equation z 2  344 z  ....  0
1
3. If the roots of cubic equation z 3  6 z  9  0 are 3, (3  3i ) and
2
1
(3  3i ) . Then the roots of the equation 9 x 3  6 x 2  1  0 are ……
2
4. Roots of the cubic z 3  3Hz  G  0 are all real if G 2  4 H 3  ……
Write T for true statement and F for False statement
1. A cubic equation with real coefficient has at least one real root.
2. All roots of cubic equation may be imaginary.
3. The cubic equation z 3  3Hz  G  0 has two equal roots if

G 2  4H 3  0 .
4. The cubic equation z 3  3Hz  G  0 has two imaginary roots if

G 2  4H 3  0 .
5. To solve the cubic equation x3  px 2  qx  r  0 by using Cardon‟s

method, we first reduce it to the form z 3  bz 2  c  0
Solve the following questions
Solve the following cubic equation by cardon’s method.
1. x3  21x  344  0 2.
28 x  9 x  1  0
3 2
3. x3  15 x 2  357 x  5491  0 4.
x  12 x  6 x  10  0
3 2
5. x3  18 x  35  0 6.
x  3x  27 x  104  0
3 2
7. 2 x3  3x 2  3x  1  0 8.
64 x  144 x  108 x  27  0
3 2
Solve the following cubic equation by Descarte’s method.
1. x4  5x2  6 x  5  0 2.
x  8 x  24 x  7  0
4 2
3. x 4  12 x  3  0 4.
x 4  12 x  5  0
5. x 4  6 x3  3x 2  22 x  6  0 6.
x  10 x  20 x  16  0
4 2
7. x4  2 x2  8x  3  0 8.
x  8 x  9 x  8 x  10  0
4 3 2
9. x 4  12 x  5  0 10.
x  3x  6 x  2  0
4 2
Solve the following cubic equation by Ferrari’s method.
1. x 4  10 x3  44 x 2  104 x  96  0 2.
2 x  6 x  3x  2  0
4 3 2
3. x 4  10 x3  35 x 2  50 x  24  0 4.
x  8 x  12 x  60 x  63  0
4 3 2
5. x 4  2 x3  5 x 2  10 x  3  0 6.
x 4  4 x3  12 x 2  8 x  95  0
7. x 4  12 x  5  0
2.12 ANSWERS
Answer of self cheque questions:
1. -1
2. b/4 3. 2
4.  1  i, 1  2 5. 1  i 2 and  1  2
6.  24
Answer of objective questions
1. (b) 2. (c)
3. (b)
4. 0 5. -1
6. b/4 7. 2
8.  1  i, 1  2 9. 1  i 2 and  1  2
10.  24
Answer of fill in the blanks question
1.  H3 2. 343
3. 1 / 3,  1 / 6(3  3i ) and  1 / 6(3  3i )
4. 0
Answer of true and falls questions
1. T 2. F 3. F 4. T 5. F
Solution of equations by Cardon’s method
1 8,  4  i 3 3 2  1 / 4, 1 / 7(2  i 3 )3  19,17,17
. . .
4 4  u1/ 3  v1/ 3 , 4  u1/ 3   2 v1/ 3 ,4   2u1/ 3  v1/ 3

.
5 5,  5 / 2  i 3 / 2 6  8, 1 / 2(5  i 3 3 ) 7  1 / 2,  1 / 2  i 3 / 2
. . .
 2 9  (a  b  c),(a  b  c 2 ),(a  b 2  c )
2a cos A, 2a cos  A
 3 .
8
.
Solution of equations by Descarte’s method
1.  1  i 3 1  21 2.  2  i 3, 2  3
,
2 2
 6  64 6 6  4 6 6
,
3. 2 2
4.  1  2 ,1  2i 5. 1  7, 2  3
6. 4,2,1  i 7. 1  i 2 , 1  2
8.  1,4  6 9.  1  2i, 1  2
10.  1  i, 1  2
Solution of equations by Ferrari’s method
1. 2,4,2  i 2 2 2.  2  2 ,1 / 2( 1  i )
3. 1, 2, 3, 4
4. 3,1, 3  30 5. 3  5  1  13
,
2 2
6.  3  i 10 , 1  2i 7.  1  2 , 1  2i
BLOCK II:
ALGEBRA OF MATRICES
UNIT 3: ALGEBRA OF MATRICES
CONTENTS:
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Objective
3.3 Matrix
3.4 Sub matrix of a matrix
3.5 Equality of matrix
3.6 Type of matrix
3.7 Addition of matrix
3.8 Subtraction of two matrices
3.9 Principal diagonal of any matrix
3.10 Properties of matrix addition
3.11 Multiplication of a matrix with scalar
3.12 Properties of multiplication of matrix with a scalar
3.13 Multiplication of two matrices
3.14 Properties of multiplication of two matrices
3.15 Some special type of matrices
3.16 Trace of matrix
3.17 Transpose of matrix
3.18 Conjugate of the matrices
3.19 Transpose conjugate of a matrix
3.20 Symmetric matrix
3.21 Skew symmetric matrix
3.22 Hermitian matrix
3.23 Skew Hermitian matrix
3.24 Orthogonal matrix
3.25 Unitary matrix
3.26 Idempotent matrix
3.27 Involutory matrix
3.28 Nilpotent matrix
3.29 Summary
3.30 Glossary
3.31 Self assessment question
1.31.1 Multiple choice questions
1.31.2 Fill in the blanks
3.32 References
3.33 Suggested readings
1.34.1 Short answer type questions
1.34.2 Long answer type question
3.1 INTRODUCTION
In this unit we investigate the matrix and algebraic operation
define on them, the matrix may be viewed in rectangular form, the linear
system of equation and there solution may be efficiently investigate using
the properties of matrix, consider the system of equation
here x, y are unknowns and there coefficient are taken from
any field then the arrangement of these equations in rectangular form
* + is example of matrix
3.2 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit you will be able to:
 Understand matrix and their types.

 Use of operations like addition of matrices, multiplication of
matrices etc.
 Find transpose of a matrix.
 Find conjugate of a matrix.
 Know about symmetric and skew symmetric matrices.
 Know about the Hermition and skew Hermition matrices.
 Understand some special type of matrices.
3.3 MATRIX
Definition: A rectangular representation of a set of mn numbers into m-
rows and n columns is known as matrix representation of order m n and
represented as follows:
[ ] or ( ) or ‖ ‖
Usually matrix is denoted by A, B, C… etc. A matrix A can be

represented as:
A = aij  mn
row ( horizontal line)
column ( vertical line)
The element of matrix can be taken from the any field.
If the element of matrices are be taken from real field then the matrix is
known as real matrix,
A matrix is usually written as
A=[ ]
Generally there are two types of matrices
(i) Row Matrix:
Definition: A matrix contains only one row and any number of columns is
known as row matrix.
 
A = 1 2 3 4 1n is row matrix of order 1 n .
(ii) Column Matrix:
Definition: A matrix contain only one column and any number of rows is
called column matrix
A =[ ] is column matrix of order n 1.
3.4 SUB MATRIX OF THE MATRIX

Definition: A matrix obtained by omitting zero or more rows but not all
and simultaneously omitting zero or more columns but not all is known
as sub matrix of a original matrix.
Example: - if A = ( ) Then
= (1 2 3) is sub matrix of A (omitting row)
=( )is sub matrix of A (omitting column)
= (4) is sub matrix of A (omitting 1st row, 2nd column and column)
=( ) is not sub matrix of A
Note: Every matrix is sub matrix of itself.
3.5 EQUALITY OF MATRIX

If A = [ ] and B = [ ] then two matrix A and B are equal if
m = p, n = q and
= i, j
Example 1 A = ( ) and B = ( ) are not equal because

A and B have different order
A=( ) and B = ( ) are not equal because
A=( ) and B = ( ) are equal matrix
3.6 TYPES OF MATRICES
(i) Null Matrix:
Definition: A matrix is said to be null matrix if it‟s all entries are zero.
A = ,[ ] -
(ii) Square Matrix:
Definition: A matrix is said to be square matrix if matrix have same

number of rows and columns.
A=[ ] is square matrix if m = n
For example: =* + is square matrix
* + is not a square matrix
(iii) Identity Matrix:
Definition: A matrix is said to be identity matrix if it‟s all elements in

principal diagonal is 1 and remaining element are 0.
i.e. A = {[ ] | }
(iv) Upper Triangular matrix:
Definition: A matrix A = [ ] is said be upper triangular matrix if,
A = {[ ]
Example: A = [ ]
(v) Lower Triangular Matrix:
Definition: A matrix A = [ ] is said to be lower triangular matrix if
A = {( )
Example: A = [ ] where and
are any number
i.e. A = [ ] is lower triangular matrix
(vi) Strict Upper Triangular Matrix:
Definition: A matrix A = [ ] is said to be strict upper triangular

matrix if
A = {( )
(vii) Strict Lower Triangular Matrix:
Definition: A matrix A = [ ] is said to be strict lower triangular

matrix if
A = {( )
Example: A = [ ] and B=[ ]
A is strict upper triangular and B is strict lower triangular matrix
3.7 ADDITION OF MATRICES

Let A and B be two same order matrices then there sum is defined to be
the matrix of same order obtained by adding the corresponding element of
A and B.
i.e. if A = [ ] B=[ ]
Then A+B = [ ] where
A=[ ] and B = [ ]
Then A+B = [ ]
3.8 SUBTRACTION OF TWO MATRICES

If A and B are any two same order matrix m n then their subtraction is
defined to the matrix of same order obtained by subtraction of
corresponding of A and B.
i.e. if A = [ ] B=[ ]
Then A-B = [ ] where
3.9 PRINCIPAL DIAGONAL OF ANY MATRIX
Definition: A = [ ] be any matrix then the line along (such

that ) is known as principal diagonal of square matrix.
Principal diagonal
Non principal diagonal
 a11 a12 a13 

a a 23 
 21 a 22
a31 a32 a33 
Super diagonal
Sub diagonal
3.10 PROPERTIES OF MATRIX ADDITION

(i) Matrix Addition Is Commutative:Let A and B are any two

matrix of order m n
A  aij mn
and B  bij   mn
Then A+B = aij   mn

 
+ bij mn
 
= cij mn
where

= aij  bij  mn

= bij  aij 
mn
 
= bij mn
+ aij   mn
= B +A, hence
(ii) Matrix Addition Is Associative:If A, B, C be three matrices

of order m n
A  aij mn
 
, B  bij mn
, C  cij   mn
Then (A + B) + C =  a ij mn  bij   + c 

mn ij mn

= aij  bij  mn
+ cij   mn

= (aij  bij )  cij 
mn
(by the definition of sum of two
matrices)

= aij  (bij  cij ) mn 
= aij  mn
+  b ij  cij  
mn
= aij  mn
+  b 
ij mn  cij   mn
= A + (B + C)
(iii) Existence Of Additive Identity: A  aij mn is a matrix and

O  bij   mn
such that = 0 i, j
Then A + O = aij   mn

 
 bij mn

= aij  bij 
mn
= bij  aij 
mn
= bij  mn
 
 aij mn
= O + aij  mn
=O+A
O is additive identity of matrix A
(iv) Existence Of Additive Inverse:If A  aij mn and B  bij mn

where,
Then A + B = aij   mn

 
+ bij mn

= aij  bij 
mn

= aij  (aij ) mn 

= aij  aij 
mn
= 0mn = O
So B = is additive inverse of A
3.11 MULTIPLICATION OF A MATRIX WITH A

SCALAR
If k is a scalar and A  aij   mn

is a matrix then,
kA  bij mn
where, bij  kaij
 a11 a12 a13   ka11 ka12 ka13 

Example: A   then kA  
a 21 a 22 
a 23  23 ka21 ka22 ka23  23
3.12 PROPERTIES OF MULTIPLICATION OF

MATRIX WITH A SCALAR
(i) If and are two scalar and A is any matrix of order m n then,
Proof Let A  aij  mn

then,
= a 
ij mn

= ( K1  K 2 )aij mn

= K1 (aij )  K 2 (aij ) mn 

= K1aij 
mn

+ K2 aij 
mn
= K1 aij   mn
+ K 2 aij   mn
(ii) If A and B are two matrices of same order then
= where a is any scalar
Proof Let A and B are two matrices of order m n
A  aij mn ,
 
B  bij mn
then
= a aij   mn
  
 bij mn

= a aij  bij mn
(by matrix addition)

= a aij  bij 
mn
(by distributive scalar
multiplication)

= aaij  abij mn
 
= aaij mn
 
 abij mn
(by definition of
distribution law)
 
= a aij mn
 
 a bij mn
=
3.13 MULTIPLICATION OF TWO MATRICES

Two matrices can be multiplied only when the number of columns in first
matrix (called pre factor) is equal to the number of rows in the second
(called post factor) such matrix are said to be comfortable for
multiplication.
A  aij  mn ,
 
B  b jk n p
Then AB  cik m p
Where cik = ai1b1k  ai 2 b2 k  ....
n
cik   a ij b jk
i 1
Example:A = [ ] and B=[ ]
Then AB = [ ][ ]
[ ]
Commutative Matrix With Respect To Multiplication: If A

and B are any two matrices of same order then
If AB = BA Then A and B are said to be commutative matrices.
Example: A = * + and B= * +
AB = * + BA = * + AB = BA
Anti-Commute Or Skew Commute Matrices: If A and B are

any two matrices then AB = -BA Then A and B are said to be anti-
commutative.
Example: A = * + B=* +, AB = * +
BA = * +
AB = -BA
Important Note: Two matrix may or may not be commutative
If A = * +B = * +
AB = * +BA = * +
AB BA
And if A=* +B= * +
AB = * + BA = * + AB = BA
Note: The product of two non-zero matrices may be zero (null) matrix.
Example: ( ) ( )
( )
3.14 PROPERTIES OF MULTIPLICATION OF

TWO MATRICES
Multiplication of matrices is distributive with respect to addition i.e. if A,
B and C are any three matrices and confirmable for addition and
multiplication then
A (B + C) = AB +AC
Proof:Let A, B, C are any three matrices of order m n , n  p and n  p

respectively
A=[ ] ,B=[ ] ,C=[ ]
Then B+C = [ ] +[ ] = [ ]
∑ ( )
∑( )
∑ ∑
= element of AB+ element of AC
= element of (AB + AC)
element of and element of (AB + AC) are same

hence,
Example: If A and B are any square matrix of order n Then show that
1. = A2 + AB + BA + B2
2. (A + B) (A – B) = A2 – AB + BA –B2
Solution:A = [ ] ,B=[ ]
Then A + B = C = [ ]
Therefore we have
1. = (A + B) (A + B) =
= A.A + B.A + A.B + B.B (by distribution law)
= A2 + BA + AB + B2
2. (A + B) (A – B) = (A+ B) A + (A + B) (-B)
= A.A + B.A + A (-B) + B (-B)
= A2 + BA – AB –B2
Note:
 The sum of two upper triangular (lower triangular) matrix is also

upper triangular (lower triangular)
 The product of two upper (lower triangular) matrix is also upper
(lower triangular) matrix
 If A is upper (lower) triangular matrix and K is any positive integer
than is also upper (lower) triangular matrix.
3.15 SOME SPECIAL TYPE OF MATRICES
(i) Diagonal Matrix: A square matrix is said to be diagonal matrix

if it is both upper and lower triangular matrix.
Or
A square matrix is said to be diagonal matrix if all principal

diagonal are zero or may not be zero but remaining element are zero, i.e.
A= {( )| }
Example:A = [ ] is a diagonal matrix
(ii) Scalar Matrix:A square diagonal matrix is said to be scalar

matrix if it‟s all principal diagonal elements are equaland remaining
element are zero.
i.e. A = {( )| }
Example:A = [ ] is a scalar matrix
Example: If A is any scalar matrix then total number of non-trivial entry

of A is =….
Solution: A = [ ] be any scalar matrix then only one entry taken

independently so total number of non-trivial entry of any scalar matrix is 1
A=[ ] (Here k is taken independently)
3.16 TRACE OF MATRICES
If A = [ ] is square matrix then trace of A is sum of all principal

diagonal element
Example: A = [ ] Then trace A =?
Solution: Trace A = 2 + 6 + 1 = 9
3.17 TRANSPOSE OF A MATRIX
If A = [ ] be any matrix then transpose of A is obtained by

interchanging its rows and columns and is denoted by the symbol or
i.e. A = [ ] Then =[ ] where =
A=* + Then =[ ]
Example: If A and B any two matrices and confirmable to addition and

multiplication then show that
(i) = +
(ii) =
(iii) =
(iv) =A
Solution:
(i) If A and B are any two matrix of order m n then A + B will be a

matrix of order m n and will be a matrix of order n m
Let is element of (A + B) where A = aij   mn

 
, B = bij mn
Then element of
= element of (A + B) =
= element of A + element of B
= element of + element of
element of + )
Thus the matrices and + are of the same order and their
element are equal hence = +
(ii) Let A = aij   mn

and K is any scalar then KA is also a matrix of
order m n consequently will be a matrix of type n m
= element of KA = K[ element of A]
=K[ element of ]= element of K(AT)
element of
Matrix and are of the same order and their elements

are equal so =
(iii) Let A = aij  

mn
and B = b jk  
nk
then is a matrix of order n m
and is a matrix of order k  n
= c ji  nm
where =
= d kj  k n
where =
AB is a matrix of order m k
will be of order k  m
Now element of = element of AB
n
  aij b jk
j 1
n
  c ji d kj
j 1
n
  d kj c ji = (k, i)th element of ATBT
j 1
= element of
The matrices and are of the same order and their

elements are same
Hence =
(iv) A = aij  mn

then will be of order m k also element
of = element of = element of A
Hence =A
3.18 CONJUGATE OF THE MATRIX

Let be any complex number then conjugate of Z is the mirror
image of complex number Z about real axis.
 
Let A = aij mn
is any matrix then conjugate of A is the matrix obtained by
replacing its elements by the corresponding conjugate number it is denoted
by ̅
 
i.e. ̅ = bij nm
where = ̅̅̅̅ i, j
̅ =[ ̅ ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
Example: If A = * + then ]
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
2 = 2 + 0i ̅ = ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ = 2 - 0i = 2
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ = 5 – 6i
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ = 7+3i
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ = 3-4i
So, ̅ =* +
Example: If A and B are any two matrices and confirmable to matrix

addition and multiplication and K is any complex number then show that
(i) ̅̅̅̅̅̅ = A
(ii) (̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ ) = ̅ + ̅
(iii) (̅̅̅̅ ) = ̅ ̅
(iv) (̅̅̅̅) = ̅ ̅
Solution:
(i)  
A = aij mn
then  
̅ = a ij
m n
A and ̅̅̅̅̅̅ are of same order
Now element of ̅̅̅̅̅̅ is a conjugate complex of the element

of ̅
= the conjugate element of ̅̅̅̅
= ̅̅̅̅̅̅
̅̅̅̅ =
= element if A
Hence ̅̅̅̅̅̅ = A
(ii) Let A = aij   mn

and B = bij   mn
then ̅ and ̅ are the matrix of
order m n
Now element of (̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅)
= the conjugate element of element of (A + B)
= the conjugate element of
=( ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ ) because ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ = ̅̅̅ + ̅̅̅
= ( ̅̅̅̅ + ̅̅̅̅)
= the conjugate of element of A + the conjugate of element

of B
= element of ̅ + ̅)
Hence (̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅) = ̅ + ̅
(iii) Let A = aij  mn

 
and B = a jk n p
are two matrices
Then ̅ and ̅ are also matrices of order m n and n  p respectively
(̅̅̅̅) and ( ̅ ̅ are of same order
The conjugate of element of (̅̅̅̅)
 n  n n
   aijb jk    aijb jk   aij b jk
 j 1  j 1
  j 1
= element of ̅ ̅
Hence (̅̅̅̅) = ̅ ̅
(iv) Let A = aij  

mn
and let K is any complex number then (̅̅̅̅) and
( ̅ ̅ will be a matrix of order m n
Now element of (̅̅̅̅)
= The conjugate of  
element of (KA) = Kaij  K aij
= ̅ (The conjugate of element of A
Hence (̅̅̅̅) = ( ̅ ̅)
3.19 TRANSPOSED CONJUGATE OF A MATRIX

Transpose of the conjugate of a matrix A is called transposed conjugate of
A i.e.
If A is any matrix the transposed conjugate matrix of A is obtained by

interchanging rows and columns and taking conjugate of each element
It is denoted by or by
A = aij mn
then  
= b ji nm
where b ji  aij
Example: if A = [ ] Then
= [ ]
Example: If A and B are any two matrices confirmable to matrix addition

and multiplication Then proof that
1. ( =A 3. =
2. = 4. =
̅
Proof:
1. ( ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ = ̅̅̅̅̅̅
= ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅
= ̅̅̅̅̅̅ =A
=A ̅̅̅̅̅̅ = A
2. = ( ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅)
= ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ =
= ̅̅̅̅ + ̅̅̅̅ (̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ ) = ( ̅+ ̅ )
= +
= +
( AB)   AB
T
3.
 
 BT AT ( AB)T  B T AT 
 B A 
T T
 B  A
4.  
 KA


 K ( A) T 
=̅
= ̅
3.20 SYMMETRIC MATRIX

Definition: A square matrix A is said to be symmetric matrix if its
element is the same as its element
 
i.e. if A = aij mm
then
Example: A= * +
=* +=A
3.21 SKEW SYMMETRIC MATRIX
Definition: A skew matrix A = aij  

mm
is said to be skew symmetric
matrix if element of A is the negative of element of A
i.e. if A = [ ]
Example:A = [ ]
=[ ]=
Example: If A and B are two square symmetric matrices of same order

then what can be say about
1. A+B 2. AB
3. KA 4. 1
Solution:A and B are two same order square symmetric matrices
So
1. = + =A+B
(A + B) is also symmetric matrix of same order
2. =
=BA
Case 1: If A and B are commutative then A B = B A
= B A = (A B)
AB is symmetric
Case 2: If A and B are anti-commutative then
AB = -BA
= BA = - (AB)
AB is skew symmetric
Case 3: If A and B are neither commutative nor anti-commutative then

(AB) is neither symmetric nor skew symmetric
Case 4: IF one of A or B is null matrix then
AB = 0 = BA
= BA = 0 = -0 = AB = -AB
So (AB) is both symmetric and skew symmetric
3. =
=K = KA
So KA is symmetric matrix
4. = = A
Where K 1
Hence is symmetric matrix.
Example: If A and B are two symmetric matrices of order n, then show

that AB + BA is symmetric matrix
Solution: A and B are two symmetric matrices then A and B
Since both are of same order matrix, so multiplication and addition are
confirmable
Now = +
= + = BA + AB
= (AB + BA) ( addition of matrices is commutative)
Hence AB + BA is symmetric matrix
Example: If A and B are two skew symmetric matrices of same order then
prove that (KA) and (A + B) are also skew symmetric matrices where K
is any constant
Solution: A and B are two skew symmetric matrix
Then = - A and =-B
Now = =K = K(-A) = -KA =

- (KA)
Hence (KA) is skew symmetric matrix
Again = + = -A + (-B) = - (A + B)
Hence (A + B) is also skew symmetric matrix
Example: If A and B are two skew symmetric matrix of same order then
prove that (AB) may or may not be skew symmetric
Solution: If A and B are two skew symmetric matrix of same order

= - A and
= - B Then AB is called matrix of same order
Now = = (-B) (-A) = BA
Case 1: If A and B are commutative
Then AB = -A
So = BA = AB
Hence AB is symmetric matrix
Case 2: If A and B are anti-commutative
Then AB = -BA
So = (BA) = - (AB)
Hence (AB) is skew symmetric matrix
Case 3: If either A = 0 or B = 0
Then AB = 0 = BA
So = (BA) = 0 = - (AB)
In this case AB both symmetric and skew symmetric matrix.
Hence the product of two skew symmetric matrix need not be skew
symmetric.
3.22 HERMITIAN MATRICES
A square matrix A = aij   mm

is said to be Hermitian matrix if its
element is the conjugate of its element
 
i.e. A = aij mm
then A is Hermitian of =A
 2 2  3i 3  4i 

Example: A = 2  3i 3 4  5i 
3  4i 4  5i 4 
 2 2  3i 3  4i 
Then = 2  3i 3 4  5i 
3  4i 4  5i 4 
 2 2  3i 3  4i 

̅̅̅̅̅̅ = 2  3i 3 4  5i  = A

3  4i 4  5i 4 
= A hence A is Hermitian matrix
Example: Prove that the principal diagonal elements of Hermitian

matrices are real.
Solution: Let A be any square matrix, A = aij  

mm
Let + are principal diagonal element of A
A is Hermitian matrix so = ̅̅̅̅̅̅
is principal diagonal element of A
̅ is principal element of
But = A
̅ =
- = +
2 =0
=0 i
Hence the principal diagonal elements of Hermitian matrix are real.
Example: If A is any Hermitian matrix then what can be say about (KA)
where K is any complex constant.
Solution: A is any Hermitian matrix
= A
Now = ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ = ̅̅̅̅̅̅ = ̅ = ̅
Case 1: K is any real number
Then ̅ =K
And KA
So (KA) is Hermitian matrix
Case 2: If K is any complex number whose real and imaginary part both
are non-zero
K = say
̅ =
= ̅̅̅A= (KA)
In this case (KA) is not Hermitian matrix.
Case 3: If K is purely imaginary then KA
Hence in this case KA is Skew Hermitian matrix.
3.23 SKEW HERMITIAN MATRIX
Definition: A square matrix A = aij   mm

is said to be skew hermitian
matrix if its element is negative of conjugate if its element
i.e. if  
A = aij mm
Then = - ̅̅̅
Example: A =[ ] where a, b, c, d, e, f all are
real constant
Then =[ ]
̅̅̅̅ = [ ]
=-[ ] = -A
Hence A is skew Hermitian matrix.
Example: If A and B are skew Hermitian matrices of same order then

prove that (A + B) is also skew Hermitian matrix
Solution: A and B any two square skew Hermitian matrix of same order so
(A + B) is confirmable to addition and
= -A, = -B
Now = ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ = ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ = ̅̅̅̅ + ̅̅̅̅
= + = + = - (A + B)
Hence (A + B) is skew Hermitian matrix.
Example: If A is any skew Hermitian matrix and K is any complex

constant then what can be says about KA?
Solution:A is any skew Hermitian matrix
So = -A
Now = ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ = ̅̅̅̅̅̅ = K AT = ̅ =- ̅A
Case 1: If K is real constant
Then ̅=K
And = - ̅ A = -KA
So KA is Skew Hermitian matrix.
Case 2:If K is purely imaginary
Then ̅ = -K
And =- ̅A= = KA
So (KA) is Hermitian matrix.
Case 3: If K = where a, b both are non-zero real number
Then ̅ = (a - ib)
And = ̅A== KA or -KA
So in this case (KA) is neither Hermitian nor skew Hermitian matrix
Case 4: If K = 0 or A is null matrix
Then = ̅
= 0 = KA = =
So in this case (KA) is hermitian and skew hermitian both
3.24 ORTHOGONAL MATRIX

A square matrix `Aˊ is said to be orthogonal matrix if =I= A
Note: If A is orthogonal matrix then the sum of square of each row‟s or

column‟s element is equal to 1 and the product of corresponding different
row‟s or column‟s is equal to zero.
Example: Show that the matrix [ ] is orthogonal matrix
Solution: Let A = [ ]
Then =[ ]
Now = [ ][ ]=
[ ]
Example: If A and B are any two orthogonal matrix of same size then
prove that (AB) is also orthogonal matrix
Solution: A and B are two orthogonal matrix
=I= A
And =I= B
Since A and B are of same order so AB is confirmable.
Now = AB
=A
= AI
=A =I
(AB) = (AB)
= ( A) B
= IB
= B
=I
We have (AB) =I= (AB)
Hence (AB) is orthogonal matrix.
3.25 UNITARY MATRIX

Definition: A square matrix A is said to be unitary matrix if =I=
A
Example:A = * +
=* + ̅̅̅̅ = * +
=* +* + =* +
A=* +* + = * +
=I= A
A is unitary matrix
Example: If A is unitary matrix then for what value of K, (KA) is also

unitary matrix.
Solution: A is unitary matrix so = A=I
Let (KA) is also unitary matrix so (KA) = (KA) = I
(KA) = (KA) ( ̅ )=K ̅A =I
K ̅I=I
K ̅=I
So K is unit modulus
Hence (KA) is also unitary matrix if K is of unit modulus.
3.26 IDEMPOTENT MATRIX

Definition: A matrix A is said to be idempotent matrix if =A
Example: Consider a matrix A = * +
= A.A = * +* +=* +
=* +=A
Hence A is idempotent matrix.
Example: If A and B are two square matrices show that AB = A and BA =

B Then show that both A and B are idempotent matrices.
Solution: Since AB = A……….. (1)
Post multiply by A in both side in equation (1)
AB = A
(AB) A = A.A
A (BA) = A.A
AB = BA = B
AB = A
Again BA = B
Post multiple by B in both side
(BA)B = B.B
B (AB) =
BA =
Hence A and B both are idempotent
Example: If A and B are two idempotent matrices of same order then

prove that if (A + B) is idempotent then AB and BA both are null matrices.
Solution: Let A and B are two idempotent matrix
= A and =B
Let (A + B) is also idempotent matrix
= (A +B)
(A + B) (A + B) = (A + B)
A.A + A.B + B.A + B.B = A + B
+ AB + BA + =A+B
A + AB + BA + B = A + B = A, =B
AB + BA = O…………………………… (1)
Pre multiply both sides by A in (1)
Then A.(AB) + A(BA) = A.0 = O
B + ABA = O =A
AB + ABA = O…………………………….. (2)
Again post multiply both sides by A in (1)
Then ABA + BA.A = 0.A = O
ABA + B =O =A
ABA + BA = O……………………………….. (3)
From (2) and (3)
AB = BA put in (1) then
3.27 INVOLUTORY MATRIX

Definition: A square matrix A is said to be involutory matrix if =I
Example: Consider a matrix A = [ ] then show that A is
involutory.
Solution: A = [ ]
[ ][ ] [ ]
Hence A is involutory matrix.
Example: If A and B are two involutory matrix of same order then prove
that if (A + B) is involutory then AB + BA = -I
Solution: Let A and B are two involutory matrix =I=
Again let (A + B) is involutory matrix
=I
(A + B) (A + B) = I
A.A + A.B + B.A + B.B = I
+ AB + BA + =I =I=
I + AB + BA + I = I
AB + BA = I – 2 I
AB + BA = - I
3.28 NILPOTENT MATRIX

Definition: A square matrix A is said to be nilpotent matrix if there exist a
positive integer n such that = O (O is null matrix). The smallest
positive integer m such that = 0 then m is called index of null matrix
A.
Example: Show that the matrix A =[ ] is nilpotent matrix with
index 3.
Solution: A = [ ]
Then = A.A = [ ][ ]=[ ]
= .A = [ ][ ]=[ ]
Hence A is nilpotent matrix
Since least positive integer is 3 such that = 0, so index A is 3.
Example: If A and B are two nilpotent matrix of same order then show
that A + B and AB may or may not be nilpotent
Solution:
(1) Let A = * + and B = * +
A and B both are nilpotent matrix.
=O=
Now A+B=* ++* +=* +
=* +* += * +
(A + B) is nilpotent
AB = * ++* +=* +
(AB) is nilpotent
(2) Let A = * + B=* +
Clearly A and B are nilpotent because
= = null matrix (O)
But A+B=* ++* +=* + is not nilpotent matrix
Because no positive integer m exist such that
(3) Let A = * + and B = * +A and B both are nilpotent.
But (A.B) = * +* +=* + is not nilpotent matrix.
Example: If A and B are any two nilpotent matrices of same order and
commute to each other, then show that (A +B) is also nilpotent matrix.
Solution:A and B are any two nilpotent matrices and
Let index of A = , index of B =
=O=
=O= Where and are positive integer
Case 1: If r then =O
Then
Hence (A + B) is nilpotent matrix
Case 2: If r Then
(m1  m2  1)  r  (m1  m2  1)  m1 ( r  m1 )
 m2  1
 m2 (m1 , m2  I )
The greater number of is either or
and B m  O
2
so, B ( m  m
1 2 1)  r
O
Hence (A + B) is nilpotent matrix
The index of (A + B) is less than or equal to .
3.29 SUMMARY
In this unit we learned the concept of algebra of matrix,along with some
important matrices that will further help us understand the matrix in all its
forms, like orthogonal matrix, idempotent matrix , involutory matrix,
nilpotent matrix etc.
3.30 GLOSSARY
1. Non trivial entries: The entries of matrix over any field which we
can take independently
2. Trivial entries: The entries of matrix over any field which can not
be taken independently
3. Trace: Sum of all principal diagonal entries
3.31 SELF ASSESMENT QUESTIONS
1.31.1 Multiple Choice Questions:
1. A =* + and B = * + then for what values of P, A and B are

equal matrix
(a) 5 (b) 2
(c) 7 (d)
None of these
2. If A is any matrix of order m n and all entry of matrix A is equal,

then total number of sub matrix of A is equal to
(a) n (b)
(c) m+n (d) m
3. If A = * + and B = * + Then
(a) AB = * + (b)
AB = * +
(c) AB = * + (d)
AB = * +
4. The number of possible different element in a square matrix of

order n in which where, p + q = r + s is
(a) n (b)
2n
(c) 2n – 1 (d) 2
5. Total number non trivial entry in upper triangular matrix of order n

is
(a) (b)
(c) (d) n
6. A and B are two involuntary matrix, (A + B) is also involuntary if
(a) AB + BA = O (b)
AB + BA = I
(c) AB + BA = -I (d)
AB + BA = 2I
7. If A = [ ] then trace is
(a) 10 (b) 5
(c) 3 (d) 2
Answers:
1. (d) 2. (b) 3. (d) 4. (c)
5. (c) 6. (c) 7. (a)
1.31.2 Fill In The Blanks:
Fill in the blanks „‟………‟‟ so that the following statements are complete
and correct
1. A square matrix is said to be idempotent if ………
2. Trace (A + B) = ………..
3. The diagonal element of Hermitian matrix is ……….
4. If A and B are two nilpotent matrix and confirmable to

multiplication then (AB) is also nilpotent if AB = ……
5. The sum of square of each rows of orthogonal matrix is ………..
6. A square matrix is skew symmetric if ………
7. If A and B are two symmetric matrices then is

also symmetric if ……….
Answers:
1. A 2. Trace A + 3. Real 4. BA
Trace B
5. 1 6. –A 7.
3.32 REFERENCE
1. Linear Algebra, Vivek.sahai & Vikas Bist :Narosa publishing
House
2. Matrices .A.R.Vasishtha &A.K.Vasishtha :Krishna Parakashan

Media
3. Schaum‟s out line ( Linear Algebra)
3.33 SUGGESTED READINGS

Media
3.34 TERMINAL QUESTIONS
1.34.1 Short answer type questions:
1. Show that the matrix [ ] is skew symmetric
2. Show that the matrix [ ] is orthogonal
3. If A and B are symmetric matrices of order n, Then show that AB +

BA is symmetric and AB –BA is skew symmetric.
4. Express the following matrix as the sum of a symmetric and a

skew symmetric matrix * +
5. If A is a square symmetric of order n, then show that trace of

is equal to sum of square of each element of A
6. If A is an idempotent matrix, show that B = I–A is also idempotent

matrix and AB = BA =O (Null Matrix)
7. Show that the matrix A = [ ] satisfies the equation
1.34.2 Long answer type questions:
1. If * + then show that
2. Prove that the product of two matrices
* + and [ ] Is a zero
matrix when and differ by an odd multiple of ⁄
3. If A = [ ] then find the values of
4. If A and B are two nilpotent matrices then show that if (AB) is

nilpotent then index of (AB) (index A, index B)
5. Show that every square matrix is uniquely expressively as the sum

of two matrices one is hermitian and other is skew hermitian
6. If A = [ ] is hermitian matrix
7. A=[ ] and =[ ] then find the value of a, b, c,
e and h
8. Show that principal diagonal element of skew symmetric matrix is

zero
9. Show that every square matrix is uniquely expressible as the sum

of symmetric and skew symmetric matrix.
10. Prove that the principal diagonal element of skew Hermitian

matrix are purely imaginary or zero.
11. If A is skew hermitian matrix then what values of n show that is

also skew hermitian matrix
UNIT 4: DETERMINANTS
CONTENTS:
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Objective
4.3 Determinant
4.3.1 Determinant of order 1
4.4 Minors and cofactor
4.5 Definition of determinant in terms of cofactor
4.6 Properties of determinant
4.7 Vandermonde matrix
4.8 Product of two determinant of the same order
4.9 Non singular and singular matrix
4.10 Linear equation
4.11 System of non –homogenous linear equation( Cramer‟s rule)
4.12 Adjoint of square matrix
4.13 Method for finding the value of determinant of order 4 or
more .
4.14 Determinants and volume
4.15 Summary
4.16 Glossary
4.17 Self assessment questions
4.18 References
4.1 INTRODUCTION
In this unit we show that how to find the determinant of the matrix,
we emphasize that an n  n array of scalars enclosed by straight lines
called determinant of order the determinant function was first
discovered during the investigation of system of linear (Homogeneous and
Non Homogeneous) Equation.
We solved the determinant of matrix of order … and then we define

a determinant of general n  n matrix.
4.2 OBJECTIVE
 Understand minors and cofactors.

 Find determinant value of a square matrix.
 Understand properties of determinant and its uses.
 Find product of the two determinant and its uses.
 Know about singular and nonsingular matrices.
 Find solution system of non-homogeneous linear using Cramer‟s
Rule.
 Find Adjoint of a square matrix.
4.3 DETERMINANT
Definition: Each n-square matrix is assigned a special scalar is called
determinant of A, and it is denoted by | |
| |= | |
4.3.1 DETERMINANTS OF ORDERS 1
If A  a11 11 then | |
If * + then | | (Product of principal diagonal element) –

(Product of non-principal diagonal element)
| |
Example: - if * + then, | |= (2.5) – (4.3)
= 10 – 12
= -2
Let  
A  aij 33
[ ]
Then | |
Or
| | | | | | | |
Or
a11 a12 a13

A  a 21 a 22 a 23
a31 a32 a33
Then arrange these number in rows and columns and first two rows again
write in
last
m1 l1
a11 a12 a13
m2 l2
a21 a22 a23
l3
m3
a31 a32 a33
a11 a12 a13

m1+ m2+ m3=M l1+ l2+ l3=L
a21 a22 a23
A M L
4.4 MINORS AND COFACTORS

Consider the determinant of 3 3 matrix (in general)
A= | |
Then if we leave the column and the row passing through the element ,
then the second order determinant is called minor of the element and it
is denoted by
For example: The minor of the element | |
The minor of the element | |= M 12
Cofactors: The minor multiplied by is called cofactor of the

element and it is denoted by
For example: - The cofactor of the element
The cofactor of the element
4.5 DEFINITION OF DETERMINANTS IN

TERMS OF COFACTOR
Let A be any n-row‟s square matrix then the determinants of A is the sum
of the product of the element of any column or any row with their
corresponding cofactor
n
i.e. A  a
i 1 or j 1
ij Aij where, either i or j is fixed
Example:
1. If
| | ∑
2. Write the cofactors and minors of each element of the matrix
[ ]
Solution: The matrix of the element | |
The matrix of the element | |
4.6 PROPERTIES OF DETERMINANTS

Theorem 1: The value of determinant does not change when rows and
columns are interchange
Proof: Let A be any square matrix of order n
[ ]
Then
| | ∑
Let us take a matrix of order 3 for example
[ ]
| | | | | | | |
| | | | | |
[ ]
Hence the determinants of any matrix A and its transpose matrix are
equal.
Theorem 2: If any two columns or rows of a determinant are interchanged

then the values of determinant is negative multiple of determinant of
original matrix.
Proof: - Consider a matrix A of order 3
[ ]
| | | | | | | |
Now interchanging any two rows or columns
a 21 a 22 a 23 
Then new matrix A1   a11 a12 a13 
a31 a32 a33 
| |
[
]
[
]
So, A1   A
Note:
1. If any row or column in any matrix is multiplied by any scalar K

then determinant of the matrix is K times of the determinants of the
original matrix
For example: | | | |
2. If all the elements of matrix multiplied by constant K then

determinant is equal to time of the value of determinant of original
matrix, where n is order of matrix.
i.e. | | | |
3. If any two rows or columns are identical of any matrix then

determinant is zero.
Theorem 3: If in a determinant each element in any row or column

consists of the sum of two terms, then determinant can be written as sum
of two determinants
Proof: Let [ ]
Expanding the determinant along the first column
| | | | | |
| |
| | | | | | | |
| | | |
| | | |
Theorem 4: If the element of any row or column added by K time the

corresponding element of any other row or column, then determinants of
the matrix are same
Proof: - [ ] and [ ]
Then | |
| | | |
| | | |
 A  KO [ If any two columns are identical then determinant

will be zero]
| |
Example: If [ ] then show that
| |
Solution: | | [ ]
Applying then we get
[ ]
Expanding the determinant along the first column
| | | | | | | |
= (b  a)(c 2  a 2 )  (b 2  a 2 )(c  a)  0  0
{ }
 (b  a )(c  a )(c  b)
 (a  b)(b  c)(c  a)
4.7 VANDERMODE MATRIX

A matrix is at form
[ ]is called vandermode matrix
And its determinant
| | ∏ ( )
Example 4: Find the determinant of
| |
Solution:
------
Where
 ( n 1))( n  2 ) 
 1
Then  n  (1)  2 
Example 5: Let A be a square matrix of order n, then show that
1. | ̅| ̅̅̅̅
| | 2. | | ̅̅̅̅
| |
Solution 1. let A  aij   nn

[ ] then A  aij  n n
So | ̅| |̅̅̅| |̅̅̅̅̅| ̅̅̅̅

| |
2. A be a square matrix of order n, and ̅̅̅̅
So | | |̅̅̅̅| |̅ | | ̅| ̅̅̅̅
| |
| | | | and | ̅| ̅̅̅̅
| |
Example 6: Show that the determinant of Hermitian matrix always a real

number
Solution: Let A be a Hermitian matrix
Then
| | | |
AT  A
̅̅̅̅
| | | |
Let is the determinant of A
| |
̅̅̅̅
| |
But ̅̅̅̅
| | | |
| |
Example 7: Show that the determinant of Skew symmetric matrix of odd

order is zero.
Solution: Let A be a skew symmetric of odd order
| | | | | | | | | |
| |
| | | | | | | |
Since n is odd so
Now | | | |
| |
| |
4.8 PRODUCT OF THE TWO DETERMINANT OF

THE SAME ORDER
Example 8: If A and B are two square matrices of same order then prove
that
| | | || |
Solution: Let [ ] [ ]
[ ]
Now we know that
If | | | | | | | |
| || |
| |
Hence | | | || |
Rule: Let A and B are only two matrices of same order
Let | | | | and | | | |
then
| || |
| |
In general this is simply row by column multiplication

Example 9: If A be a square matrix of order n then show that
| | | |
Solution: Let A and B are two square matrices of order n
Then we know that | | | || |
If we replace B with A then
| | | || |
| | | |
In similar way | | | |
Example 10: Show that the determinant of an idempotent matrix is either

0 or 1
Solution: Let A is an idempotent matrix, then
| | | |
| | | |
| | | |
| | | |
| | | |
Note: It is necessary condition the determinant of idempotent matrix is 0

or 1 but not sufficient.
For Example: If * + Then | |
Example 11: Show that the determinant of orthogonal matrix is either 1 or

-1
Solution: Let A is an orthogonal matrix, then
| | ||
| || |
| || | | | | |
| | ||
| |
Note: Determinant of a diagonal matrix, upper triangular matrix, lower

triangular matrix is the product of principal diagonal elements.
Example 12: If [ ] Then | |
Solution: [ ]is upper triangular matrix so its determinant
values are the product of principal diagonal matrix
Hence | |
Example 13: Show that the value of determinant of skew Hermitian

matrix of order n, is either 0 (zero) or purely imaginary if n is odd and
real, if n is even.
Solution: Let A be a skew Hermitian matrix and
| |
(By definition of skew Hermitian matrix)
| | | |
|̅̅̅̅| | |
̅̅̅̅
| | | |
Case 1: If n is even then,
̅̅̅̅
| | | | | |
| |
Case 2: If n is odd then,
A  A  x  iy  ( x  iy )  2 x  0  x  0
̅̅̅̅
| | | |
| | If then | |
If then | | is purely imaginary.
4.9 NON SINGULAR MATRIX AND SINGULAR

MATRIX
Non- Singular Matrix: A matrix „A‟ is said to be non-singular matrix if
its determinant is non zero.
Singular Matrix: A matrix „A‟ is said to be singular matrix if its

determinant is zero.
4.10 LINEAR EQUATION (HOMOGENEOUS AND

NON-HOMOGENOUS EQUATION)
Linear homogenous equation: The equation is of the form
is called linear homogenous equation in x, y, z.
Linear non-homogenous equation: The equation is of the form

is called non-homogenous equation in x, y, z.
4.11 SYSTEM OF NON-HOMOGENOUS LINEAR

EQUATION (CRAMER’S RULE)
If we have n linear simultaneous equation in n variable ,
i.e.
Let | |
Suppose is the cofactor of element in then multiplying this given

equation by , and adding
where, is the determinant obtained by replacing first column

element of by then
Again multiplying these equations by and adding then we

get
Where is determinant obtained by replacing second column element of

by
In similar way, we get
This method of solving n simulations linear non-homogenous equation

provided | | where A is the coefficient matrix. This method is known
as Cramer‟s rule
Example 14: Solve the following system at equation by Cramer‟s rule
Solution: The coefficient matrix of given system at non-homogenous

linear equation is
[ ] [ ]
| | | | | | | |
Therefore the system of non-homogenous linear has unique solution
Now using Cramer‟s rule
[ ] [ ]
[ ]
Hence the solution is
4.12 ADJOINT OF A SQUARE MATRIX
Let [ ] be a square matrix of order n then the transpose of a

matrix B=[ ] where is the cofactor of the element called
Adjoint of matrix A and it is denoted by AdjA or adjA.
 a11 ... a1n 

If A   ... ... ... 
a n1 ... a nn  nn
 A11 ... A1n 

Then the cofactor matrix C   ... ... ... 
 An1 ... Ann  nn
Then adjA= transpose of the matrix C
 A11 ... A1n 

adjA= C   ... ... ... 
 An1 ... Ann  nn
Example 17: Find the adjoint of the matrix
[ ]
Solution: Let us find the cofactor etc at the element of | |

we have
1 2
A11   5 , | | | |
3 1
| | | | | |
| | | | | |
Therefore the matrix C formed at the cofactor of the element of | | is
5 1 3
C 3 1 1
1 1 1
Now adjA is the transpose of the matrix C.
adjA= 3
Example 18: Prove that at the values of given determinant
| |
Solution: We have | |
Applying R2  R2  R1 and R3  R3  R1
| | or | | by
1 1
R2   R2 , R3   R3
2 6
Solving the determinant along the first row then we get
Put then the value of determinant
= 6(4-2) - 4(8-3) + (3.4 - 4)
= 6.2 - 4(5) + 8
=12 - 20 + 8
=0
Example 19: If | |
Solution: We have | | | | | |
(By theorem (properties of determinants))
=| | | |
(By taking common from first row, second row and third row of
the second determinant)
=| | | |
(By then of the first determinant so determinant is

unchanged)
| |
By vandermode matrix the value of above determinant is
but
So
So if | | then must be zero.
Hence
Example 20: Prove that if and | |
Multiplying by in first, second and third column of the determinant

from left side respectively then we get
| |
Taking xyz common from row at the above determinant
| | after that
Then determinant is time the original determinant.
| | ( C2  C2  C1 , C3  C3  C1 )
| |
Expanding along first row
| |
| |
Taking is common from first and second column
{ }
 ( y  x)( z  x)( z  y)( yz 2  xz 2  zy 2  xy 2 )  0
But because all are distinct, so

= 0.
Example 21: Solve the following system of linear equation by Cramer‟s

rule
Thus and therefore the system has a unique solution given by
| | | | | |
Hence
4.13 USEFUL METHOD FOR FINDING THE

VALUE OF DETERMINANT OF ORDER 4 OR
MORE
 
Let A be any non zero square matrix of order n A  aij nn
with
Step 1: Choose an element in A such that a ij =1 or if nonexistent,
Step 2: Using as a swivel, apply elementary row or column operations

to put 0‟s in all the other positions in the column or row containing
i.e. if we apply row operation then to put 0 in all the other position in the
column and similar for column operation
Step 3: Expand the determinant by the column or row (according to our

selection of operation) containing
Example 22: Find the determinant of a matrix A of order 4  4
| | | |
Solution:| | | |
Step 1: Choose an element because
Step 2: Apply row operation and put 0‟s in all the other positions in third
column
Apply R1  R1  2R2 and R3  R3  3R2 and R4  R4  R2
| | | |
Step 3: Now expanding the determinant by the third column
| | | |
4.14 DETERMINANTS AND VOLUME:

Let A is any square matrix
| |
Let
Then the determinant are related to the notions of area and volume
Let U be the parallelepiped determined by
{ }
When then U is parallelogram
Let V denote the volume of U then
Absolute volume of determinant of A
Example 23: Let
Then find the volume of the parallelepiped in three dimension space
Solution:
So the volume is the absolute volume of
| | | |
Hence volume | |
Example 24: Find the value of | | where
| | Where w is the cube root of unity.
Solution: Cube root of unity in complex number system is solution of the

equation , then the values of z satisfied the above equation is
called cube root of unity.
Now
So
So
⁄
( )
[cos   i sin   e i , (cos   i sin  ) n  e in or e in  cos n  i sin n ]

Put
2 2
k  1 then z  cos  i sin 
3 3
k  2 then z  cos
2 
2
 i sin
2 
2
 2
3 3
Hence cube root of unity are  and  2 .
And also 1     2  0
Now the given determinant applying c1  c1  c2  c3
Then we get
1   2  2 0  2
A  1   2  2 1 or A  0  2 1
1   2 1  0 1 
| |
Example 25: Evaluate | |
Solution: Let us denote the given determinant by
| |
Applying row transformation by using R2  R2  R1 and R3  R3  R1
Then we get
| |
Taking are common from first, second, third columns respectively
Then we get
| |
Now applying R2  R2  R1 and R3  R3  R1
Then | |
Taking common from first, second and third row respectively
Then | |
Expanding along first row
4.15 SUMMARY
In this unit we learned to find the value of determinant of any matrix,
which will help us in solving the linear equation, it will also be helpful to
understand the concept of eigen value and rank of matrix.
4.16 GLOSSARY
1. Identical row or column: Any two row or column are same
2. Parallelepiped: A solid body of which each face is a

parallelogram,
3. Absolute: Free from imperfection.
2.17.1 Multiple choice question:
1. The values of where | |
(a) l.m (b) l.t
(c) l.m.n.p (d) l.t.v.s
2. The value of t show that | |
(a) 3, 10 (b) 5, 7
(c) 8, 9 (d) 1, 2
3. If ( ) such that and if otherwise

zero then det of A is
(a) 3 (b) 9
(c) (d) 27
4. Determinant of Nilpotent matrix will be
(a) A prime number (b) Multiple of

2
(c) Always 1 (d) None
5. Determinant of Skew symmetric matrix of order 3 is

(a) 3 (b) 5
(c) 1 (d) 0
6. If A is any non singular square matrix f order 3, then determinant

of is
(a) | | (b) | |
(c) | | (d) None
7. If [ ] then cofactor of element is
(a) | | (b) | |
(c) | | (d) None
8. If A is any Square matrix of order n and determinant of is
(a) 1 (b) 0
(c) 4 (d) None
9. If [ ] then determinant of A is
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
10. If | | then the value of U
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
ANSWERS:
1. (d) 2. (a) 3. (c) 4. (d) 5. (d)
6. (b) 7. (b) 8. (a) 9. (d) 10. (a)
4.17.2 Fill in the blanks:
Fill in the blanks „…….‟ So that the following statements are complete
and correct
1. A is square matrix of order n and | |
2. The value of determinant …………. When rows and columns are

interchanged
3. | | then is……….and are…………
4. If A and B be two Square matrix of same order then | |
5. Determinant of hermition matrix is always………….
6. If
7. A is idempotent matrix of order n and its determinant is

……..or…….
8. If A is non zero and| | | | is also……
ANSWERS:
1. ̅̅̅̅
| | 2. Does not 3. Non zero, 4. | | | |
change distinct
5. Real 6. 3, 1 7. 1, 0 8. Non zero
4.18 REFERENCES

House

Media

Media

1. Show that if | | then determinant of
A is
2. Evaluate | |
3. Show that | |
4. Show that | | | | where n is a order of matrix A
5. Evaluate | |
6. Evaluate | |
7. If | | and | | then show that
ANWERS:2. 0
1. Show that at least one real number , show that is zero where
( )
2. Solve the following system of linear equation by Cramer‟s rule
5. Find the adjoint of the matrix [ ]
6. Show that the determinant of any matrix A, whose first row is the
sum of other row is zero.
7. Show that | |
8. Prove that | | (
ANSWERS:
2. 3.
4. ⁄
5. [ ]
UNIT 5: APPLICATION OF MATRICES
CONTENTS:
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Objectives
5.3 Rank of matrix
5.4 Elementary transformation
5.5 Echelon form of a matrix
5.6 Reduction to normal form
5.7 Vector space of n-tuples
5.8 System of linear equation
5.9 Summary
5.10 Glossary
5.11.1 Multiple choice question
5.12 Reference
5.14 Self assesment questions
5.14.2 Long answer type questions
5.2 INTRODUCTION
System of linear Equations (Homogeneous and Non
Homogeneous) plays a very important role in subject of mathematics.
Many problems in mathematics reduce to finding the solution of linear
Equation, all our system of linear Equation involve scalar may come from
the number system
In this unit we will focus on the solution of system of linear

equation, but the rank of matrix plays an important role to solve system of
linear equation. So first of all we will discuss Rank of matrix.
5.1 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit you will be able to

 Understand rank of a matrix.
 Use elementary transformation of matrices.
 Transform of matrix in Echelon form.
 Reduce a matrix in normal form.
 Understand linear dependence and linear independence of vectors.
 Solve homogenous linear equations.
 Solve non homogeneous linear equation.
5.3 RANK OF A MATRIX

If A is any arbitrary matrix of order m n then the determinant of
Square sub matrix of the matrix is known as a minor of the matrix A, if the
Sub matrix of order k is taken then its determinant is known as k-rowed
minor of a matrix of order m n , and the number of different option we
have
And rank of A is non-negative integer r if there exist at least one non

singular sub matrix of the given matrix of order r and all the (r + 1) rowed
minor are Zero “0”.
i.e. the rank of matrix is the order of highest order non singular Sub square
matrix of the given matrix, and Rank of A is denoted by  ( A)
Note: (1) A is any matrix of order m n then the Rank of A is less than or
 
equal to minimum of m and n i.e. if A  aij mn then  ( A)  min{ m, n}
(2) Rank of every non singular matrix of order n is equal to n, because

every matrix is itself a sub matrix of given matrix that is
 
If A  aij mn
and det( A)  0 then  ( A)  n
(3) If A is Singular matrix then Rank of A is less than order of matrix A
i.e., if A  aij nn and det( A)  0 then  ( A)  n
(4) If A is Null matrix then Rank of A is Zero.
Example 1: Find the Rank of matrix [ ]
Solution: [ ]
Highest possible order of Sub matrix is 3 and total number of sub matrix
of order 3 is . So it is A itself
Now | |
So Rank of A is not equal to 3
Now again total number of sub matrices of order 2 is
But we have a sub matrix of order 2 whose determinant is non zero

| |
So Rank of
 2 1
Example 2: Find the Rank of matrix A   1  2 where  is cube
1  2
root of unity
 2
1
Solution: A   1  2
1  2
We have A  1( 2   3 )  ( 3   2 )   2 ( 2  1)
 2  3  4  3  4  2
=0 [ 3  1,  4   ]
1 
But there is at least one minor of order 2 of the matrix A namely
 1
which is not equal to zero
Hence Rank of A is 2
5.4 ELEMENTARY TRANSFORMATION

The transformation over a matrix which does not affect rank of a matrix is
called elementary transformation over the matrix. There are 3 elementary
row transformation and corresponding 3 elementary column
transformation.
If we denote row by and column by
Then elementary row transformations are
(1) Ri  R j (The interchanging of any two rows)
(2) Ri  Ri  kR j where k is non zero constant
(3) Ri  kRi where k is non zero constant
And elementary columns transformations are
(1) Ci  C j
(2) C i  C i  kC j
(3) Ci  kCi where k is any non zero constant
Elementary Matrix: A matrix obtained by performing a single

elementary transformation over identity matrix is called elementary
matrix.
If [ ] interchange second and third row we get an Identity
matrix
So A is an example of elementary matrix.
5.5 ECHELON FORM OF A MATRIX

If A is any matrix then by applying elementary row transformation over
the matrix in such a way
(1) All zero row of the matrix are at the bottom
(2) Leading non- zero element in each row is 1
(3) Numbers of zero before first non-zero element in successive row is

more
Some authors do not require (2) condition
Note: (1) The Rank of matrix is equal to the Rank of matrix in Echelon
form.
(2) Total number of non-zero rows and total number of non-zero columns
decide the Rank of matrix in Echelon form
 ( A)  min{ non zero rows, non zero columns}
Solution: Let [ ]
Applying R2  R2  4R1
R3  R3  5R1
1 2 3
A ~ 0  7  10
0  7  10
1 2 3 
A ~ 0  7 10 by R3  R3  R2
0 0 0 
Now E-transformation do not change the Rank of matrix and we

see that 2  2 sub matrix * + is non singular, therefore the rank of
this Echelon matrix is hence rank of A is .
In other words total number of non zero rows in Echelon matrix is

and total number of non zero columns is 3.
So { }
Solution: Given matrix
Performing the elementary operations
R2  R2  R1
R3  R3  2R1
R4  R4  3R1
[ ]
Again performing the operation R4  R4  R2
[ ]
The last equivalent matrix is in Echelon form and number of Non Zero
rows in this matrix is 3 and number of Non Zero columns in this matrix is
4.
So { }
Hence
Row Rank: If we apply elementary row transformation only on A, where

A is a matrix of order n  n ,then maximum number of Non zero row r
which can be always obtain or number of linearly independent row is
called row rank of the matrix, and number of dependent row in the
matrix A is called row Nullity, and sum of row rank and row nullity is
equal to total number of rows in given matrix.
Column Rank: Number of independent columns in matrix is known as

column rank of the matrix and total number of dependent column are
known as column Nullity of matrix and sum of column rank and column
nullity is equal to total number of column in the matrix.
Example 5: Find the possible values of row rank, column rank, row
nullity and column nullity of the matrix
[ ]
Solution: The given matrix is already Echelon form, hence
Row rank is 3
So row nullity is equal to
Since there are 3 linearly independent columns so column rank is 3 and

column nullity is
Example 6: Find the row rank, column nullity, column rank and row
nullity of the matrix
[ ]
Solution: [ ]
Since
So is linearly dependent row and other rows are linearly independent,
Hence row rank is
And row nullity is
Similarly column rank is 2
And column nullity is
5.6. REDUCTION TO NORMAL FORM

Every matrix of order m n of rank can be reduced to normal form
( ) by finite elementary transformation, where is the unit matrix of
order
Proof: Let A  aij  

mn
matrix with rank then two cases are possible
 0 0 ... 0 
 
 0 0 ... 0 
Case 1. If A is Null matrix then A is of the form A   so
   
 
0 0 0  mn

Rank of A is
Then we have nothing to prove.
Case 2. If A is not Null matrix so at least one element in A is non-zero.
Interchanging the row with first row and jth column with first column.
Then we obtain another matrix B, whose leading element is non zero
let a ij  a ( a  0 )
1
Then multiplying by in first row of matrix B.
a
1 b b b
bij  [1, 12 , 13 ,..., 1n ]
a a a a
1
Let C be any matrix whose first row is b1 so
a
bij
[ ]  C ij
a
Now applying row and column transformation by suitable multipliers and

subtracting by suitable rows and column such that which all element of
first row and first column is zero except the leading element so new matrix
D is of the form
[ ]
Where T is a matrix of order (m  1)  (n  1)
If T is Non-zero matrix then again apply the same process and if T is null
matrix then we get a required result.
If rank of then continuing this process we shall finally obtain a

matrix is of the form
* +
Hence every matrix of order m n of rank r can be reduced into Normal

form
Example 7: If [ ] find the rank of matrix and reduce to
normal form
Solution: [ ]
Using R2  R2  R1 and R3  R3  2R1
[ ]
Again R3  R3  R2
[ ]
Now using Column transformation
C2  C2  C1 and C3  C3  2C1
1 0 0 
A ~ 0 3  3
0 0 0 
C3  C3  C 2
1 0 0
A ~ 0 3 0
0 0 0
C2
Now C 2 
3
[ ] * +
Hence Rank of A is 2.
Theorem 1: The rank of a product of two matrices cannot exceed the rank
of matrix.
Proof: let A and B be two matrix of order m n and n  p respectively
Let and be the rank of A and B respectively and let r be the Rank of
Then to prove
Since A  aij   mn

and Rank (A) = r1
I 0
A ~  r1
0
So
0
I r 0
B  bij n p and Rank (B) = r2 so B ~  2
0 0
Let AB  Cij m p
 I r1 0  I r2 0
AB  
0 0 0
 0
I r 0
Since matrix  1 non-zero rows and p  r2 zero column
0
has only
0
So AB cannot have more than non-zero row
So
So
Again since
Rank (AB)  Rank of BT = Rank of B i.e. Rank (AB)  r2
Hence Rank (AB)  r1 and Rank (AB)  r2
5.7 VECTOR SPACE OF N-TUPLES

Any ordered n-tuple of number is called vector of n-tuples. For example
be any n-number then the ordered n-tuple is
called a vector of n tuples.
(1) Equality of two Vectors:Let S  (s1 , s 2 ,..., sn ) and

T  (t1 , t 2 ,..., t m ) are said to be equal if and only if and
For example if { } { } l
X  (1, 2, 4) and Y  (1, 2, 4) then X and Y are equal vector.
(2) Addition and Subtraction of two vectors: If

{ } { }
Then S  T  (s1  t1 , s 2  t 2 ,..., s n  t n )
For example S  (1, 2, 3) and T  (2, 3, 4)
Then S  T  (1  2, 2  3, 3  4)  (3, 5, 7)
(3) Multiplication of a Vector by any Scalar:If K be any

scalar and S  (s1 , s 2 ,..., sn ) be
n-vector then KS  ( Ks1 , Ks2 ,..., Ksn )
(4) Linear dependence and linear independence of

vectors:
(i) Linearly dependent set of vectors:
Definition: Let { }be any set of vector and are

any scalar and if are non zero then
we can say X is linearly dependent set of vector.
For example: -
Let { }
Then
Where
Since all are non zero so X is the set of linearly dependent vectors.
(ii) Linearly independent set of vectors:
Definition: Let { } be the set of n vector is said to be

linearly independent
If where are Scalar then
For example:
{ }
Let are Scalar and
Hence X is linearly independent set of vectors.
Example 8: Show that the set containing a zero vector is linearly

dependent.
Solution: Let S  {x1 , x2 ,..., xn } be an n-vector whose term is zero.
Let are any Scalar and c1 x1  c2 x2  ...  cn xn  0 for any

value of
So is not necessarily zero
Hence a set containing zero vector is linearly dependent.
5.8 SYSTEM OF LINEAR EQUATION

There are two types of linear equations. One is Homogeneous linear
equation and other is Non Homogeneous linear Equation, we shall first
discuss the Homogeneous system of equation and its solution.
(1) Homogeneous linear equation: A linear equation in

unknowns is an equation that can be put in the
standard form
A system of linear Homogeneous Equation is a list of linear equation with

same unknown. Put into standard form
}…………… (1)
The coefficient matrix is
 a11 a2 ... a1n 

a a 22 ... a 2 n 
A   21
   
 
a m1 am2 ... a mn  mn
And the vector of unknowns is [ ]

[ ]
Where A, X, O are m  n, n  1, m  1 matrices respectively. So the general

form of system of Homogeneous equation is
Since if then are the

solution of Equation (1) and it is called trivial solution.
If and are two solutions of equation (1) then their linear

combination
is also solution of equation (1) where are any

arbitrary constant
We have
Put then
Hence is also a solution of equation (1)
Some important conclusion about the behavior of the solution of System

of Homogeneous linear Equation
Let }…………… (1)
Are the systems of Homogeneous Equation, where the coefficient matrix

is:
 a11 a2 ... a1n 

a a 22 ... a 2 n 
A   21
   
 
a m1 am2 ... a mn  mn
And [ ]
Since Rank of A is less than or equal to minimum of m and n
i.e.  ( A)  min{ m, n}
Let rank of then two possibilities are there either
Case 1: If then number of linearly independent solution is
So in this case only Zero solution is a solution of equation (1)
i.e.
Case 2: If
Then linearly independent solution and the linear combination of

any two solution is again a solution, so in this case Equation (1) has
infinite many solutions.
System of Homogeneous linear Equation
Infinite Solution Unique Solution
If If
Rank of A Number of Rank of A Number of

Unknowns Unknowns
Example 9: Solve the following System of Equation
ffhh
Solution: The given System of Equation can be written in the general

form
Where [ ] [ ]
Now we are interested to find out the Rank of matrix
[ ]
Applying R2  R2  R1
R3  R3  R1
Then [ ]
Again R3  R3  R2
[ ]
Above is the Echelon form of the coefficient matrix A, we have rank of A

is equal to minimum of number of non zero row and column.
So Rank of A is 3 and it is equal to Number of unknown
Hence, there is only one solution.
, which is trivial
solution.
Example 10: Solve completely the System of Equation
Solution: The given System of Equation can be written as the general

form
Where [ ] [ ] [ ]
We shall reduce the matrix A into Echelon form by using Elementary row
transformation
Now using R2  R2  R1
R3  R3  3R1
We have reduced into
[ ][ ] [ ]
Performing R3  R3  R2 , we have
[ ][ ] [ ]
The coefficient matrix being of rank 2, which is less than number of

unknowns. Hence the given System of linear Equation has infinite solution
And solution is
Thus
Hence where c is any arbitrary constant.
Example 11: Solve the System of linear Equation
Solution: The System of linear Equation can be written as where
[ ] [ ] [ ]
We shall interested first to find the Rank of Coefficient matrix A, by using

E-row transformation
R2  R2  R1
R3  R2  2R1
R4  R4  2R1
We have [ ]
Again R3  R3  R2
R4  R4  R2
[ ]
Above is the Echelon form of the Coefficient matrix A, we have Rank f A

is 2 which is less than Number of unknown. Hence given System is of
Equation has infinite many solutions.
Therefore,
[ ][ ] [ ]
 x  y  z  0 and y  0
Put
Hence solution is
Example 12: Find the solution of System of linear Equation
Solution: The given System of Equation can be written as where
[ ], [ ] [ ]
Now first to find out the rank of matrix by using elementary row
transformation.
Applying
[ ]
Again by R2  R2  2R1
R3  R3  2R1
R4  R4  3R1 3
1 3 13 3 
0  3  24  9 
Then A~  
2  5  40  15
 
0  5  40  15
1 1 1
Again R2   R1 , R3   R3 , R4   R4
3 5 5
Then [ ]
Again
Then [ ]
In the above Echelon form of the coefficient matrix, we have rank of A is

2 which is less than number of unknowns, hence the given system of
equation has infinite solution. And the solution is:
}………….. (1)
Solve the equation (1) by second equation,
Put
From first Equation of (1)
( )
Hence solution is
Where are any arbitrary constant.
Note:The System of Equation AX  O where A is coefficient matrix, If

A is square matrix of order „n‟ then the solution of AX  O depend on the
determinant of A. If determinant of A is zero then AX  O has infinite
solutions and if determinant of A is non zero then AX  O has trivial
solution (Zero solution).
Example 13: Find the condition of two equations:
has infinite solution or zero solution.
Solution: Given equations are
The system of linear homogeneous equations can be written as AX  O
Where * + [ ] * +
Since A is Square matrix of order 2, so its values of determinant decide

the solution of system of given linear Equation
a b
A  a.d  b.c
c d
So if then the solution of System of linear Equation is

infinite, and if then the solution of system of linear equation
is unique (zero) solution,
(ii) System of linear Non Homogeneous Equation:A system

of linear equation is a list of linear equations of the form:
…. ….
These equation are non homogeneous equations if all coefficients on the

right hand side are not zero
i.e. bi  0 at least for one i.
(a) Linear Homogeneous equation in one unknown: Consider the

equation then
(1) If is a unique solution of
(2) If has no solution.
(3) If has infinite solution because
(b) Linear Homogeneous equation in two unknown: Consider a

System of two equations in two unknown x and y
where a, b, c, d are Non Zero, then we are interested to discuss following

three cases:
(1)
Case 1: If
Hence two lines intersect in one pair so the system of linear Equation has
unique solution
O X
L1
Unique Solution
a b c1
Case 2: If   then two lines are parallel and not intersect in XY
c d c2
plane, so in this System of equation has no solution
O X
No Solution
a b c1
Case 3: If   in this case two lines
c d c2
are coincide; hence we get a infinite solutions.
O X
Infinite Solution
(iii) Linear Homogeneous Equation in n-unknowns:Consider

the system of Equations:
…. ….
Be a System of Non Homogeneous equation into n-unknown
The general form of the above equation is where
[ ], [ ] [ ]
Where A is called Coefficient matrix and
[ ] [ ] is called the augmented matrix
Theorem: The system of Non Homogeneous linear Equation has

solution if and only if the Rank of Coefficient matrix and augmented
matrix are same.
Proof: Let
…. ….
Be a System of Non Homogeneous Equation in n-unknowns
Let are the column vectors of the coefficient matrix A. Then

is equivalent to
 x1   b1 
 x  b 
c1 , c2 ,..., cn  2    2   B
 x3  b3 
   
 x 4  b4 
i.e. ………………………… (1)
Let Rank of A  r1 and rank of A B  r2 . Since Rank of so

column are linearly independent and column are linear
combination of these columns. So, we can suppose without loss of
generality first columns are linearly independent.
The condition of Necessary: If the system of equation has solution then

there must exist
n-scalar such that
………………. (2)
Since is a linear combination of first column vectors

from (2) B is also a linear combination of first columns.
So augmented matrix [ ] has column which are linearly

dependent, but Rank of [ ] so the augmented matrix has
linearly independent column, but B is linear combination of first
column
Hence Rank [ ] must be equal to i. e. Rank [ ]

[ ]
The condition of Sufficient: Let matrix A and augmented matrix [ ]

have same rank then maximum number of independent column of matrix
[ ] is equal to its rank say r
Therefore the column B should be also expressed as the linear

combination of the first r-column of matrix[ ] already from a linearly
independent set.
Thus there exist r scalar such that
………………. (3)
Or
…………………. (4)
From Equation (1) and (4)
….
Hence has a solution.
System of Non Homogeneous linear equation
Rank A Rank [ ] Rank A Rank [ ]
Inconsistence Consistence
(No Solution) (There exist solution)
Rank A Rank [A: B] = Rank A Rank [ ]

ffhh
Number of unknown
Infinite many Solutions

Unique Non Zero
Solution
Example 14: Solve the Equation
Solution: This given System of Non Homogeneous linear Equation can be

written as
Where [ ] [ ] [ ]
The augmented matrix [ ] [ ]
Now reduce the augmented matrix into Echelon form by applying E – row
transformation using
R2  R2  2R1
R3  R3  3R1
We have [ ] [ ]
Again using R3  R3  3R2
1 1 1  1
[ A : B] ~ 0  1 1  0
0 0 0  1
Above is the Echelon form of the matrix [ ] and rank of [ ] is 3

but Rank A is 2
Since Rank A  Rank [ A : B] , therefore the given Equations are

inconsistence i.e. the given system of Equation has no solution.
Example 15: Solve the System of linear equation
Solution: The given System of equation can be written as single matrix

equation
Where [ ] [ ] [ ]
Now reduce the augmented matrix into Echelon form by applying E-row
transformation only
R2  R2  R1
R3  R3  2R1
We have [ ] [ ]
Again applying R3  R3  R2
[ ] [ ]
Above augmented matrix [ ] is the Echelon form,
so Rank of
[ ]
by the same elementary E-row transformation we get
[ ]
Rank of
so, rank of A = 3
Here the number of unknowns is also 3 which is x, y, z

Since Rank A  Rank A : B  Number of unknowns
Therefore the given Equations are consistence and have unique solution.
We see that the given System of Equation is equivalent to the matrix form
[ ][ ] [ ]
So the System of Equation which is Equivalent to matrix equation
y  2z  0
Hence are the solution of given system of

equation.
Example 16: Show that the Equation
are consistent and find the solution.
Solution: The given System of Equation can be written as
Where [ ] [ ] [ ]
Now reduce the augmented matrix into Echelon form by applying E-row
transformation only
applying
[ ] [ ]
Again applying R2  R2  2R1
R3  R3  3R1
Then [ ] [ ]
1 1 1  2 
A : B ~ 0 1  1   3 by R3  R3  2R2
0 0 0  0 
Above augmented matrix [ ] is in the Echelon form.
So [ ] total numbers of Non Zero rows in Echelon form
1 1 1 
By same E – row transformation in A then we get A ~ 0 1  1
0 0 0 
So total numbers of non zero rows in Echelon form A
Since [ ] therefore the given equation are consistent.
Since number of unknowns in given System of Equation is 3 which is

greater than Rank A, therefore the given System of Equation will have
infinite many solutions.
The matrix equation of given System of Equation is:
1 1 1   x   2 
0 1  1  y    3
    
0 0 0   z   0 
This matrix is equivalent to
Taking then we get
Hence the solution of the given System of Equation is:
Example 17: If A be a m n matrix of rank n with real entries then show

that if System has solution then it is unique.
Solution: Let has solution then it is possible only if Rank of A is

equal to rank of augmented matrix [ ]
We know that if A  aij   mn

then
Rank of { } and given Rank of A is equal to n so m must be

greater than n
Since [ ]
So solution is unique.
Example 18: Investigate for what condition of  and µ the given System of
equation
2 x  2 y  z  
(1) No solution (2) An infinite solution (3) Unique solution
Solution: The matrix form of given System of linear Equation is
Where [ ] [ ] [ ]
We shall first to reduce the matrix [ ]into Echelon form by applying

elementary transformation only
applying R2  R2  R1
R3  R3  2R1
[ ] [ ]
Above is the Echelon form of the augmented matrix [ ]
Case 1: If   4 then Rank of [A:B] = Number of unknowns = 3= Rank A
So in this case the given System of Equation has unique solution.
Case 2: If
[ ]
So in this case System of Equation is Inconsistent hence no solution
Case 3: If
[ ]
Hence in this case System of equation have infinite solution.
3.9 SUMMARY
In this unit we learned to how to find rank of any matrix, after that we
learned to solve the linear equation with the help of rank of matrix, in
further classes we will be able to understand linearly dependent and
independent sets and solutions very well with the help of rank of matrix
3.10 GLOSSARY
1. Inconsistent solution:If a system has no solution
2. Augmented matrix: A matrix obtained by appending the columns

of given marix
3. Unknown: An unknown is variable in an equation which has to

solved for
3.11.1 Multiple choice questions:
1. The Rank of Null matrix of order n is
(a) 1 (b) 0
(c) (d) n
2. Which of the following matrix is elementary?
(a) [ ] (b) [ ]
(c ) [ ] (d) none of these
3. The rank of matrix [ ] is
(a) 1 (b) 2
(c) 0 (d) 3
4. If A is an Square matrix of order and Rank then Rank of

is
(a) 0 (b) 3
(c) 4 (d) 5
5. If the Nullity of the matrix [ ] is then the value of
is
(a) 0 (b) 1
(c) (d) 2
6. Let ( ) be a matrix such that then

Nullity of A is
(a) 1 (b) 2
(c) (d) n
7. If then the System f Equation has unique

solution if
(a) (b) For all a but
(c) For all a and b (d) Always unique

solution
8. Let A be a matrix of rank n with real entries, choose the

correct statement
(a) (b) does not have a

solution
(c) If has a solution then it is unique (d) None of these
9. Let A and B are two matrix such that

identity matrix then
(a) (b) has

always zero solution
(c) Rank of (d) Rank of
10. Which of the following matrix has same row space at( )
(a) ( ) (b) ( )
( c) ( ) (d) ( )
ANSWERS:
1. (b) 2. (c) 3. (b) 4. (a) 5. (c)
6. (c) 7. (b) 8. (c) 9.(a) 10. (a)
3.11.2 Fill in the Blanks:
1. No Skew Symmetric matrix of Rank …………..
2. …………
3. A is invertible idempotent matrix then Rank of A ………..
4. If A is any matrix of order and has

………. solution
5. If A is any invertible matrix of order n then has …………

solution
ANSWERS:
1. 1 2. Rank 3.Order of matrix 4.No 5.Unique
3.12 REFERENCE
House

Media

Media

1. Find the values of  , the Equation

has unique solution
2. Show that the Equations
are not consistent
ANSWERS:1.No values of  such that the system of equation has unique

solution
1. Find the Rank of matrix [ ]
2. Find the Rank of matrix [ ]
3. Examine if the System of Equations
is consistent?
Find the solution if it is consistent
ANSWERS: 3. 4. 3
UNIT 6: EIGEN VALUES AND EIGEN

VECTORS
CONTENTS:
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Objectives
6.3 Spectrum of any matrix
6.4 Algebraic and Geometric multiplicity of Eigen root
6.5 The Cayley-Hamilton theorem
6.6 Characteristic polynomial of degree 2 and 3
6.7 Summary
6.8 Glossary
6.9.3 True and False
6.10 Reference
6.1 INTRODUCTION
If A is Square matrix then we are interested to find out a non zero vector X
such that then is called eigenvalues of A corresponding
eigenvector X
Let [ ] and [ ]
Where X is non zero vector and
i.e.
Is the form of Homogenous System of equation and has non zero solution
if,
Rank
It is possible only when | |
| | is called characteristic equation of matrix A in variable ,

there roots or zeros or solutions of characteristic equation are called Eigen
values or Latent roots.
6.2 OBJECTIVES
 Find eigenvalues of a square matrix
 Find eigenvector of a square matrix
 Understand algebraic and geometric multiplicity of eigen root
(values)
 Understand various properties of eigenvalues and eigen vectors
 Know about Cayley Hamilton theorem and verify it.
6.3 SPECTRUM OF ANY MATRIX

A is any matrix of order n, then spectrum of A is the set of all eigen values
of A.
Example 1: Determine the eigen value of matrix [ ]
Solution: Let is eigen value of matrix A, then the characteristic equation
of A is | | | | [ ]
| | | | | |
( )
The root of | |
 3  6  4  0 or 3  6  4  0
( ) √ √
Hence the Eigen values of the matrix A are
√ √
Theorem 1: Let X is a eigen vector of A, then X can‟t corresponding to

more than one eigen values of A.
Proof: Let X be an eigen vector of A, corresponding two eigen values are
Then ………………….. (1)
………………….. (2)
From (1) and (2)
But X is non zero vector
So
Hence cannot corresponding to more than one eigen value of A
Theorem 2: If X is eigen vector of a matrix A corresponding to the eigen

value , then is also an eigen vector of A corresponding to the same
eigen values where K is any non zero scalar
Proof: Let is eigen vector of a matrix A corresponding eigen values
Then
Since K is any non zero scalar
So,
Hence is also eigen vector of A corresponding same eigen value .
Note: [ ]
Then [ ]+ polynomial over
  n  2
a33    a3n 
    
Then ( A   I )  ( a   )( a   )  + polynomial
11 22
    
 
 an3 an4 a nn   
over   n  2
 (1) n n  (1) n 1 n 1 (a11  a 22  a33  ...  a nn ) + polynomial of degree

 n  2 … (1)
if are eigen values of square matrix A, then
| | …… (2)
Coefficient of
But coefficient of in equation (1) is
So
Put in equation (2) then we get
| |
| |
So,
6.4 ALGEBRAIC AND GEOMETRIC

MULTIPLICITY OF EIGEN ROOT OR
CHARACTERISTIC ROOT
Let A be any square matrix of order n, and is root of order K of the

characteristic polynomial | | . Then K is called algebraic
multiply of eigen value , total number of linearly independent eigen
vector corresponding eigen value is called geometric multiplicity of
i.e. total number of linearly independent solution | |
Theorem 3: The eigen vector corresponding distinct eigen value of a

matrix is linearly independent.
Proof: Let A be a Square matrix of order n, and are the eigen

vector of matrix A corresponding to distinct eigen value .
Then
And we have to prove the set of vector
S  X 1 , X 2 , X 3 ,...., X n is linearly independent.
If the set S  X 1 , X 2 , X 3 ,...., X n  are linearly dependent then at least one

is a linear combination of remaining vector of S.
Then we choose the set is subset of S
S1  X 1 , X 2 , X 3 ,...., X k  is linearly independent.
But the set S 2  X 1 , X 2 , X 3 ,...., X k , X k 1  are linearly dependent.
Then we can choose some Scalar
Show that ……… (1)
Pre multiply both sides by A, then we get
Since
Then ………. (2)
Multiply equation (1) by
Then
………. (3)
Subtracting equation (3) from (2)
Since the set S1  X 1 , X 2 , X 3 ,...., X k  is linearly independent.
So all the coefficient of are zero
Put the values of in equation (1) then we get
but i  k 1 i  1,2,3,..., k
therefore ai  0  i  1,2,3,..., k
Now put ai  0  i  1,2,3,..., k in equation (1) we get
a k 1 xk 1  0
 a k 1  0 , since x k 1  0
This is not possible, since S 2 is linearly dependent. So, our assumption is

wrong hence the set of vector { } is linearly
independent,
Theorem 4: is eigen value of any square matrix A if and only if there

exist a non zero vector X such that
Proof: Suppose is Eigen value of matrix A, and then we can say is root
of the characteristic equation | |
Since | | so Rank A
Therefore the linear Homogeneous equation | |
So
Conversely, suppose there exist a non-zero vector X satisfied

where is a scalar
So
X is non zero if Rank of is less than order of matrix
| |
Hence is eigen value of matrix A.
Example 2: Determine the characteristic roots and corresponding

characteristic vector of the matrix
[ ]
Solution: The characteristic equation of the matrix A is | |
i.e. | | or
{ } { } { }
{ }
2 (  6)  0
Hence the characteristic roots of A are 0, 0, 6
The eigen vector [ ] of A corresponding to the eigen value 0

are given by the non zero solution of the equation
[ ][ ] [ ]
[ ][ ] [ ] by R3  R3  3R1
Or [ ][ ] [ ] by R2  R2  2R1
The rank of coefficient matrix is 1, therefore these linear equation have

linearly independent solution. The equation can be written as:
X1  X 2  X 3  0
Put X 2  a and X 3  b then X 1  (a  b)
Where a and b are any scalar, therefore [ ] is an eigen

vector of A corresponding to the eigen values 0
Let [ ]
[ ] are two linearly

independent eigen vector of A corresponding eigen value 0
If are scalar not both are equal to zero then gives all
the eigen vectors of A corresponding to eigen values 2
The eigen vector of A corresponding to the eigen value 6 are given by the
non zero solution of the equation
[ ][ ] [ ]
Or [ ][ ] [ ]
Or [ ][ ] [ ] by R2  5R2  2R1 ,
R3  5R3  3R1
Or [ ][ ] [ ] by R2  2R1  R2
The Rank of coefficient matrix of these equations is 2. Therefore these

equations have linearly independent solution. These equations
can be written as
From last equation we get
Put then ⁄ and first equation ⁄
So [ ⁄ ⁄ ] is eigen vector of A corresponding eigen value 6.
If P is any non zero scalar then is also eigen vector of A

corresponding to the eigen value 6.
Theorem 5: The eigen values of a Hermitian matrix are real.
Proof: Let A is a Hermitian matrix and is eigen value of A

corresponding eigen vector . Then
…………. (1)
………. (2)
Pre multiplying both sides of equation (2) by , then
…………. (3)
Taking conjugate and transpose of both side of equation (3), then we get
( ) ( )
̅ ( )
̅ ……………… (4)
From (3) and (4) we have
( ̅) , but is non zero vector so
̅ ̅
Let
̅ , ̅
Hence is real.
Theorem 6: The eigen values of a skew Hermitian matrix are either zero
or pure imaginary
Proof: Let A is skew Hermitian matrix then
Now ̅
is Hermitian matrix when A is Skew Hermitian and we know that

the eigen values of Hermitian matrix is real,
So the eigen values of is real.
Let is eigen value of A then is eigen value of
But i is real so
if is real
if is complex content and
(i )   y  ix
̅ Because is real
is pure imaginary provided
Hence the eigen values of skew Hermitian matrix are either zero or purely
imaginary.
Theorem 7: Eigen values of a unitary matrix are of unit modules.
Proof: Let A is a unitary matrix and is Eigen value of A Corresponding

Eigen vector X, then
…………….. (1)
……………………. (2)
Taking conjugate and transpose both sides of equation (2) then
̅ …………………(3)
Multiplying equation (2) and (3)
( ) (̅ )
( ) ̅
( ) ̅
| | ̅ | |
| |
| |
But because X is non zero vector
So, | |
| |
Hence is at unit modules.
Example 3: If A is Square matrix of order 4 and spectrum of A is { }

and trace of A, determinant of A are 9 and 18 respectively then find the all
eigen values of A.
Solution: Let are eigen values A, then
Given spectrum of A is { } so three eigen values of A are 1, 2, 3
So
So eigen values of A are .
Example 4: Show that matrix A and its transpose matrix have same
eigen values.
Solution: Let is Eigen values of A so is the root of characteristic

Equation
| | ………………… (1)
Now
And we know that determinant of any matrix and its transpose are equal,
therefore
| | | |
| | | |
| | So| |= 0
is root of | |
Hence is also Eigen value of .
Example 5: Show that the characteristic roots of are conjugates of the

characteristic roots of matrix A.
Solution: Let is Eigen value of matrix A
is the root of the equation | |
Now
( ̅ ) ………………. (1)
And | | |̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅| | | | ̅|
From equation (1)
| ̅| |̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅|
If | | |̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅| | ̅|
So ̅ is root at | ̅| hence ̅ is eigen value of .
Note:
1. 0 is the eigen value of matrix A if matrix has determinant zero.
2. Eigen value of upper /lower triangular matrix are just principal

diagonal element.
3. Eigen values of strict upper or strict lower triangular matrix are

zero.
4. Eigen values of Nilpotent matrix are always zero.
5. Eigen values of idempotent matrix are either 0 or 1.
6. Eigen values of involutory matrix are either 1 or -1.
Example 6: If is the eigen value of a non singular matrix A, then prove

| |
that ⁄ is a eigen value of adj A.
Solution: Let A be any n  n non singular matrix and is eigen value of A
So must be non zero and there exist a non zero vector X such that
……………………. (1)
Pre multiplying both sides in equation (1) by
So,
[ ]
A I n X   (adjA) | |
| |
| |
Hence is eigen value of matrix .
Example 7: If A is square matrix of order 3 with eigen values are 1, 2, 3

then what are the possible eigen values of .
Solution: A is Square matrix of order 3 with eigen values 1, 2, 3
So determinant of A is the product of its eigen value
| |
| |
| |
And are eigen values of A then are eigen values of
Say
Finally, eigen values of are
| | | | | | ( ) ( ) ( )
, which is ,
( ) ( )
are required eigen values of .
6.5 THE CAYLEY-HAMILTON THEOREM

Every square matrix satisfies its characteristic equation i.e. if for a square
matrix A of order n.
| | [ ] then the matrix equation is
is satisfied by A
Proof: Let A is a square matrix of order n and is eigen value of A then

element of are at most of the first degree in , and the element of
are of degree or less in terms of .
So can be written as
Where are square matrices of order n
Now | | | |
Where I is the identity matrix of order n
[ ]
Comparing coefficients of like powers of on both sides, then we get
Pre multiplying these equations by respectively and adding

them
[ ]
Thus
Hence every Square matrix satisfies its characteristic equation.
Example 8: find the characteristic equation of the matrix [ ]
and verify that it is satisfied by A.
Solution: We have [ ] the characteristic matrix of A
[ ] [ ]
[ ]
The characteristic polynomial of A
| | [ ]
[ ] [ ] [ ]
The characteristic equation of A is | |
i.e. ………………………… (1)
The roots of this equation are 1, 3, 6
Hence the Eigen values of A are 1, 3, 6
From equation (1) the characteristic equation of the matrix A is
Or
Or
Or
3  102  27  18  0
We are now to verify that
A 3  10 A 2  27 A  18I  0
We have
[ ] [ ]
[ ][ ] [ ]
[ ][ ] [ ]
Now we can verify that
[ ] [ ] [ ]
[ ] [ ]
Example 9: Obtain the characteristic equation and find the eigen value of
the matrix
[ ]
Solution: [ ]
The characteristic matrix of is
[ ] [ ]
[ ]
The characteristic equation of A is | |
[ ]
| | | | | |
Or
………… ……. (1)
Or
The root of this equation is 1, 2, 3
Hence is characteristic equation and 1, 2, 3 are

eigen values of A
Example 10: Show that 0 is a eigen value of matrix A if and only if

matrix is singular.
Solution: We know that product of eigen values is determinant of matrix
Let are eigen values of matrix A.
Then
| |
Since 0 eigen value is zero so | | is singular
Conversely, let A is singular | |
The characteristic equation of A is
[ ]
Since | |
So ……………… (1)
0 is the root of equation (1), hence is eigen value of A.
Example 11: Show that matrix A and have the same eigen values.
Solution: Let then the characteristic matrix of B is
Since C is invertible so
So
Taking determinant both sides
| | | | | | | || |
| || || || | | |
| || | | |
| |
So
| | | |
Thus the matrix A and B have same characteristic equation. Hence A and
have same eigen value.
Example 12: Obtain the characteristic equation of matrix | |
and verify that it is satisfied by A and hence find its inverse.
Solution: We have | | | |
( )
The characteristic equation of A is
……………….. (1)
Or
Or
……………………... (2)
By Cayley – Hamilton theorem, every square matrix satisfies its

characteristic equation.
So
………………………. (3)
Verification of equation (3) we have
| |
| || | | |
| || | | |
| | | | | |
| |
[ ]=0
From equation (3)
Since all eigen values are non zero so determinant of hence

exist
Pre multiplying both sides by in equation (3)
Then
[ ]
{[ ] [ ] [ ]}
[ ]
6.6 CHARACTERISTIC POLYNOMIALS OF

DEGREE 2 AND 3
There are simple formulas for the characteristic polynomials of matrices of
order 2 and 3.
Suppose * + then simple characteristic equation of A
If B is of order 3 then [ ]
The characteristic equation of B is
If , , are the cofactor of element , , then

characteristic equation of B is
Example 13: If A is any matrix of order 3 and the Eigen values of A are
then find the characteristic equation of A.
Solution: The characteristic equation of A is
where, is eigen value of A
we know that if is eigen value of A then
A
is eigen value of (adjA)

So,
So trace of
Hence characteristic equation of A is
Example 14: If A is a square matrix of order n and then find the

determinant and trace of matrix.
 
Solution: Let A  aij nn
and A 2  I
And we know that if then possible Eigen value of A are
Let algebraic multiplicity of Eigen values of
So is equal to order of matrix and
Determinant of A is product of Eigen values so
| |
Example 15: Find the trace of matrix [ ]
Solution: Let [ ]
Eigen values of B are 2, 2, and 3
So, eigen values of
And we know that trace is equal to sum of its eigen values
So
Example 16: Let B be a real n 1 vector such that

then show that A is involuntary matrix with trace ( n  2) .
Solution: Let [ ]
[ ]
Since
Now [ ][ ] [ ] [ ]
So
Since
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
Trace of
Now
6.7 SUMMARY
In this unit ,we learned the concept of eigenvalue and eigenvector,
additionally learned about algebraic and geometric multiplicity of
eigenvalue , which helps us more to find the eigenvalue of any matrix ,the
concept of eigenvalue is very important to understand linear algebra very
well. To cheak your progress by solving all question given below,
6.8 GLOSSARY
Spectrum of matrix:Set of all eigenvalues
Geometric multiplicity of eigenvalue:The dimension of the eigen space

of eigenvalue
6.9.1 Multiple choice Questions:
1. If 0 is eigen value of matrix A then is.
(a) 1 (b) 2
(c) 3 (d) 0
2. If [ ] then if are eigen values of A then
is equal to
(a) 1 (b) 14
(c) 15 (d) 0
3. Eigen values of idempotent matrix are
(a) 1or -1 (b) 0 or -1
(c) 0 or 1 (d) 0 only
4. If P is Algebraic multiplicity and Q is geometric multiplicity then

the relation between P and Q is
(a) (b)
(c ) (d)
5. Eigen values of matrix [ ]is
(a) 1, 2, 3 (b) 3, 0
(c) 1, 3 (d) 4, 0
6. Trace of any idempotent matrix A of order n is
(a) Sum of its Eigen values (b) n
(c) Rank A (d) Product of Eigen

values
7. If is eigen value of A then eigen value of 3A is
(a) 3 (b) 2
(c) (d) 0
8. If is characteristic equation of matrix
[ ] then
is equal to
(a) 2 (b) 3
(c) 4 (d) 5
9. If A and B are two square matrices of the same order then if

are the eigen values of then eigen values of is
(a) (b)
(c) (d) √ √ √
10. If A is any orthogonal matrix then eigen value of A is
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
ANSWERS:
1. (d) 2. (c) 3. (c) 4. (d) 5. (b)
6. (c) 7. (a) 8. (b) 9. (a) 10. (d)
1. Eigen values of upper triangular matrix is ………….
2. Trace of null matrix is ………….
3. Eigen value of skew Hermitian matrix are ……….. or ………..
4. If * +then | | is ………..
5. If A is idempotent matrix with rank 3 then trace of A is ………..
6. If ( ) if is non zero eigen value then

…………..
7. If A is involuntary matrix of order n and k is algebraic multiplicity

of then trace of A…….
8. If S is the set of all matrices and S is defined A {
[ ] } then cardinality of S is …………
9. If A be a n  n matrix which is both Hermitian and Unitary than

trace of is ……….
10. If [ ]then characteristic polynomial is …………..
ANSWERS:
1. Principal diagonal 2. 0 3. Zero or 4. 54 5. 3

element purely
imaginary
6. n 7. 8. Null set 9. n 10.
6.9.3 True and False questions:
Write T for true and F for false statement
1. If are the eigen values of matrix A of order 3 then
T/F
2. If A is an idempotent matrix of order n then

T/F
3. Eigen values of identity matrix is 0

T/F
4. If A is invertible idempotent matrix then eigen values of A are both

0 and 1 T/F
5. The possible eigen values of nilpotent matrices are zero only

T/F
ANSWERS:
1. T 2. T 3. F 4. F 5. T
6.10 REFERENCE
House

Media

Media

1. If * +then verify
2. Find the all eigen value of [ ]
3. Verify Cayley-Hamilton theorem for the matrix
[ ]hence or otherwise evaluate
4. Show that the characteristic roots of a triangular matrix are just the
principal diagonal element
5. Determine the eigen vector of the matrix [ ]
ANSWERS: 2. 3, 6, 2 3. [ ]
1. If are the eigen values of the n-square matrix A and K

is a Scalar then prove that eigen values of are
2. Find the characteristic equation of the matrix
[ ]and verify that it is satisfied by A and hence
obtain
3. Verify the Cayley-Hamilton theorem for a matrix [ ]
4. Show that if all eigen values of idempotent matrix are zero then
matrix is invertible
5. Show that the matrix * +has at least one eigen value

is 0 for some real number x
BLOCK III: TRIGNOMETRICAL AND

HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS
UNIT 7: EXPONENTIAL AND

TRIGONOMETRICAL VARIABLES
Contents:
7.1 Objectives
7.2 Introduction
7.3 Complex Number
7.4 Representation of Complex Number in Argand Plane
7.5 Addition of complex number
7.6 Addition of complex numbers by Geometry
7.7 Multiplication of complex number
7.8 Multiplication of complex numbers (Polar Form)
7.9 Multiplication of complex numbers (Graphical Method)
7.10 Equality of Complex Number
7.11 Subtraction
7.12 Subtraction of a complex number by Geometry
7.13 Conjugate of a complex number
7.14 Power of i
7.15 i (Iota) as an operator
7.16 Division of a complex number
7.17 Division of a complex number By Algebra
7.18 Division of a complex number By Geometry
7.19 Modulus of a Complex Number
7.20 Argument of a Complex Number
7.21 Some Properties of Modulus and Arguments of Complex Numbers
7.22 Square Root of a Complex Number
7.23 Polar Form
7.24 Summary
7.25. Glossary
7.27 References
7.1 OBJECTIVE
 Understand complex number and their geometric representation
 Do addition, substraction, multiplication and division of complex
numbers
 Convert a complex number into modulus amplitude form (polar
form)
 Find out square root of a complex number.
7.2 INTRODUCTION
We know that the square of a real number is always non-negative e.g.

(5) 2  25 and (5) 2  25 . Therefore, square root of 25 is ± 5. What about
the square root of a negative number? It is clear that a negative number
cannot have a real square root. So we need to extend the system of real
numbers to a system in which we can find out the square roots of negative
numbers. Euler (1707 - 1783) was the first mathematician to introduce the
symbol i (iota) for positive square root of – 1 that is i   1 .
7.3 COMPLEX NUMBER
A number of the form a  ib , is called a complex number where a ,

b are real numbers and i   1 . If z  a  ib is the complex number, then
a and b are called real and imaginary parts, respectively, of the complex
number and written as Re( z )  a , Im( z )  b .
If the imaginary part of a complex number is zero, then the
complex number is known as purely real number and if real part is zero,
then it is called purely imaginary number, for example, 2 is a purely real
number because its imaginary part is zero and 3i is a purely imaginary
number because its real part is zero.
7.4 REPRESENTATION OF COMPLEX

NUMBER IN ARGAND PLANE
A complex number z  x  iy written as an ordered pair (x, y) can

be represented by a point P whose Cartesian coordinates are (x, y) referred
'
to axes X ' OX and Y OY, usually called the real and the imaginary axes.
'
The plane of X ' OX and Y OY is called the Argand diagram or the
complex plane.
P(x, y)
X' X
x M
Fig. 5.1
Y'
7.5 ADDITION OF COMPLEX NUMBERS
Let z1  a  ib and z 2  c  id be two complex numbers then

z1  z 2  (a  c)  i(b  d )
Procedure: In addition of complex numbers we add real parts with real
parts and imaginary parts.
7.6 ADDITION OF COMPLEX NUMBERS BY

GEOMETRY
Y
R
Q
O X
L K M
Fig. 5.2
Let z1  a  ib and z 2  c  id be two complex numbers

represented by the points P and Q on the Argand diagram.
Suppose the parallelogram OPRQ. Draw the PK , RM , QL, perpendiculars
on OX . Also draw PN  RM.
Since OLQ  PNR so, OQ  PR, KM  OL , NR  LQ
OM  OK  KM  OK  OL  a  c
RM  MN  NR  KP  LQ  b  d
Hence the coordinates of R are (a  c, b  d ) and it represented the
complex numbers.
(a  c)  i(b  d )  (a  id )  (c  id )  z1  z2
Thus the sum of two complex numbers is represented by the
extremity of the diagonal of the parallelogram formed by OP ( z1 ) and
OQ ( z 2 ) as adjacent sides.
z1  z 2  OR and amp( z1  z 2 )  ROM .
Properties:
1. As the sum of two complex numbers is again a complex number, the set
of complex numbers is closed with respect to addition.
2. Addition of complex numbers is commutative, i.e., z1  z 2  z 2  z1
3. Addition of complex numbers is associative, i.e.,

( z1  z 2 )  z 3  z1  ( z 2  z 3 ) .
4. For any complex number z  a  ib, there exist a complex number
(0+i0) i.e., 0 such that z  0  0  z , known as identity element for
addition.
5. For any complex number z  a  ib, there always exists a number
 z  a  ib , such that z  ( z )  ( z )  z  0 and is known as the
additive inverse of z .
7.7 MULTIPLICATION OF COMPLEX

NUMBERS
Let z1  a  ib and z 2  c  id , be two complex numbers. Then

z1  z 2  (a  ib)  (c  id )
 ac  iad  ibc  i 2bd
 ac  i (ad  bc)  (1)bd
 (ac  bd )  i (ad  bc)

NUMBERS (POLAR FORM)
Let z1  r1 (cos 1  i sin 1 ) and z 2  r2 (cos  2  i sin  2 )

a  r1 cos1 , b  r1 sin 1
c  r2 cos 2 , d  r2 sin  2
z1  a  ib  r1 (cos 1  i sin 1 )
z 2  c  id  r2 (cos  2  i sin  2 )
z1  z 2  r1 (cos 1  i sin 1 )  r2 (cos  2  i sin  2 )
 r1r2 (cos 1  i sin 1 )(cos  2  i sin  2 )
 r1r2 [(cos 1 cos 2  sin 1 sin  2 )  i(sin 1 cos 2  cos1 sin  2 )]

 r1r2 [cos(1   2 )  i sin( 1   2 )]

NUMBERS (GEOMETRICAL
REPRESENTATION)
Let P and Q represent the complex numbers
Y
R(Z1. Z 2 )
r1  r2
Q( z 2 )
1  2
1 2
P( z1 )
O
X
A
Fig. 5.3
z1  a  ib  r1 (cos 1  i sin 1 )
z 2  c  id  r2 (cos 2  i sin 2 )
Cut off OA  1 along x-axis. Construct ORQ on OQ similar to OAP
OR OQ OR OQ
So that   
OP OA OP 1
 OR  OP.OQ  r1 .r2
 XOR  AOQ  QOR  1   2
Hence the product of two complex numbers z1 .z 2 is represented by the
point R , such that
(a) z1 .z 2  z1 . z 2
(b) Arg ( z1 , z 2 )  Arg ( z1 )  Arg ( z 2 )
Properties:
1. As the product of two complex numbers is a complex number, the
set of complex numbers is closed with respect to multiplication.
2. Multiplication of complex numbers is commutative, i.e.
z1  z 2  z 2  z1
3. Multiplication of complex numbers is associative, i.e.

( z1  z 2 )  z3  z1  ( z 2 z3 )
4. For any complex number z  a  ib , there exists a complex number
(1 + 0i) i.e.1 such that z  1  1  z  z is known as identity element
for multiplication.
5. For any non zero complex number z  a  ib, there exists a
1 1 1
complex number such that z    z  1 i.e., multiplicative
z z z
1 a  ib
inverse of a  ib   2 .
a  ib a  b 2
6. For any three complex numbers z1 , z 2 and z 3
z1  ( z 2  z3 )  z1  z 2  z1  z3
and ( z1  z 2 )  z3  z1  z 3  z 2  z3
i.e., for complex numbers multiplication is distributive over
addition.
7.10 EQUALITY OF COMPLEX NUMBERS

Two complex numbers a  ib and c  id are said to be equal if
a  ib  c  id
 a  c  i ( d  b)
 (a  c) 2  (d  b) 2 or (a  c) 2  (d  b) 2  0
Here sum of two positive numbers is zero. This is only possible if each
number is zero.
That is
( a  c) 2  0  ac
and ( d  b) 2  0  bd.
7.11 SUBTRACTION
z1  z 2  (a  ib)  (c  id )  (a  c)  i(b  d )

That is, in subtraction of complex numbers we subtract real part from real
part and imaginary part from imaginary part.
3 7
For example, suppose two complex numbers z1   i and
4 3
5 11
z 2    i then
3 5
  5 11   3 7 
Subtract z 2  z1    i    i
 3 5  4 3 
  5 3   11 7 
      i
 3 4  5 3
  20  9   33  35    29   68 
  i      i
 12   15   12   15 
7.12 SUBTRACTION OF A COMPLEX NUMBER

BY GEOMETRY
Fig. 5.4
z1  a  ib and z 2  c  id
Then z1  z 2  z1  ( z 2 ), z1  z2 means the addition of z1 and  z 2 .
 z2 is represented by OQ  formed by producing OQ to OQ  such that
OQ  OQ .
Complete the parallelogram OPR Q , then the sum of z1 and  z 2

represented by OR.
7.13 CONJUGATE OF A COMPLEX NUMBER
Let z  a  ib, be a complex number. Then a complex number

obtained by changing the sign of imaginary part of the complex number is
called the conjugate of z and it is denoted by z , that is,
z  a  ib.
In the other hand, two complex numbers which differ only in the
sign of imaginary parts are called conjugate of each other.
Suppose a pair of complex numbers z  a  ib and z  a  ib are said to
be conjugate of each other.
Sum  (a  ib )  (a  ib )  2a
(Real)
Product  (a  ib)  (a  ib)  a 2  b 2
(Real)
7.14 POWER OF i
Some time we need various power of i .
We know that i   1 .
On squaring both sides, we get
i 2  1
Multiplying by i both sides, we get
i 3  i
Again i 4  (i 3 ).(i)  (i).(i)  (i 2 )  (1)  1
i 5  (i 4 ).(i)  (1).(i)  i
i 6  (i 5 ).(i)  (i).(i)  i 2  1
i 7  (i 6 ).(i)  (1).(i)  i
i 8  (i 7 ).(i)  (i).(i)  (i 2 )  (1)  1.
7.15 i (IOTA) AS AN OPERATOR

Multiplication of a complex number by i
Let z  a  ib  r (cos   i sin  )
  
i  0  i.1  cos  i sin 
 2 2
  
i.z  r (cos   i sin  ). cos  i sin 
 2 2
     
 r cos    i sin   .
  2  2 
Hence a complex number multiplied by i give the rotation to the complex

number by is anticlockwise direction without change in magnitude.
2
7.16 DIVISION OF A COMPLEX NUMBER

To divide a complex number z1  a  ib by z 2  c  id , we write it as
z1 a  ib

z 2 c  id
To simplify further, we multiply the numerator and denominator by the
conjugate of the denominator.
z1 a  ib c  id ac  iad  ibc  i 2 bd
  
z 2 c  id c  id (c) 2  (id ) 2
ac  i (ad  bc)  bd

c2  i2d 2
ac  bd (bc  ad )
 2  2 i
c d2 c d2
For example, suppose two complex numbers are 1  i by 3  4i , then
1 i 1  i 3  4i
Division   
3  4i 3  4i 3  4i
3  4i  3i  4i 2

9  16i 2
3i  4 7 1
   i.
9  16 25 25
7.17 DIVISION OF A COMPLEX NUMBER BY

ALGEBRA
z1 r (cos 1  i sin 1 ) r (cos 1  i sin 1 ) (cos  2  i sin  2 )
 1  1 
z 2 r2 (cos  2  i sin  2 ) r2 (cos  2  i sin  2 ) (cos  2  i sin  2 )
r1[(cos 1 cos  2  sin 1 sin  2 )  i(sin 1 cos  2  sin  2 cos 1 )]

r2 (cos 2  2  sin 2  2 )
r1
 [(cos(1   2 )  i sin( 1   2 )]
r2
The modulus of the quotient of two complex numbers is the quotient of
their moduli, and the argument of the quotient is the difference of their
arguments.
7.18 DIVISION OF A COMPLEX NUMBER BY

GEOMETRY
z1  a  ib
 r1 (cos 1  i sin 1 )
z 2  c  id
 r2 (cos 2  i sin 2 )
Y
Fig. 7.5
Cut off OA  1 along x-axis, construct OAR on OA similar to OQP
OR OP OR OP
So that   
OA OQ 1 OQ
OP r.
 OR  . 1
OQ r2
 AOR  QOP  AOP  AOQ  1   2
r1
 R represents the number [(cos(1   2 )  i sin( 1   2 )] .
r2
z1
Hence the complex number is represented by the point R .
z2
Example 1. Subtract the two complex numbers
1 3 3 5
z1   i and z2   i
2 5 5 7
1 3 3 5
Solution: Given that z1   i and z2   i
2 5 5 7
 1 3  3 5   1 3 3 5
We have z1  z 2    i     i         i
 2 5  5 7   2 5 5 7
 5  6   21  25   1 46
  i   i
 10   35  10 35
Example 2. Add the following complex numbers
2 4 5 7  10
z1  3  i , z 2  6  i , z 3   i , z 4   4i.
5 7 2 3 3
Solution: We have
 2   4   5 7    10 
z1  z 2  z 3  z 4   3  i    6  i     i     4i 
 5   7  2 3   3 
 5 10   2 4 7 
  3  6         4 i
 2 3  5 7 3 
49 683
  i
6 105
Example 3. Simplify the following complex numbers
(a) i 49 (b) i 103
Solution: (a) We divide 49 by 4 and we have
49  4 12  1
 i 49  i 4121
 (i 4 )12 .(i)  i
i 49  i
(b) We divide by 103 by 4 and we have
103  4  25  3
 i 103  i 4253
 (i 4 ) 25 .(i 3 )  (i) 25 .(i)  i
i 103  i.
Example 4. Find the multiply between the two complex numbers

z1  3  9i and z 2  5  7i
Solution: Given that z1  3  9i, z 2  5  7i , we have
z1  z 2  (3  9i)  (5  7i)  15  21i  45i  63i 2
 15  21i  45i  63(1)  15  21i  45i  63
 78  24i
Example 5. Find the conjugate of the complex number 9  2i.
Solution: Let z  9  2i
To obtain the conjugate number of z  9  2i , then change the sign of
imaginary parts.
Conjugate of z  z  9  2i.
Example 6. Divide z1  2  i by z 2  3  5i.
Solution: Given that z1  2  i, z 2  3  5i.
z1 2i

z 2 3  5i
z1 2  i 3  5i 6  10i  3i  5i 2
   
z 2 3  5i 3  5i 9  25i 2
6  10i  3i  5 11  7i 11 7
    i
9  25 34 34 34
z1 11 7
   i
z 2 34 34
(5  i).(3  i)
Example 7. Express in the form of a  ib .
(3  4i).( 2  3i )
Solution: We have
(5  i).(3  i) 15  5i  3i  i 2 15  5i  3i  1
 2 
(3  4i).( 2  3i) 6  9i  8i  12i 6  9i  8i  12
16  2i 16  2i 18  i
  
18  i 18  i 18  i
288  16i  36i  2i 2 288  16i  36i  2
 
18 2  i 2 324  1
290  20i 290 20 58 4

   i   i
325 325 325 65 65
Example 8. If a  cos  i sin  , prove that
1  a  a  (1  2 cos  )(cos   i sin  ).
2
Solution: Here we have a  cos  i sin 

1  a  a 2  1  (cos   i sin  )  (cos   i sin  ) 2
 1  cos   i sin   cos 2   2i sin  cos   sin 2 
 (cos   i sin  )  cos 2   2i sin  cos   (1  sin 2  )

 (cos   i sin  )  cos 2   2i sin  cos   cos 2 
 (cos   i sin  )  2 cos 2   2i sin  cos 
 (cos   i sin  )  2 cos  (cos   i sin  )
 (1  2 cos  )(cos   i sin  )
4  5i sin 
Example 9. Solve for  such that the expression is
2  i sin 
imaginary.
Solution: We have
4  5i sin  4  5i sin  2  i sin 
 
2  i sin  2  i sin  2  i sin 
8  4i sin   10i sin   5i 2 sin 2 

2 2  i 2 sin 2 
8  5 sin 2   14i sin 

4  sin 2 
8  5 sin 2   14i sin 
If 8  5 sin 2   0, then is purely imaginary.
4  sin 2 
8 8  8
sin 2    sin      sin 1  
5 5 5 
 
Example 10. If a 2  b 2  c 2  1 and b  ic  (1  a) z, prove that
a  ib 1  iz
 .
1  c 1  iz
Solution: Given that b  ic  (1  a) z,
b  ic
 z
1 a
b  ic
1 i
1  iz 1  a  1  a  c  ib
 
1  iz b  ic 1  a  c  ib
1 i
1 a
1  a  c  ib 1  a  c  ib
 
1  a  c  ib 1  a  c  ib
(1  a  ib ) 2  c 2

(1  a  c) 2  b 2
1  a 2  b 2  2a  2ib  2iab  c 2

1  a 2  c 2  2a  2c  2ac  b 2
1  a 2  b 2  c 2  2a  2ib  2iab

1  (a 2  b 2  c 2 )  2a  2c  2ac
Substituting a 2  b 2  c 2  1 in the above expression, we get
1  iz 1  a 2  (1  a 2 )  2a  2ib  2iab

1  iz 1  1  2a  2c  2ac
2(a 2  a  ib  iab) 2(1  a)( a  ib) a  ib
  
2(1  a  c  ac) 2(1  a)(1  c) 1 c
1  iz a  ib
  .
1  iz 1 c
Example 11. If z  cos   i sin  , prove that
2  1 z 
(a)  1  i tan (b)  i cot
1 z 2 1 z 2
Solution: Given that z  cos   i sin  , we have
2 2 2
(a)  
1  z 1  (cos   i sin  ) (1  cos  )  i sin 
2 (1  cos  )  i sin 
 
(1  cos  )  i sin  (1  cos  )  i sin 
2[(1  cos  )  i sin  ] 2[(1  cos  )  i sin  ]
 
(1  cos  )  sin  1  cos 2   2 cos   sin 2 
2 2
2[(1  cos  )  i sin  ] 2[(1  cos  )  i sin  ]

 
1  1  2 cos  2  2 cos 
(1  cos  )  i sin  1  cos  i sin 
  
1  cos  1  cos  1  cos 
 
2 sin cos
 1 i 22  1  i tan 
 2
1  2 cos 2  1
2
2 
  1  i tan
1 z 2
1 z (1  cos  )  i sin 
(b) 
1 z (1  cos  )  i sin 
  
2 cos 2  2i sin cos
 2 2 2
  
2 sin 2  2i sin cos
2 2 2
  
cos  cos  i sin 
2 2 2

  
sin  sin  i cos 
2 2 2
   
(cos  i sin
) (sin  i cos )
 2 2  2 2
= cot
2    
(sin  i cos ) (sin  i cos )
2 2 2 2
     
(cos sin  i cos 2  i sin 2  sin cos )
 2 2 2 2 2 2
 cot
2  
(sin 2  cos 2 )
2 2
  
cos 2  sin 2
  2 2   i cot 
 cot i 
2 2  2   2
cos  sin
 2 2 
1 z 
  i cot
1 z 2
Example 12. If a  cos   i sin  , b  cos   i sin  , prove that
ab    
 i tan  
ab  2 
Solution: We have
a  b (cos   i sin  )  (cos   i sin  )

a  b (cos   i sin  )  (cos   i sin  )
(cos   cos  )  i (sin   sin  )


(cos   cos  )  i (sin   sin  )
                  
 2 sin  2  sin  2   2i cos 2  sin  2 
       

                  
2 cos 2  cos 2   2i sin  2  cos 2 
        
              
2i sin   cos   i sin  
 2   2   2 

              
2 cos  cos   i sin  
 2   2   2 
   
 i tan  
 2 
ab    
  i tan  
ab  2 
3
Example 13. If a  ib  , prove that
2  cos   i sin 
(a  1)(a  3)  b 2  0.
Solution: We have
3
a  ib 
2  cos   i sin 
………….(1)
3
So that a  ib 
2  cos   i sin 
………….(2)
Multiplying (1) and (2), we get
9
a2  b2 
5  4 cos 
…………..(3)
Adding (1) and (2), we get
6 [2  cos  ]
2a 
5  4 cos 
Now (a  1)(a  3)  b 2  a 2  4a  3  b 2
 a 2  b 2  2  2a  3
9 2  6(2  cos  )
  3 0
5  4 cos  5  4 cos 
(a  1)(a  3)  b 2  0
Exercise 1
(6  i).(2  i)
1. Express in the form of a  ib.
(4  3i).(1  2i)
6 1
Ans.:  i
5 5
3  2i sin 
2. Solve for  such that the expression is imaginary.
1  2i sin 

Ans.:  
3
2  3i
3. Find the complex conjugate of Ans.:
1 i
1 5
  i
2 2
1
4. If z  1  i, find (a) z 2 (b) and plot them on the Argand diagram.
z
1 i
Ans.:(a) 2i (b) 
2 2
1
5. If a  ib  , prove that , (a 2  b 2 )( x 2  y 2 )  1 .
x  iy
6. Find the value of x 2  6 x  13, when x  3 2i .
Ans.: 0
1
7. If   i  , prove that ( 2   2 )(a 2  b 2 )  1.
a  ib
1 1
8. If   1, where  ,  , a, b are real, express b in terms of
  i a  ib
, .
Ans.:

   2  2  1
2
3 7  5 11
9. Subtract z1   i from z 2   i.
4 3 3 5
 29 68
Ans.:  i
12 15
10. Multiply (3+4i) by (7-3i) Ans.:
33  19i
11. Divide (1+i) by (3+4i)

7 1
Ans.:  i
25 25
12. Express the following in the form a  ib, where a and b are real:
2  3i 11 10 (3  4i )( 2  i )
(a) Ans.:  i (b)
4i 17 17 1 i
13 9
Ans.:  i
2 2
(1  2i ) 2 7 1 1
(c) Ans.:   i. (d)
(1  i )( 2  i ) 2 2 (1  2i )( 2  3i )
8 1
Ans.:  i
65 65
1
x y
13. If ( x  iy ) 3  a  ib, prove that 4(a 2  b 2 )   .
a b
u v
14. If ( x  iy ) 3  u  iv, prove that   4( x 2  y 2 ) .
x y
(1  i )a  2i (2  3i )b  i
15. Find the values of a and b, if   i. Ans.:
3i 3i
a  3, b  1
( x  i) 2 ( x 2  1) 2
16. If a  ib  , prove that a  b 
2 2
.
2x 2  1 (2 x 2  1) 2
7.19 MODULUS OF A COMPLEX NUMBER

Let z  a  ib be a complex number.
Putting a  r cos and b  r sin  so that r  a 2  b 2 then
a b
cos  , sin  
a b
2 2
a  b2
2
the positive value of the root being taken.
P(x,y)
r
O X
Fig. 5.6
Then r is said to be modulus or absolute value of the complex number

a  ib and is denoted by a  ib . Modulus of z is denoted by z and if
z  a  ib
 z  a 2  b2
Let z  a  ib be a complex number then its magnitude is defined by the
real number a 2  b 2 .
In the set of complex numbers z1  z 2 or z1  z 2 are meaningless but
z1  z 2 or z1  z 2
are meaningful because z1 and z 2 are real numbers.
7.20 ARGUMENT OF A COMPLEX NUMBER

b
If z  a  ib then angle  given by tan  
is said to be the argument or
a
amplitude of the complex number z and is denoted by arg( z ) or amp(z ) .
In case of a  0 (where b  0 ), arg( z)    2 or   2 depending upon
b  0 or b  0 and the complex number is called purely imaginary. If
b  0 (where a  0 ), then arg( z )  0 or  depending upon a  0 or a  0
and the complex number is called purely real. The argument of the
complex number 0 is not defined. It means the value of  lying in the
range       is said to be the principal value of the argument. The
principal value of  is written either between 0 and  or 0 and   .
Example 1. Express the following complex numbers in the modulus-

amplitude form:
(i) 1  i (ii)  3  i (iii)
(1  i)( 2  i)
(3  i)
Solution:(i) Let 1  i  r (cos   i sin  )
 r cos  1 and r sin   1
Squaring and adding, we get
r  11  2
Again dividing, we get
7 7
tan   1  tan  
4 4
 7 7 
1  i  2  cos  i sin 
 4 4 
(ii) Let  3  i  r (cos   i sin  )
 r cos    3 and r sin   1
r  3 1  4  2
Again dividing, we get
1 5 5
tan    tan  
3 6 6
 5 5 
 3  i  2 cos  i sin 
 6 6 
(1  i)( 2  i) 2  i  2i  i 2
(iii) We have  .
(3  i) 3i
3i

3i
 1  i (cos 0  i sin 0)
Example 2. Find the modulus and principal argument of the complex
number:
 
1  cos   i sin  0    
 2
Solution: Let 1  cos   i sin   r (cos   i sin  )
Equating real and imaginary part, we get
1  cos  r cos
..……………………(1)
sin   r sin 
……………………..(2)
Squaring and adding (1) and (2), we get
r 2 (cos 2   sin 2  )  (1  cos  ) 2  (sin  ) 2
r 2  1  cos 2   2 cos   sin 2 
   
r 2  2(1  cos  )  21  2 cos 2  1  4 cos 2
 2  2

r  2 cos
2

1  2 cos 2 1
1  cos  2 
From (1) we get, cos     cos
r  2
2 cos
2
………….……..(3)
 
2 sin cos
sin  2 2  sin 
From (2) we get, sin   
r  2
2 cos
2
……………….(4)
Argument
   
  2 sin cos 

 tan 1 
sin 
  tan 
1 2 2   tan 1  tan    
 1  cos    1  2 cos 2   1   2 2
 
 2 

General value of argument  2k 
2

  is satisfied both equations, (1) and (2).
2
Example 3. Find the modulus and principal argument of the complex
1  2i
1  (1  i ) 2
Solution: We have
1  2i 1  2i

1  (1  i ) 2
1  1  1  2i
1  2i
  1  1 0i
1  2i
1  2i
  1  0i  12  1
1  (1  i) 2
1  2i
Principal argument of  Principal argument of 1 0i
1  (1  i ) 2
0
 tan 1
 tan 1 0  0 0.
1
Hence modulus  1 and principal argument  0 .
0
Exercise 2
1. Find the modulus and principal argument of the following complex
numbers:
5 (1  i ) 2
(a)  3  i Ans.: 2, (b)
6 1 i
3
Ans.: 2 ,
4
1 i 
(c) Ans.: 1, (d) tan   i Ans.:
1 i 4
 
sec  ,   
2 
  
(e) 1  cos   i sin  Ans.: 2 sin ,
2 2
 3 2 2 
(f) (4  2i )( 3  i 2 ) Ans.: 2 55 , tan 1  

 6 2 
2. Find the modulus of the following complex numbers:
(a) (7  i 2 )  (6  i)  (4  3i)
Ans.: 4 5
(b) (5  6i )  (5  6i )  (8  i )
Ans.: 185
(c) (9  i )  (8  i 3 )  (7i 2  5)
Ans.: 365
(d) (5  6i11 )  (8i 3  i 5 )  (i 2  i 4 )
Ans.: 178
 3
3. If arg .( z  2i )  and arg .( z  2i )  , find z.
4 4
Ans.: z  2
1  7i
4. Express in the modulus-argument form. Ans.:
(2  i) 2
 3 3 
2  cos  i sin 
 4 4 
5. Express  5  12i in the modulus-argument form.
5 12
Ans.: 13(cos   i sin  ), where cos    and cos    ,  lying
13 13

between and  .
2
6. Show that arg z  arg z  2n , where n is any integer.
7. Show that the equation of a circle in the Argand plane can be put in the
form
zz  bz  b z  c  0,
Where c is a real and b a complex constant.
7.21 SOME PROPERTIES OF MODULUS AND

ARGUMENTS OF COMPLEX NUMBERS
Theorem 1. Modulus and Arguments of the conjugate of a Complex
Numbers.
If z is any non zero complex numbers, then
z  z and arg z   arg z
Proof: Let z  r and arg z   .
Then from modulus argument of a complex number, we have
z  r (cos   i sin  )
 z  r (cos   i sin  )  r[cos(  )  i sin(  )]
Which is modulus argument from for z .
Hence, z  r  z and arg z     arg z.
Theorem 2. Modulus and Arguments of the Product of two Complex
Numbers.
If z1 and z 2 are any two non-zero complex numbers, then
z1 .z1  z1 . z 2 and
arg( z1 .z1 )  arg( z1 )  arg( z 2 )
Proof: Let z1  r1 (cos 1  i sin 1 ) and

z 2  r2 (cos  2  i sin  2 )
Then z1  r1 , z 2  r2 , arg z1  1 arg z 2   2
We have z1 z 2  [r1 (cos 1  i sin 1 )][ r2 (cos  2  i sin  2 )]
 r1r2 [(cos 1  i sin 1 )(cos  2  i sin  2 )]
 r1r2 [(cos 1 cos 2  sin 1 sin  2 )  i(sin 1 cos 2  cos1 sin  2 )]

 r1r2 [(cos(1   2 )  i sin( 1   2 )]
From this represented of z1 z2 in the modulus-argument, we get
z1 z 2  r1r2  z1 z 2
and arg( z1 z 2 )  arg( z1 )  arg( z 2 )  1   2
Theorem 3. Modulus and Argument of the Quotient of two Complex
Numbers.
If z1 , z2 be any two complex numbers, then
z1 z1
 and
z2 z2
z 
arg 1   arg z1  arg z 2 .
 z2 
Proof: Let z1  r1 (cos 1  i sin 1 ) and z 2  r2 (cos  2  i sin  2 )
So that z1  r1 z 2  r2 , arg z1  1 arg z 2   2 ,
we get
z1 r (cos 1  i sin 1 )
 1
z 2 r2 (cos  2  i sin  2 )
r1 (cos 1  i sin 1 ) (cos  2  i sin  2 )
 . 
r2 (cos  2  i sin  2 ) (cos  2  i sin  2 )
r1 (cos 1 cos  2  sin 1 sin  2 )  i (sin 1 cos  2  cos 1 sin  2 )
=
r2 cos 2  2  sin 2  2
r1 [cos(1   2 )  i sin( 1   2 )]
 .
r2 1
r1
 .[cos(1   2 )  i sin( 1   2 )]
r2
z1
From this represented of in the standard polar form, we observe that
z2
z1 r z1 z1
 1  
z2 r2 z2 z2
z 
and arg 1   1   2 
 z2 
z 
arg 1   arg z1  arg z 2 .
 z2 
Theorem 4. Triangle Inequality
The modulus of the sum of two complex numbers can never exceed the
sum of their moduli, that is z1  z 2  z1  z 2
Proof: Let z1  r1 (cos 1  i sin 1 ) and z 2  r2 (cos  2  i sin  2 )
So that z1  r1 and z 2  r2 , we get
Now z1  z 2  (r1 cos1  ir1 sin 1 )  (r2 cos 2  ir2 sin  2 )
 (r1 cos1  r2 cos 2 )  i.(r1 sin 1  r2 sin  2 )
 z1  z 2  (r1 cos1  r2 cos 2 ) 2  (r1 sin 1  r2 sin  2 ) 2
 r1  r2  2r1r2 cos(1  1 )
2 2
[cos(1  1 )  1]
 r12  r22  2r1 r2  (r1  r2 ) 2
 r1  r2  z1  z 2
Hence, z1  z 2  z1  z 2 .
Theorem 5. The modulus of the difference of two complex numbers can
never be less than the difference of their moduli, that is
z1  z1  z1  z 2
Proof: Suppose z1 , z2 be any two complex numbers, we get
So that z1  r1 and z 2  r2 , we get
Now z1  z 2  (r1 cos1  ir1 sin 1 )  (r2 cos 2  ir2 sin  2 )
 (r1 cos1  r2 cos 2 )  i.(r1 sin 1  r2 sin  2 )
 z1  z 2  (r1 cos1  r2 cos 2 ) 2  (r1 sin 1  r2 sin  2 ) 2
 r1  r2  2r1r2 cos(1  1 )
2 2
[cos(1  1 )  1]
 r12  r22  2r1r2  (r1  r2 ) 2

 r1  r2  z1  z 2
Hence, z1  z 2  z1  z 2 .
7.22 SQUARE ROOT OF A COMPLEX NUMBER

Let a  ib be a Complex Number and its Square Root is x  iy. that is
a  ib  x  iy , where x, y  R.
……………(1)
Squaring both sides of (1), we get
a  ib  ( x  iy ) 2
 a  ib  x 2  y 2  2ixy
……………(2)
Equating real and imaginary parts of (2), we get
a  x2  y2
……………(3)
and b  2 xy
……………(4)
Also, we know that
( x 2  y 2 ) 2  ( x 2  y 2 ) 2  4x 2 y 2
From using (3) and (4), we get
(x2  y 2 )2  a 2  b2
 x2  y 2  a2  b2
……………(5)
2x 2  a  a 2  b 2
a  a2  b2
 x
2
Subtracting (3) from (5), we get
2 y 2  a2  b2  a
a2  b2  a2
 y
2
Positive and negative values can be checked by satisfying equation (4).
Example 1. Find the square root of the complex number 5  12i.
Solution: Let 5  12i  x  iy (square)
 5  12i  ( x  iy ) 2
 5  12i  ( x 2  y 2 )  2ixy
Equating real and imaginary parts, we get
x2  y2  5
…………..(1)
and 2 xy  12
Also, we know that
x 2  y 2  ( x 2  y 2 ) 2  4 x 2 y 2  (5) 2  (12) 2
 25  144  169  13
 x  y  13
2 2
…………..(2)
2 x 2  5  13  18  x2  9  x  9  3
Subtracting (1) from (2), we get
2 y 2  13  5  8  y2  4 
y  4  2
Since, xy is positive so x and y are of same sign. Hence, x  3, y  2
 5  12i  3  2i  (3  2i ) or  (3  2i ).
Example 2. Find the radius and center of the circle
z i
5
zi
z i
Solution: We have 5
zi
 z i  5z i
 z  i  25 z  i
2 2
 z 2
 z. z 
 ( z  i )( z  i )  25( z  i )( z  i )
 ( z  i )( z  i )  25( z  i )( z  i )
 zz  zi  iz  1  25( zz  zi  iz  1)
 24zz  26zi  26iz  24  0
 24 zz  i 26( z  z )  24  0
[ z.z  ( x  iy )( x  iy )  ( x 2  y 2 ),
z  z  ( x  iy )  ( x  iy )  2iy ]
 24( x 2  y 2 )  52 y  24  0
13
 x2  y2  y 1  0
6
Compare x 2  y 2  2 gx  2 fy  c  0
13
Here g  0, f  and c  1.
12
This is the required equation of the circle.
 13 
Centre of the circle  ( g , f )   0, 
 12 
2
 13  25 5
and radius  g  f  c  0      1 
2 2 2

 12  144 12
Example 3. Find the locus of the points z satisfying the condition
 z 1 
arg  .
 z 1 3
z  1 a  ib  1 (a  1)  ib
Solution: We have  
z  1 a  ib  1 (a  1)  ib
(a  1)  ib (a  1)  ib
 
(a  1)  ib (a  1)  ib
a 2  1  b 2  ib[( a  1)  (a  1)]

(a  1) 2  b 2
(a 2  b 2  1)  2ib

(a  1) 2  b 2
 z 1 1  2b 
 arg   tan  2 
 z 1  a  b 1
2
  2b 
Hence  tan 1  2 
 a  b 1
2
3
 2b
tan  2 . 
3 a  b2 1
2b
3 2 .
a  b2 1
2
 b  a2  b2 1 
3
 2 
a 2  b 2   b  1  0
 3
This is the required locus which is a circle.
Example 4. Find the radius and center of the circle
z.z  (2  3i ) z  (2  3i) z  9  0
Solution: Given that
z.z  (2  3i ) z  (2  3i) z  9  0
 zz  2( z  z )  3i ( z  z )  9  0 ...............................(1)
Here, z.z  (a  ib)( a  ib )  (a  b ), z  z  (a  ib )  (a  ib )  2ib
2 2
And z  z  (a  ib )  (a  ib )  2a
From (1), becomes
 a 2  b 2  2(2a)  6b  9  0
 a 2  b 2  4a  6b  9  0
This is the Cartesian equation of the circle.
Compare with the standard equation of the circle
a 2  b 2  2 ga  2 fb  c  0
Here g  2, f  3 and c  9.
Coordinate of the Centre of the circle  ( g, f )  2,3 .
and radius  g  f  c  (2)  3  9  4  9  9  2 .

2 2 2 2
Example 5. If z1 and z 2 are any two complex numbers, prove that

z1  z1  z1  z1  2 z1  z 2
2 2
 2 2

Solution: Let z1  a  ib and z 2  c  id
z1  z 2
2
 (a  ib )  (c  id )
2
z1  z 2
2
 (a  c)  i (b  d )
2
z1  z 2
2
 (a  c) 2  (b  d ) 2
z1  z 2
2
Similarly  (a  c) 2  (b  d ) 2
z1  a 2  b 2
2 2
And z2  c2  d 2
L.H.S.  z1  z1  z1  z1  (a  c) 2  (b  d ) 2  (a  c) 2  (b  d ) 2
2 2
 a 2  c 2  2ac  b 2  d 2  2bd  a 2  c 2  2ac  b 2  d 2  2bd

 2[a 2  c 2  b 2  d 2 ]  2[(a 2  b 2 )  (c 2  d 2 )]
 2[ z1  z 2 ]  R.H.S.
2 2
Example 6. If z1 and z 2 are any two complex numbers, such that

z1  z 2  z1  z 2 , prove that

arg z1  arg z 2 
2
Solution: Let z1  a  ib and z 2  c  id
Given that z1  z 2  z1  z 2
 (a  ib)  (c  id )  (a  ib)  (c  id )
 (a  c)  i(b  d )  (a  c)  i(b  d )
 (a  c) 2  (b  d ) 2  (a  c) 2  (b  d ) 2

a 2  c 2  2ac  b 2  d 2  2bd  a 2  c 2  2ac  b 2  d 2  2bd
 2ac  2bd  2ac  2bd
 4ac  4bd  0
 ac  bd  0
b d 
Now arg z1  arg z 2  tan 1    tan 1  
a c
 b d 
    bc  ad 
 tan 1  a c   tan 1 
  b  d    ac  bd 

  a  c  
1
 
 bc  ad  
 tan 1    tan 1  
 0  2

arg z1  arg z 2 
2
Proved

Example 7. Find the complex number z if arg( z  1)  and
6
2
arg( z  1)  .
3
Solution: Let z  a  ib
 z  1  (a  1)  ib
……………….(1)
By the given condition
 b  
arg( z  1)  tan 1  
 a 1 6
 b  1
   tan 30 
0
 a 1 3
3b  a  1
Now ( z  1)  (a  1)  ib
………………..(2)
 b  2  b 
tan 1       tan 120
0
 a 1 3  a  1 
 b 
     cot 30   3
0
 a 1
  b   3a  3
  3b  3a  3
…………………………(3)
0  4a  2  4a  2 
1
a
2
1
Putting a  in (2), we get
2
1 3
3b  1  3b  
2 2
3
b
2
Putting the values of a and b in (1), we get
1 3
z  i
2 2
7.23 POLAR FORM
As we have discussed above
x  r cos and y  r sin 
 x  iy  r (cos   i sin  )
 re i (Exponential form)
On solving these equations, we get the value of  and r which satisfied
both the equations, we get
y
  tan 1 and r  x2  y2 .
x
Types of Complex numbers:
(a) Cartesian Form: x  iy (b) Polar Form: r (cos   i sin  ) (c)
i
Exponential Form: re

Example 1. Express in polar form 1  2  i. 
Solution: Let (1  2 )  i  r (cos   i sin  )
 1  2  r cos
……..…………(1)
1  r sin 
………………..(2)
Squaring and adding (1) and (2), we get
r 2 (cos 2   sin 2  )  (1  2 ) 2  12
 r 2  1 2 2  2 1
 r  42 2
Putting the values of r in (1) and (2), we get
1 2 1
cos   and sin  
42 2 42 2
 1 2 1 
Hence, the polar form is 4 2 2 i 
 42 2 4  2 2 

7.24 SUMMARY
In this unit we have calculated the complex problem of mathematics

through the trigonometry and also have been studied exponential and
trigonometrical variables. In the other fields that use trigonometry or
trigonometric functions and variables include music theory,geodesy, audio
synthesis, architecture, electronics,biology,medical imaging (CT
scans and ultrasound), chemistry,number theory (and
hence cryptology),seismology,meteorology,oceanography,image
compression,phonetics,economics,electrical engineering, mechanical
engineering, civil engineering,computer
graphics,cartography,crystallographyand game development.
7.25 GLOSSORY
Exponential: Very rapid increase.
Adjacent side:For a given acute angle in a right triangle, the adjacent side
to that angle is the side that, along with the hypotenuse, forms that acute
angle.
Identity:An equation that is true for any possible value of the variable.
Amplitude:Half the difference between the maximum and the minimum

values of a periodic function.
Conterminal angle:The description of two angles drawn in standard
position that share their terminal side.
Cycle:Any part of a graph of a periodic function that is one period long.
7.26 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1  7i
1. The imaginary part of the complex number is
(2  i) 2
(a) 2 i (b) i
2 1
(c) i (d) i
3 2
2. The modulus of the complex number 1  i is
1
(a) 2 (b)
2
1
(c) 2 (d)
2
3. The argument of the complex number  3i is
 
(a) (b) 
2 2
(c)   (d) 
4. If , where and are real, then
(a) q  sin x cos y (b)

q  cos x sin y
(c) q  sin x cosh y (d)

q  cos x sinh y
5. The exponential valueof cos x is
e i  e i e  e 
(a) (b)
2 2
e i  e i
(c) (d) None of
2
these
6. The complex conjugate of cos( x  iy ) is
(a) sin( x  iy ) (b) cos( x  iy )
(c) cos( x  iy ) (d) None of

these
7. Polar form of the complex number (1  i 3 ) is
  
(a) 2 cos  i sin  (b)
 3 3
 2 2 
2  cos  i sin 
 3 3 
 2 2 
(c) 2 cos  i sin  (d)
 3 3 
 2 2 
2  cos  i sin 
 3 3 
1 i
8. Modulus of is
1 i
(a) -1 (b) 0
(c) 1 (d) 2
ANSWERS:
1. (b) 2. (a) 3. (b) 4. (d)
5. (a) 6. (b) 7. (c) 8. (c)

1 i
1. Principal argument of is……
1 i
z 
2. If z1 and z2 are any two complex numbers then arg  1  is……..
 z2 
z i
3. Radius of the circle  5 is……….
zi
z i
4. Centre of the circle  5 is……….
zi
5. z  z  0 if and only if………..
(1  i ) 2
6. The real part of is……..
(3  i )
7. The locus represented by z  i  z  i if……….
8. If e i  cos   i sin  , then the value of sin  is………….
ANSWERS:
 2. 3.5/12 4.(0, -13/12)
1.
2 arg( z1 )  arg( z2 )
5. Re( z )  0 6.None of these 7.a straight line e i  e i

through the 8.
2i
origin
7.27 REFERENCES
1. Text book of trigonometry – Sharma A.K., Discovery Publishing

House, New Delhi, ISBN:8171419046, 9788171419043
2. Handbook of Mathematical Functions with Formulas, Graphs, and
Mathematical Tables- Abramowitz, Milton; Stegun, Irene A.,
New York: Dover Publications.
3. Algebra and trigonometry – Abramson J., OpenStax. E-ISBN: 978-
1-94717210-4 ISBN:978-1-938168-37-6.
4. P. R. Vittal and Malini, Algebra and Trigonometry, Margam

Publications(2008).
5. Complex variable and applications, James Ward Brown and Ruel
V. Churchill, McGraw Hill, International Edition.
6. Lipschntz, Seymour; Linear Algebra: Schum Solved Problems
Series; Tata McGraw Hill.

1. Text book trigonometry- Vasishtha A.R., Krishna Publication Ltd.
Meerut.
2. Trigonometry and Algebra – Bhupendra S., Pundir S.K., Pragati
Prakashan, ISBN: 978-93-5006-429-0.
3. Elementary Algebra and trigonometry – Vasishtha & Vasishtha,
Krishna Publication Ltd. Meerut.

1. Find the modulus and principal argument of the following complex

numbers
1 i (1  i ) 2
(a)  3  i (b) (c)
1 i 1 i
z 1
2. Prove that 1
z 1
3. If z1 and z2 are any two complex numbers, then prove that
z1  z 2  z1  z 2  z1  z 2
z z
4. If z  (a cos  )  i(a sin  ), prove that     2 cos 2 .
z z
5. Express the following complex numbers into polar form:
1 i 2  3i
(a) (b)
1 i 3  7i
1 i 
n
6. Find the smallest positive integer n for which   I.

1 i 
7. Find the square root of the following complex number
2  3i 2  3i
(a) 1  i (b)  (c)  2  2 3i
5  4i 5  4i
(d) a 2  1  i(2a) (e)  4  3i. (f) 3  4i 7
ANSWERS:
5  3
1. (a): 2, , (b) 1, (c) 2 ,
6 4 4
   23 
5.(a) cos  i sin (b) r  754 ,   tan 1   
2 2  15 
6. n  4.
 2 1 2  1  2
7.(a)   i  (b)  i (c)  (1  3i ) (d)  (a  i)
 2 2 
 41
 1 3 
(e)    i  (f)  ( 7  2i )
 2 2 
1. If z1 , z2 and z 3 are the vertices of an equilateral triangle, prove that

z1  z 2  z3  z1 z 2  z 2 z3  z3 z1 .
2 2 2
z 1
2. If  2, prove that the locus of z on the Argand plane is a
z 1
 5  4
circle, whose center has affix   ,0  and whose radius is .
 3  3
1 i  
3. If amp   , prove that locus of z on the Argand plane is a
1 i  4
circle, whose center has affix  1,0 and whose radius is 2.
 z  3i  
4. Find the locus of the complex number z , if arg   .
 z 3  3
5. Find the radius and center of the circle
zi z  2i
(a) 4 (b) 1
z i 4 z  3i
z  2i
(c) 2
z  3i
6. Find the radius and center of the circle
z.z  (2  i ) z  (2  i ) z  4  0
7. Find the locus of the points z satisfying the condition

 z 2 
arg   .
 z 3 6
ANSWERS:
4. a 2  b 2  (3  3 )a  (3  3 )b  3 3  0.
8  34  193  28 
5. (a) radius  , center   0,  (b) radius  , center   0, 
15  30  3  30 
(c) radius  5 2 , center  0,8
6.radius  2, center   2,2
7. x 2  y 2  x  2 3 y  6  0
UNIT 8: HYPERBOLIC FUNCTION
CONTENTS
8.1 Objectives
8.2 Introduction
8.3 Euler‟s Exponential Values (Function)
8.4 De Moivre‟s Theorem (By Exponential Function)
8.5 De Moivre‟s Theorem (By Induction)
8.6 Circular Functions
8.7 Hyperbolic Functions
8.8 Relation between Hyperbolic and Circular Functions
8.9 Some formulae of Hyperbolic Functions
8.10 Expansions for sinh x and cosh x
8.11 Periodicity of e z
8.12 Periods of Hyperbolic functions
8.13 Summary
8.14 Glossary
8.16 References
8.1 OBJECTIVE
 Use De-Moivre‟s theorem
 Understand circular function and hyperbolic functions
 Understand relations between hyperbolic and circular function
 Expand sinhx and coshx
 Know periodicity of exponential and hyperbolic functions.
8.2 INTRODUCTION
In the previous unit we studied about complex number and their
operations like addition, multiplication, subtraction and division. Also we
know about the trigonometric ratios for real angle  .
Now the question arises what will be the values of these
trigonometric ratios when we use complex angles. To clear this concept
hyperbolic functions developed by Vincenzo Riccati and Johann
Heinrich Lambert in 1760s. Hyperbolic functions are analogs of ordinary
trigonometric or circular function.
8.3 EULER’S EXPONENTIAL VALUES

(FUNCTION)
When x is real, then we know that

x2 x3 x4
ex  1 x 
   ...............
2! 3! 4!
………… (1)
x3 x5 x7
sin x  x     ...............
3! 5! 7!
…………. (2)
x2 x4 x6
cos x  1     ...............
2! 4! 6!
………….(3)
On putting x  i in the equation (1), we get
i (i ) 2 (i ) 3 (i ) 4 (i ) 5
e  1  i      ..............
2! 3! 4! 5!
  2  4 (i ) 6   3 5 7 
 1     .........  i     ........
 2! 4! 6!   3! 5! 7! 
e i  cos   i sin 
…..…….. (4)
 i
Similarly, e  cos   i sin 
………….(5)
e i  e i e i  e i
cos   and sin  
2 2i
Where  may be real or complex. These formulae are known as Euler

Exponential values.
e i  e i i (e i  e i )
tan   and cot  
i (e i  e i ) e i  e i
8.4 DE-MOIVRE’S THEOREM (BY

EXPONENTIAL FUNCTION)
Theorem. Show that (cos   i sin  ) n  cos n  i sin n
Proof: We know that
e i  cos   i sin 
(e i ) n  (cos   i sin  ) n
e in  (cos   i sin  ) n
cos n  i sin n  (cos   i sin  ) n
If n is a fraction, then cos  i sin  is one of the values of
(cos   i sin  ) n .
8.5 DE MOIVRE’S THEOREM (BY INDUCTION)

Statement: For any rational number n the values or one of the values of
(cos   i sin  ) n  cos n  i sin n
Proof.Case I: Let n be a non-negative integer. By actual multiplication,
we have
(cos 1  i sin 1 )(cos  2  i sin  2 )  (cos 1 cos 2  sin 1 sin  2 )
 i(cos 1 sin 2  sin 1 cos2 )
 cos(1   2 )  i sin( 1   2 )
Similarly, we can prove that
(cos 1  i sin 1 )(cos  2  i sin  2 )(cos  3  i sin  3 )
 cos(1   2  3 )  i sin( 1   2  3 )
Continuing in this way, we can prove that
(cos 1  i sin 1 )(cos  2  i sin  2 )........(cos  n  i sin  n )
 cos(1   2  ....   n )  i sin( 1   2  ....   n )

Substituting 1   2  .... n   , we get
(cos   i sin  ) n  cos n  i sin n .
Case II: Let n be a non-negative integer, say n  m where m is a

positive integer. Then we have
(cos   i sin  ) n  (cos   i sin  )  m
1 1
 
(cos   i sin  ) m
(cos m  i sin m )
1 (cos m  i sin m )
 
(cos m  i sin m ) (cos m  i sin m )
(cos m  i sin m ) (cos m  i sin m )
 
(cos m  i sin m ) (cos 2 m  sin 2 m )
2 2 2
 cos m  i sin m
 cos( m )  i sin( m )
 cos n  i sin n
Hence, the theorem is true for negative integers also.
p
Case III: Let n be a proper fraction where p and q are integers. Then
q
we can select q to be positive integer, p may be positive or negative
integer.
q
    
Now,  cos  i sin   cos q.  i sin q.
 q q q q
 cos  i sin 
Taking the q root of both sides, we get
 
1
(cos   i sin  )  cos

q
 i sin
q q
Raising both sides to the power p , we get
p
   
p

(cos   i sin  )   cos  i sin   cos p.  i sin p.
q
 q q q q
Therefore, one of the values of
(cos   i sin  ) n  cos n  i sin n
Where n is the proper fraction, thus the theorem is true for all rational
values of n .
(cos   i sin  ) 8
Example 1. Express in the form a  ib .
(sin   i cos  ) 4
(cos   i sin  ) 8
(sin   i cos  ) 4
(cos   i sin  ) 8 (cos   i sin  ) 8


(sin   i cos  ) 4  1 
4
(i )  cos   sin  
4
 i 
(cos   i sin  ) 8 (cos   i sin  ) 8
 
cos   i sin  4 (cos(  )  i sin(  )4
(cos   i sin  ) 8 (cos   i sin  ) 8
 
cos  i sin    1 4 (cos   i sin  ) 4
 (cos   i sin  )12  cos12  i sin 12
1 1
Example 2. If 2 cos   x  and 2 cos   y  , then prove that
x y
1
x p .y q   2 cos( p  q ).
x .y q
p
Solution: We have
1
x  2 cos   x 2  2 x cos   1  0
x
2 cos   4 cos 2   4
 x  cos    sin 2 
2
2
Putting i for -1 and considering the positive sign, we get
x  cos  i sin  and similarly
y  cos   i sin 
Now, x p  (cos   i sin  ) p  cos p  i sin p
And y q  (cos   i sin  ) q  cos q  i sin q
Therefore x p . y q  (cos p  i sin p ).(cos q  i sin q )
 cos( p  q )  i sin( p  q )
……….(1)
1
And also  [cos( p  q )  i sin( p  q )] 1
x .y q
p
 cos( p  q )  i sin( p  q )
………..(2)
Adding equation (1) and (2), we get
1
x p . y q  p q   cos( p  q )  i sin( p  q )
x .y
 cos( p  q )  i sin( p  q )
1
x p .y q   2 cos( p  q ).
x .y q
p
Example 3. Prove that the general values of  which satisfied the

equation
(cos   i sin  ).(cos 2  i sin 2 )...............(cos n  i sin n )  1
4m
Is , where m is any integer.
n(n  1)
Solution: We have
(cos   i sin  ).(cos 2  i sin 2 )...............(cos n  i sin n )  1
(cos   i sin  ).(cos   i sin  ) 2 ...............(cos   i sin  ) n  1
(cos   i sin  )12........ n  1
n ( n 1)
(cos   i sin  ) 2
 (cos 2m  i sin 2m )
 n(n  1)   n(n  1) 
cos   i sin    cos 2m  i sin 2m
 2   2 
 n(n  1)  4m
   2m  
 2  n(n  1)
Example 4. Prove that
 n
(1  cos   i sin  ) n  (1  cos   i sin  ) n  2 n 1 cos 2 cos
2 2
where n is an integer.
Solution: L.H.S.  (1  cos   i sin  ) n  (1  cos   i sin  ) n
      
n n

 1  2 cos 2  1  2i sin cos   1  2 cos 2  1  2i sin cos 
 2 2 2  2 2 2
      
n n

 2 cos 2  2i sin cos   2 cos 2  2i sin cos 
 2 2 2  2 2 2
        
n n n n

  2 cos  cos 2  i sin 2    2 cos 2  cos 2  i sin 2 
 2
 n n    n n 
 2 n cos n  cos  i sin   2 n cos n cos  i sin
2 2 2  2 2 2 
 n n n n 
 2 n cos n  cos  i sin  cos  i sin
2 2 2 2 2 
 n 
 2 n cos n 2 cos 
2 2 
 n
 2 n 1 cos n cos  R.H.S.
2 2
Example 5. By using De Moivre‟s theorem, solve
x4  x3  x2  x  1  0
Solution: Given that x 4  x 3  x 2  x  1  0
We know that
x 5  1  ( x  1).( x 4  x 3  x 2  x  1)
x5  1
( x 4  x 3  x 2  x  1)  0
x 1
x5  1
 0  x5  1  0
x 1
 x 5  1  cos   i sin   cos(2r   )  i sin( 2r   )
x  cos( 2r   )  i sin( 2r   ) 5

1

(2r  1) (2r  1)
 x  cos   i sin 
5 5
Giving the values of r  0, 1, 2, 3, 4.
    3 3 
x   cos  i sin ,  cos  i sin , (cos   i sin  ),
 5 5  5 5 
 7 7 
 cos  i sin ,
 5 5 
 9 9 
 cos  i sin 
 5 5 
    3 3 
  cos  i sin ,  cos  i sin  and  1
 5 5  5 5 
But x  1 does not satisfy the given equation, therefore the required roots
are
    3 3 
 cos  i sin ,  cos  i sin 
 5 5  5 5 
Example 6. If  is a cube root of unity, prove that
(1   ) 6  27
Solution: Let x  1
3
1 1 1
 x  (1)  (cos 0  i sin 0)  (cos 2n  i sin 2n )
3 3 3
 2 n   2 n 
 cos   i sin  
 3   3 
Putting n  0, 1, 2 , the cube roots of unity are
x0  1
 2   2 
x1  cos   i sin  
 3   3 
 4   4 
x 2  cos   i sin  
2
 3   3 
2 2 4 4
Now, 1     2  1  cos  i sin  cos  i sin
3 3 3 3
       
 1  cos     i sin      cos     i sin    
 3  3  3  3
   
 1  cos  i sin  cos  i sin
3 3 3 3
 1
 1  2 cos  1  2   0
3 2
1    2  0  1   2  
…………(1)
Now, (1  w) 6  [(1  w) 2 ]3  [1  2w  w2 ]3  [w  2w]3
 (3 ) 3  27 3  27
Hence, (1   ) 6  27
Exercise 1
 1  cos   i sin  
n
1. Evaluate   Ans.:
 1  cos   i sin  
cos n  i sin n
2. If cos   cos   cos   0  sin   sin   sin  , then prove that
3
(a) sin 2   sin 2   sin 2   cos 2   cos 2   cos 2  
2
(b) cos 2  cos 2   cos 2  0
(c) cos(   )  cos(    )  cos(   )  0
(d) sin(    )  sin(    )  sin(    )  0
n2
n
3. If n be a positive integer, prove that (1  i )  (1  i )  2
n n 2
cos
4
1 1 1
4. If x   2 cos  , y   2 cos  , z   2 cos  , then show that
x y z
1
xyz   2 cos(     )
xyz
5. If  ,  are roots of the equation x 2  2 x  4  0, prove that
n
 n   n  2 n 1 cos
3
(cos 2  i sin 2 ) 7 .(cos 3  i sin 3 ) 5
6. Simplify (a) Ans.:
(cos 4  i sin 4 )12 .(cos 5  i sin 5 ) 6
cos107  i sin 107
(b) [(cos   cos  )  i(sin   sin  )] n  [(cos   cos  )  i(sin   sin  )] n
Ans.:
1 n
2 n 1 cos (   ) cos (   )
2 2
(cos 3  i sin 3 ) 5 .(cos   i sin  ) 3
(c) Ans.:
(cos 5  i sin 5 ) 7 .(cos 2  i sin 2 ) 5
cos13  i sin 13
(cos   i sin  ) 8 .(cos 3  i sin 3 ) 2
(d) Ans.:
(cos 2  i sin 2 ) 5 .(cos 4  i sin 4 ) 7
cos 20  i sin 20
7. Solve by De-Moivre‟s theorem
(a) x  x  x  1  0
9 5 4
Ans.: -1, 1,
  3 3
 i, cos  i sin , cos  i sin
5 5 5 5
2 n 2 n
(b) x  1  0  i sin
7
Ans.: cos
7 7
where n  0,1,2,3,4,5,6
(c) x  x  x  1  0
7 4 3
Ans.:
1 i 1 i 1 i 3
x , , ,1 .
2 2 2
8.6 CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS

Circular Functions are already discussed in the form of Exponential
function that is Euler‟s Exponential values in the term of Circular
Functions:
e i  e i
cos   ,
2
e i  e i
sin  
2i
If   z , then
e iz  e iz
cos z  ,
2
e iz  e iz
sin z 
2i
8.7 HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS
Any group of functions of an angle expressed as a relationship between

the distances of a point on a hyperbola to the origin and coordinate axes.
The group of functions includes the hyperbolic function, whether x be
real or complex is said to be Hyperbolic function such as
e x  ex e x  ex
sinh x  cosh x 
2 2
ex  ex
tanh x 
ex  e x
ex  ex 2
coth x  x sec hx 
e  e x e  e x
x
2
cos echx  x
e  e x
e x  ex e x  ex
cosh x  sinh x    ex
2 2
e x  ex e x  ex
cosh x  sinh x    e x
2 2
(cosh x  sinh x) n  cosh nx  sinh nx
8.8 RELATION BETWEEN HYPERBOLIC AND

CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS
Hyperbolic functions can be expressed in the term of Circular Functions as
follows:
We know that
e ix  e ix
sin x  , Put x  ix
2i
e i x  e i ex  e x
2 2
x
sin ix  
2i 2i
i[e  x  e x ] i[e  x  e x ]
sin ix  
2i 2 2
i[e x  e  x ]
sin ix   i sinh x 
2
sinh ix  i sin x
Similarly, cos ix  cosh x 
cosh ix  cos x
tan ix  i tanh x 
tanh ix  i tan x
8.9 SOME FORMULAE OF HYPERBOLIC

FUNCTIONS
1. cosh x  sinh x  1 2. sec h x  1  tanh x
2 2 2 2
3. cos ech x  coth x  1

2 2
4.
sinh( x  y )  sinh x cosh y  cosh x sinh y
5. cosh( x  y )  cosh x cosh y  sinh x sinh y 6.
tanh x  tanh y
tanh( x  y ) 
1  tanh x tanh y
7. sinh 2x  2 sinh x cosh x 8. cosh 2 x  2 cosh x  1
2
9. cosh 2 x  cosh x  sinh x 10. cosh 2 x  1  2 sinh x

2 2 2
2 tanh x
11. tanh 2 x  12.
1  tanh 2 x
x y x y
sinh x  sinh y  2 sinh cosh
2 2
x y x y
13. sinh x  sinh y  2 cosh sinh 14.
2 2
x y x y
cosh x  cosh y  2 cosh cosh
2 2
x y x y
15. cosh x  cosh y  2 sinh sinh
2 2
Proof of some important above formulae:

Example 1. Prove that cosh 2 x  sinh 2 x  1
2 2
 e x  e x   e x  e x 
Proof: L.H.S.  cosh x  sinh x  
2 2
   
 2   2 
e 2 x  e 2 x  2  e 2 x  e 2 x  2 4
  1
4 4
L.H.S.
Example 2. Prove that cosh 2 x  cosh 2 x  sinh 2 x
2 2
 e x  e x   e x  e x 
Proof: R.H.S.  cosh x  sinh x  
2 2
   
 2   2 
e 2 x  e 2 x  2  e 2 x  e 2 x  2

4
2(e 2 x  e 2 x )

4
(e 2 x  e 2 x )
  cosh 2 x  L.H.S.
2
Example 3. Prove that sinh 2x  2 sinh x cosh x
 e x  ex  e x  e  x 
Proof: R.H.S.  2 sinh x cosh x  2  
 2  2 
e 2 x  e 2 x
  sinh 2 x  L.H.S.
2
Example 4. Prove that sinh( x  y )  sinh x cosh y  cosh x sinh y
Proof: R.H.S.  sinh x cosh y  cosh x sinh y
 e x  ex  e y  e  y   e x  ex  e y  e  y 
 .      
 2  2   2  2 
e x y  e x y  e ( x y )  e ( x y )  e x y  e x y  e ( x y )  e ( x y )

4
2e ( x  y )  2e  ( x  y ) e ( x  y )  e  ( x  y )
 
4 2
 sin( x  y )  L.H.S.
8.10 EXPANSIONS FOR sinh x AND cosh x

We have
sinh x 
1 x
2

e  e x 
1  x2 x3   x2 x3 
 1  x    ......   1  x    ...... 
2  2! 3!   2! 3! 
x3 x5 x7
 x    .......
3! 5! 7!
And, again cosh x  e x  e  x 
1
2
1  x2 x3   x2 x3 
 
 1  x    ...... 
  
 1  x    ...... 
2  2! 3!   2! 3! 
x2 x4 x4
 1   .  .....
2! 4! 6!
8.11 PERIODICITY OF ez
Suppose z  a  ib , then
Now, e z  e x iy  e x .e iy
 e x (cos y  i sin y)
 e x [cos( 2n  y)  i sin( 2n  y)]
 e x .e i ( 2 n  y )
 e ( x iy) i.2 n  e z  2.ni
Which shows that e z is periodic function of period 2ni.
e 2.ni  cos 2n  i sin 2n  1  i.0  1,
e 2.ni  cos 2n  i sin 2n  1  i.0  1
 e 2.ni  1
8.12 PERIODS OF HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS
We know that the Euler‟s theorem

e 2.ni  cos 2n  i sin 2n  1  i.0  1, Where n is being any
integer.
and e 2.ni  cos 2n  i sin 2n  1  i.0  1
e ( x  2 ni )  e  ( x  2 ni )
 sinh( x  2ni) 
2
e x e 2 ni  e  x e 2 ni e x .1  e  x .1
 
2 2
e x  ex
  sinh x
2
e x  ex
Similarly cosh( x  2ni)   cosh x
2
sinh( x  ni)
Again tanh( x  ni) 
cosh( x  ni)
e ( x  ni )  e  ( x  ni )
e ( x  ni )  e ( x  ni )
 ( x  ni ) 2 ( x  ni )  ( x  ni )
e e e  e ( x  ni )
2
sinh x
  tanh x
cosh x
Hence sinh x and cosh x are periodic functions of periods 2i and tanh x
is a periodic functions of period i .
Example 1. Separate the following into real and imaginary parts of the
Circular functions.
(a) sin( x  iy ) (b) cos( x  iy )
(c) tan( x  iy )
(d) cot( x  iy ) (e) sec( x  iy )
(f) cos ec( x  iy )
Proof: (a) We have
sin( x  iy )  sin x cos iy  cos x sin iy
 sin x cosh y  cos x(i sinh y )
 sin x cosh y  i cos x sinh y
(b) cos( x  iy )  cos x cos iy  sin x sin iy
 cos x cosh y  sin x(i sinh y )
 cos x cosh y  i sin x sinh y

sin( x  iy ) 2 sin( x  iy ) cos( x  iy )
(c) tan( x  iy )  
cos( x  iy ) 2 cos( x  iy ) cos( x  iy )
sin 2 x  sin 2iy sin 2 x  i sinh 2 y
 
cos 2 x  cos 2iy cos 2 x  cosh 2 y
 sin 2 x   sinh 2 y 
    i. 
 cos 2 x  cosh 2 y   cos 2 x  cosh 2 y 
cos( x  iy ) 2 cos( x  iy ) sin( x  iy )
(d) cot( x  iy )  
sin( x  iy ) 2 sin( x  iy ) sin( x  iy )
sin 2 x  sin 2iy sin 2 x  i sinh 2 y
 
cos 2iy  cos 2 x cosh 2 y  cos 2 x
 sin 2 x   sinh 2 y 
    i. 
 cosh 2 y  cos 2 x   cosh 2 y  cos 2 x 
1 2 cos( x  iy )
(e) sec( x  iy )  
cos( x  iy ) 2 cos( x  iy ) cos( x  iy )
2[cos x cos(iy )  sin x sin( iy )]

cos 2 x  cos( 2iy )
2[cos x cosh y  i sin x sinh y ]

cos 2 x  cosh 2 y
 2 cos x cosh y   2 sin x sinh y 
    i. 
 cos 2 x  cosh 2 y   cos 2 x  cosh 2 y 
1 2 sin( x  iy )
(f) cos ec( x  iy )  
sin( x  iy ) 2 sin( x  iy ) sin( x  iy )
2[sin x cos(iy )  cos x sin( iy )]

cos( 2iy )  cos 2 x
2[sin x cos(iy )  cos x sin( iy )]

cosh 2 y  cos 2 x
 2 sin x cosh y   2 cos x sinh y 
    i 
 cosh 2 y  cos 2 x   cosh 2 y  cos 2 x 
Example 2. Separate the following into real and imaginary parts of the
Hyperbolic functions.
(a) sinh( x  iy ) (b) cosh( x  iy ) (c)
tanh( x  iy )
Proof:(a) We have
sinh( x  iy )  sinh x cosh( iy )  cosh x sinh( iy )
 sinh x cos y  i sin y cosh x

(b) cosh( x  iy )  cosh x cosh( iy )  sinh x sinh( iy )
 cosh x cos y  i sinh x sinh y
sinh( x  iy )  i sin i( x  iy )
(c) tanh( x  iy )  
cosh( x  iy ) cos i( x  iy )
 i sin( ix  y )  2i sin( ix  y ) cos(ix  y )
 
cos(ix  y ) 2 cos(ix  y ) cos(ix  y )
sin 2ix  sin 2 y  sinh 2 x  sin 2 y  sinh 2 x  i sin 2 y

 i  i  
cos 2ix  cos 2 y  cosh 2 x  cos 2 y  cosh 2 x  cos 2 y
 sinh 2 x   sin 2 y 
    i. 
 cosh 2 x  cos 2 y   cosh 2 x  cos 2 y 
(cosh x  sinh x) n  cosh nx  sinh nx
Proof: We have
L.H.S.  (cosh x  sinh x) n
n
 e x  e x e x  ex 
  
 2 2 
n
 e x  e x  e x  e x 
 
 2 
n
 2e  x 
  e   e
x n  nx

 2 
……………..(1)
R.H.S.  cosh nx  sinh nx
 e nx  e  nx e nx  e  nx 
  
 2 2 
 2e  nx   nx
 e
 2 
……………..(2)
From (1) and (2), we have
L.H.S. = R.H.S.
Example 4. If x  2 sin  cosh  , show that y  cos  sinh 
4x
cos ec(  i )  cos ec(  i ) 
x  y2
2
Proof: We know that

1 1
cos ec(  i )  
sin(   i ) sin  cos i  cos  sin i
1

sin  cosh   i cos  sinh 
1 2
 
x y x  iy
i
2 2
…………..(1)
2
Similarly cos ec(  i ) 
x  iy
……………(2)
2 2 4 xy
cos ec(  i )  cos ec(  i )    2
x  iy x  iy x  y 2
Example 5. If sin(   i )  tan   i sec  , show that
cos 2 cosh 2  3.
Proof: Given that
sin(   i )  tan   i sec  ,
 sin  cos(i )  cos  sin( i )  tan   i sec  ,
 sin  cosh   i cos  sinh   tan   i sec 
sin  cosh   tan 
……….(1)
cos  sinh   sec 
………(2)
Now, we know that
sec 2   tan 2   1
…………(3)
From (1), (2) and (3), we get
cos 2  sinh 2   sin 2  cosh 2   1
 1  cos 2  sinh 2  1   1  cos 2  sinh 2  1 
      1
 2  2   2  2 
 2 cos 2 cosh 2  2  4
 2 cos 2 cosh 2  6
cos 2 cosh 2  3
Example 6. If tan( A  iB )  x  iy , prove that

2x 2x
(a) tan 2 A  (b) tanh 2 B 
1 x2  y2 1 x2  y2
Proof: We have tan( A  iB )  x  iy ,
So that tan( A  iB )  x  iy
We have tan 2 A  tan[( A  iB )  ( A  iB )]
tan( A  iB )  tan( A  iB )
tan 2 A 
1  tan( A  iB ) tan( A  iB )
( x  iy )  ( x  iy )

1  ( x  iy )( x  iy )
2x 2x
 
1  (x  y ) 1  x 2  y 2
2 2
Again tan 2iB  tan[( A  iB )  ( A  iB )]

tan( A  iB )  tan( A  iB )
tan 2iB 
1  tan( A  iB ) tan( A  iB )
( x  iy )  ( x  iy )

1  ( x  iy )( x  iy )
2iy

1 x2  y2
 2y 
i tanh 2 B   i
2 
1 x  y 
2
 2y 
tanh 2 B   2 

1 x  y 
2
Example 7. If tan(  i )  cos   i sin  , show that

n  1   
(a)    (b)   log tan   
2 4 2 4 2
Solution: Given that tan(  i )  cos   i sin  ,
So that tan(  i )  cos   i sin  ,
Hence tan 2  tan[(   i )  (  i )]
tan(  i )  tan(  i )

1  tan(  i ) tan(  i )
cos   i sin   cos   i sin 

1  (cos   i sin  )(cos   i sin  )
2 cos 

1  (cos 2   sin 2  )
2 cos 
 
0

tan 2  tan
2
 n 
2  n    
2 2 4
(b) Again tan 2i  tan[(   i )  (  i )]
tan(  i )  tan(  i )

1  tan(  i ) tan(  i )
cos   i sin   cos   i sin 

1  (cos   i sin  )(cos   i sin  )
2i sin 

1  (cos 2   sin 2  )
2i sin 
  i sin 
2
tan 2i  i sin   i tanh 2  i sin  
tanh 2  sin 
tanh 2  sin  that is
e 2  e 2 sin 
 Cross-multiplying, we get
e 2  e 2 1
e 2  e 2  sin  (e 2  e 2 )
 (1  sin  )e 2  (1  sin  )e 2
 
1  cos   
(1  sin  ) 2 
 e 4  
(1  sin  )  
1  cos   
2 
  
2 sin 2   
  4 2   tan 2     
 
2   4 2
2 cos   
4 2
     
 e 2  tan     2  log tan   
4 2 4 2
1   
  log tan   
2 4 2
Example 8. If cos(  i )   (cos   i sin  ) show that
1 sin(    )
  log
2 sin(    )
Proof: Given that cos(  i )   (cos   i sin  )
 cos  cos(i )  sin  sin( i )   (cos   i sin  )
 cos  cosh   i sin  sinh    (cos   i sin  )
Equating real and imaginary part on both sides, we get
cos  cosh    cos 
………………(1)
And sin  sinh     sin 
………………(2)
cos  cosh   cos 

sin  sinh    sin 
cos  cosh  cos 
 
sin  sinh   sin 
cosh  cos  sin 
 
sinh   sin  cos 
e   e 
2 cos  sin 
 

e e 
 sin  cos 
2
e  e  cos  sin 
 

e e 
 sin  cos 
By using componendo and dividend rule, we get
(e  e  )  (e  e  ) cos  sin   sin  cos 

(e  e  )  (e  e  ) cos  sin   sin  cos 
2e cos  sin   sin  cos 
 
2e 
cos  sin   sin  cos 
sin(    )
 e 2  
sin(    )
sin(    )
2  log
sin(    )
1 sin(    )
Hence   log
2 sin(    )
Example 9. If sin(   i )  x  iy , prove that
x2 y2
(a)  1 (b)
cosh 2  sinh 2 
x2 y2
 1
sin 2  cos 2 
Proof: Given that sin(   i )  x  iy
 x  iy  sin  cosh   i cos  sinh 
x  sin  cosh  , y  cos  sinh 
……………..(1)
(a) From (1) we get
x
sin  
cosh 
y
cos  
sinh 
x2 y2
Squaring and adding, sin 2   cos 2   
x2 y2
 1 
(b) Again, from (1) we get
x
cosh  
sin 
y
sinh  
cos 
x2 y2
Squaring and substracting, cosh 2   sinh 2   
sin 2  cos 2 
x2 y2
1 
sin 2  cos 2 
sin 2 x tan u
Example 10. If tan( x  iy )  sin( u  iv ), prove that 
sinh 2 y tanh v
Proof: Given that tan( x  iy )  sin( u  iv )
sin( x  iy )
  sin( u  iv )
cos( x  iy )
2 sin( x  iy ) cos( x  iy )
  sin u cosh v  i cos u sinh v
2 cos( x  iy ) cos( x  iy )
sin 2 x  sin 2iy
cos 2 x  cos 2iy
sin 2 x  i sinh 2 y
sin 2 x sinh 2 y
 i  sin u cosh v  i cos u sinh v
cos 2 x  cosh 2 y cos 2 x  cosh 2 y
sin 2 x
 sin u cosh v
……………………(1)
sinh 2 y
 cos u sinh v
…………………..(2)
Dividing (1) by (2), we get
sin 2 x sin u cosh v
 
sinh 2 y cos u sinh v
sin 2 x tan u

sinh 2 y tanh v
Example 11. If sin(   i )  r (cos   i sin  ), prove that
1
r2  (cosh 2  cos 2 ), and tan   tanh  cot 
2
sin(   i )  r (cos   i sin  )
 sin  cos(i )  cos  sin( i )  r (cos   i sin  )
 sin  cosh   i cos  sinh   r cos   ir sin 
sin  cosh   r cos 
……………….(1)
cos  sinh   r sin 
……………….(2)
On squaring and adding equation (1) and (2), we get
r 2 (cos 2   sin 2  )  sin 2  cosh 2   cos 2  sinh 2 
 1  cos 2  1  cosh 2   1  cos 2  cosh 2  1 
 r2      
 2  2   2  2 
1
 [1  cosh 2  cos 2  cos 2 cosh 2  cosh 2  1  cos 2 cosh 2  cos 2 ]
4
1 1
 [2 cosh 2  2 cos 2 ]  [cosh 2  cos 2 ]
4 2
Again dividing equation (2) by equation (1), we get
cos  sinh 
tan    tanh  cot 
sin  cosh 
12. If sin(   i ) sin(   i )  1, prove that
tanh 2  cosh 2   cos 2 
sin(   i ) sin(   i )  1,
1 1 sin(   i )
 sin(   i )   
sin(   i ) sin(   i ) sin(   i )
sin  cosh   i cos  sinh 
 sin  cosh   i cos  sinh  
sin 2   sinh 2 
sin  cosh 
sin  cosh  
sin 2   sinh 2 
………….(1)
cos  sinh 
cos  sinh   
sin 2   sinh 2 
………….(2)
Eliminating  from (1) and (2), we get
2 2
 sin  cosh     cos  sinh  
1      
 cosh  (sin   sinh  )   sinh  (sin   sinh  ) 
2 2 2 2
(sin 2   sinh 2  ) 2  sin 2  cosh 2  sec h 2  cos 2  sinh 2  cos ech 2


(sin 2   sinh 2  ) 2  sin 2  cosh 2  (1  tanh 2  )  cos 2  sinh 2  (coth 2   1)


sin 4   sinh 4   2 sin 2  sinh 2   sin 2  cosh 2   sin 2  cosh 2  tanh 2 
 cos 2  sinh 2  coth 2   cos 2  sinh 2 


(sin 4   sin 2  sinh 2   sin 2  cosh 2  )  (sinh 4   sin 2  sinh 2   cos 2  sinh 2  )
 cos 2  sinh 2  coth 2   sin 2  cosh 2  tanh 2 


{(sin 4   sin 2  (cosh 2   sinh 2  )}  {(sinh 4   sinh 2  (sin 2   cos 2  )}

 sin 2  (sin 2   1)  sinh 2  (sinh 2   1)
  sin 2  cos 2   sinh 2  cosh 2 

cosh 2  (sinh 2   sin 2  tanh 2  )  cos 2  (sin 2   sinh 2  . coth 2  )  0


cosh 2  (sinh 2   sin 2  tanh 2  )  cos 2  coth 2  (sin 2  tanh 2   sin 2  )  0

 (cosh 2   cos 2  coth 2  )(sinh 2   sin 2  tanh 2  )  0
If (cosh 2   cos 2  coth 2  )  0, then
(sinh 2   sin 2  tanh 2  )  0
Now, cosh 2   cos 2  coth 2 
 tanh 2  cosh 2   cos 2 
8.13 SUMMARY
A group of functions of an angle expressed as a relationship between

the distances of a point on a hyperbola to the origin and to
the coordinate axes. The group includes sinh ( hyperbolic
function), cosh (hyperbolic cosine), tenh(hyperbolic tangent), sech (hyperb
olic secant), cosech (hyperbolic cosecant), and coth
(hyperbolic cotangent). The Hyperbolic functions also satisfy identities
analogous to those of the ordinary trigonometric functions and have

important physical applications. And a function of an angle expressed as a
relationship between the distances from a point on a hyperbola to the
origin and to the coordinate axes, as hyperbolic sine or hyperbolic cosine:
often expressed as combinations of exponential functions. For example,
the hyperbolic cosine function may be used to describe the shape of the
curve formed by a high-voltage line suspended between two towers.
8.14 GLOSSARY
Hypotenuse:The side opposite the right angle in any right triangle. The
hypotenuse is the longest side of any right triangle.
Sine:If A is an acute angle of a right triangle, then the sine of angle A is
the ratio of the length of the side opposite angle A over the length of the
hypotenuse.
Hyperbola:Origin and to the coordinate axes, as hyperbolic sine
or hyperbolic cosine.
8.15 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
1. The value of e sini  is
(a) cos(sinh  )  i sin(sinh  ) (b)

cos(sinh  )  i sin(sinh  )
(c) cos(sinh  )  sin(sinh  ) (d)

sin(sinh  )  i cos(sinh  )
2. Value of sinh x is
e x  ex ex  e x
(a) (b)
2 2
e x  ex e x  ex
(c) (d)
2 2i
3. The value of e i is equal to

(a) e  (b)  e 
(c) e  (d)  e 
4. If  is real then
(a) sin( i )  i sinh  (b) cos(i )  i cosh 
(c) tan( i )  tanh  (d) cot(i )  i coth 
5. The period of e z is
(a)  (b) 2
(c) i (d) 2i
6.  
The real part of exp e i is
(a) e cos cossin   (b) e

cos 
coscos  
(c) e sin cos  (d) e sin sin  

cos cos
7. cosh(  i ) is equal to
(a) cosh  cos   i sinh  sin  (b)

cosh  cos   i sinh  sin 
(c) cosh  cos   sinh  sin  (d) None of these
8. Euler‟s formula is
(a) e i  sin   i cos  

(b) e  cos   i sin 
i 
(c) e  cos   i sin  (d) e  sin   i cos 
ANSWERS:
1. b 2. a 3. b 4. a
5. d 6.a 7. c 8. c
8.15.2Fill in the blanks:
z2 z3
1. The series e z  1  z    ....... is absolutely convergent
2! 3!
for…….
2. If , then……..
3. If cos(  i )   (cos   i sin  ) , then the value of  sin 
is………
4. cosh 2 z  sinh 2 z is equal to………
5. cos(  i ) is equal to
6. The periods of sinh z, cosh z and tanh z are
7. The value of tan  is
ANSWERS:
1. for all values of z 2. A = -1, B = 6 3. 4. 1
 sin  sinh 
5. cos  cosh   i sin  sinh  6. 2i,2i, i e i  e  i

7.
i(e i  e i )
8.16 REFERENCES
1. Vittal P.R., Malini, Algebra and Trigonometry, Margam Publications.

2. Manicavachagom Pillay T.K., Natarajan T., Ganapathy K.S., Algebra
Vol-1, S.Viswanathan, Printers and Publishers Pvt. Ltd.
3. Narayanan S., Manicavachagom Pillay T.K., Trigonometry, S.
Viswanathan, Printers and Publishers, Pvt. Ltd.
4. Weisstein, Eric W. "Hyperbolic Functions", mathworld.wolfram.com.
Retrieved 2020-08-29.
5. Osborn, G., "Mnemonic for hyperbolic formulae". The Mathematical
Gazette 2 (34): 189. Doi: 10.2307/3602492. JSTOR 3602492.
6. Abramowitz, Milton; Stegun, Irene A., eds., Handbook of
Mathematical Functions with Formulas, Graphs, and Mathematical
Tables, New York: Dover Publications, ISBN 978-0-486-61272-0.
1. Hyperbolic Functions, ShervatovV. G. ArgunovB.I., Skornjakov

L.A., BoltyanskiiV G Shervatov, Publisher-Dover Pubns; Dover Ed
edition.
2. Higher Engineering Mathematics, Das H.K. , Verma R. S. Chand &
Company Pvt. Ltd., Ram nagar New Delhi.
3. S. Narayanan and T. K. Manicavachagom Pillay, Trigonometry, S.
Viswanathan (Printersand Publishers)Pvt. Ltd.
4. T. K. Manicavachagom Pillay, T. Natarajan and K. S. Ganapathy,
Algebra Vol-1, S. Viswanathan (Printers and Publishers)Pvt. Ltd.

1. Separate the equation sec( x  iy ) into real and imaginary parts.
2. If tan(  i )  tan   i sec  , prove that

 
(a) e 2   cot (b) 2  n  
2 2
3. If sin(   i )  cos   i sin  , then prove that,
cos   sinh    sin 
2 2
4. If tan(  i )  x  iy , prove that

(a) x 2  y 2  2 x cot 2  1 (b)
x 2  y 2  2 y coth 2  1
2CA
5. If A  iB  C tan( x  iy ), then prove that, tan 2 x 
C  A2  B 2
2
   u 
6. If u  log e tan   , prove that, tanh  tan
 4 2 2 2
1
7. If tanh x  , find the value of 2x .
2
 
8. If cos ec  ix   u  iv , prove that, (u 2  v 2 ) 2  2(u 2  v 2 )
4 
ANSWERS:
2 cos x cosh 2 y  2i sin x sinh y
1. 7. log 3e

 
1. If tan   i   x  iy , prove that x 2  y 2  2 x  1 .
8 
 u  iv  sin u  i sinh v
2. Show that tan  
 2  cos u  cosh v
3. If cos(  i )  cos   i sin  , prove that
(a) cos 2  cosh 2  2 (b) sin   sin 
4 2
(c)
sinh 4   sin 2  .
u 1
4. If  sin( x  iy ), find u .
u 1
5. Solve the equation 17 cosh x  18 sinh x  1 , for real values ofx.
6. If tan(   i )  i, where  and  are real, then prove that  is

indeterminate and  is infinite.
7. If tan(  i )  sin( x  iy ), prove that, coth y sinh 2  cot x sin 2
8. If cos 1 ( x  iy )  A  iB, prove that
(a) x 2 sec h 2 B  y 2 cos ech 2 B  1 (b)
x sec A  y cos ec A  1 .
2 2 2 2
ANSWERS:
2 cos x sinh y
4. tan 1 5.  log 5
cos 2 x  sinh 2 y
UNIT 9: INVERSE HYPERBOLIC AND

TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTION AND
LOGARITHM OF COMPLEX NUMBER
CONTENTS
9.1 Objectives
9.2 Introduction
9.3 Inverse functions
9.4 Inverse Circular functions of Complex quantities
9.5 Inverse Hyperbolic functions
9.6 Relation between Inverse Hyperbolic and Circular functions
9.7 Logarithm of Complex Quantity
9.8 By Logarithm to separate the real and imaginary parts
9.9 Some important result of the Logarithm
9.10 Summary
9.11 Glossary
9.13 References
9.1 OBJECTIVE
 Know about inverse functions, inverse circular functions, and
inverse hyperbolic functions.
 Relation between inverse hyperbolic and circular functions
 Find logarithm of complex quantity and some important results of
logarithm.
9.2 INTRODUCTION
In the last unit we studied about the circular function and
hyperbolic functions of complex numbers and we separate their real and
imaginary parts. Inverse of these functions of complex numbers is of
equally importance as it provides us help to solve trigonometric equations.
We already know about the inverse trigonometric functions on real
numbers that this is the extension of it.
9.3 INVERSE FUNCTIONS
If sin   z    sin 1 z,
So here  is called the Inverse functions of z .that is
1 1
sin   , then   sin 1 , therefore  is called the Inverse
2 2
1
functions of .
2
Similarly, we can define inverse function cos  , tan  , cot  , sec  ,
cos ec etc.
9.4 INVERSE CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS OF

COMPLEX QUANTITIES
Suppose sin( x  iy )  u  iv , then ( x  iy ) is said to be the sine inverse of

(u  iv ) and is denoted by sin 1 (u  iv ) . Thus
sin( x  iy )  u  iv  ( x  iy )  sin 1 (u  iv )
Also, if sin( x  iy )  u  iv , then

u  iv  sin[ n  (1) n ( x  iy )] , Where n is any integer.
Therefore the general value of inverse sine of (u  iv ) is
[n  (1) n ( x  iy )] ,
Therefore the inverse sine of (u  iv ) is many-valued function. Its
principal values of [n  (1) n ( x  iy )] is that for which the real part lies
 
between  and . The principal value is denoted by sin 1 (u  iv ) , then
2 2
sin (u  iv )  n  (1) n sin 1 (u  iv )
1
Similarly if cos( x  iy )  u  iv , then the general value of cosine inverse of

u  iv is
cos 1 (u  iv )  2n  cos 1 (u  iv )
and the principal value is that for which its real part lies between 0 and  .
Again, if tan( x  iy )  u  iv , then the general value of tangent inverse of
u  iv is
tan 1 (u  iv )  n  cos 1 (u  iv )

and the principal value is that for which its real part lies between  and
2

.
2
9.5 INVERSE HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS
Let x and y be any two complex numbers. If y  sinh x, then x is said to

be the inverse sine hyperbolic of y and is
x  sinh 1 y
The other inverse hyperbolic functions cosh 1 y, tanh 1 y, coth 1 y,
sec h 1 y, and cos ech 1 y are defined similarly.
The inverse hyperbolic functions can also be expressed as the logarithm
functions as
(a) To prove that 
sinh 1 x  log x  x 2  1 
Proof: Let sinh 1
x y  x  sinh y
e y  e y
 x  e y  e y  2x
2
 e2y  2 xe y  1  0 (This is
y
quadratic in e )
2x  4x 2  4
 e  y
 x  x2 1 (Taking logarithm and
2
positive sign only)
 
y  log x  x 2  1  

sinh 1 x  log x  x 2  1 
(b) To prove that 
cosh 1 x  log x  x 2  1 
Proof: Let 1
cosh x  y  x  cosh y
e y  e y
 x  e y  e y  2x
2
 e2y  2 xe y  1  0 (This is
y
quadratic in e )
2x  4x 2  4
 ey   x  x2 1 (Taking logarithm and
2
positive sign only)
 
y  log x  x 2  1  

cosh 1 x  log x  x 2  1 
1 1 x
(c) To prove that tanh 1 x  log
2 1 x
Proof: Let tanh 1 x  y  x  tanh y
e y  e y
 x
e y  ey
Applying componendo and dividendo, we get
1 x ey 1 x 
   e2y  2 y  log  
1  x ey 1 x 
(Taking logarithm)
1 1 x 
 y  log   
2 1 x 
1 1 x 
tanh 1 x  log  
2 1 x 
1 x 1
(d) Similarly, we can prove that coth 1 x  log
2 x 1
1 1 x2 
(e) To prove that sec h 1 x  log  
 x 
 
Proof: Let sec h 1 x  y  x  sec hy
2 2e y
 x y  x  2y
e  ey e 1
 xe2 y  2e y  x  0 (This is
y
quadratic in e )
2  4  4x 2 1  1  x 2
 ey  
2x x
1 1 x2
 ey  (Taking logarithm and
x
positive sign only)
1 1 x2 
 y  log   
 x 
 
1 1 x2 
sec h 1 x  log  
 x 
 
1 1 x2 
(f) Similarly, we can prove that cos ech 1 x  log  
 x 
 
9.6 RELATION BETWEEN INVERSE

HYPERBOLIC AND CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS
(a) If x  sinh y, then

ix  i sinh y  sin( iy )  iy  sin 1 (ix )
1
 y  sin 1 (ix )  i sin 1 (ix ) 
i
y  sinh 1 x  i sin 1 (ix ).
(b) If x  cosh y, then
x  cos(iy )  iy  cos 1 x
1
 y  cos 1 x  i cos 1 x. 
i
y  cosh 1 x  i cos 1 x
(c) If x  tanh y, then
ix  i tanh y  tan( iy )  iy  tan 1 (ix )
1
 y  tan 1 (ix )  i tan 1 (ix ) 
i
y  tanh 1 x  i tan 1 (ix ).
Example 1. Separate sin 1 (  i ) into real and imaginary parts.
Proof: Let sin 1 (  i )  x  iy 
  i  sin( x  iy )
   i  sin x cos iy  cos x sin iy

  sin x cosh y
……………..(1)
and   cos x sinh y
……………..(2)
We know that cosh 2 y  sinh 2 y  1
     
2 2
    1
 sin x   cos x 
  2 cos 2 x   2 sin 2 x  sin 2 x cos 2 x
  2 (1  sin 2 x)   2 sin 2 x  sin 2 x(1  sin 2 x)
 sin 4 x  ( 2   2  1) sin 2 x   2  0 (This is
2
quadratic equation in sin x )
( 2   2  1)  ( 2   2  1) 2  4 2
sin 2 x 
2
( 2   2  1)  ( 2   2  1) 2  4 2
 sin x 
2
1 ( 2   2  1)  ( 2   2  1) 2  4 2
 x  sin
2
We know that sin 2 x  cos 2 x  1
2 2
     
       1 (From
 cosh y   sinh y 
(1) and (2))
  2 sinh 2 y   2 cosh 2 y  sinh 2 y cosh 2 y
  2 sinh 2 y   2 (1  sinh 2 y)  sinh 2 y(1  sinh 2 y)
 sinh 4 y  ( 2   2  1) sinh 2 y   2  0 (This is quadratic
equation in sinh 2 y )
( 2   2  1)  ( 2   2  1) 2  4 2
sinh 2 y 
2
( 2   2  1)  ( 2   2  1) 2  4  2
 sinh y 
2
1 ( 2   2  1)  ( 2   2  1) 2  4  2
 y  sinh
2
( 2   2  1)  ( 2   2  1) 2  4 2
Real part  sin 1
2
( 2   2  1)  ( 2   2  1) 2  4 2
Imaginary part  sinh 1
2
Example 2. Separate tan 1 (  i ) into real and imaginary parts.
Proof: Let tan 1 (  i )  x  iy
……………(1)
 (  i )  tan( x  iy )
So that (  i )  tan( x  iy )
tan( x  iy )  tan( x  iy )
Now, tan 2 x  tan[( x  iy )  ( x  iy )] 
1  tan( x  iy ) tan( x  iy )
  i    i  2
 
1  (  i )(  i ) 1   2   2
2
 tan 2 x  
1 2   2
 2 
2 x  tan 1  
2 
1    
2
1  2 
 x tan 1  
2 
1    
2
2
……………..(2)
And tan 2iy  tan[( x  iy )  ( x  iy )]
tan( x  iy )  tan( x  iy )

1  tan( x  iy ) tan( x  iy )
  i    i  2i
 
1  (  i )(  i ) 1   2   2
2i
 i tanh 2 y  
1 2   2
2
tanh 2 y 
1 2   2
 2 
 2 y  tanh 1  
2 

1    
2
1  2 
y tanh 1   ……….(3)
2 
1    
2
2
1  2  i  2 
tan 1 (  i )  tan 1    tanh 1 
2 

2 
1     2 1    
2 2
2
 xa i a
Example 3. Show that tan 1  i    log
 xa 2 x
 xa
Solution: Let tan 1  i  y 
 xa
 xa
i   tan y
 xa
xa 1
    tan y  i tan y 
xa i
 x  a   i sin y
 
xa cos y
By using componendo and dividendo, we get
( x  a)  ( x  a) cos y  i sin y
 
( x  a)  ( x  a) cos y  i sin y
2a e iy a
    e 2iy (Taking logarithm)
2 x e iy x
a
 2iy  log e   
x
1 a i a
y log e     log e  
2i  x 2  x
 xa i a
tan 1  i    log
 xa 2 x
Example 4. Show that
(a) cosh 1 1  x 2  sinh 1 x (b)
 x 
cosh 1 1  x 2  tanh 1  

 1 x 
2
Solution: (a) Let cosh 1 1  x 2  y

……………(1)
 1  x 2  cosh y
On squaring on both sides, we get
1  x 2  cosh 2 y 
x 2  cosh 2 y  1  sinh 2 y
 x  sinh y 
y  sinh 1 x
cosh 1 1  x 2  sinh 1 x
[By equation (1)]
(b) Dividing (3) by (2), we get
sinh y x
 
cosh y 1 x2
x
tanh y 
1 x2
 x 
 y  tanh 1  
 
 1 x 
2
 x 
cosh 1 1  x 2  tanh 1  
2 
 1 x 
1 sin(   i )
tan 1 (cot  tanh  )  log
2i sin(   i )
Proof: We have
1 sin(   i )
R.H.S.  log
2i sin(   i )
1 sin  cos(i )  cos  sin( i )
 log
2i sin  cos(i )  cos  sin( i )
1 sin  cosh   i cos  sinh 

log
2i sin  cosh   i cos  sinh 
(Divided by sin  cosh  )
1 1  i cot  tanh 
 log
2i 1  i cot  tanh 
1 1 1  i cot  tanh  
  log 
i2 1  i cot  tanh  
1
 tanh 1 (i cot  tanh  )
i
 1 1 1 x
 tanh x  2 log 1  x 
 
 i tanh 1 (i cot  tanh  )
…………….(1)
Now, Let tanh 1 (i cot  tanh  )  x

...…………..(2)
1
i cot  tanh   tanh x  tan( ix )
i
 tan( i )  i tanh  
 i 2 cot  tanh   tan( ix ) 
 cot  tanh   tan( ix )
 ix  tan 1 ( cot  tanh  ) 
ix   tan 1 (cot  tanh  ) (From 2)
tanh( i cot  tanh  )   tan 1 (cot  tanh  )
…………(3)
From equation (1) and (3), we get
1 sin(   i )
Hence, tan 1 (cot  tanh  )  log
2i sin(   i )
n  i   
tan 1 (cos   i sin  )    log tan   
2 4 2  4 2
Solution: Let tan 1 (cos   i sin  )  x  iy
…………….(1)
 (cos   i sin  )  tan( x  iy )
So that (cos   i sin  )  tan( x  iy )
tan( x  iy )  tan( x  iy )
Now tan 2 x  tan[( x  iy )  ( x  iy )] 
1  tan( x  iy ) tan( x  iy )
cos   i sin   cos   i sin 

1  (cos   i sin  )(cos   i sin  )
2 cos  2 cos  2 cos 
   
1  (cos   sin  )
2 2
11 0
 n 
 tan 2x    2 x  n   x 
2 2 4
tan 2iy  tan[( x  iy )  ( x  iy )]
tan( x  iy )  tan( x  iy )

1  tan( x  iy ) tan( x  iy )
cos   i sin   cos   i sin 

1  (cos   i sin  )(cos   i sin  )
2i sin  2i sin 
   i sin 
1  (cos   sin  )
2 2
11
 i tanh 2 y  i sin  
tan 2hy  sin 
e 2 y  e 2 y
  sin  
e 2 y  e 2 y
e 2 y  e 2 y 1

e e
2y 2 y
sin 
By using componendo and dividendo rule, we get
e 2 y 1  sin  1  sin 
  e4y 
e 2 y 1  sin  1  sin 
1
 1  sin   2
 e2y    
 1  sin  
1  1  sin  
2 y  log  
2  1  sin  
    
cos 2  sin 2  2 sin cos 
1  2 2 2 2
 log
2     
 cos
2
 sin 2  2 sin cos 
 2 2 2 2
    
2

 cos  sin   cos  sin 
 2
 log 
1 2 2 1 2
 2  log
2   
2
2   
 cos  sin   cos  sin 
 2 2  2 2
 
1  tan 
  
2 y  log 
2
  log tan   
   4 2
1  tan 
 2
1   
 y  log tan   
2  4 2
Hence from (1) tan 1 (cos   i sin  )  x  iy
n  i   
tan 1 (cos   i sin  )    log tan   
2 4 2  4 2
x
Example 7. Prove that sinh 1 x  tanh 1
1 x2
Solution: Let sinh 1 x  y, then x  sinh y
1 x sinh y
Now, R.H.S.  tanh  tanh 1
1 x 2
1  sinh 2 y
 sinh y 
 tanh 1    tanh 1 tanh y   y  sinh 1 x 
 cosh y 
L.H.S.
Example 8. If x  y , then prove that
 x  iy   i x y
tan 1     log
 x  iy  4 2 x y
 x  iy 
Proof: Let A  iB  tan 1  
 x  iy 
…………….(1)
 x  iy x  iy 
 tan 1   
 x  iy x  iy 
( x  iy ) 2 1  x  (iy )  2ixy 
2 2
 tan 1
 tan  
x2  y2  x2  y2 
 x2  y2 2 xy 
 A  iB  tan  2
1
i 2 
x y
2
x  y 2 
 x2  y2 2 xy 
So that A  iB  tan  2
1
i 2 
x y
2
x  y 2 
Now tan 2 A  tan[( A  iB )  ( A  iB )]
tan( A  iB )  tan( A  iB )

1  tan( A  iB ) tan( A  iB )
 x2  y2 2 xy   x 2  y 2 2 xy 
 2  i    2
2 
i 2 
 x y 2
x y  x y
2 2
x  y 2 

 x2  y2 2 xy  x 2  y 2 2 xy 
1   2  i 
2  2
i 2 
x y
2
x  y  x  y
2 2
x  y 2 
 x2  y2 
2 2 
 x  y 2 

 (x 2  y 2 )2 4x 2 y 2 
1   2  
 (x  y )
2 2
( x 2  y 2 ) 2 
 x2  y2   x2  y2 
2 2  2 2 
 x  y 2  x y
2
 
 
(x 2  y 2 )2 11
1 2
(x  y 2 )2
 
tan 2 A  tan  A
2 4
Again tan 2iB  tan[( A  iB )  ( A  iB )]
tan( A  iB )  tan( A  iB )

1  tan( A  iB ) tan( A  iB )
 x2  y2 2 xy   x 2  y 2 2 xy 
 2  i    2
2 
i 2 
 x y 2
x y  x y
2 2
x  y 2 

 x2  y2 2 xy  x 2  y 2 2 xy 
1   2  i 
2  2
i 2 
x y
2
x  y  x  y
2 2
x  y 2 
 4 xy 
 i 2 
 x  y 2 

 (x 2  y 2 )2 4x 2 y 2 
1   2  
 (x  y )
2 2
( x 2  y 2 ) 2 
 4 xy   4 xy 
 i 2   i 2 
 x  y 2   x  y2 
 
 (x2  y 2 )2  11
1   2 
 (x  y )
2 2

 4 xy 
 i 2 
 x  y2  i 2 xy
 tan 2iB 
11 x  y2
2
2 xy
 i tanh 2 B  i 
x  y2
2
2 xy
tanh 2 B 
x  y2
2
e 2 B  e 2 B 2 xy
 2 B
 2
e e
2B
x  y2
By using componendo and dividendo rule, we get

(e 2 B  e 2 B )  (e 2 B  e 2 B ) x 2  y 2  2 xy

(e 2 B  e 2 B )  (e 2 B  e 2 B ) x 2  y 2  2 xy
2e 2 B ( x  y) 2 ( x  y) 2
   e 4B 
2e  2 B ( x  y ) 2 ( x  y) 2
( x  y) ( x  y)
 e 2B   2 B  log
( x  y) ( x  y)
1 ( x  y)
 B log
2 ( x  y)
Hence from equation (1), we get
 x  iy   i x y
tan 1    A  iB   log
 x  iy  4 2 x y
Example 9. Prove that sinh 1 (cot x)  log(cot x  cos ecx)
Proof: Let sinh 1 (cot x)  y, then cot x  sinh y
………………..(1)
 cosh y  1  sinh 2 y  1  cot 2 x  cos ecx
………………..(2)
Adding equation (1) and (2), we get
sinh y  cosh y  cot x  cos ecx
e y  e y e y  e y
   cot x  cos ecx
2 2
 e y  cot x  cos ecx
(Taking logarithm)
 y  log(cot x  cos ecx)
(From 1)
sinh 1 (cot x)  log(cot x  cos ecx)
If sinh 1 (  i )    i , then prove that sin  and
2
Example 10.
cosh 2  are the roots of the equation
x 2  x(1   2   2 )   2  0.
Solution: We have sinh 1 (  i )    i
So that (  i )  sin(   i )
 (  i )  sin  cosh   i cos  sinh 
Equating real and imaginary parts, we have
  sin  cosh 
…………….(1)
  cos  sinh 
……………(2)
Now, 1   2   2  1  sin 2  cosh 2   cos 2  sinh 2 
 1  sin 2  cosh 2   (1  sin 2  )(cosh 2   1)
 1  sin 2  cosh 2   cosh 2   1  sin 2  cosh 2   sin 2 

 sin 2   cosh 2 
Thus sin 2   cosh 2   1   2   2
………………(3)
And from (1), we get
 2  sin 2  cosh 2 
………………(4)
Therefore, sin  and cosh 2  are the roots of the equation
2
x 2  x(1  sin 2   cosh 2  )   2  0

x 2  x(1   2   2 )   2  0.
9.7 LOGARITHM OF COMPLEX QUANTITY
If u  iv  e xiy , then ( x  iy ) is said to be logarithm of (u  iv ) to the base

e such that
x  iy  log( u  iv )
………………..(1)
Now, (u  iv )  e x iy  1
 (u  iv )  e x iy  e 2ni Where
n is an integer
 log( u  iv )  log e x( y 2n )i 
log( u  iv )  x  ( y  2n )i , [ log e  1]
 log( u  iv )  ( x  iy )  2ni (By
using from equation1)
 log( u  iv )  log( u  iv )  2ni
Here logarithm of a complex quantity is a many valued function. When n

= 0 then, log( u  iv ) is called principle value. General value can be find by
adding 2ni in principle value and written as Log e (u  iv ) .
Log e (u  iv )  2ni  log e (u  iv )
Note: We know that the following result will also be true:
log e mn  log e m  log e n
m
log e  log e m  log e n
n
log e m n  n log e m
9.8 BY LOGARITHM TO SEPARATE THE REAL

AND IMAGINARY PARTS
Let x  r cos  and y  r sin 

x2  y2  r 2  r x2  y2
And also on dividing, we get
y  y
tan      tan 1  
x x
 log e ( x  iy )  log e r (cos   i sin  )
 log e r  log e (cos   i sin  )
 log e r  log e (cos   i sin  )
 log e r  log e e i  log e r  i
y
 log e x 2  y 2  i tan 1
x
 y
log e ( x  iy )  log e x 2  y 2  i tan 1  
x
 y
and Log e ( x  iy )  log x 2  y 2  i tan 1    2ni
x
9.9 SOME IMPORTANT RESULT OF THE

LOGARITHM
(a) Logarithm of a real negative number: Let x be a positive real

number so that  x negative real number, we have
 x  x  (1)  x  (cos   i sin  )
  x  x  e i
 log(  x)  log x  log ei  log x  log(cos   i sin  )
 log x  log{cos( 2n   )  i sin( 2n   )}
 log x  log{cos( 2n  1)  i sin( 2n  1) }
 log x  log e ( 2n1)i  log x  (2n  1)i
 log(  x)  log x  (2n  1)i
(b) Logarithm of a real positive number: Let x be a positive real
number, we have
x  x  1  x  (cos 0  i sin  0)
 log x  log x  log(cos 0  i sin 0)
 log x  log{cos( 2n  0)  i sin( 2n  0)}
 log x  log(cos 2n  i sin 2n )
 log x  log e 2 ni  log x  2ni
 log x  log x  2ni
(c) Logarithm of a purely imaginary number: Let x be a positive real
number so that ix be a purely imaginary number, we have
  
xi  x  i  x   cos  i sin 
 2 2
  
 log( xi)  log x  log  cos  i sin 
 2 2
     
 log x  log cos 2n    i sin  2n  
  2  2 
  1  1 
 log x  log cos 2n    i sin  2n   
  2  2 
 1
 2 n    1
 log x  log e  2
 log x  i 2n  
 2
 1
 log( xi)  log x  i 2n  
 2
Example 1. Express in the term of (a  ib )

(a) log e (5) (b) log e i
(c) log e 5
Solution: (a) log e (5)  log e 5  (1)  log e 5  (cos   i sin  )
 log e 5  (cos( 2n   )  i sin( 2n   )
 log e 5  log e (cos( 2n  1)  i sin( 2n  1) 
 log e 5  i(2n  1)
  
(b) We have log e i  log e cos  i sin 
 2 2
     
 log e cos 2n    i sin  2n  
  2  2 
  1  1 
 log e cos 2n    i sin  2n   
  2  2 
 1
 2 n  i
 log e e  2 1
4n  1i

2
(c) We have log e (5)  log e 5  1  log 5  log(cos 0  i sin 0)
 log 5  log{cos( 2n  0)  i sin( 2n  0)}
 log 5  log(cos 2n  i sin 2n )
 log 5  log e 2 ni  log 5  2ni
 log 5  log 5  2ni
x  iy y
Example 2. Prove that log  2i tan 1
x  iy x
Solution: We know that
 y
log e ( x  iy )  log ex 2  y 2  i tan 1  
x
x  iy
Taking L.H.S.  log
x  iy
 log( x  iy )  log( x  iy )
  y    y 
 log e x 2  y 2  i tan 1    log e x 2  y 2  i tan 1   
  x    x 
 y  y
 log e x 2  y 2  i tan 1    log e x 2  y 2  i  tan 1 
x  x
 y  y  y
 i tan 1    i tan 1    2i tan 1   
x x x
R.H.S.
1  1
Example 3. Prove that log( 1  i )  log 2  i 2n  
2  4
Solution: Let 1  i  r (cos   i sin  ), then
r cos   1, 1  r sin 
Now, squaring and adding, we get
r 2 (cos 2   sin 2  )  1  1  r 2
Again, dividing, we get
r sin  1 
  tan   1  
r cos  1 4
  
 1  i  2  cos  i sin 
 4 4
     
 2 cos 2n    i sin  2n  
  4  4 
  1  1 
 2 cos 2n    i sin  2n   
  4  4 
   1  1  
log( 1  i)  log  2 cos 2n    i sin  2n    
   4  4  
  2 n  i 
 1

 1
 2 n  i
 log  2e 4    log 2  log e  4 

 
1  1
 log 2  i 2n  
2  4
1  1
 log( 1  i )  log 2  i 2n  
2  4
 
Example 4. Prove that log tan   i   i tan (sinh  )
1
 4 2 

 
 tan  i 
tan
  4  2
Solution: L.H.S.  log tan   i   log
4 2   
1  tan . tan  i 
4  2

1  i tanh
 log 2

1  i tanh
2
   
 log 1  i tanh   log 1  i tanh 
 2  2
1     
  log 1  tanh 2   i tan 1  tanh 
2  2  2 
1     
  log 1  tanh 2   i tan 1  tanh 
2  2  2 
     
 2i tan 1  tanh   i 2 tan 1  tanh 
 2   2 
   
 1  2 tanh 2 
 i  tan  
   
 1  tanh 
2
  2 
   
 2 sinh cosh 
 i tan 1
 2 2 
 cosh 2   sinh 2  
 
 2 2
 i tan 1 (sinh  )  R.H.S.
 
Hence, log tan   i   i tan 1 (sinh  )
4 2
 1
Example 5. Prove that log 1  e i   log  2 cos   i

 2 2
Solution:  
L.H.S.  log 1  e i  log 1  cos  i sin  
     
 log 2 cos 2  i 2 sin cos 
 2  2 2 
    
 log 2 cos  cos  i sin 
 2 2 2 
   i 2 

   i 
 log 2 cos  e   log  2 cos   log  e 2 
 2    2  
  
 log  2 cos   i  R.H.S.
 2 2
 1
Hence,   
log 1  e i  log  2 cos   i
 2 2
1  
Example 6. Prove that log( 1  i )  log 2   2n  i
2  4
  y 
log e ( x  iy )  log e x 2  y 2  i 2n  tan 1  
  x 
Here x  1, y  1
  1 
 log e (1  i )  log e 12  12  i 2n  tan 1  
  1 
 log e 2  i(2n  tan 1 1)
1  
 log e 2  i 2n  
2  4
1  
Hence, log 2   2n  i
log( 1  i ) 
2  4
Example 7. Separate log sin( x  iy ) into real and imaginary parts.
Solution: We have
sin( x  iy )  sin x cos(iy )  cos x sin( iy )
 sin x cosh y  i cos x sinh y  r (cos   i sin  )
sin x cosh y  r cos 
……………….(1)
cos x sinh y  r sin 
………………(2)
Adding and squaring (1) and (2), we get
r 2 (sin 2   cos 2  )  sin 2 x cosh 2 y  cos 2 x sinh 2 y
1
r 2  [(1  cos 2 x)(cosh 2 y  1)  (1  cos 2 x)(cosh 2 y  1)]
4
1
 [2(cosh 2 y  cos 2 x)]
4
1
r 2  [(cosh 2 y  cos 2 x)]
2
…………………(3)
And again divided (2) by (1), we get
r sin  cos x sinh y


r cos  sin x cosh y
tan   cot x tanh y
………………..(4)
Now, sin( x  iy )  r (cos   i sin  )  re i
log sin( x  iy )  log re i
 log r  log e i .e 2ni  log r  (2n   )i

log sin( x  iy )  log

1
2

(cosh 2 y  cos 2 x)  i 2n  tan 1 (cot x tanh y) 
 x  iy  2 xy
Example 8. Prove that tan  i log   2
 x  iy  x  y 2
Solution: Let x  r cos  , y  r sin 
x  iy r (cos   i sin  ) e  i
Now    e  2 i
x  iy r (cos   i sin  ) e i
And dividing, we get
r sin  y y
  tan  
r cos  x x
 x  iy 
Taking L.H.S., = tan  i log   tan i log e 2i 
 x  iy 
 tan i(2i )  tan  i (2 )
2
y
2
2 tan  x  2 xy
 tan 2  
1  tan 2  y2 x2  y2
1 2
x
 x  iy  2 xy
Hence, tan  i log   2
 x  iy  x  y 2
Example 9. If log e sin( x  iy )    i , then prove that
 cosh 2 y  cos 2 x 
1
  log e  
 2 2 
Solution: From example 7,
log sin( x  iy )  log

1
2

(cosh 2 y  cos 2 x)  i 2n  tan 1 (cot x tanh y) 
1 1  cosh 2 y  cos 2 x 
Hence,   log (cosh 2 y  cos 2 x)  log  
2 2  2 
Example 10. If log e sin(   i )    i , then prove that
1  cos(   ) 
  log e  
2  cos(   ) 
log e sin(   i )    i
 log e sin  cos(i )  cos  sin( i )    i
 sin  cosh   i cos  sinh   e ( i )
 sin  cosh   i cos  sinh   e e i
 sin  cosh   i cos  sinh   e (cos   i sin  )
sin  cosh   e cos 
……………..(1)
cos  sinh   e sin 
……………..(2)
Divided (1) by (2), we get
sin  cosh  e cos 

cos  sinh  e sin 
cos  cos  e  e  cos  cos 
 coth    
sin  sin  e  e  sin  sin 
Using componendo and dividendo rule, we get
e  e   e  e  cos  cos   sin  sin 

e  e   e  e  cos  cos   sin  sin 
2e cos(   ) cos(   )
   e 2 
2e 
cos(   ) cos(   )
1  cos(   ) 
Hence,   log e  
2  cos(   ) 
Example 11. If i x iy  x  iy , then show that x 2  y 2  e ( 4 n1) y .
 
( x  iy )  2 n   i
Solution: We have x  iy  e ( x  iy ) log i
e  2
 1
( x  iy )  2 n   i
e  2
 1
( ix  y )  2 n   
e  2
 1  1
  2 n   y ix  2 n  
e  2
e  2
9.10 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have discussed the inverse hyperbolic functions are the
inverse functions of the hyperbolic functions. For a given value of a
hyperbolic function, the corresponding inverse hyperbolic function
provides the corresponding hyperbolic angle.Trigonometric functions are
also known as Circular Functions can be simply defined as the functions
of an angle of a triangle. It means that the relationship between the angles
and sides of a triangle are given by these trig functions. The basic
trigonometric functions are sine, cosine, tangent, cotangent, secant and
cosecant. Also, read trigonometric identities here.Since any nonzero
complex number has infinitely many complex logarithms, the complex
logarithm cannot be defined to be a single-valued function on the complex
numbers, but only as a multi-valued function. Settings for a formal
treatment of this are, among others, the associated Riemann
surface, branches, or partial inverses of the complex exponential function.
9.11 GLOSSARY
1. Trigonometric functions: A function of an angle expressed as the
ratio of two of the sides of a right triangle that contains that angle;
the sine, cosine, tangent, cotangent, secant, cosecant.
2. Logarithm: Inverse function to exponential.
3. Inverse hyperbolic functions:Inverse functions of the hyperbolic may
be solved in terms of ex, the square root and the logarithm.
9.12 REFERENCES:-
1. Ahlfors, L. V. (1979), Complex Analysis, New York: McGraw-

Hill, ISBN 978-0-07-000657-7
2. Vittal P.R, Malini, Algebra and Trigonometry, Margam
Publications.
3. Complex variable and applications, James Ward Brown and Ruel
V.Churchill, Mcgraw Hill, International edition.
9.13 SELF ASSESSMENT QUSETIONS

9.13.1 Multiple choice questions:
1. Value of sinh 1 x is
(a) log{ x  x 2  1} (b) log{ x  x 2  1}
1 1 x 
(c) log   (d) None of these
2 1 x 
 1 
2. If tan 1  2   tan 1 (2n  1)  tan 1 y, then the value of y is
 2n 
(a) n  1 (b) n  1
(c) 2n  1 (d) 2n
 1 
3. If tan 1    tan 1 (n  1)  tan 1 y, then the value of y is
 1  n(n  1) 
(a) n (b) 1
(c) n  1 (d) 2n  1
4. The real part of sin 1 (cos   i sin  ) is
(a) cos 1 sin  (b)

log{ sin   1  sin 
(c) sin 1 sin  (d)

log{ cos   1  cos 
5. If x  0, then log(  x) is equal to
(a)  log( x) (b)  log( x)  i
(c) log( x)  i (d) log( x)  i
6. The value of log(cos   i sin  ) is
(a)  (b) i
(c)  i (d)  
7. log( i ) is equal to
1
(a)  i (b)  i
2
(c)  i (d)  2i
8. The general value of log i is

1 1
(a) (8n  1)i (b) (8n  1)i
4 8
1 1
(b) (c) (2n  1)i (d) (2n  1)i
4 8
ANSWERS:
1. a 2. c 3. a 4. a
5. d 6. b 7. b 8. a
1. Value of log( 1  e i ) is
2. The relation between log e z and log a z is
3. If z  re i , then log z is equal to
4. The value of sec 1 x  cos ec 1 x is
2x
5. The value of tan 1 is
1 x2
6. The value of log( 1) is
7. The value of log( 1  i ) is
8. If log( x  iy )  A  iB where A and B are real, then
ANSWERS:
1. 2. 3. log r  i 
4.
   i log e z 2
log  2 cos   log a z 
 2 2 log e a
5. 2 tan 1 x  7. 8.
6.  i
2 1   1
log 2  i 2n   A  log( x  y )
2 2
2  4 2
1. Das & Mukherjee - higher trigonometry, Pragati Prakashan Pvt.

Ltd. Meerut.
2. Vasishtha A.R.- trigonometry, Krishna Prakashan,Media (P) Ltd.
Shivaji road, Meerut.
3. Bali, N. P.; Trigonometry, for B.A/B.Sc. Classes (1st Edition),
New Delhi: Laxmi Publication Pvt. Ltd.
4. Kishan, Hari (2005); Trigonometry; (1st Edition), New Delhi:
Atlantic Publishers.
5. Mapa, S. K.; Higher Algebra (Classical).
6. Ray, M. & Sharma, H. S.; A Text Book of Higher Algebra.
7. Vasistha, A.R. & Sharma, S. K.; Trigonometry.
8. Vasistha, A. R.; Matrices; Meerut: Krishna Prakashan Mandir.

 
1. Prove that sin 1 (cos ec )   i log cot
2 2
2. Separate into real and imaginary parts sin 1 (cos   i sin  )
3. Prove that tanh 1 (sin  )  cosh 1 (sec  )
4. If tan(  i )  sin( x  iy ), then prove that
coth y sinh 2  cot x sin 2 .
3  2i  i
5. Prove that tan 1   log 5
3  2i 4 2
1   ix 
6. Prove that tan 1 (sinh x)  log tan   
i 4 2
  1   
7. Prove that, (a) tanh 1  tan   log tan   
 2 2  4 2
 
(b) coth 1 (2 cos ec 2 x  1)  log(sec x), if   x 
2 2
8. If cos (u  iv )    i , then prove that cos  and cosh 2  are
1 2
the roots of the equation

x 2  (1  u 2  v 2 ) x  u 2  0.
9. If cosh x  sec  , then prove that x  log(sec   tan  )
10. Prove that sinh 1 (cot x)  log(cot x  cos ecx)
 i   
11. Prove that tan 1 (cos   i sin  )  n   log tan   
4 2  4 2
 
12. Prove that sin 1 (cos ec )  {2n  (1) n }  i(1) n log cot .
2 2
13. If sin 1 (cos   i sin  )  x  iy , show that
(a) x  cos 1 sin  (b)
y  log  sin   1  sin  
14. If cosh 1 ( x  iy )  cosh 1 ( x  iy )  cosh 1 a,
prove that 2(a  1) x 2  2(a  1) y 2  a 2  1
15. Prove that tanh 1 (cos  )  cosh 1 (cos ec )
16. Solve the general value of log e i.
17. Express log e (3) in the term of a  ib.

18. If log e sin(   i )    i , then prove that
cos 2  cosh 2  2e 2
ANSWERS: 2. cos 1 sin   i log[ sin   1  sin  ]

11. Hint: tan 1 (cos   i sin  )  n  tan 1 (cos   i sin  )
(4n  1)
12. Hint: sin 1 (cos ec )  n  (1) n sin 1 (cos ec ) 16. i 17.
2
log e 3  (2n  1)i
1. If log e log e ( x  iy )    i , then show that


y  x tan tan  log e x 2  y 2 
4m  1
2. Prove that log e i  , where m and n are any integers and
4n  1
i   1.
3. Prove that
i
(a) log e (1)  i (b) log e i  (c)
2
xi
i log e    2 tan 1 x
xi
 1  1     
4. Prove that log e  i 
 log e  cos ec   i  
1 e  2 2  2 2
5. Show that
1 cosh 2 y  cos 2 x
log e sin( x  iy )  log e  i tan 1 (cot x tanh y )
2 2
6. Prove that
( a  b)  i ( a  b)  2ab 
log e  i 2n  tan 1 2 
( a  b)  i ( a  b)  a  b2 
 sin( x  iy ) 
7. Prove that log e    2i tan 1 cot x tanh y 
 sin( x  iy ) 
8. Prove that log e (cos   i sin  )  i , if       .
9. Prove that log e (1  i tan  )  log e sec   i .
10. Prove that log e (1  cos 2  i sin 2 )  log e (2 cos  )  i ,
if       .
11. Prove that
q
log e log e sin( x  iy )  
1
log e ( p 2  q 2 )  i tan 1  
2  p
1  cosh 2 y  cos 2 x 
Where, p log e   and
2  2 
q  tan 1 (cot x tanh y) .
BLOCK IV: SUMMATION OF SERIES AND

INFINITE PRODUCT
UNIT 10: SUMMATION OF SERIES
CONTENTS:
10.1 Objectives
10.2 Introduction
10.3 Expansion of Trigonometric Functions
10.4 Summation of sines and cosines series
10.5 Summation on Geometric Progression or Arithmetic O-
Geometric Series
10.6 Summation depending upon Binomial Series
10.7 Summation depending upon Exponential Series
10.8 Summation depending upon Logarithmic Series
10.9 The Difference Method
10.10 Summary
10.11 Glossary
10.13 References
10.1 OBJECTIVES

 Expand trigonometric functions
 Find summation of sine and cosine series by using
(i) Geometric progression
(ii) Binomial series
(iii) Exponential series
(iv) Logarithmic series
 Find sum of series by the difference method.
10.2 INTRODUCTION
In this chapter, we shall study with the expansion and summing up

finite or infinite trigonometric series. There are two different methods for
summation, known as the C  iS method and difference method. First we
shall discussexpansion of Trigonometric series and again summing up
trigonometric series with C  iS method and difference method.
10.3 EXPANSION OF TRIGONOMETRIC

FUNCTIONS
(a) Expansion of sin n and cos n in the powers of sin  and

cos
Trigonometric Functions can be easily expansion of sin n and cos n in
the powers of sin  and cos with the help of De-Moivre‟s theorem, such
that
Mathematically, cos n  i sin n  (cos   i sin  ) n
By Using the Binomial theorem, we get
cos n  i sin n  n C 0 (cos  ) n  n C1 (cos  ) n 1 (i sin  ) n C 2 (cos  ) n  2 (i sin  ) 2
 n C3 (cos  ) n 3 (i sin  ) 3  ................. n C n (cos  ) n  n (i sin  ) n
 cos n  i n C1 cos n 1  sin   n C 2 cos n  2  sin 2  i n C3 cos n 3  sin 3 
 n C 4 cos n  4 sin 4   n C 5 cos n 5 sin 5   .............  (i sin  ) n

 cos n   n C 2 cos n  2  sin 2   n C 4 cos n  4  sin 4   n C 6 cos n 6  sin 6   ... 

 i n C1 cos n 1  sin   n C3 cos n 3  sin 3   n C5 cos n 5  sin 5   ...... 
cos n  cos n   n C 2 cos n  2  sin 2   n C 4 cos n  4  sin 4   n C 6 cos n 6  sin 6   ...........
(1)
sin n  n C1 cos n 1  sin   n C3 cos n 3  sin 3   n C5 cos n 5  sin 5   ..................

(2)
Now every sin 2  replace by (1  cos 2  ) in (1) and every cos 2  replace
by (1  sin 2  ) in (2), we get the expansions of cos n in the powers of
cos and sin n in the powers of sin  .
sin n n
C1 cos n 1  sin   n C3 cos n 3  sin 3   n C5 cos n 5  sin 5   ..................

sin n cos n   n C 2 cos n 2  sin 2   n C 4 cos n 4  sin 4   n C 6 cos n 6  sin 6   ..........
Again dividing numerator and denominator by cos n  , we get
n
C tan   n C3 tan 3   n C5 tan 5   ..................
tan n  1n
1 C 2 tan 2   n C 4 tan 4   n C 6 tan 6   ..........
Example 1. Expand cos 6 and sin 6 in terms of cos and sin  .
Solution: We have cos 6  i sin 6  (cos   i sin  ) 6
By Using the Binomial theorem, we get
cos 6  i sin 6  cos 6   6C1 cos 5  (i sin  ) 6C 2 cos 4  (i sin  ) 2  6C3 cos 3  (i sin  ) 3
 6C 4 cos 2  (i sin  ) 4  6C5 cos  (i sin  ) 5  6C 6 (i sin  ) 6
 cos 6   6i cos 5  sin   15 cos 4  sin 2   20i cos 3  sin 3 

 15 cos 2  sin 4   6i cos  sin 5   sin 6 
cos 6  cos 6   15 cos 4  sin 2   15 cos 2  sin 4   sin 6 
sin 6  6 cos 5  sin   20 cos 3  sin 3   6 cos  sin 5 
Example 2. Expand tan 5 in the powers of tan  .
n
C tan   C3 tan   C5 tan   ..................
n 3 n 5
tan n  1n
1 C 2 tan 2   n C 4 tan 4   n C 6 tan 6   ..........
5
C1 tan   5C3 tan 3   5C5 tan 5 
tan 5 
1 5C 2 tan 2   5C 4 tan 4 
5 tan   10 tan 3   tan 5 

1  10 tan 2   5 tan 4 
sin 6
Example 3. Prove that  32 sin 5   32 sin 3   6 sin  .
cos 
Solution:We know that

sin n  n C1 cos n 1  sin   n C3 cos n 3  sin 3   n C5 cos n 5  sin 5   ...
sin 6  6 C1 cos 61  sin   6 C3 cos 63  sin 3   6C5 cos 65  sin 5 
[Now put n  6 ]
 6 cos 5  sin   20 cos 3  sin 3   6 cos  sin 5 
sin 6 6 cos 5  sin   20 cos 3  sin 3   6 cos  sin 5 
Now, L.H.S.  
cos  cos 
6 cos 5  sin  20 cos 3  sin 3  6 cos  sin 5 
  
cos  cos  cos 
 6 cos  sin   20 cos  sin   6 sin 
4 2 3 5
 6(cos 2  ) 2 sin   20(1  sin 2  ) sin 3   6 sin 5 

 6(1  sin 2  ) 2 sin   20(1  sin 2  ) sin 3   6 sin 5 
 6(1  sin 4   2 sin 2  ) sin   20(1  sin 2  ) sin 3   6 sin 5 
 6 sin   6 sin 5   12 sin 3   20 sin 3   20 sin 5   6 sin 5 

 32 sin 5   32 sin 3   6 sin  .
Exercise 1
1. Expand sin 4 in terms of sin  . Ans.:

4 cos 3  sin   4 cos  sin 3 
2. Expand tan 9 in powers of tan  . Ans
9 tan   84 tan   126 tan   36 tan   tan 
3 5 7 9

1  36 tan 2   126 tan 4   84 tan 6   9 tan 8 
3. Prove that:
(a) sin 7  7 sin   56 sin 3   112 sin 5   64 sin 7 
(b) sin 7  7 cos  sin   35 cos  sin   21cos  sin   sin 
6 4 3 2 5 7
sin 7
(c)  7  56 sin 2   112 sin 4   64 sin 6  .
cos 
(d)
sin 8  cos 8   28 cos 6  sin 2   70 cos 4  sin 4   28 cos 2  sin 6   sin 8 
(e) 1  cos10  2(16 cos 5   20 cos 3   5 cos  ) 2
4. Prove that cos 4  cos   6 cos  sin   sin  .
4 2 2 4
sin 6
5. Prove that  32 sin 5   32 sin 3   6 sin  .
cos 
(b) Expansion of cos n  and sin n  in terms of sines and cosines

of multiples of 
Mathematically, we can explain
1
Let x  cos   i sin  , then  cos   i sin 
x
1
x  2 cos  and
x
1
x  2i sin 
x
Again x n  cos n  i sin n , and
1
 cos n  i sin n , then
xn
1
x n  n  2 cos n and
x
1
x n  n  2i sin n
x
n
 1
To expand cos  : start from
n
(2 cos  )   x   n
 x
 1  1 
Expand right hand side and substitute the value of  x  ,  x 2  2 
 x  x 
etc.
n
 1
To expand sin  : start from
n
(2i sin  )   x   n
 x
 1  1 
Expand right hand side and substitute the value of  x  ,  x 2  2 
 x  x 
etc.
Example 1. Express sin 5  in the terms of sines of multiples of 
5
 1
Solution: We Know (2i sin  ) 5   x  
 x
2 3 4 5
 1  1  1  1  1
32i sin 5   x 5  5 x 4     10 x 3     10 x 2     5 x      
 x  x  x  x  x
 1   1   1
  x 5  5   5 x 3  3   10 x  
 x   x   x
 2i sin 5  5(2i sin 3 )  10(2i sin  )
 16 sin 5   sin 5  5 sin 3  10 sin  
1
sin 5   (sin 5  5 sin 3  10 sin  )
16
 212 cos 6  sin 7   sin 13  sin 11  6 sin 9  6 sin 7  15 sin 5  15 sin 3  20 sin 
Solution: We have
x n  (cos   i sin  ) n  cos n  i sin n ,
1
n
 (cos   i sin  )  n  cos n  i sin n
x
1 1
x n  n  2 cos n and xn   2i sin n
x xn
6 7 6
 1  1  1   1
(2 cos  ) 6 (2i sin  ) 7   x    x     x 2  2   x  
 x  x  x   x

2 3 4
 1   1   1   1 
  x12  6 x10   2   15 x 8   2   20 x 6   2   15 x 4   2 
  x   x   x   x 
 1   1  
5 6
1
 6 x 2   2     2   x  
 x   x   x
 15 6 1  1
  x12  6 x 8  15 x 4  20  4  8  12  x  
 x x x  x
15 6 1 20 15 6 1
 x13  6 x 9  15 x 5  20 x  3
 7  11  x11  6 x 7  15 x 3   5  9  13
x x x x x x x
 1   1   1   1   1   1   1
  x13  13    x11  11   6 x 9  9   6 x 7  7   15 x 5  5   15 x 3  3   20 x  
 x   x   x   x   x   x   x
 2i sin 13  2i sin 11  6(2i sin 9 )  6(2i sin 7 )  15(2i sin 5 )  15(2i sin 3 )  20(2i sin  )
  212 cos 6  sin 7   sin 13  sin 11  6 sin 9  6 sin 7  15 sin 5  15 sin 3  20 sin 
Exercise 2
1. Express sin 7  in the terms of sines of multiples of  .

Ans.:
1
 (sin 7  7 sin 5  12 sin 3  35 sin  )
64
2. Express cos 8  as a sum of cosines of multiples of  .
Ans.:
1
(cos 8  8 cos 6  28 cos 4  56 cos 2  35)
128
3. Expand cos 5  sin 7  in the series of sines and of multiples of  .
Ans.:
1
 11 (sin 12  2 sin 10  4 sin 8  10 sin 6  5 sin 4  20 sin 2 )
2
4. Prove that:
(a) 2 7 cos 3  sin 5   sin 8  2 sin 6  2 sin 4  6 sin 2
(b) sin 8   2 7 (cos 8  8 cos 6  28 cos 4  56 cos 2  35)
(c) 32 sin 4  cos 2   cos 6  2 cos 4  cos 2  2
(d) sin 5   2 4 (sin 5  5 sin 3  10 sin  )
10.4 SUMMATION OF SINES AND COSINES

SERIES
Here, we shall discuss important methods for summing up trigonometric

series which may be finite or infinite. There are two important methods for
summation. These are:
(a) C  iS method (b) The
difference method.
C  iS Method: Sum of cosines series is denoted by C and Sum of sines

series is denoted by S. Now summing the trigonometric method of the
series is connected with some standard series and its effect will be
complex quantities.
Suppose we have to find C , the sum of cosines series. Then write a similar
series of sines, S . Multiply the sines series by i and add to series of
cosines, we will get the C  iS method is
Sum of series  C  iS
Consider cosine series
C  a cos   a 2 cos(   )  a 3 cos(  2 )  .......
and sines series
S  a sin   a 2 sin(    )  a 3 sin(   2 )  .......
These series may be finite or infinite. Then sum up the cosine and sines
series may be complex
C  iS  a(cos   i sin  )  a 2 {cos(   )  i sin(    )}  a 3 {cos(  2 )  i sin(   2 )}  .......
The sum of series is calculated by using any one of the following series:
(a) Series in Geometric Progression (b) Binomial series or which
can be reduced to it
(c) Exponential series or the allied series (d) Logarithmic series
10.5 SUMMATION ON GEOMETRIC

PROGRESSION OR ARITHMETIC O-
GEOMETRIC SERIES
We now that a geometric progression is of the form

a, ar , ar 2 , ar 3 ,............, ar n ,...........
th n 1
Whose common ratio is r , then n term is ar
Sum of geometric progression in n th term is
a(1  r n )  r n 1
a  ar  ar 2  ..........  ar n1  (if r< 1) or  a.  (
1 r  r 1 
if r> 1)
Sum of geometric progression in infinite series is
a
a  ar  ar 2  ...................  ,provided r  1
1 r
An arithmetic o-geometric series is of the form
a, (a  d )r , (a  2d )r 2 , (a  3d )r 3 ,.......
Example 1. Sum the series n terms and to infinity
1  a cos   a 2 cos 2  a 3 cos 3  ................... , where a is less
then unity.
Solution: Let
C  1  a cos   a 2 cos 2  a 3 cos 3  .......  a n1 cos(n  1)
and
S  a sin   a 2 sin 2  a 3 sin 3  .......  a n1 sin( n  1)

C  iS  1  a(cos   i sin  )  a 2 (cos 2  i sin 2 )  ....  a n1{cos( n  1)  i(n  1) }

 1  ae i  a 2 e 2i  ................  a n 1e i ( n 1)
This is a geometric series, whose first term is 1 and common ratio is aei ,
we get
a(1  r n ) 1.(1  a n e in )
C  iS  
1 r 1  ae i
(1  a n e in ) (1  ae i )
 
(1  ae i ) (1  ae i )
1  ae i  a n e in  a n 1 e i ( n 1)

1  a(e i  e i )  a 2 e i .e i
1  a(cos   i sin  )  a n (cos n  i sin n )  a n 1 {cos( n  1)  i sin( n  1)


1  2a cos   a 2
Equating real and imaginary part, we get

1  a cos   a n cos n  a n1 cos( n  1)
Cn 
1  2a cos   a 2
a sin   a n sin n  a n1 sin( n  1)
Sn 
1  2a cos   a 2
n 1
When n   then both a and a  0 , we get
n
1  a cos 
C  and
1  2a cos   a 2
a sin 
S 
1  2a cos   a 2
Example 2. Sum the series
cos  cos 2 cos 3
1    ..................ad . inf .
cos  cos 2  cos 3 
Solution: Let C  1    ..................ad . inf .
sin  sin 2 sin 3
And S    ..................ad . inf .
(cos   i sin  ) (cos 2  i sin 2 ) (cos 3  i sin  )

C  iS  1     ........ad . inf .
This is a geometric series, whose first term is 1 and common ratio is
(cos   i sin  )
, we get
cos 
a 1
C  iS  
1 r  cos   i sin  
1  
 cos  
cos 

cos   cos   i sin 
i cos  cos 
 i  i cot 
 i sin 
2
sin 
 C  iS  0  i cot 
Equating real parts, we get C  0.
1 1
sin   sin 2  2 sin 3  ..................ad . inf .
2 2
1 1
Solution: Let S  sin   sin 2  2 sin 3  ..................ad . inf .
2 2
and
1 1
C  cos   cos 2  2 cos 3  ..................ad . inf .
2 2

1 1
C  iS  (cos   i sin  ) (cos 2  i sin 2 )  2 (cos 3  i sin 3 )  .......ad . inf .
2 2
This is a geometric infinite series, whose first term is (cos   i sin  ) and
1
common ratio is (cos   i sin  ) , we get
2
a cos   i sin 
C  iS  
1 r
1  cos   i sin  
1
2
2(cos   i sin  ) 2(cos   i sin  )
 
2  cos   i sin   (2  cos  )  i sin 
2(cos   i sin  ) (2  cos  )  i sin 
 
(2  cos  )  i sin  (2  cos  )  i sin 
2[( 2 cos   cos 2   sin 2  )  i(2 sin   sin  cos   sin  cos  ]

4  4 cos   cos 2   sin 2 
2[( 2 cos   1)  2i sin  ]
 
4  4 cos   1
(4 cos   2)  i (4 sin  )
C  iS 
5  4 cos 
Equating imaginary parts, we get
4 sin 
S
5  4 cos 
1  cos  cos   cos 2  cos 2  cos 3  cos 3  ...................ad . inf .
where a is less then unity.
Solution: Let
C  1  cos  cos   cos 2  cos 2  cos 3  cos 3  ...................ad . inf .

and
S  cos  sin   cos 2  sin 2  cos 3  sin 3  ...................ad . inf .

C  iS  1  cos  (cos   i sin  )  cos 2  (cos 2  i sin 2 )  cos 3  (cos 3  i sin 3 )  ...ad . inf
 1  cos  .e i  cos 2  .e 2i  cos 3  .e 3i  ...ad . inf
This is a geometric infinite series, whose first term is 1 and common ratio
i
is cos  .e , we get
a 1
C  iS  
1  r 1  cos  .e i
1 1
 
1  cos  (cos   i sin  ) (1  cos  )  i sin  cos 
2
1 1
 
sin   i sin  cos  sin  (sin   i cos  )
2
1 (sin   i cos  )
 
sin  (sin   i cos  ) (sin   i cos  )
(sin   i cos  ) (sin   i cos  )
 
sin  (sin   i cos  ) sin  (sin 2   cos 2  )
2 2 2
(sin   i cos  )
  1  i cot  
sin 
C  iS  1  i cot 
Equating real parts, we get C  1.

Example 5. Obtain the sum of the series
3sin   5 sin 2  7 sin 3  ........to n  terms
Solution: Let S  3sin   5 sin 2  7 sin 3  ........to n  terms
And C  3 cos  5 cos 2  7 cos 3  ........to n  terms

C  iS  3(cos   i sin  )  5(cos 2  i sin 2 )  7(cos 3  i sin 3 )  ...

n  terms  3e i  5e 2i  7e 3i  ...........  (2n  1)e ni
……..(1)
This is an arithmetic o-geometric series whose common ratio is e i and
multiplying both sides by e i , we obtain
(C  iS )e i  3e 2i  5e 3i  7e 4i  ...........  (2n  1)e ( n1)i
……..(2)
Subtracting (1) by (2), we obtain
(C  iS )(1  e i )  3e i  2e 2i  2e 3i  ...........  2e ni  (2n  1)e ( n1)i
 e i  2{e i  e 2i  e 3i  ...... n  terms}  (2n  1)e ( n1)i
2e i (1  e ni )
 e i  i
 (2n  1)e ( n 1)i
1 e
2(1  e ni )
 e i  (2n  1)e ( n 1)i 
1  e i
e i  (2n  1)e ( n 1)i 2(1  e ni )
 C  iS  
1  e i (1  e i )(1  e i )
{e i  (2n  1)e ( n 1)i }(1  e i ) 2(1  e ni )
 
(1  e i )(1  e i ) (1  e i )(1  e i )
e i  1  (2n  1)e ( n 1)i  (2n  1)e ni  2(1  e ni )

1  (e i  e i )  1
e i  (2n  1)e ( n1)i  (2n  3)e ni  3
 C  iS 
2(1  cos  )

(cos   i sin  )  (2n  1){cos( n  1)  i sin( n  1) }  (2n  3){cos n  i sin n }  3
C  iS 
2(1  cos  )
Equating imaginary parts on both sides, we obtain
sin   (2n  1) sin( n  1)  (2n  3) sin n
S
2(1  cos  )

cos  2 cos 2  3 cos 3  ........to n  terms
Solution: Let C  cos  2 cos 2  3 cos 3  ........to n  terms
and S  sin   2 sin 2  3sin 3  ........to n  terms

C  iS  (cos   i sin  )  2(cos 2  i sin 2 )  3(cos 3  i sin 3 )  ....to

n  terms  e i  2e 2i  3e 3i  .........  ne ni
……..(1)
i
This is an arithmetic o-geometric series whose common ratio is e and
multiplying both sides by e i , we obtain
(C  iS )e i  e 2i  2e 3i  3e 4i  ...........  ne ( n1)i
……..(2)
(C  iS )(1  e i )  e i  e 2i  e 3i  ...........  e ni  ne ( n1)i
( n 1) i
 {e i  e 2i  e 3i  ........to n  terms}  ne
e i (1  e ni ) ( n 1) i ( n 1) i (1  e ni )
  ne   ne 
1  e i 1  e i
 ne ( n 1)i (1  e ni )
 C  iS  
1  e i (1  e i )(1  e i )
{ne ( n 1)i }(1  e i ) (1  e ni )
 
(1  e i )(1  e i ) (1  e i )(1  e i )
ni ( n 1) i
 ne ( n 1)i  ne ni  (1  e ni ) (n  1)e  ne 1
 
i i
1  (e  e )  1 2(1  cos  )
(n  1){cos n  i sin n }  n{cos( n  1)  i sin( n  1) }  1
 C  iS 
2(1  cos  )
Equating real parts on both sides, we obtain
(n  1) cos n  n cos( n  1)  1
C
2(1  cos  )
1  2 cos  3 cos 2  4 cos 3  ........to n  terms
Solution: Let C  1  2 cos  3 cos 2  4 cos 3  ........to
n  terms
And S  2 sin   3sin 2  4 sin 3  ........to n  terms

C  iS  1  2(cos   i sin  )  3(cos 2  i sin 3 )  4(cos 3  i sin 3 )........to

n  terms
 1  2e i  3e 2i  4e 3i  ........  (1) n1 ne ( n1)i
……..(1)
This is an arithmetic o-geometric series whose common ratio is  e i , we
obtain
(C  iS )(e i )  e i  2e 2i  3e 3i  ......  (1) n1 (n  1)e ( n1)i  (1) n ne ni
…..(2)
(C  iS )(1  e i )  {1  e i  e 2i  e 3i  ....  (1) n 1 e ( n 1) }  (1) n ne ni
1.{1  (e i ) n }
 i
 (1) n ne ni
1  ( e )
1  (1) n e ni
  (1) n ne ni
1  e i
1  (1) n e ni (1) n ne ni
 C  iS  
(1  e i ) 2 (1  e i )
1  (1) n 1 e ni (1) n 1 ne ni
  [Putting (1) n  (1).(1) n1 ]
(1  e i ) 2 (1  e i )
[1  (1) n 1 e ni ]  (1  e i )[( 1) n1 ne ni ]

(1  e i ) 2
[1  (1) n 1 [( n  1)e ni  ne ( n 1)i ]
 2
 i 2 
i 
e  e  e 2 
 i
 
[ e  i n 1
 (1) [( n  1)e ( n 1) i
 ne ni ]


2

 2 cos 
 2
(cos   i sin  )  (1) n 1 [( n  1){cos( n  1)  i sin( n  1) }  n{cos n  i sin n }]



4 cos 2
2
(cos   i sin  )  (1) n1[( n  1){cos( n  1)  i sin( n  1) }  n{cos n  i sin n }]

2(1  cos  )
Equating real parts on both sides, we get
cos   (1) n1{( n  1) cos( n  1)  n cos n }
C
2(1  cos  )
Exercise 3
1. Sum of series
(a) cos  sin   cos 2 sin   cos 3 sin   ...................ad . inf .
2 3
Ans.:
sin  (cos   i sin  )
1  sin 2  sin 2 
(b) sin   sin(    )  sin(   2 )  ...to n  term . Ans.:
   n 
sin   (n  1)  sin cos ec
 2 2 2
2. Find the sum of the series
cos n  cos  cos(n  1)  cos 2  cos(n  2)  ......  cos n 
sin( n  1)
Ans.:
sin 
3. Sum of series sin 2 1  sin 2 2  sin 2 3  ........  sin 2 40 .Ans.:
cos 41sin 40
20 
sin 1
   2 
4. Show that cos 2   cos 2      cos 2      .......  to
 n  n 

n  terms 
2
 2  4 4 
5. Sum of series sin 4   sin 4      sin      ....... 
 n   n 
3n
n  terms Ans.:
8

6. If 1    .......  n  terms , then prove that
sec n  sin n
C
tan 
7. Sum the series 1  c cosh   c 2 cosh 2  c 3 cosh 3  ............. 
n  terms
Ans.:
1  c cosh   c n cosh n  c n1 cosh( n  1)
1  2c cosh   c 2
8. Sum of series cos 2   cos 2 2  cos 2 3  ...to n  terms . Ans.:
n cos( n  1) sin n
 .
2 2 cos 
9. Find the sum of series
2 3 4
1  cos   2 cos 2  3 cos 3  .............ad . inf . Ans.:
2 2 2
4(4  4 cos   cos 2 )
(5  4 cos  ) 2
10. Obtain the sum of the series
sin   2 sin 2  3sin 3  ........to n  terms Ans.:
(n  1) sin n  n sin( n  1)
2(1  cos  )
10.6 SUMMATION DEPENDING UPON

BINOMIAL SERIES
Using the some binomial series we can solve the sum of series as given
below:
n(n  1) 2 n(n  1)( n  2) 3
(a) (1  x) n  1  nx  x  x  .......
2! 3!
n(n  1) 2 n(n  1)( n  2) 3
(b) (1  x)  n  1  nx  x  x  .......
2! 3!
n(n  1) 2 n(n  1)( n  2) 3
(c) (1  x)  n  1  nx  x  x  .........
2! 3!
1
1 1 2 1.3 3
(d) (1  x) 2  1  x x  x  .........
2 2.4 2.4.6
1
 1 1.3 2 1.3.5 3
(e) (1  x) 2
 1 x x  x  ........
2 2.4 2.4.6
1
1 1.2 2 1.2.5 3
(f) (1  x) 3  1  x  x  x  ........
3 3.6 3.6.9
1
 1 1.4 2 1.4.7 3
(g) (1  x) 3
 1 x x  x  ........
3 3.6 3.6.9
1 1.3 1.3.5
1. Sum the series cos 2  1cos 4  cos 6  ........
2 2.4 2.4.6
1 1.3 1.3.5
Solution: Let C  1  cos 2  cos 4  cos 6  ........
2 2.4 2.4.6
1 1.3 1.3.5
And S  sin 2  sin 4  sin 6  ........
2 2.4 2.4.6

1 1.3 1.3.5
C  iS  1  (cos 2  i sin 2 )  (cos 4  i sin 4 )  (cos 6  i sin 6 )  ...
2 2.4 2.4.6
1 1.3 4i 1.3.5 6i
 1  e 2i  e  e  ............
2 2.4 2.4.6
1 1
 
 (1  e 2i ) 2
 (1  cos 2  i sin 2 ) 2
[By using
binomial theorem]
1 1 1
  
 (2 sin   i.2 sin  cos  )
2 2
 (2 sin  ) (sin   i. cos  )
2 2
1

    
1
 2
 (2 sin  ) cos     i sin    
2
 2  2 
       
1

 (2 sin  ) cos 4  2   i sin  4  2 
2
    
  
1

C  (2 sin  ) 2
cos  
 4 2
1 1 1.3
2. Sum the series 1 cos 2  cos 4  cos 6  ........,
2 2.4 2.4.6
 
where   
2 2
1 1 1.3
Solution: Let C  1  cos 2  cos 4  cos 6  ........
2 2.4 2.4.6
1 1 1.3
And S sin 2  sin 4  sin 6  ........
2 2.4 2.4.6

1 1 1.3
C  iS  1  (cos 2  i sin 2 )  (cos 4  i sin 4 )  (cos 6  i sin 6 )  ...
2 2.4 2.4.6
1 1 4i 1.3 6i
 1  e 2i  e  e  ............
2 2.4 2.4.6
1 1
2i
 (1  e )  (1  cos 2  i sin 2 )
2 2
[By using
binomial theorem]
1 1 1
 (2 cos 2   2i sin  cos  ) 2  (2 cos  ) 2 (cos   i sin  ) 2
 
1

 (2 cos  ) 2  cos  i sin 
 2 2
1
 
C  (2 cos  ) cos 2
 2 cos  . cos 2  cos  (1  cos  )
2 2
Exercise 4
1. Sum the series
n(n  1)
sin   n sin(    )  sin(   2 )  ........to(n  1)terms
2!
Ans.:
  n 
2 n cos n sin   
2  2 
2. Sum the series
1 1.4 2 1.4.7 3
1 y cos   y cos 2  y cos 3  ........, if y  1 .
3 3.6 3.6.9
1   y sin  
1
Ans.: (1  2 y cos   y ) cos  tan 1 
2 6

3 1  y cos  
3. Sum the series
n(n  1) n(n  1)( n  2)
n sin   sin 2  sin 3  ........to n  terms
1.2 1.2.3
Ans.:
 n
n

 2 cos  sin
 2 2
4. Sum the series
1 1.3 1.3.5
sin   sin 3  sin 5  sin 7  ........ Ans.:
2 2.4 2.4.6
2 sin   2 sin   
1
 
4 2
1 1.3 1.3.5
5. Sum the series 1  cos   cos 2  cos 3  ... Ans.:
2 2.4 2.4.6
2 cos   2 cos 
1
4
n(n  1) n(n  1)( n  2)
6. Sum the series n sin   sin 2  sin 3  ...
1.2 1.2.3
Ans.:
n
  n(   )
 2 sin  sin
 2 2

EXPONENTIAL SERIES
If x is any complex number, then we using some exponential to solve the

summation of series as given below:
x2 x3 x4
(a) e  1  x 
x
   ...........ad . inf . (b)
2! 3! 4!
x2 x3
ex  1  x    ...........ad . inf .
2! 3!
x3 x5
(c) sin x  x    ...........ad . inf . (d)
3! 5!
x2 x4
cos x  1    ...........ad . inf .
2! 4!
x3 x5
(e) sinh x  x    ...........ad . inf . (f)
3! 5!
x2 x4
cosh x  1    ...........ad . inf .
2! 4!
c 2 cos 2 c 4 cos 4
1. Find the sum of series 1   ...........ad . inf .
2! 4!
c 2 cos 2 c 4 cos 4
Solution: Let C  1    ...........ad . inf .
2! 4!
c 2 sin 2 c 4 sin 4
and S   ...........ad . inf .
2! 4!

c 2 (cos 2  i sin 2 ) c 4 (cos 4  i sin 4 )

C  iS  1    ...........ad . inf .
2! 4!
c 2 e 2i c 4 e 4i
 1   ...........ad . inf .
2! 4!
 cosh( ce i )  cosh{c(cos   i sin  )}
 cos{ic (cos   i sin  )}  cos(ic cos   c sin  )
 C  iS  cosh( c cos  ) cos(c sin  )  i sinh( c cos  ) sin( c sin  )
Hence, C  cosh( c cos  ) cos(c sin  )
2. Sum the series
sin 2 
cos   sin  cos 2  cos 3  ...........
1.2
Solution: Let
sin 2 
C  cos   sin  cos 2  cos 3  ..........
1.2
sin 2 
and S  sin   sin  sin 2  sin 3  ...........
1.2

sin 2 
C  iS  (cos   i sin  )  sin  (cos 2  i sin 2 )  (cos 3  i sin 3 )  ....
2!
sin 2  3i
 e i  sin e 2i  e  ....
2!
 sin  i sin 2  2i 
 e i 1  e  e  ........
 1! 2! 
i
 e i e sin .e  e i e sin .(cos  i sin )  e sin . cos e i ( sin )
2
 C  iS  e sin . cos .[cos(  sin 2  )  i sin(   sin 2  )]

Hence, C  e sin . cos . cos(  sin 2  )
Exercise 5
sin 2 sin 3
1. Sum of the series sin     ........... Ans.:
2! 3!
e cos . sin(sin  )
cos 2  cos 3 
2. Sum the series 1  cos  cos   cos 2  cos 3 .  ...
2! 2!
Ans.:
 cos  . cos 
e . cos(cos  sin  )
c2
3. Sum the series sin   c sin(    )  sin(   2 )  ... Ans.:
2!
 e ( c cos  ) . sin( c sin  )
sin 2 sin 3
4. Sum of the series sin     ........... Ans.:
2! 3!
e  cos  . sin(sin  )
c2
5. Sum the series cos   c cos(   )  cos(  2 )  .... Ans.:
2!
e c cos  . cos(  c sin  )

LOGARITHMIC SERIES
We know that the Logarithmic series

x2 x3 x4
(a) log( 1  x)  x     .........
2 3 4
x 2 x3 x 4
(b) log( 1  x)   x     .........
2 3 4
 x2 x4 x6 
(c) log( 1  x)  log( 1  x)  2    ......... 
 2 4 6 
 x3 x5 
(d) log( 1  x)  log( 1  x)  2 x    ......... 
 3 5 
1 1 x x3 x5
(e) log  x   .........
2 1 x 3 5
1 1  y 
(f) log( x  iy )  log( x  y )  i tan  
2 2
2 x
 ( x  iy )  1  y 
(g) log    2i tan  
 ( x  iy )  x

c2 c3
c sin   sin 2  sin 3  ...........
2 3
Solution: Let
c2 c3
S  c sin   sin 2  sin 3  ...........
2 3
c2 c3
and C  c cos   cos 2  cos 3  ...........
2 3

c2 c3
C  iS  c(cos   i sin  )  (cos 2  i sin 2 )  (cos 3  i sin 3 )  ...........
2 3
c 2 2i c 3 3i
 ce i  e  e  ...........
2 3
1 1
 ce i  (ce i ) 2  (ce i ) 3  ...........
2 3
i
 log( 1  ce )  log( 1  c cos   ic sin  )
1  c sin  
 log{( 1  c cos  ) 2  c 2 sin 2  }  i tan 1  
2  1  c cos  
 1 1  y 
 log( x  iy )  2 log( x  y )  i tan  x 
2 2
  
Equating imaginary parts on the both sides, we get
 c sin  
Hence, S  tan 1  
 1  c cos  
c3 c5
c sin   sin 3  sin 5  ...........
3 5
Solution: Let
c3 c5
S  c sin   sin 3  sin 5  ...........
3 5
c3 c5
and C  c cos   cos 3  cos 5  ...........
3 5
c3 c5
C  iS  c(cos   i sin  )  (cos 3  i sin 3 )  (cos 5  i sin 5 )  ...........
3 5
c 3 3i c 5 5i
 ce i 
e  e  ...........
3 5
 1 1 x x 3
x5 
 log  x    ...
 2 1 x 3 5 
1 1  ce i  1 1
 log  i 
 log( 1  ce i )  log( 1  ce i )
2 1  ce  2 2
1 1
 log{( 1  c cos  )  ic sin  }  log{( 1  c cos  )  ic sin  }
2 2
1 1  c sin  
  log{( 1  c cos  ) 2  c 2 sin 2  }  i tan 1  
2 2  1  c cos  
1 1  c sin  
  log{( 1  c cos  ) 2  c 2 sin 2  }  i tan 1  
2 2  1  c cos  
1 1  c sin  
   
log (1  2c cos   c 2 cos 2   c 2 sin 2  )  i tan 1  
2 2  1  c cos  
1 1  c sin  
   
log (1  2c cos   c 2 cos 2   c 2 sin 2  )  i tan 1  
2 2  1  c cos  

1
4
   
log (1  2c cos   c 2 )  log (1  2c cos   c 2 ) 
1  c sin   1  c sin  
 i tan 1    tan  
2  1  c cos    1  c cos  
Equating imaginary parts on both sides, we get
1  1  c sin   1  c sin  
S  tan    tan  
2  1  c cos    1  c cos  
  c sin    c sin   
  1  c cos     1  c cos   
1     
 tan 
1
2   c sin    c sin   
1   1  c cos     1  c cos   
    
1  c sin {(1  c cos  )  (1  c cos  )}  1 1  2c sin  
 tan 1    2 tan  1  c 2 
2  (1  c cos  )  c sin 
2 2 2 2
  
Exercise 6

a2 a3
a cos   cos 2  cos 3  ........... Ans.:
2 3
1
log( 1  2a cos   a 2 )
2
 1 1 1
2. Prove that, if   , log sec   tan 2   tan 4   tan 6   ......
4 2 4 6
3. Sum of the following series
a3 a5
(a) a sin   sin 3  sin 5  ........... Ans.:
3 5
1 1  2a sin   a 2 
log  
4 1  2a sin   a 2 
1 1
(b) cos   cos 2  cos 3  .... Ans.:
2 3

log 2  log cos
2
1 1
(c) cos 2  cos 4  sin 6  .... Ans.:
3 5
1   
cos  log cot  sin  
2 2 2 
1 1
(d) cos 2   cos 3  cos 3  cos 5  cos 5  .... Ans.:
3 5
1
tan 1 (2 cot 2  )
2
 1 2 1 3 1 4
(e) cos  cos  cos  cos .... Ans.:
3 3 3 5 3 7 3
1
8
 2 3 log( 2  3 )   
1 1
4. If the series u  cos   cos 3  cos 5  .... , then prove
3 5

that u  .
4
1 1
5. If the series sin   sin 3  sin 5  ....  v, show that
3 5
tanh 2v  sin 
10.9 THE DIFFERENCE METHOD
In this method to sum of series, every term is split into the difference of
two terms, such that one term of each expression should appear as one of
the expressions of the next term with sign changed. In this way we added
equipped together all the terms of the series, all expression cancel in pairs
diagonal wise expect two, one each from the first and last term. This
method is to split the n th term of the series as the difference of two terms,
and then the splitting mode can be found by putting n  1 in the solution
and reduce to first term of the series.
Suppose the sum of series
S n  T1  T2  T3  ...........  Tn (Sum of the firstn
terms of the series)
The series is expressed as
T1  f (2)  f (1)
T2  f (3)  f (2)
T3  f (4)  f (3)
... ... ...
... ... ...
Tn1  f (n)  f (n  1)
and Tn  f (n  1)  f (n)
On addition, we get
T1  T2  T3  ...........  Tn  f (n  1)  f (1)
If the given series is convergent and sum to infinity reduce as follows
S   lim S n  lim [ f (n  1)  (1)]
n  n 
1. Find the sum of the series to n terms
4 6 8
tan 1  tan 1  tan 1 ...........
1  3.4 1  8.9 1  15.16
Solution: We have the n terms
2(n  1)
Let Tn  tan 1
1  n(n  2)( n  1) 2
 (n  1)( n  2)  n(n  1)  1  x  y 
 tan 1   = tan 1  xy 
 1  n(n  2)( n  1) 
2
 
where, x  (n  2)( n  1) and y  n(n  1)
1 1
hence, Tn  tan x  tan y
 Tn  tan 1 [( n  1)( n  2)]  tan 1 [n(n  1)]
Now putting n  1,2,3,............., n , we have
T1  tan 1 3.2  tan 1 2.1,
T2  tan 1 4.3  tan 1 3.2,
T3  tan 1 4.5  tan 1 4.3,
... ... ...
Tn  tan 1 [( n  1)( n  2)]  tan 1 [n(n  1)]
Adding all above term, we get
S n  tan 1 [( n  2)( n  1)]  tan 1 2.1  tan 1 (n 2  3n  2)  tan 1 2
n 2  3n 1 n 2  3n
 tan 1  tan
1  2(n 2  3n  2) 2n 2  6 n  5
2. Sum of the series
1 1 1 1
tan 1  tan 1  tan 1  .....  tan 1
3  3.1  12
3  3.2  2 2
3  3.3  3 2
3  3.n  n 2
1 1
Solution: Let Tn  tan 1  tan 1
3  3.n  n 2
1  (n  3n  2)
2
1 (n  2)  (n  1)
 tan 1  tan 1
1  (n  2)( n  1) 1  (n  2)( n  1)
 Tn  tan 1 (n  2)  tan 1 (n  1)
Putting n  1,2,3,............., n , we have
T1  tan 1 3  tan 1 2,
T2  tan 1 4  tan 1 3,
T3  tan 1 5  tan 1 4,
... ... ...
Tn  tan 1 (n  2)  tan 1 (n  1)
S n  tan 1 (n  2)  tan 1 2
3. Sum of the series
12 12 12
tan 1  tan 1  ................  tan 1
31 139 36n 2  5
12 12
Solution: Let Tn  tan 1  tan 1
36n  5
2
4  (36n 2  9)
3 3
 tan 1  tan 1
9
1  (9n 2  )  3  3
1   3n   3n  
4  2  2
 3  3
 3n     3n  
 tan 1 
2  2
 3  3
1   3n   3n  
 2  2
 3  3
 Tn  tan 1  3n    tan 1  3n  
 2  2
Putting n  1,2,3,............., n , we have
9 3
T1  tan 1  tan 1 ,
2 2
15 9
T2  tan 1  tan 1 ,
2 2
 21   15 
T3  tan 1    tan 1  
 2 2
... ... ...
 3  3
Tn  tan 1  3n    tan 1  3n  
 2  2
 3 3
S n  tan 1  3n    tan 1  
 2 2
  3 3 
  3n  2    2  
 tan 1      
  3   3 
1   3n  2    2  
 
3n 12n
 tan 1  tan 1
9
1 n 
9 4  18n  9
2 4
12n
S  tan 1
18n  13
10.10 SUMMARY
This unit defined that summations of infinite sequences are called series.
They involve the concept of limit, and are not considered in this article.
The summation of an explicit sequence is denoted as a succession of
additions. For example, summation of [1, 2, 4, 2] is denoted 1 + 2 + 4 + 2,
and results in 9, that is, 1 + 2 + 4 + 2 = 9. The common pattern in an
arithmetic sequence is that the same number is added or subtracted to each
number to produce the next number. This is called the common difference.
In other words, summation is the addition of a sequence of any kind of
numbers, called addends or summands; the result is their sum or total.
10.11 GLOSSARY
1. Series: Get when you add up all the terms of a sequence.

2. Sine: Length of the opposite side angle over the length of the
hypotenuse.
3. Cosine: Length of the side adjacent to angle over the length of the
hypotenuse.
10.12 SELF ASSESSMTS QUESTIONS

1. C  iS method of finding the sum of these series which involve:
(a) sine and tangents of multiple of angles
(b) cosine and cotangent of multiple of angles
(c) sine and cosine of multiple of angles
(d) tangent and cotangent of multiple of angles
2. If C  iS method of finding the sum, the resulting series is

a  ar  ar 2  ..... to n terms then we use the formula:
a(r n  1) a(1  r n )
(a) S n  (b) S n 
1 r r 1
a(1  r n ) a
(c) S n  (d) S n 
1 r 1 r
1
3. If tan 1  tan 1 (n  1)  tan 1 y then the value of y is
1  n(n  1)
(a) n (b) n  1
(c) n 2  n  1 (d) n  1
1
4. If tan 1 2
 tan 1 (2n  1)  tan 1 y then the value of y is
2n
(a) 2n (b) n  1
(c) n  1 (d) 2n  1
1 1
5. Sum of series cos   cos 2  2 cos 3  ......... is
2 2
4 cos   2 4 cos   2
(a) (b)
5  4 cos  5  4 cos 
4 cos   2 2 cos   4
(c) (d)
5  4 cos  5  4 cos 
sin  sin 2 sin 3

6. Sum of series    ......... is
1! 2! 3!
(a) e cos sin(sin  ) (b) e cos sin(cos  )
(c) e cos cos(cos  ) (d) e sin sin(sin  )
sin  sin 2 sin 3 sin 4

7. Sum of series     cos  ......... is
1! 2! 3! 4!
(a) e sin(sin  ) (b) e  cos sin(sin  )
(c) e sin cos(sin  ) (d) e  sin cos(cos  )
8. If c  1, than the sum of the infinite series

1 1
cei  c 2 ei 2  c 3ei 3  ............... is
2 3
(a) log( 1  cei ) (b) log( 1  ce i )
(c)  log( 1  cei ) (d)  log( 1  cei )
10.12.2Fill in the blanks
1. If z  1, than the sum of the infinite series

1 1
z  z 3  z 5  ............... is……
3 5
2. If C  iS  tan 1 (c cos  ic sin  ), then C is………….
1 1 1 1
3. Sum of series tan 1  tan 1  tan 1  tan 1  ...... to n
3 7 13 21
terms is………
4. Sum of series taking the value of c not greater than unity
c2 c3
numerically, c cos   cos 2  cos 3  ...........ad . inf .
2 3
is………………
5. Sum of series 1     ........ad . inf . is…….
cos  2!cos  3!cos 3 
2
 2  4 4 
6. Sum of series sin 4   sin 4     sin     .........  n
 n   n 
terms is………
7. Sum to infinite terms of the series
cos  cos 2 cos 3
1    ........ is
cos  cos 2  cos 2 
8. Sumof the series deduce to infinite
n 1
1 2 4 2
tan 1  tan 1  tan 1  .......... tan 1
3 9 33 1  2 n1
ANSWERS:
1 1 z 2. tan  n 4.
1. log 3. tan 1
2 1 z n2 1
log( 1  c 2  2c cos  )
2
5. e cos(tan  ) 3n 7.0 
6. 8.
8 4
10.13 REFERENCES
1. Holdener J., Math bite: Sums of Sines and Cosines, this Magazine.
2. Thompson, Silvanus; Gardner, Martin (1998). Calculus Made
Easy.
3. Rudin, Walter (1987). Real and Complex Analysis (3rd ed.).
Boston: McGraw Hill. ISBN 0-07-054234-1.
1. Engineering Mathematics-R.D. Sharma,New Age Era International

Publication, New Delhi.
2. Engineering Physics- S.K. Gupta, Krishna Prakashan Media (P)
Ltd., Meerut.
3. Complex Analysis- Gupta, Pundir and Singh, Pragati Prakashan(P)
Ltd., Meerut.
4. Trigonometry- vasishtha and others, Krishna Prakashan Media (P)
Ltd., Meerut.
5. The summation of series- Haroldd T. Devis, the Pricipia press of
tinity, University.
6. Higher engineering Mathematics – Das & Verma, S. Chand &
Company Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.
7. Bali, N. P.; Trigonometry, for B.A/B.Sc. Classes (1st Edition),
New Delhi: Laxmi Publication Pvt. Ltd.
8. Kishan, Hari (2005); Trigonometry; (1st Edition), New Delhi:
Atlantic Publishers.
10.15.1 Short answer type question

Sum of the following series:
1 1 1
1. tan 1  tan 1  tan 1 ....to n  terms
3 7 13
2 2 2
2. tan 1  tan 1  tan 1  ............
4 9 16
1 1 1 2 1 4 1 2 n 1
tan  tan  tan  ....  tan
3. 3 9 33 1  2 2 n 1
4.
n 1 2n 1 n
ANSWERS:1. tan 1 2. tan 3 3. tan 1 4. tan 1
n2 1 2 n
n2
Sum of the following series:

4 4 4 4
1. tan 1  tan 1  tan 1  ......  tan 1 2
7 19 39 4n  3
    
2. tan sec   tan 2 sec  tan 3 sec 2  ....to n  terms
2 2 2 2 2
1 1 1
3.  2  3  ...to n  terms
2 cos  2 cos  cos 2 2 cos  cos 2 cos 2 2 
4. cos ec cos ec2  cos ec2 cos ec3  ....to n  terms
 4n 
ANSWERS:1. tan 1   2. tan  3. sin  [cot   cot 2 2  ] 4.
 2n  5 
1
[cot   cot( n  1) ]
sin 
UNIT 11: INFINITE PRODUCT AND

GREGORY'S SERIES
CONTENTS:
11.1 Objectives
11.2 Introduction
11.3 Infinite Product
11.3.1 Expansion of sin  in the form of Infinite Product
11.3.1 Expansion of cos in the form of Infinite Product
11.4 Expansion of sinh  and cosh  in the form of Infinite Product
11.5 Some standard results of infinite product
11.6 Gregory‟s series
11.7 General theorem on Gregory‟s Series
11.8 Value of π
11.9 Euler‟s series
11.10 Machine‟s series
11.11 Rutherford‟s series
11.12 Summary
11.13 Glossary
11.15 References
11.1 OBJECTIVE
 Expand sin  and cos  in form of infinite product.
 Expand sinh  and cosh  in form of infinite product.
 Understand some special series like
(i) Greagory's series
(ii) Euler's series
(iii) Machin's series

(iv) Rutherford's series
 Find value of  using these special series.
11.2 INTRODUCTION
This unit deals with expressions of sin  , cos  , sinh  and cosh 
in the form of infinite product. It helps us to find value of  . Gregory's
series, Euler's series, Machin's series and Rutherford's series are also
discussed in this unit. Among then Gregory's series has a great
importance,it is the infinite Taylor series expression of inverse tangent
function.
11.3 INFINITE PRODUCT
11.3.1 Expansion of sin  in the form of Infinite Product:
To express sin  as an infinite product, we have

x x x  x
sin x  2 sin cos  2 sin sin
2 2 2 2
………..(1)
Putting x   in (1), we get
  
sin   2 sin sin
2 2
………..(2)

Putting x  in (1), we get
2
  2  
sin  2 sin 2 sin
2 2 22
………..(3)
 
Putting x  in (1), we get
2
    3  
sin  2 sin 2
sin
2 2 22
………..(4)
  
Putting the values of sin and sin in (2), we get
2 2

2    
3  
sin   2 3 sin 2
2
sin
sin 2
sin
2 2 2 22
Continuing this process successively, we get
   2   3   7  
sin   2 7 sin 3 sin 3
sin 3
sin 3
.............. sin
2 2 2 2 23
3 1   
2   3   (2 3  1)  
 2(2 )
sin 3
sin sin
sin .............. sin
2 23 23 23 23
.... .... .... .... .... .... .... ....
.... ....
.... .... .... .... .... .... .... ....
.... ....
   2   3   ( p  1)  
 2 ( p 1) sin sin sin sin .............. sin
p p p p p
……(5)
Where p  2 n
The last factor on the right hand side of the (5) is
 ( p  1)           
 sin    sin      sin  
 p   p   p 
The second last factor on the right hand side of the (5) is
 ( p  2)     2     2   
 sin    sin      sin  
 p   p   p 
and so on.
Now we combine together the second last and the last factors, the third
th
p 
and so on. The uncombined factor is   1 factor and its value is
2 
 p 
   
sin  2 .
 p 
 
 
Thus on combining the above pairs of factors (5) become
p 
  
       2   2     2 
sin   2 ( p 1) sin sin sin   sin sin ...... sin  
p p p   p p   p 
 
….(6)
 p 
  
  sin       cos 
 
But sin  2  
 p   2 p p
 
 
Since, by using sin( A  B) sin( A  B)  sin 2 A  sin 2 B, then (6) reduces
to
 2    2 
sin   2 p 1 sin sin  sin 2 sin 2  sin 2 ..................
p p p  p p
 p  
   1 
 2 2  2   
..................................sin  sin  cos ……..(7)
 p p p
 
p
Dividing both sides of (7) sin and taking   0 , we get
2
 sin  
p 
sin  sin    
lim  1, lim  lim p and
 0   0   0   
sin  sin 
p  p
  
 
 p 

lim sin 2  0.
 0 p
Now we have
p 
  1
( p 1) 2  2 2 2 3 2  2 
p2 sin . sin . sin ............ sin
p p p p
……….(8)
Dividing equation (7) by (8), we get
          
 sin 2   sin 2   sin 2   sin 2 
  p  p p p 
sin   p sin cos 1    1    1  ....1  
p p  2   sin 2 3   sin 2  p  1  
sin 2   sin 2
 p   p   p   2  p 
 
   sin p 
Now p  , then lim  p sin   lim    
p 
 p  p    
 p 
   sin     2 
sin 2     2
     p   
2 2
p
lim  lim    2   etc.
2     
 0  0 2 2
sin   sin 2  
p  p 2  p 
 
and so on and also lim cos   1 , we have
 0
 p
  2   2  2 
sin    1  2 1  2 2 1  2 2 ...............
   2   3  

 2 
sin     1  2 2  .
r 1  r  
11.3.2 Expansion of cos in the form of Infinite Product:
To express cos as an infinite product, we have

Now, by using the result (5) of 9.3, we get
   2   ( p  1)  
sin   2 ( p 1) sin sin sin .............. sin
p p p p
………(1)
 
Putting      , we get
2 
   2  3  2 (2 p  1)  2
cos   2 ( p 1) sin   sin .............. sin
 2p  2p 2p
………(2)
Now the last factor on the right hand sides of (2), we get
 (2 p  1)  2   2 p    2 
sin    sin  
 2p   2p 
   2    2 
 sin     sin  
 2p   2p 
Again the second factor from the end of (2), we get
 (2 p  3)  2   2 p  3  2 
sin    sin  
 2p   2p 
 3  2   3  2 
 sin     sin  
 2p   2p 
Therefore, on combining first and last factor from the beginning and the
end, and so on, we get
   2   2   3  2 3  2 
cos   2 ( p 1) sin sin .sin sin .....
 2p 2p  2p 2p 
  2   2 3 2 
 2 ( p 1) sin 2  sin 2 .sin  sin 2 .....
 2p 2p 2p 2p
……….(3)
Now putting   0 we get
 3 5
1  2 ( p 1) sin 2 . sin 2 sin 2 ........
2p 2p 2p
..……..(4)
 2 2   2 2 
 sin 2 p   sin 2 p 
cos   1  .1  .........
 sin 2    sin 2 3 
 2 p   2 p 
………..(5)
Making p  , we get
 2 2   2 2 
 sin 2 p   2 
2
4 2  sin 2 p   2 
2
4 2
lim      
   
    
, lim 
p 
 sin 2 2 p 
 sin 2 3   3  9 2
 2 p   2 p 
and so on
From (5), we get
 4 2   4 2 
cos   1  2 .1  2 2 ............... 
   3  

 4 2 
cos    1  
2 2 
r 1  (2r  1)  
11.4 EXPANSION OF sinh  AND cosh  IN

THE FORM OF INFINITE PRODUCT
(a) To express sinh  as an infinite product:

We know that

 2 
sin     1  2 2 
r 1  r  
Putting   i , we get

 2 
sin i  i  1  2 2  
r 1  r  

 2 
sinh     1  2 2 
r 1  r  
(b) To express cosh  as an infinite product:
We know that

 4 2 
cos    1  
2 2 
r 1  (2r  1)  
Putting   i , we get

 4i 2 2 
cos i   1   
r 1  (2r  1) 2  2 

 4 2 
cosh    1  
2 2 
r 1  (2r  1)  
11.5 SOME STANDARD RESULTS OF INFINITE

PRODUCT
1 1 1 2
(a)    ..........  (b)
12 2 2 32 6
1 1 1  4
4
 4  4  .......... 
1 2 3 90
1 1 1 2
(c) 2  2  2  ..........  (d)
1 3 5 8
1 1 1 4
   .......... 
14 3 4 5 4 96
1 1 1 2
Example 1. Show that (i) 2  2  2  ..........  .
1 2 3 6
1 1 1 4
(ii) 4  4  4  .......... 
1 2 3 90
Solution (i): We know that
  2   2  2 
sin    1  2 1  2 2 1  2 2 ...............
  
   2   3  
sin 
  2   2  2 
  1  2 1  2 2 1  2 2 ...............
  
    2   3  
……….(1)
3 5
And also, sin       .........
3! 5!
sin  2 4
  1   .........
 3! 5!
……….(2)
  2   2  2  2 4
1  2 1  2 2 1  2 2 ...............  1    ............
   2   3   3! 5!
...............(3)
Taking logarithms of both sides, we get
 2   2    2  4 
log 1  2   log 1  2 2   ..............  log 1     ............ 
    2     3! 5! 
 2  4   2 4 
 2  4  .....   2 2   .....  .....
 2  2  2.2 
4 4

  2  4  1  2  4 
2

    .....      .....   ....
 3! 5!  2  3! 5!  
............(4)
Equating the coefficients of  2 on both sides in equation (4), we get
1 1 1 1
 2 2  2 2  ................... 
 2
2  3  3!
1 1 1 1  1
   2  2  .......   ...... 
 1 2
2
3  3!
1 1 1 2
    .........  ..... 
12 2 2 32 6
Equating the coefficients of  on both sides in equation

4
Solution (ii):
(4), we get
1 1 1 1   1 1
 14  2 4  3 4  .......     120  72 
2 2    
1 1 1  4 1 1
 14  2 4  3 4  .........   2  120  72 
   
1 1 1 2 4
    ......... 
14 2 4 3 4 180
1 1 1 4
   ......... 
14 2 4 3 4 90

 1  1  1  2
(a) 1  2 1  2 1  2   ............. 
 2  4  6  
2 2 4 4 6 6 8 8 
(b) . . . . . . . ................ 
1 3 3 5 5 7 7 9 2
Solution:(a) We know that
  2   2   2  2 
sin    1  2 .1  2 2 .1  2 2 .1  2 2 ...............
   2   3   4  

Substituting   on both sides, we get
2
   2   2   2  2 
sin 1  2 2 1  2 2 2 1  2 2 2 .1  2 2 2 ..............
2 2  2   2 2   3 2    4 2  
 1  1  1  1 
1  1  2 1  2 1  2 1  2 ..........................
2  2  4  6  8 
 2 1  1  1  1 
 1  2 .1  2 .1  2 .1  2 ...............
  2  4  6  8 
……….(1)
(b) From above result (1) can expressed in the form, we get
2  2 2  1  4 2  1  6 2  1   8 2  1 
  2  2  2 . 2 ................
  2  4  6   8 
2 3 15 35 63 99
 2 . 2 . 2 . 2 . 2 .............
 2 4 6 8 10
2 1.3 3.5 5.7 7.9 9.11
 . . . . .............
 2.2 4.4 6.6 8.8 10.10
 2 2 4 4 6 6 8 8
 . . . . . . . ............
2 1 3 3 5 5 7 7 9

4 36 100 196 324
2 . . . . .............
3 35 99 195 323
 4 2   4 2   4 2   4 2 
cos   1  2 .1  2 2 .1  2 2 .1  2 2 ...............
      
   3   5   7  

4
 4 2   4 2   4 2   4 2   4 2 
cos  1  2 2 2 .1  2 2 2 .1  2 2 2 .1  2 2 2 .1  2 2 2 ........
4  1 4   3 4   5 4   7 4   9 4  
1  1 1  1   1  1 
 1  .1  2 .1  2 ..1  2 .1  2 ...............
2  4 3 4 5 4  7 4 9 4
 1  1  1  1  1 
 1  .1  .1  .1  .1  ...............
 4.1   4.9   4.25   4.49   4.81 
 4  1   36  1   100  1   196  1   324  1 
 . . . . ...............
 4   36   100   196   324 

1 3 35 99 195 323
 . . . . ....
2 4 36 100 196 324
4 36 100 196 324
 2 . . . . ....
3 35 99 195 323
Example 4. When n is very large, then prove that

(2n  1) 2.4.6...........2n
 approximately.
2 1.3.5....(2n  1)
Solution: We know that, if n is very large
  2   2  2   2 
sin    1  2 .1  2 2 .1  2 2 ......................1  2 2 
   2   3    n 

2
   2   2  2   2 
sin  1  2 2 .1  2 2 2 .1  2 2 2 ......................1  2 2 2 .
2 2  2   2 2   2 3    2 n 
 1  1  1   1 
 1 1  2 .1  2 .1  2 ......................1  .
2 
2  2  4  6   ( 2n) 

1 1 1 1 1 1  1  1 

1 1  .1  .1  .1  .1  .1  ......................1  .1  .
2  2 2 4 4 6 6  2n   2n 
 1 3 3 5 5 7 2n  1 2n  1
 1  . . . . . . ...................... .
2 2 2 4 4 6 6 2n 2n
 12.32.5 2..............(2n  1) 2 (2n  1)
 1 .
2 2 2.4 2.6 2................(2n) 2

2 12.32.5 2..............(2n  1) 2
 2 2 2
(2n  1) 2 .4 .6 ................(2n) 2
2
2  1.3.5..............(2n  1) 
   
(2n  1)  2.4.6................(2n) 
2

(2n  1)  2.4.6................(2n) 
  
2  1.3.5..............(2n  1) 
(2n  1) 2.4.6................(2n)
 
2 1.3.5..............(2n  1)

    cos 2    cos 2  
cos sin    cos 2  1  .1  ..........
2  4  2.4   4.6 
Solution: We know that the cosine series as an infinite product
 4x 2   4x 2   4x 2 
cos x  1  2 .1  2 2 .1  2 2 ...............
   3   5  

Substituting x  sin  on both sides, we get
2
   4 sin    4 sin    4 sin  

2 2 2 2 2 2
cos sin    1  2 2 2 .1  2 2 2 .1  2 2 2 ...............
2   2 1   2 3   25  
 sin 2    sin 2  
 
 1  sin 2  .1  2 .1  2 ...............
 3  5 
 32  (1  cos 2  )   5 2  (1  cos 2  ) 
 cos 2  . . ...............
 32  52 
 8  cos 2    24  cos 2  
 cos 2  . . ...............
 32  52 
 2.4.4.6............   cos 2   cos 2  
  cos 2
 .1  1  
 3.3.5.5............   2.4  4.6 
……….(1)
Also, we know that the sine series as an infinite product
 x2   x2   x2 
sin x  x1  2 .1  2 2 .1  2 2 ...........
   2   3  

Substituting x  on both sides, we get
2
  2   2  2 
 1  1  2 2 .1  2 2 2 .1  2 2 2 ........... 
    
2  2   2 2   2 3  
 1  1  1 
1  1  2 .1  2 .1  2 ........... 
2  2  4  6 
 1 1  1 
1 1  .1  .1  ...........
2  4   16   36 
  3   15   35 
 1  . . ........... 
2  4   16   36 
 2 16 36
 . . ...........
4 3 15 35
 2.16.36.......... 2.4.4.6.6..........
  
4 3.15.35.......... 3.3.5.5.7..........
……….(2)
    cos 2    cos 2  
cos sin    cos 2  1  .1  ..........
2  4  2.4   4.6 

 4x   4x   4x   4x 
sin x  cos x  1  .1  .1  .1  ..........
    3   5   7 
1 1 1 2
and hence deduce that 1   ......... 
33 5 3 7 3 32
    4x 
sin x  cos x  2 sin   x   2 sin 1  
4  4  
   4 x  2 
  1    
  4x     4    
 2 . 1   1  
4   r 1 r 
2 2
 
 
..........(1)
Putting x  0 in (1), we get
   1 
1 2
4
 1  4r  2 
r 1  
..........(2)
  4x  
2
 ( 4 r ) 2
  1   
 4x      
sin x  cos x  1   
   r 1  ( 4r ) 2  1 
 
 
 4 x  4x  
  4r  1   4r  1   
 4x  
    
 1   
   r 1  4r  1(4r  1) 
 
 
 4x   4x  
  4r  1    4r  1   
 4x  
    
 1     
   r 1  4r  1 4r  1 
 
 
 4x    4x  4x 
 1   1  .1  .
   r 1  4r  1   4r  1 
 4x   4x   4 x  4x 
 1  .1  .1  1  ..........
    3   5  7 
……..(3)
Deduction: Taking logarithms on both sides of (3), we get
 4x   4x   4x   4x 
log 1    log .1    log 1    log 1  ..........  log(sin x  cos x)
    3   5   7 
1 1   8x 3 
 log( 1  sin 2 x)  log 1   2 x   ....... 
2 2   3! 
1  
2 3
8x 3  1 8x 3  1 8x 3 
  2 x   ....   2 x   ....   2 x   ....  ....
2  3!  2 3!  3 3!  

3
Here, equating the coefficients of x and logarithm expansion on both
sides, we get
1 43  1 1 1  1  8 8 1  8 8 2
.
3 3 1  33  53  7 3 .........     
2  3! 3 
   
2  6 3 3
1 43  1 1 1  2
 .
3 3 1  33  53  7 3 .........  3 
 1 1 1  3
1  33  53  7 3 .........  2. 64
1 1 1 2
1   ......... 
33 5 3 7 3 32

 4   4 
sin   cos   (1  4 ) 1  .1 
r 1  4r  1  4r  1

Solution: We have
   
sin   cos   2 sin      2 sin  1  4 
4  4 
  1  4  2 
   
     
 2  1  4  1 
4
4  r 1  r  
2 2
 
 
………(1)
Let   0, then we have
 
 1 
1 2  1  2 2 
4 r 1  4  
………(2)
Dividing (1) by (2), we have

(4r ) 2  1  4 
2
sin   cos   1  4 
r 1 ( 4r ) 2  1

 4r  1  4   4r  1  4 
 1  4   . 
r 1  4r  1   4r  1 

 4   4 
 1  4  1  .1  
r 1  4r  1   4r  1 
Exercise 1
1. Show that
1 1 1 1 2
(a)    .........  (b)
12 3 2 5 2 7 2 8
1 1 1 1 4
   ......... 
14 3 4 5 4 7 4 96
1 1 1 1 2
(c) 2  2  2  2  .........  (d)
1 2 3 4 12
1 1 1 1  2
    ....... 
1.2 2.4 3.6 4.8 12
2. Show that
1 1 1 2  2 
(a)    ....  1   (b)
34 5 4 7 4 64  12 
3 8 15 2  2 
   ....  1  
2 4 34 4 4 6  15 
1 1 1 
(c) 1    .........  (d)
3 5 7 2 2
2 5 10 17 2 4
   .........  
14 2 4 34 4 4 6 90
3. Prove that
2 2
1  (  2 x) 2   (  2 x) 2 
1  sin x  (  2 x) 2 1   1   ............
8  42  2   82  2 
4. Prove that
 36 144 324 576
(a)  . . . ........ (b)
3 35 143 323 575
3 8 80 224 440
 . . . ........
2 9 81 225 441
5. If 2, 3, 5 are all prime numbers, show that
22 32 52 2
. . ....... 
2 2  1 32  1 5 2  1 15
6. Prove that
1 2x 2x
cot x   2  2 2 .............
x  x 2
2   x2
7. Prove that

 4x 2 
cos x  cosh x  2 1  2 4 
r 1  (2r  1)  
x x  x 
8. Prove that tan 1 x  tan 1  tan 1  ...........  tan 1  tanh 
3 5  4
11.6 GREGORY’S SERIES

  
Statement: If  lies within the closed interval  , , i.e., if
 4 4
 
    , then show that
4 4
1 1 1
  tan   tan 3   tan 5   tan 7   .......... .
3 5 7
Proof: We have
sin 
1  i tan   1  i
cos 
1
 (cos   i sin  )
cos 
 sec  .e i
Now, taking logarithm of both sides, we have
log( 1  i tan  )  log sec   i
…………..(1)
 
Now, since  lies between  and, so tan  lies between –1 and 1,
4 4
i.e., tan  is numerically not greater than 1.
We have from (1)
log sec   i  log( 1  i tan  )
1 1 1 1
 i tan   i 2 tan 2   i 3 tan 3   i 4 tan 4   i 5 tan 5  .........
2 3 4 5
1 1 1 1
 i tan   tan 2   i tan 3   tan 4   i tan 5  .........
2 3 4 5
1 1   1 1 1 
  tan 2   tan 4   ....   i tan   tan 3   tan 5   tan 7  ..... 
2 4   3 5 7 
Equating imaginary part on both sides, we get
1 1 1
  tan   tan 3   tan 5   tan 7   ..........
3 5 7
.................................(2)
This is known as Gregory‟s series.
Now we put tan   x so that tan 1 x   , we obtain another form of
Gregory‟s series, as
1 1 1
tan 1 x  x  x 3  x 5  x 7  .......... where x  1 .
3 5 7
Also, equating real parts on both sides of (2), we have
1 1 1 
log sec    tan 2   tan 4   tan 6   ..........
2 4 6 
11.7 GENERAL THEOREM ON GREGORY’S

SERIES
 
Statement: If  lies between n  and n  i.e., if
4 4
 
n     n  , then show that
4 4
1 1 1
n    tan   tan 3   tan 5   tan 7   .......... .
3 5 7
Proof: We put   n   , then   n  .
 
Hence the given condition reduces to    .
4 4
Hence, 1  i tan   1  i tan( n   )
sin 
 1  i tan   1  i
cos 
1
 (cos   i sin  )
cos 
 sec  .e i
Now, taking logarithm of both sides, we have
log( 1  i tan  )  log sec   i
…………..(1)
log sec   i  log( 1  i tan  )
 
The expansion is valid because  lies between n  and n  and
4 4
implies that tan  is not numerically greater than 1.
1 1 1
log sec   i  i tan   i 2 tan 2   i 3 tan 3   i 4 tan 4   ..........
2 3 4
1 1 1
 i tan   tan 2   i tan 3   tan 4   ..........
2 3 4
Equating imaginary parts on both sides, we get
1 1
  tan   tan 3   tan 5   ..........
3 5
1 1
  n  tan   tan 3   tan 5   ..........
 3 5
11.8 VALUE OF 
Using of Gregory‟s series is to obtain the value of  to the various

decimal places. We have from the Gregory‟s series
1 1 1
tan 1 x  x  x 3  x 5  x 7  ..........
3 5 7
On putting x  1, we get
1 1 1
tan 1 1  1     ..........
3 5 7
 1 1 1 1
 1      ..........
4 3 5 7 9
This series does not converge rapidly and so a large number of terms will
have to be taken in order to obtain  correct to any degree of accuracy.
11.9 EULER’S SERIES
1 1 
To prove tan 1  tan 1 
2 3 4
1 1

1 1 
We have tan 1  tan 1  tan 1 2 3  tan 1 1 
2 3 1 1 4
1 
2 3
Expanding by Gregory‟s series, we get
 1 1
 tan 1  tan 1
4 2 3
 1 1 3 1 5 
 tan x  x  3 x  5 x  ..... 
 
1 1  1  1  1   1 1  1  1  1  
   . 3    5   ......    . 3    5   ......
2 3  2  5  2   3 3  3  5  3  
1 1 1  1 1  1 1 1
     . 3  3    5  5   ......
 2 3 3  2 3  52 3 
From the above series, The value of  easily can be calculated and more
rapidly convergent than the preceding one.
11.10 MACHIN’S SERIES
 1 1
To prove  4 tan 1  tan 1
4 5 239
1
2. 
1 1
4 tan 1  2.2 tan 1  2 tan 1 5
We have 2
5 5 1
1  
5
 1 1 2.x 
 2 tan x  2 tan 1  x 2 
 
5
2. 
 2 tan 1
5
 tan 1  12   tan 1 120
2
12 5 119
1  
 12 
1  1
Now 4 tan 1   4 tan 1  tan 1 1
5 4 5
120
 tan 1  tan 1 1
119
120
1
1 119 1
 tan  tan 1
120 239
1
119
 1 1
Therefore,  4 tan 1  tan 1
4 5 239
1 1  1  1  1    1 1 1  1 1  
 4   3    5   ......     3 
  5 
 ......
5 3  5  5  5    293 3  293  5  293  
.
11.11 RUTHERFORD’S SERIES
 1 1 1
To prove  4 tan 1  tan 1  tan 1
4 5 70 99
We have
 1 1 
  
1 1 1 1
4 tan 1  tan 1  tan 1  4 tan 1   tan 1 70 99 
5 70 99 5  1 1 
1 
 70 99 
1 1 
 4 tan 1  tan 1  [by Machin‟s series]
5 239 4
 1 1 1
 4 tan 1  tan 1  tan 1
4 5 70 99
1 1  1  1  1    1 1 1  1 1  
 4   3    5   ...       
3 
  ...
5 3  5  5  5 
5
  70 3  (70)  5  (70)  
 1 1 1  1 1  
      
3 
  ...
5 
 99 3  (99)  5  (99)  
 2 1 1 2 1  1 2 1 
             .........
4  3 7  3  33 7 3  5  35 7 5 
Solution: We have
2 1 1 2 1  1 2 1 
R.H.S.       3  3    5  5   .........
 3 7 33 7  53 7 
1 1 1 1 1  1 1 1 1 1 
 2  . 3  . 5  .......    . 3  . 5  .......
3 3 3 5 3  7 3 7 5 7 
1 1
 2 tan 1  tan 1
3 7
 1 1 3 1 5 
 tan x  x  3 x  5 x  ..... 
 
1
2.
 tan 1 3  tan 1 1
2
1 7
1  
 3
 1 1 2.x 
 2 tan x  2 tan 1  x 2 
 
3 1
 tan 1  tan 1
4 7
 1 1 1 x  y 
 tan x  tan y  tan 1  x. y 
 
3 1

 tan 1 4 7  tan 1 25  tan 1 1    L.H.S.
3 1 25 4
1 
4 7
 1 1 1
    ...........ad . inf .
8 1.3 5.7 9.11
Solution: We have
1 1 1
R.H.S.     ...........ad . inf .
1.3 5.7 9.11
1 2 2 2 
     ........... 
2 1.3 5.7 9.11 
1  3  1 7  5 11  9 
     ........... 
2  1.3 5.7 9.11 
1  3 1   7 5   11 9  
         ...........
2  1.3 1.3   5.7 5.7   9.11 9.11  
1 1 1 1 1 1 
 1       ........... 
2  3 5 7 9 11 
1 1 
 tan 1 1    R.H.S.
2 24 8
 1 1 1 
  2 3 1  2  2  3  ...........
 3 5.3 7.3 
Solution: We have
 1 1 1 
R.H.S.  2 3 1     ........... 
 3.3 5.3 
2 3
7.3
 1 
 2 3. 3  ...........
1 1 1
  
 3 3 3

3
5 3     5
7 3   7


 1 
 6.  ...........
1 1 1
  
 3 3 3
   3
 
5 3
5
 
7 3
7


1 
 6. tan 1  6    L.H.S.
3 6
 1 1 1  
1  2    ..........  
 3.5 7.9 11.13  4
Solution: We have
 1 1 1 
L.H.S.  1  2    .......... 
 3.5 7.9 11.13 
 2 2 2 
 1     .......... 
 3.5 7.9 11.13 
 5  3 9  7 13  11 
 1     .......... 
 3.5 7.9 11.13 
1 1 1 1 1 1 
 1         .......... 
 3 5 7 9 11 13 
1 1 1 1 1 1
 1        ..........
3 5 7 9 11 13

 tan 1 1   R.H.S.
4
Example 5. If x  0, prove that
 x 1 1  x 1 1  x 1
3 5
1
tan x           .............
4  x  1 3  x  1 5  x  1
x 1
Solution: If x  0, then lies between  1 and 1 . We have
x 1
x 1 ( x  1) 2
1  1
x 1 ( x  1) 2
 ( x  1) 2  ( x  1) 2  x 2  2x  1  x 2  2x  1
 4x  0  x0
x 1
 If x  0, then  1.
x 1
 x  1  1  x  1  3 1  x  1  5
 
R.H.S.           ............
4  x  1  3  x  1  5  x  1  
  x 1
  tan 1   [By
4  x 1
Gregory‟s series]
  x 1
1   x  1  
 x 1 1 
 tan 1 1  tan 1    tan   

 x 1 
1   x  1 

  x  1  
 x  1  x  1 1 2 x
 tan 1    tan  tan 1 x  L.H.S.
 x  1  x  1 2

Example 6. When  lies between 0 and , prove that
2
 1  cos   2  1  1 
tan 1    tan  tan 6  tan 10  .......
 1  cos   2 3 2 5 2
 
 2 sin 2 
 1  cos   2   tan 1  tan 2  
tan 1    tan 
1
Solution: We have
 1  cos    2 sin 2    2
 
 2
………(1)
  
Given that if  lies between 0 and , then lies between 0 and so
2 2 4
  
that tan 2  1. Therefore tan 1  tan 2  can be expanded by Gregory‟s
2  2
series,
Now from (1), we have
 1  cos   1  2  
tan 1    tan  tan 
 1  cos    2
   1 
3 5
1
 tan 2   tan 2    tan 2   ..........
2 3 2 5 2
 1  1 
 tan 2  tan 6  tan 10  ..........
2 3 2 5 2
 1  cos    1  1 
 tan 1    tan 2  tan 6  tan 10  ..........
 1  cos   2 3 2 5 2
Example 7. If x  2  1, prove that

   2x
3 5
x3 x5  1  2x  1  2x 
2 x    .........           .........
 1 x  3 1 x  5 1 x 
2 2 2
 3 5
Solution: Given that if x  2  1, then x  1, we have

x  2 1  x 1  2
 ( x  1) 2  2  x 2  2x  1  2
2x
 2x  1  x 2   1.
1 x2
2x
 If x  2  1, then  1, we have
1 x2
 x3 x5  2x

2 x    ........   2 tan 1 x  tan 1
 3 5  1 x 2
……………(1)
2x
Since tan 1 can be expanded by the Gregory‟s series, we have
1 x2
3 5
2x
1  2x  1  2x  1  2x 
tan  2 
  2 
  2 
 ............
1 x 2
1 x  3 1 x  5 1 x 
……………(2)
   2x  1  2x  1  2x 
3 5
x3 x5
2 x    ........           ........
 1 x  3 1 x  5 1 x 
2 2 2
 3 5
Example 8. Sum of series
1 1 1 1 1
(a) 1  2
 4
 ...... (b) 3  7
 11 ...........
3.4 5.4 2 3.2 5.2
Solution: (a) Given that
1 1 1 1 1 
1   ......  4    ...... 
 4 3.4 
2 4 3 5
3.4 5.4 5.4
1
 4 tan 1
4
1
Since by the Gregory‟s series because  1.
4
(b) Given that
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 
   ......   2    ...... 
2 3
3.2 7
5.2 11
2 2 3.2 6
5.2 10

1 1 1 1 
  2    ......
 
2  2  
3. 2 2
3
 
5. 2 2
5

1 1 1 1
 tan 1 2  tan 1
2 2 2 4
1 1 1 
Example 9. Prove that 1     ...... 
3 5 7 2 2
Solution: We know
1 1
tan 1 x  x  x 3  x 5  .....
3 5
provided x  1.
Now substituting x  i , we get
tan 1 i  i 
1
3
 
3
i 
1
5
5
i   1
7
 i  .....
7
 1 1 1 
 i 1  i  i 2  i 3 ....
 3 5 7 
1
   2 
1 1 1 
  cos  i sin  1  i  i 2  i 3 ....
 2 2  3 5 7 
    1 1 1 
  cos  i sin 1  i  i 2  i 3 ....
 4 4  3 5 7 
 1 i  1 1 2 1 3 
  1  i  i  i ....
 2 2  3 5 7 
Equating real parts on the both sides, we get
1  1 1 1 
 1    ....  real parts of tan
1
i
2 3 5 7 
…………..(1)
1   
Again tan i  tan 1  cos  i sin   x  iy (say)
 4 4
…………..(2)
  
So that tan 1  cos  i sin   x  iy
 4 4
…………..(3)

2 cos
4 
2 x  tan 1  tan 1  
   2
1   cos 2  i sin 2 
 4 4

 x  real parts of tan 1 i
4
…………..(4)
1 1 1 
Hence from (1) and (4), we get 1     ...... 
3 5 7 2 2
11.12 SUMMARY
This unit is about going in-depth into the theory and application of infinite
series and Gregory series. Gregory's series is an infinite Taylor
series expansion of the inverse tangent function. It was discovered in 1668
by James Gregory. It was rediscovered a few years later by Gottfried
Leibniz, who re obtained the Leibniz formula for π as the special
case x = 1 of the Gregory series. Perhaps the most widely used technique
in the physicist‟s toolbox is the use of infinite series (i.e. sums consisting
formally of an infinite number of terms) to represent functions, to bring
them to forms facilitating further analysis, or even as a prelude to
numerical evaluation. The acquisition of skill in creating and manipulating
series expansions is therefore an absolutely essential part of the training of
one who seeks competence in the mathematical methods of physics. An
important part of this skill set is the ability to recognize the functions
represented by commonly encountered expansions, and it is also of
importance to understand issues related to the convergence of infinite
series.
11.13 GLOSSARY
Infinite series: Sum of an infinite number.

Infinite product: Limit of the partial products as n increases without bound.
Gregory's series: Expansion of the inverse tangent function.
Euler’ series: Transform converges to a sum.
Rutherford: Calculation of Dictionary of National Biography.
11.14 SELF ASSESSMESNTS QUESTIONS

1. The expansion of cos as an infinite product is given by

 2 
(a) cos    1  2 2  (b)
r 1  r  

 2 
cos    1  2 2 
r 1  r  
  
4 2
(c) cos   1  
2 2 
(d)
r 1  2r  1  
  
4 2
cos    1  
2 2 
r 1  2r  1  

1 2 
1 4
2. If 
n 1 n
2

6
and 
n 1 n
4

90
, then the sum of the product of the
squares of the reciprocals of every pair of positive integers is equal

to
4 2
(a) (b)
120 120
 4
2
(c) (d)
384 384
3. Walli‟s expansion for  is given by
 2.4.6...........(2n  2)2n
(a) (2n  1)  (b)
2 1.3.5..........(2n  1)
 2.4.6...........(2n  2)2n
(2n  1) 
2 1.3.5..........(2n  1)
 2.4.6...........(n  1)n
(c) (n  1)  (d)
2 1.3.5..........(2n  1)
 2.4.6...........(n  1)n
(n  1) 
2 1.3.5..........(n  1)
4. The expansion of sin  as an infinite product is

 4 2 
(a) sin     1  2 2  (b)
r 1  r  

 2 
sin     1  2 2 
r 1  r  

 4 2 
(c) sin     1  2 2  (d)
r 1  r  

 2 
sin     1  2 2 
r 1  r  
z2 z3 z4
5. The expansion log e (1  z )  z    holds if
2 3 4
(a) z is any complex number (b) z  0 z  1 and

z  1
(c) z  1 and z  0 (d) z  0

1 1
6. Gregory‟s series   tan   tan 3   tan 5   ....... holds if 
3 5
satisfies
 
(a)       (b)    
2 2
 
(c)    (d)  is any real
4 4
1 1 1
7. The sum of series 3
 7
  ..........ad . inf . is
2 3.2 5.211
1 1 1
(a) tan 1 (b) tan 1
4 2 23
1 1 1
(c) tan 1 (d) tan 1 1
2 4 8

8. The value of . is
4
1 1 1 1 1 1
(a) 1     ..... (b) 1     .....
3 5 7 3 5 7
1 1 1
(c)  1     ..... (d) None of these
3 5 7
ANSWERS:
1. c 2. a 3. a 4.d
5. b 6. c 7. c 8. b
1. The expansion of cosh  as an infinite product is ……………..

1 1 1
2. The value of tan 2   tan 4   tan 6   ....... is……………..
2 4 6
3. If  1  x  1, then is equal to…………………………….
4. Rutherford‟s series evaluate value of is……………………..
5. The sum of series is…………………
6. If then is equal to ……………………….
7. The infinite series is…………………..
8. Euler‟s series is……………………………
ANSWERS:
1. 2. log sec 
x3 x5  1 1 1
3. x    ..... 4.  4 tan 1  tan 1  tan 1
3 4 4 5 70 99
2 6.
5.
  x 1 1  x 1 1  x 1
3 5
8
      
4  x 1 3  x 1 5  x 1
2 1 1 
7. 8. tan 1  tan 1 
12 3 5 4
11.15 REFERENCES
1. Gregory Series". Wolfram Math World. Retrieved 26 July 2012.

2. Gupta, RC (1973). "The Madhava–Gregory series". Mathematical
Education.
3. Knopp, Konrad, Theory and Application of Infinite Series, Dover
Publications. ISBN: 978-0-486-66165-0.
4. Rudin, Walter, Real and Complex Analysis Boston, McGraw
Hill. ISBN: 0-07-054234-1.
5. Bromwich, T. J. An Introduction to the Theory of Infinite
Series MacMillan & Co.
6. Borwein, J. and Bailey, D. "A Curious Anomaly in the Gregory

Series." §2.2 in Mathematics by Experiment: Plausible Reasoning
in the 21st Century. Wellesley, MA: A K Peters.
7. Borwein, J.; Bailey, D.; and Girgensohn, R. "Gregory's Series
Reexamined." §1.8.1 in Experimentation in Mathematics:
Computational Paths to Discovery.
8. Arfken, George B. and Hans J. Weber. Mathematical Methods For
Physicists, Academic Press ISBN: 978-0-12-059876-2.
11.16 SUGGEST READINGS

1. Infinite series and sequences – Knopp K.,Dover Publication.
2. Theory of functions of a complex variables -Shanti Narayan & P K
Mittal, S. Chand &company, New Delhi ISBN: 9788121906395.
3. Plane trigonometry Part-II – S.L. Loney, S. Chand &company,
New Delhi.
4. Trigonometry and Algebra–Singh B., Pundir R., Pundir S.K.,
Pragati Prakashan, (P) Ltd. Meerut.
5. Infinite series – Prasad L., Paramount Publication, Patna.
6. Infinite series – Sharma & Chauhan Krishna Prakashna Pvt. Ltd.
Meerut.
7. Ray, M. & Sharma, H. S.; A Text Book of Higher Algebra.

 2 1 1  2 1  1 2 1
1. Prove that,       3  3    5  5   ......
4  3 7  3 3 7  5 3 7 
1 1 1  1 1   3
2. Prove that 1   2    3   ...... 
3 2
53  73  6
3. Prove that if x, y, z are cube roots of unity
tan 1 x tan 1 y tan 1 z  1 1 1 1 
   31      ........
x y z  7 13 19 25 
4. Prove that
 17 713 (1) n1  2 1n 1 2 n 
   .............   9  7   ..........
4 21 81 343 2n  1  3 
5. Prove that
 1 1 1 1  1 1 1  1  1 1 1
       3  3  3    5  5  5   ....
4 2 5 8 3 2 5 8  5 2 5 8 
11.17.2Long answer type questions

1. If  , prove that
4
1 1 1
log sec   tan 2   tan 4   tan 6   ..........
2 4 6
 cos   sin  
2. Expand tan 1    as a power series in tan  .
 cos   sin  

3. If  and tan 1 (sec  ) both lie between 0 and , then
2
 1  
tan 1 (sec  )   tan 2
 tan 6  ........
4 2 3 2
7 19 31
   ..........
1.3.5 5.7.9 9.11.13
 
5. If x lies between  and , then prove that
4 4
1 1 1 1
tan x  tan 3 x  tan 5 x  .......  tanh x  tanh 3 x  tanh 5 x  .......
3 5 3 5
ANSWERS:
 1 
2. n   tan   tan 3   ... 4. 1 
4 3 8
BLOCK V: VECTOR ANALYSIS
UNIT 12: VECTORS MULTIPLE

PRODUCTS AND DIFFERENTIATION OF
VECTORS
CONTENTS:
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Objectives
12.3 Triple product
12.3.1 Geometrical interpretation of scalar triple product
12.4 Reciprocal system of vectors
12.5 Differentiation of vectors
12.6 Summary
12.7 Glossary
12.8 References
12.11 Answers
12.1 INTRODUCTION
There are two forms of vector multiplication. The cross product of
two vectors and the dot product of two vectors are the two ways to
multiply a vector since a vector contains both magnitude and direction.
Given that the resulting value is a scalar quantity, the dot product of two
vectors is also known as the scalar product. As the result is a vector that is
perpendicular to these two vectors, the cross product is also known as the
vector product.
In this unit learners will be learn more about the two-vector

multiplication, including its working principle, attributes, applications, and
examples.
12.2 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit learners will be able to
 Memorized about the vector triple product and scalar triple product
and also their geometrical representation.
 Analyze about the reciprocal system of vectors.
 Analyze the application of differentiation of vectors.
 Memorized the useful theorems and their application of vector
triple product and scalar triple product.
12.3 TRIPLE PRODUCT
Triple Product: As we know that the vector product a  b and scalar

product a.b of two vectors a and b are always a vector quantity and scalar
quantity respectively. Therefore, if we multiply to these quantities with
another vector quantity c by both vectorially and scalarly i.e., ( a  b )  c
called vector triple product similarly (a  b ).c is called scalar triple
product.
Remark: (a) Vector triple product is again a vector quantity.

(b) Scalar triple product again is a scalar quantity.
(c) (a.b )  c and (a.b ).c are meaningless because scalar quantity (a.b )
never be product vectorially and scalarly with any vector quantity.
Similarly, the product a  b .c is meaningless so it is meaningful only if it
is written in some sense (a  b ).c .
Scalar Triple Product: The scalar triple product is the scalar product of
two vectors in which one of the vectors is itself vector product of two
vectors. Thus if a , b and c are three vectors, then, (a  b ).c is called
scalar triple product.
Some books named scalar triple product as mixed product
because in this product both „cross‟ and „dot‟ signs involved.
12.3.1 GEOMETRICAL INTERPRETATION OF

SCALAR TRIPLE PRODUCT
n (
F
G
(
O
B

( D
To explain geometrically to scalar triple product, we consider a

parallelopiped whose edges and length are OA, OB, OC in the direction of
vectors a , b and c respectively. Let the volume of parallelopiped is V
which is necessarily positive.

Let a  b  n , then from definition of vector product it is clear that
 
n is perpendicular to the face OADB and n is measure as the area of

parallelogram OADB. Since, by definition, vectors, a , b and n form
right-handed triad.
 
Let  is the angle between the vectors OC and n . Then vectors a
, b and c form right-handed or a left-handed triad according as  to be
acute and obtuse.
       
Now,  a b  . c 
 a  b  . c cos   n c cos 
   
= (area of the parallelogram OADB).(OC cos  )
 c  OC 
So, according to the value of  is acute or obtuse, OC cos  will depend

positive or negative. Its absolute value gives the length of the
perpendicular from C to the plane OADB.
So, V = (Area of the Parallelogram OADB).(Length of perpendicular from
C to the parallelogram OADB).
   
Therefore, if  is acute,  a b  . c  V i.e., if a , b and n form right-
 
handed triad.
   
And, if  is obtuse,  a b  . c  V i.e., if a , b and n form left-handed
 
triad.
Since, we know that the vectors a , b c are right-handed triad so, vectors
b , c , a and c , a , b are also right-handed triad. Hence each product
     
 b c  . a and  c  a  . b will have the same value +V or -V according as a ,
   
b c are left-handed triad.
        
Thus,  a b  . c   b c  . a   c  a  . b
     
       
 a . b  b . a and a b   b . a
                 
 a b  . c  c .  a b    b  c  . a  a .  b  c    c  a  . b  b .  c  a 
           
   
  
   
   b a  . c   c .  b a     c  b  . a
     

  
    
  

  a .  c  b     a c  . b   b .  a c 
     
From this we conclude that value of scalar triple product depends on the
cyclic order of the factors and is independent of the position of the dot and
cross. These may be interchanged at pleasure. However, an analytic
permutation of the three factors changes the value of the product in sign
but not in magnitude. The notation used to write scalar triple product is
            
 a b  . c   a b c    a, b , c  . This notation takes into consideration only
     
the cyclic order of three vectors and disregards the unimportant position of
dot and cross.
           
i.e.,  a b c    b c a    c a b     c b a  etc.
       
  
Note 1: If i , j , k constitutes an orthogonal right-handed triad of unit
          
vectors, then  i j k    i  j  . k  k . k   1
   
2: As nature of a , b , c are right-handed or left-handed, scalar triple
  
product  a b c  will be decided to be positive or negative.
 
Distributive law for vector product:
      
To prove that a ( b  c )  a b  a c , where a , b c are any three
vectors.
       
Let r  a ( b  c )  a b  a c
… (1)

Now scalar product both side by the vector d , we get
   
      

d . r  d .  a ( b  c )  a b  a c 
 
… (2)
   
  
      
d . r  d .  a ( b  c )   d .( a b )  d .( a c ) [Scalar product follows the
 
distributive law]
As we know that position of cross and dot can be interchanged without
affecting its value.
           
d . r  (d  a ).( b  c )  (d  a ). b  (d  a ). c
             
d . r  (d  a ). b  (d  a ). c  (d  a ). b  (d  a ). c [scalar product is
distributive]
=0
    
 d  0 or r  0 or d is perpendicular to r . But we had taken d as

arbitrary. So, we can choose it non zero and not perpendicular to r .
       
So, r  0 i.e., a ( b  c )  a b  a c  0
      
 a ( b  c )  a b  a c , hence proved.
Properties of scalar triple Product:
(1) If two vectors of a scalar product are equal then its value will be
zero.
  
Proof: Let three vectors are a , a , b in which two vectors are equal. So,
there scalar product is  a a b    a , a , b   a .( a b )

      
   
  
Since we know that ( a b ) is the perpendicular vector to the plane of a
    
and b . It means dot product of vector ( a b ) with vector a and b will be
zero.
  
   
 a .( a b )  0 i.e.,  a a b   0
 
(2) If two vectors are parallel then value of scalar triple product will be
zero.
    
Proof: Let three vectors are a , b , c in which vector b is parallel to a i.e.,
 
b  k a . So there scalar product is,
      
 a , k a , b   a .(k a b )
   
 k  a .( a b ) 
 
  
 k  a , a , b   k .0  0
 
(3) The necessary and sufficient condition for three non-parallel and
  
non-zero vectors a , b , c to be coplanar is that  a b c  =0
 
Proof: Necessary Condition: Let a , b , c are three coplanar vectors. As
 
we know that vector ( a b ) is perpendicular to the vector a and b . Since
vector a , b , c are coplanar so, vector c will also perpendicular to the
 
vector ( a b ) .
   
As we know that if two vectors  ,  are perpendicular then  .   0
  
So, ( a b ). c  0
  
 a b c   0
 
      
Sufficient Condition: Let  a b c   0 i.e.,  a  b  . c  0 it means vector
   
   
( a b ) is perpendicular to the vector c . Since ( a b ) is also perpendicular
 
to both the vector a and b . Hence vector ( a b ) is perpendicular to the
vector a , b , c . It means vectors are on the same plane i.e., these are
coplanar.
(4) As distributive law holds for both vector and scalar product, it
holds for the scalar triple product.
                
Thus  a , b  d , c  r    a , b , c    a , b , r    a , d , c    a , d , r  , the order
         
of cycle of the factor being maintained in each term.
To express the scalar triple product in terms of rectangular
component of the vector:
  
Let a  a1i  a2 j  a3k , b  b1i  b2 j  b3k , c  c1i  c2 j  c3k
i j k
 
b c   b1i  b2 j  b3k    c1i  c2 j  c3k   b1 b2 b3
c1 c2 c3
 (b 2 c3  b3 c2 )i  (b1 c3  b3 c1 ) j  (b1 c2  b 2 c1 )k
  
a .( b c )   a1i  a2 j  a3k  .(b 2 c3  b3 c2 )i  (b1 c3  b3 c1 ) j  (b1 c2  b 2 c1 )k
 a1 (b 2 c3  b3 c2 )  a2 (b1 c3  b3 c1 )  a3 (b1 c2  b 2 c1 )
 i.i  j. j  k .k  1, i. j  j.k  k .i  0
a1 a2 a3
  
 a b c   b1 b2 b3
c1 c2 c3
c1 c2 c3 a1 a2 a3
       
 a  b  . c  c .  a  b   a1 a2 a3  b1 b2 b3
   
b1 b2 b3 c1 c2 c3
It means position of dot and cross in scalar triple product is independent.
Expression of the scalar triple product in terms of three non-coplanar
vectors l, m, n:
  
Let, a  a1l  a2m  a3 n, b  b1l  b2m  b3 n, c  c1l  c2m  c3n
So,
 
b c   b1l  b2m  b3n    c1l  c2m  c3n 
 b1c1l  l  b1c2l  m  b1c3l  n  b2c1m  l  b2c2m  m  b2c3m  n  b3c1n  l  b3c2n  m  b3c3n  n
 l  l  0, l  m  m  l etc.
 b1c2l  m  b1c3l  n  b2c1l  m  b2c3m  n  b3c1l  n  b3c2m  n
  b1c2  b2c1  l  m  (b2c3  b3c2 )m  n  (b1c3  b3c1 )l  n
 (b2c3  b3c2 )m  n  (b1c3  b3c1 )n  l   b1c2  b2c1  l  m
  
 a .( b c )   a1l  a2m  a3 n  . (b2c3  b3c2 )m  n  (b1c3  b3c1 )n  l   b1c2  b2c1  l  m 
 a1 (b2c3  b3c2 )[l m n]  a2 (b1c3  b3c1 )[l m n]  a3  b1c2  b2c1 [l m n ]
[ [l m n]  [m nl ]  [nl m] and scalar triple product in which two vectors
are same is equal to zero i.e., [l l n]  0 ]
a1 a2 a3
 

Hence,  a b c   b1 b2 b3 [l m n]
 
c1 c2 c3
Solved Example
  
Example 1: If vectors a  2i  j  k , b  i  2 j  3k , c  3i  pj  5k are
coplanar then find the value of constant.
Answer: As we know that three vectors a , b , c are coplanar then
   
 a b c   0
2 1 1
 

Now,  a b c   1 2 3  2(10  3 p)  1(5  9)  1( p  6) = 7p + 28
 
3 p 5
   
Since,  a b c   0
 
 7 p  28  0
 p  4
Example 2: If the vectors
  
a  2i  4 j  5k , b  i  j  k , c  3i  5 j  2k are representing the
edges of parallelopiped, then find its volume.
Answer: Since we know that the volume of parallelopiped is equal to the

  
absolute value of scalar triple product of its edges i.e.,  a b c  .
 
2 4 5
  
 a b c   1 1 1  2(2  5)  4(2  3)  5(5  3)
3 5 2
 6  4  10  8
Since volume of surface never be a negative quantity, so required volume
of parallelopiped is 8.
Example 3: Prove that the points 4i  5 j  k ,  (j k), 3i  9 j 4 k and
4( i  j  k ) are coplanar.
Answer: Let A, B, C, D are the four points whose position vectors position
vectors are given from the origin O.
  
It means, OA  4i  5 j  k , OB  (j k) , OC  3i  9 j  4k and

OD  4(i  j  k ) .
If we have to show that four points A, B, C, D are coplanar then we have
  
only to prove that the vectors AB, AC , AD are coplanar.
  
Now, AB  OB OA   ( j  k )  (4i  5 j  k )   4i  6 j  2k  a (say)
  
AC  OC  OA  (3i 9 j  4k )  (4i  5 j  k )   i  4 j  3k  b (say)
  
AD  OD OA  (4i 4 j  4k )  (4i  5 j  k )   8i  j  3k  c (say)
4 6 2
       
 AB, AC , AD    a b c   1 4 3  4(12  3)  6(3  24)  2(1  32)
8 1 3
  60  126  66  0
So, we can say that given four vectors are coplanar.
Example 4: Prove that the points a  4b  3c, 3a  2b  5c,  3a  8b  5c
and 3a  2b  c are coplanar.
Answer: Let A, B, C, D are the four points whose position vectors position
vectors are given from the origin O.
  
It means, OA  a  4b  3c, OB  3a  2b  5c , OC  3a  8b  5c and

OD  3a  2b  c .
If we have to show that four points A, B, C, D are coplanar then we have

  
only to prove that the vectors AB, AC , AD are coplanar.
  
Now, AB  OB OA  3a  2b  5c  ( a  4b 3c)  4a  2b  2c
  
AC  OC  OA  (3a  8b 5c)  ( a  4b 3c)   2a  4b  2c
  
AD  OD OA  (3a  2b  c)  ( a  4b 3c)   2a  2b  4c
4 2 2
    
 AB, AC , AD   2 4 2  a b c   4(16  4)  2(8  4)  2(4  8)  a b c 
2 2 4
 48  24  24  a b c   0
So, we can say that given four vectors are coplanar.
        
Example 5: Prove that  a  b , b  c , c  a   2  a , b , c 
   
                    
Answer:  a  b , b  c , c  a    a  b  .  b  c    c  a  
       
            
  a  b  .  b c  b a  c  c  c  a 
  

  
         
 a .  b c   a .  b a   a .  c  c   a .  c  a 
       

  
         
 b .  b c   b .  b a   b .  c  c   b .  c  a 
       
                 
  a, b, c    a, b, a    a, c , c    a, c , a 
       
                 
 b, b, c    b, b, a    b, c , c    b, c , a 
       
(If two vectors of a scalar product are equal then its value will be zero.)
     
  a, b, c   0  0  0  0  0  0   b, c , a 
   
     
  a, b, c    a, b, c 
   
          
  a , b , c    b , a , c    c , a , b  
 
  

= 2  a, b, c 
 
l.a l.b l.c
Example 6: Prove that l m n abc   m.a m.b m.c
n.a n.b n.c
Answer: Let l  l1i  l2 j  l3k , m  m1i  m2 j  m3k , n  n1i  n2 j  n3k
and a  a1i  a2 j  a3k , b  b1i  b2 j  b3k , c  c1i  c2 j  c3k
l1 l2 l3 a1 a2 a3
Now taking LHS = l m n abc   m1 m2 m3 b1 b2 b3
n1 n2 n3 c1 c2 c3
l1a1  l2a2  l3a3 l1b1  l2b2  l3b3 l1c1  l2c2  l3c3
= m1a1  m2a2  m3a3 m1b1  m2b2  m3b3 m1c1  m2c2  m3c3
n1a1  n2a2  n3a3 n1b1  n2b2  n3b3 n1c1  n2c2  n3c3
As we know that, l.a  l1a1  l2a2  l3a3
Similarly, we can write
l.a l.b l.c
L.H .S.  l mnabc  m.a m.b m.c
n.a n.b n.c
VECTOR TRIPLE PRODUCT: Vector triple product is the vector

product of two vectors in which one is itself the vector product of two
vectors. Thus if a , b , c are three vectors then the product of the form
    
a   b c  and  a b   c etc. are called “Vector Triple Products”.
   
Theorem 1: To prove that a   b c    a . c  b   a . b  c

       
     
Proof: Let r  a   b c  and b c  d

     
 
   
As we know that if b c  d , it means d is perpendicular to the plane
     
containing b and c . Also, r  a d i.e., r is perpendicular to the plane
   
containing a and d . Now the vector r is perpendicular to the vector d ,
  
whereas the vector d is perpendicular to the plane containing b and c . It
  
means r must lie in the plane containing b and c .
  
 r  l b m c , where, l and m are scalars.
…… (1)
    
Since r is perpendicular to the vector a , then r . a  0
  
     
  l b  m c . a  l  b . a   m  c . a 
     
l m
Let,        (say)
   
 c .a   b .a 
   
Putting the value of scalars l, m in (1)

              
r    c . a  b    b . a  c    c . a  b   b . a  c 
        
……(2)
Now we have to find the value of  .
^ ^ 
Consider unit vectors j and k , the first parallel to b and second
 
perpendicular to it in the plane containing b and c . Then we may write
 ^  ^ ^
b  b2 j and c  c2 j  c3 k , then remaining vector may be written as
 ^ ^ ^
a  a1 i  a2 j  a3 k
Now, b c  b2 j  c2 j  c3 k   b2c2  j j   b2c3  j k   b2c3 i

  ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^
     

   ^ ^ ^
 ^
r  a   b c    a1 i  a2 j  a3 k   b2c3 i
   
^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^
 a1b2c3 i i  a2b2c3 j i + a3b2c3 k  i = a3b2c3 j  a2b2c3 k …….(3)
 ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^

 i  i  0, j  i   k , k i  j

Also,
  
^ 

     ^ ^
  ^ ^ ^
 ^ ^
 ^ ^ ^
 ^ 
r    c . a  b    b . a  c    c2 j  c3 k  . a1 i  a2 j  a3 k  b2 j  b2 j . a1 i  a2 j  a3 k  c2 j  c3 k  
         
 

 ^ ^ ^ ^

r   c2 a2b2 j  c3a3b2 j  b2a2c2 j  b2a2c3 k 
 
 ^ ^

  c3a3b2 j  b2a2c3 k 
 
………. (4)
Now from equation (3) and (4), we conclude that   1
Hence, a   b c    a . c  b   a . b  c
       
     
Corollary:
                           
a   b  c     c   a  b      c . b  a   c . a  b    c . a  b   c . b  a
             
Solved Example
Example 7: Prove that a   b c   b  c  a   c   a b   0 .

       
     
Answer: We know that, a   b c    a . c  b   a . b  c

       
     
……..(1)
Similarly, b  c  a    b . a  c   b . c  a
        
     
…… (2)
and c   a b    c . b  a   c . a  b
        
     
…… (3)
Now, adding equation (1), (2) and (3)
                   
a   b  c   b   c  a   c   a b    a . c  b   a . b  c   b . a  c   b . c  a   c . b  a   c . a  b
                 
  
As we know that vector scalar product is commutative i.e., a . b  0
       
 a   b  c   b   c  a   c   a b   0
     
Example 8: Prove that the vectors a   b c  , b  c  a  , c   a b  are

       
     
coplanar.
 
 
Answer: Let r1  a   b c  , r2  b  c  a  , r3  c   a b  .
      
     
To prove that these vectors are coplanar, first we have to prove that
  
r1  r2  r3  0 . In the previous example we have already prove that
  
       
a   b c   b  c  a   c   a b   0 i.e., r1  r2  r3  0 .
     
It means any one of these vectors can be expressed in terms of other two
vectors. Hence these vectors are coplanar.
  
Example 9: If the vectors a  i  2 j  k , b  2i  j  k , c  i  2 j  k
then find a  b c  .
  
 
Answer: We have a   b c    a . c  b   a . b  c
       
     
 
 a . c  b   i  2 j  k  .  i  2 j  k    2i  j  k   (1  4  1)  2i  j  k 
 
 
 a . c  b  8i  4 j  4k
 
Similarly,
 
 a . b  c   i  2 j  k  .  2i  j  k    i  2 j  k   (2  2  1)  i  2 j  k 
 
 
 a .b  c  i  2 j  k
 
Hence, a   b c    a . c  b   a . b  c   8i  4 j  4k    i  2 j  k 
       
     
 
a   b c   9i  6 j  3k
 
      
Example 10: Show that  a b , b c , c  a    a b c  and also express the
2
 
result in terms of determinants.
                    
Answer: We know that,  a  b , b c , c  a    a  b  .  b c    c  a  
       
Let d  b c , then d   c  a    d . a  c   d . c  a
           
     

                                    
d   c  a    b  c  . a  c    b  c  . c  a   b c a  c   b c c  a   a b c  c
             
                   
 b c    c  a    d   c  a    a b c  c
 
                      
 a  b  .  b  c    c  a     a  b  .  a b c  c
        
Since we know that scalar triple product is the scalar.
                                 
  a  b  .  b c    c  a     a b c   a  b  . c    a b c   a b c 
             
                 
2
  a  b  .  b  c    c  a     a b c 
       
  
Let a  a1i  a2 j  a3 k, b  b1i  b2 j  b3 k, c  c1i  c2 j  c3k , then,
a1 a2 a3
 a b c  b1 b2 b3
c1 c2 c3
i j k
 
again a  b  a1 a2 a3   a2a3  b2a3  i   b1a3  a1b3  j   a1b2  a2b1  k
b1 b2 b3
i j k
 
similarly, b  c  b1 b2 b3   b2c3  b3c2  i   c1b3  b1c3  j   b1c2  c1b2  k
c1 c2 c3
i j k
 
and c  a  c1 c2 c3   c2a3  a2c3  i   a1c3  a3c1  j   c1a2  a1c2  k
a1 a2 a3
a2b3  b2a3 b1a3  a1b3 a1b2  a2b1
      
Now,  a b , b c , c  a   b2c3  b3c2 c1b3  b1c3 b1c2  b2c1
 
c2a3  c3a2 a1c3  a3c1 c1a2  c2a1
C1 C2 C3 A1 A2 A3
     
 a b , b c , c  a   A1 A2 A3  B1 B2 B3
B1 B2 B3 C1 C2 C3
where the capital letters A1 , A2 , A3 etc., denote the cofactor corresponding

a1 a2 a3
small letters a1 , a2 , a3 etc. in the determinant b1 b2 b3
c1 c2 c3
A1 A2 A3
      
Hence,  a b , b c , c  a    a b c   B1 B2 B3
2
 
C1 C2 C3
   
Scalar product of four vectors: If a , b , c and d are four vectors then
       
the product  a  b  . c  d  or  a  d  .  b  c  is called scalar product of
     
four vectors.
   
      a.c b.c
Theorem 2: Prove that  a  b  . c  d    
    
a .d b .d
  
      
Proof: Let a  b  r . Then  a  b  . c  d   r . c  d 
    
As we know that position of dot and cross may be interchanged without
altering the value of the product. Therefore,

                            
r .  c  d    r  c  . d   a  b   c  . d    c . a  b   c . b  a  . d
           
             
  c . a  b . d    c . b  a . d 
     
   
  
 

 a.c b.c
 a  b  . c  d  
      
a .d b .d
This relation also known as Lagrange‟s Identity.
   
Vector Product of four Vectors: Let a , b , c and d be four vectors
   
then the vector products of the vectors  a  b  ,  c  d  i.e.,
  
   
 a  b    c  d  is known as vector product of four products.
   
Theorem 3: To prove that
                
(i)  a  b    c  d    a b d  c   a b c  d
       
                 
(ii)  a  b    c  d    a c d  b   b c d  a
       
   
Proof: As we know that  a  b    c  d  is the vector quantity which is
   
   
either written in terms of c and d or in terms of a and b . To express the
      
vector  a  b    c  d  in terms of, let us put a  b  l . Then
   
          
 a  b    c  d   l   c  d    l .d  c   l . c  d
         
                         
  a  b  . d  c   a  b  . c  d   a b d  c   a b c  d ……..
         
(1)
    
Similarly, we also express the vector  a  b    c  d  in terms of a and
   

b which is,
                 
 a  b    c  d   a c d  b  b c d  a
       
……….. (2)
equating the equation (1) and (2)
                   
 a b d  c   a b c  d   a c d  b   b c d  a
                   
 b c d  a   a c d  b   a b d  c   a b c  d  0
 
Which is the required linear relation connecting the four vectors a , b
 
, c and d .
12.4 RECIPROCAL SYSTEM OF VECTORS

  
   
Let a , b and c are three non-coplanar vectors such that  a b c   0 ,
 
  
then the three vectors a' , b ' and c ' defined as
     

b c

c a 
a b
a 
'
,b 
'
and c '
  
       
 a b c   a b c   a b c 
  
are called reciprocal systems of vectors to the vectors a , b and c .
     
Example 11: To show that a . a'  b .b'  c . c'  1
      
   b c
a .  b c   a b c 

Answer: a . a  a .                1
'
     
 a b c   a b c   a b c 
         

b . c  a   b c a   a b c 
 
  c a

Similarly, b . b  b .                      1
'
       
 a b c   a b c   a b c   a b c 
         

  a b
 c 
.  a b   c a b   a b c 
and c . c  c .                      1
'
       
 a b c   a b c   a b c   a b c 
Example 12: The scalar product of any other pair of vectors, one from
           
each system is zero, i.e., a .b'  a . c'  b . a'  b . c'  c . a'  c .b'  0
      
   c a
a .  c a   a c a 

Answer: a . b  a .                0
'
     
 a b c   a b c   a b c 
Similarly, we can prove the other results i.e.,
         
a . c  b . a  b . c  c . a  c .b  0 .
' ' ' ' '
Example 13: The product of the scalar triple product of three non-
  
coplanar vectors a , b and c and the scalar triple product of their
 
     
   
reciprocal a' , b ' and c ' is equal to 1 i.e.,  a b c   a ' b' c '   1 .
  
 ' ' '  '  ' ' 
Answer: First we have to define scalar triple product  a b c   a . b  c 
   
                
   
 b  c  .  c  a    a  b  
 ' ' '  '  ' '  b c  c  a a b       
 a b c   a . b  c        .               3
         
 a b c    a b c   a b c    a b c 
As we know that
                       
 c  a    a b    c a b  a   c a a  b   a b c  a  0   a b c  a
           
So,
                                 
 b  c  .  c  a    a  b    b  c  .  a b c  a a b c   b c  . a 
 ' ' '                
a b c      3

   3    3
       
 a b c   a b c   a b c 
2
           
 a b c   a b c   a b c  1
   
   
3
   
3
 
 a b c   a b c   a b c 
  
     1    
So,  a b c   a b c    a b c 1
' ' '
  
     
 a b c 
   
Remarks 1: Since scalar triple product  a b c   0 , so we conclude that
 
 
 ' ' '  
 a b c   0 i.e., a '
, b '
and c '
are also non coplanar.
 
     
' ' '
2: Since the vectors a , b and c are reciprocal to the vectors a , b and c
  
similarly, we can say that vectors a , b and c are also reciprocal to the
  
vector a' , b ' and c ' , this is known as symmetry property.
3: The unit vector along three-dimensional co-ordinate axes i.e., the
^ ^ ^
orthonormal vector triads i , j and k form a self-reciprocal system.
Solved examples
Example 14: Find the set of reciprocal vectors of the vectors
  
a  2i  3 j  k , b  i  j  2k , c  i  2 j  2k .
  
Solution: Let a' , b ' and c ' are the system of reciprocal vectors of the
given vectors, then
     

b c

c a 
a b
a  ,b  and c 
' ' '
  
       
 a b c
  a b c   a b c 
2 3 1
  
 a b c   1 1 2  2  2  4   3  2  2   1 2  1  3  0
1 2 2
i j k
 
Now, b c  1 1 2   2  4  i   2  2  j   2  1 k  2i  k
1 2 2
 

b c 2 1
a 
'
 i k
  
 3 3
 a b c 
i j k
 
c  a  1 2 2  8i  3 j  7k
2 3 1
 

c a 8i  3 j  7k
b 
'

   
 3
 a b c 
i j k
 
a b  2 3 1   6  1 i   4  1 j   2  3 k  7i  3 j  5k
1 1 2
 

a b 7i  3 j  5k
c 
'

   
 3
 a b c 
12.5 DIFFERENTIATION OF VECTORS

Vector Function: Let D be the subset of real numbers. If we associate
unique vector f(t) to each element t of D, then this rule defines a vector
function of the scalar variable t. Here f(t) is the vector quantity and thus f
is a vector function.
As we know that every vector function can be easily expressed as a

linear combination of three fixed non-coplanar vector. Thus, we can write
f (t )  f1 (t )i  f 2 (t ) j  f3 (t )k
where i, j , k denote the orthonormal right-handed triad.
Scalar field and vector field
If in the region R in the space corresponding to each point P(x, y, z) there

is unique scalar f(P), then f is called a scalar point function and we say
scalar field f has been defined in R.
e.g., f (x, y,z)  x3  y 2  2 xyz defines a scalar field.
If corresponding to each point P(x, y, z) in the region R there is unique
vector f(P), then f is called a vector point function and we say vector field f
has been defined in R.
e.g., f (x, y,z)  x3i  y 2 j  2 xyz k defines a scalar field.
Limit and Continuity of a Vector Function:
Definition 1: A real number l is said to be limit of a vector function f (t ) ,
when t tends to t 0 , if for any small positive number  , there exist a
number  such that
f (t )  l  whenever 0  t  t0  
If vector function f (t ) tends to a limit l as t tends to t 0 , we write it
mathematically by,
lim f (t )  l
t t0
Definition 2: A vector function f (t ) is said to be continuous at a point t 0

of t if following are satisfied,
(i) f (t ) is defined at t 0
(ii) Corresponding to any small positive number  , there exist
a number  such that
f (t )  f (t0 )  whenever 0  t  t0  
A vector function f (t ) is said to be continuous if it is continuous for every
value of t for which it has been defined.
Some important theorems:
Theorem 4: The Necessary and Sufficient condition for a vector
function f (t ) to be continuous at t  t0 is that lim f (t )  f (t0 ) .
t t0
Theorem 5: The vector function f (t )  f1 (t )i  f 2 (t ) j  f3 (t )k is

continuous if and only if f1 (t ), f 2 (t ), f3 (t ) are continuous.
Theorem 6: Let f (t )  f1 (t )i  f 2 (t ) j  f3 (t )k and l  l1i  l2 j  l3k , then
the necessary and sufficient condition that lim f (t )  l are
t t0
lim f1 (t )  l1 , lim f 2 (t )  l2 , lim f3 (t )  l3

t t0 t t0 t t0
Theorem 7: If f (t ) , g(t ) are scalar function of the scalar variable t and let
 (t ) is a scalar function of scalar variable t, then
(i) lim  f (t )  g (t )  lim f (t )  limg(t )
t t0 t t0 t t0
(ii) lim  f (t ).g (t )   lim f (t )  . limg(t ) 

t t0  t t0   t t0 
(iii) lim  f (t )  g (t )  lim f (t )   limg(t ) 

t t0  t t0   t t0 
(iv) lim  (t ) g (t )  lim (t )  limg(t ) 

t t0  t t0   t t0 
(v) lim f (t )  lim f (t )

t t0 t t0
Note: Here we use application of these theorems without proof.

Derivative of a vector function with respect to a scalar:
Definition: Let r  f (t ) be a vector function of the scalar variable t, we
define
r   r  f (t   t )
 r  f (t   t )  f (t )
 r f (t   t )  f (t )
Consider the vector, 
t t
r f (t   t )  f (t )
If lim  lim exist, then the value of this limit is called
 t 0  t  t 0 t
dr
the derivative of the vector function r with respect to t, denoted by i.e.,
dt
dr r (r   r )  r f (t   t )  f (t )
 lim  lim  lim
dt  t 0  t  t 0 t  t 0 t
dr
If exists, then r is said to be differentiable. Since r is vector quantity so
dt
its will also a vector quantity.
dr d 2r
If we again differentiate , we get 2 , the second derivative of r w.r.t.
dt dt
t, and so on differentiating successively n times we get,
dr d 2 r d 3r d 4 r d nr
, , , , …., n .
dt dt 2 dt 3 dt 4 dt
Differentiation Formulae:
  
Theorem 8: Let a , b and c are differentiable vector function of a scalar t
and  (t ) is a scalar function of same variable t, then
d da db
(i)  a  b  
dt dt dt
d db da
(ii)  a.b  a.  .b
dt dt dt
d db da
(iii)  a  b  a    b
dt dt dt
 a b c    b c   a c   a b 
d da db dc
(iv)
dt  dt   dt   dt 
d da d
(v)  a     a
dt dt dt
 db   dc 
(vi)
d
 a   b  c    (b  c)  a    c   a   b  
da
dt dt  dt   dt 
Proof (i):
d  a   a   b   b    a  b   lim  a   b  lim  a  lim  b  da  db
 a  b  lim
dt t 0 t  t 0 t  t 0  t  t 0  t dt dt
d da db
Similarly, we can prove that,  a  b   
dt dt dt
Proof (ii):
d  a   a .b   b   a.b  lim a.b  a. b   a.b   a. b  a.b
 a.b  lim
dt t 0 t  t 0 t
a. b   a.b   a. b  b  a a 

 lim  lim a.  .b  . b 
 t 0 t  t 0
 t t t 
 b a a  b a a
 lim a.  .b  . b   lim a.  lim .b  lim . b
 t 0
 t t  t   t 0  t  t 0  t  t 0  t
db da da
 a.  .b  .0
dt dt dt
Since  b  0 as t  0
d db da
 a.b  a.  .b
dt dt dt
Note: As we know that vector dot product is commutative, then
d db da d
 a.b  a.  .b  b.a 
dt dt dt dt
Proof (iii):
d  a   a    b   b   a  b  lim a  b  a   b   a  b   a   b  a  b
 a  b  lim
dt t 0 t  t 0 t
a  b   a  b   a  b
 lim
 t 0 t
 b a a  b a a
 lim a    b    b   lim a   lim  b  lim   b
 t 0
 t t t   t 0  t  t 0  t  t 0  t
db da da
 a  b  0
dt dt dt
Since  b  0 as t  0
d db da
 a.b  a    b
dt dt dt
Note: As we know that vector cross product is not commutative, so we
must have to maintain the order of the factor a and b.
Proof (iv):  a b c   a. b  c   a. b  c   . b  c 
d d d da
dt dt dt dt
 dc db  da  dc   db  da
 a. b    c   .  b  c   a.  b    a.   c   .  b  c 
 dt dt  dt  dt   dt  dt
 dc   db   da   da   db   dc 
 a b   a c    b c    b c   a c  a b 
 dt   dt   dt   dt   dt   dt 
Proof (v):
d     a   a   a  lim  a  a  a   a  a
 a  lim
dt t 0 t  t 0 t
=
 a  a   a a  
lim  lim  lim a  lim a
 t 0 t  t 0  t  t 0  t  t 0  t
da d d da d
  a 0   a
dt dt dt dt dt
Proof (vi): a   b  c   a  (b  c)    b  c 
d d da
dt dt dt
 db dc  da  db   dc  da
 a    c  b     b  c   a    c   a   b     b  c 
 dt dt  dt  dt   dt  dt
da  db   dc 
  b  c   a    c   a   b  
dt  dt   dt 
Remarks 1: Derivative of a constant vector is always zero.

2: If r is a vector quantity and s is a scalar quantity, then we write
  
d r d r ds dr
 , which is nothing but the multiplication of the vector
dt ds dt ds
ds
and scalar .
dt

3: If r  xi  yj  zk , where the component x, y, z are scalar function of
scalar variable t and i, j, k are unit vectors along the three co-ordinate axes
then,

d r dx dy dz
 i j k
dt dt dt dt
It means when we differentiate a vector, we should differentiate its
components.
Sometime, we also use the notation,
 
d r  dx dy dz  d 2 r  d 2 x d 2 y d 2 z 
  , , ,  , ,  and so on.
dt  dt dt dt  dt 2  dt 2 dt 2 dt 2 
Some important theorems
Theorem 9: The necessary and sufficient condition for the vector function
da
a(t ) to be constant is that 0.
dt
Proof: The condition is necessary: Let the vector function a(t ) is the
constant vector corresponding to the scalar variable t, it means
a (t   t )  a (t )
da a  t   t   a(t ) a(t )  a(t )
Now,  lim  lim 0
dt  t 0 t  t 0 t
da
The condition is sufficient: Let  0 , then, we have to prove that a(t )
dt
is the constant vector. Let a(t )  a1 (t )i  a2 (t ) j a3 (t ) k , then,
da da1 da da
 i  2 j 3 k
dt dt dt dt
da da da da
Since,  0  1 i  2 j 3 k  0
dt dt dt dt
Now, equating both side coefficient of i, j, k, we get
da1 da da
 0 , 2  0 , 3  0 , Here a1 , a2 , a3 are constant vector because
dt dt dt
they are independent from t. therefore a(t ) is the constant vector function.

Theorem 10: If a is differentiable vector function of the scalar variable t

and if a  a , then
2
 
da d a
(i)    2a
dt dt

 da da
(ii) a. a
dt dt
    
Proof: (i) As we know that a 2  a . a  a a cos 0  aa  a 2

2
da da 2 da
Then,   2a
dt dt dt
  
d  a.a     
da 2
  da da   d a
(ii)   a.  .a  2 a.
dt dt dt dt dt

da da
 2 a.  2a
dt dt

 da da
a. a
dt dt

 
da
Theorem 11: If a has constant length (fixed magnitude), then a and
dt

da
are perpendicular provided  0.
dt
  
Proof: We have given that a  a  constant. Then a . a  a 2 = constant.
 
d  a.a 
Since,   0
dt
 

da da 
 a.  .a  0
dt dt
 
da   d a
 2 a.  0  a. 0
dt dt


da
Since, scalar dot product of two vectors a and is zero. It means
dt
 
 da
da
vectors a and are perpendicular i.e., 0
dt dt

Theorem 12: The necessary and sufficient condition for the vector a (t ) to

da 
have constant magnitude is a .  0.
dt

Proof: Let a (t ) is the vector function of the scalar variable t and it have

constant magnitude i.e., a  a = constant.
 
 a . a  a 2 = constant
   
d  a.a   d a
  da 
  0  a.  .a  0
dt dt dt
 
 da  d a
 2 a.  0  a. 0
dt dt
Which is the necessary condition

da 
Condition is sufficient: Let us assume that a .  0 , then we have to
dt

prove that a (t ) is a constant vector.
  
 da  d a da 
Since, a .  0  a.  .a  0
dt dt dt
 
d  a.a   
    0  a . a  a 2  constant
dt

Theorem 13: If a (t ) is the vector function of the scalar variable t and it is
d da  d 2a
differentiable, then  a    a 
dt  dt  dt 2
d  da  da da d 2a
Proof:  a      a  2
dt  dt  dt dt dt
As we know that a  a  0
d da  d 2a d 2a
  a    0  a   a 
dt  dt  dt 2 dt 2

Theorem 14: The necessary and sufficient condition for the vector a (t ) to
 da 
have constant direction  a    0 .
 dt 

Proof: Let a (t ) be a vector function corresponding to the scalar variable t.
  
Let A be the unit vector in the direction of a (t ) then, a (t )  a (t ) A , If we
 
consider a be the magnitude of the vector function a (t ) i.e., a (t )  aA

da dA da
a  A
dt dt dt

da  dA da  dA da
Hence, a   aA    a  A   a2 A a A A
dt  dt dt  dt dt
dA dA
 a2 A   0  a2 A  [As we know that a  a  0 ]
dt dt
……. (1)

The condition is necessary: Suppose a has constant direction, then A is
constant vector because it has constant magnitude as well as constant
dA
direction. Therefore 0
dt

da
Hence, from (1) we get a  a2 A  0  0
dt
Thus, the condition is necessary.

da 
The condition is sufficient: Let we consider, a 0
dt
dA dA
Then from (1) we get, a 2 A   0 or A  0 …. (2)
dt dt
dA
 A is of constant length, then A. 0 …. (3)
dt
dA
From (2) and (3), we get 0
dt
Hence A is a constant vector it means direction of A is constant.

Note: (i) If r represent position vector of a particle at a time t with respect

to the origin O, then  r represents small displacement at a particle in

time  t . If v represents the velocity of the particle at P, then
 
 r dr
v  lim 
 t 0  t dt

(ii)If a represents the acceleration of the particle at time t, then
  
  v d v d2 r
a  lim   2
 t 0  t dt dt
SELF CHECK QUESTIONS
 
dr d2 r
Example 15: Find and , where
dt dt 2

r  (t  1)i  (t 2  t  1) j  (t 3  t 2  t  1)k

Solution: We have given that r  (t  1)i  (t 2  t  1) j  (t 3  t 2  t  1)k

dr d d d
So,  (t  1)i  (t 2  t  1) j  (t 3  t 2  t  1)k
dt dt dt dt

dr d d  d d d  d d d d 
  t  1 i   t 2  t  1 j   t 3  t 2  t  1 k
dt  dt dt   dt dt dt   dt dt dt dt 

 1  0  i   2t  1  0  j   3t 2  2t  1  0  k  i   2t  1 j   3t 2  2t  1 k
dr
dt

d2 r d  d d   d d d 
 i   2 t  1 j   3 t 2  2 t  1 k
dt 2
dt  dt dt   dt dt dt 

d2 r
 0   2  0  j   6t  2  0  k  2 j  (6t  2)k
dt 2

Example 16: If r  sin t i  cos t j  t k , then find the following
 
dr d2 r
(i) (ii)
dt dt 2
 
dr d2 r
(iii) (iv)
dt dt 2

dr d d d
Solution: (i)  i sin t  j cos t  k t  cos t i  sin t j  k
dt dt dt dt

d2 r d d d d
(ii) 2
  cos t i  sin t j  k   i cos t  j sin t  k 1
dt dt dt dt dt

d2 r
  sin t i  cos t j  0k   sin t i  cos t j
dt 2

dr
  cos t    sin t   (1) 2  (1) 2  (1) 2  2
2 2
(iii)
dt

d2 r
   sin t     cos t  1
2 2
(iv)
dt 2

 dr 
Example 17: If r   cos n t  i   sin nt  j , show that r   nk , where n
dt
is a constant.

Solution: We have given, r   cos n t  i   sin nt  j

dr d d
So,  i cos nt  j sin nt  n sin nt i  n cos nt j
dt dt dt
 i j k
 d r
r
dt
 cos nt 
sin nt 0  0i  0 j  n cos 2 nt  n sin 2 nt k  nk 
n sin nt n cos nt 0
    
Example 18: If r   cos t  a   sin t  b , where a , b are constant vector
and  is a constant. Then show the following:

d2 r 
(i) 2
 2 r  0 and (ii)
dt

 dr  
r   a b
dt
 
Solution (i): We have given, if a , b are constant vector and  is a
 
da db
constant it means 0
dt dt
  
Since, r   cos t  a   sin t  b

dr d   
 d  cos t   d  sin t  
Then,    cos t  a   sin t  b   a b
dt dt   dt dt

dr  
  sin t a   cos t b
dt

d2 r d   
  
   sin  t a   cos  t b    2
cos  t a   2
sin t  t b
dt 2 dt  

d2 r   
 
  2  cos t a  sin t b    2 r
 
2
dt

d2 r 
  2
r 0
dt 2

 dr   
   

(ii) r     cos t  a   sin t  b     sin t a   cos t b 
dt    

 dr        
r   cos 2 t  a b    sin 2 t  b a    cos 2 t  a b    sin 2 t  a b 
dt        


   
   cos 2 t  sin 2 t   a b     a b 
dr
r
dt    
 
Example 19: If a   cos  i   sin   j   k , b   cos  i   sin   j  3k

and c  2i  3 j  3k , find
d
d
a   b  c    cos  i   sin   j  3k at

 .
2
Answer:
i j k
b  c  cos  sin  3   3sin   9  i   3cos   6  j   3cos   2sin   k
2 3 3
i j k
Now, a   b  c   sin  cos 
3sin   9 3cos  6 3cos   2sin 
  3cos 2   2sin  cos  3 cos  6  i   3 sin   9  3sin  cos   2sin 2   j 
 6sin   9cos  k
d a   b  c 
  6cos  sin   2cos 2   2sin 2   3cos   3 sin   6  i
d
  3sin   3 cos   9  3cos 2   3sin 2   4sin  cos   j   6cos   9sin   k

Now, putting   , we get
2
 3 
  4    i  15 j  9k
 2 
Example 20: Let a particle moves along the curve
x  t 3  1, y  t 2 , z  2t  5 , where t represents the time. Then find the
velocity and acceleration of the particle at t = 1, in the direction i  j  3k .
Answer: Since, we have given particle moves along the curve
x  t 3  1, y  t 2 , z  2t  5 , then

r   t 3  1 i  t 2 j   2t  5 k
So, the velocity of the particle is

 dr d 3  d  d 
v    t  1  i   t 2  j    2t  5   k
dt  dt   dt   dt 

v  3t 2i  2tj  2k
The velocity of particle at t = 1 is  v   3i  2 j  2k


 t 1
Similarly, the acceleration of the particle is

 
 d2 r d  d r   d 2  d  d 
a 2    3t  i   2t  j   2 k  6ti  2 j
dt dt  dt   dt   dt   dt 
 
The acceleration of particle at t = 1 is  a   6i  2 j


 t 1
Since, the unit vector in the direction of i  j  3k is
i  j  3k i  j  3k
 
12  12  32 11
So, the component of velocity in the direction of given vector
 
 v .b 
 3i  2 j  2k . i  j  3k   11  11
11 11
Similarly, the component of acceleration in the direction of given vector
 
 a.b 
 6i  2 j . i  j  3k   8
11 11

Example 21: If r is a vector function corresponding to a scalar variable t,

a is a constant vector and m is a constant, then differentiate the following
with respect to t:

     dr
(i) r .a (ii) r a (iii) r
dt
2


  
dr 1 dr
(iv) r. (v) r 
2
(vi) m
dt 
 dt 
 
2
r
   
r a r a
(vii)  
(viii)  
r a
2 2
r .a
  
Answer (i): Let R  r . a
   
  
d R d   d r   d a d r   d a  0
then,   r .a   .a r .  .a
dt dt   dt dt dt  dt 
 
  
(ii) Let, R  r  a
   
d R d   d r   d a d r 
then,   r a    a r  a
dt dt   dt dt dt

 dr
(iii) Let, R  r 
dt

 
    
d R d  d r  d r d r  d2 r  d2 r
then,  r    r 2  r 2
dt dt  dt  dt dt dt dt
 
  
 a a  0 

 dr
(iv) Let, R  r .
dt
2
  
   
  
d R d  d r  d r d r  d2 r  d r   d2 r
then,  r.  .  r. 2   r. 2
dt dt  dt  dt dt dt  dt  dt
   
   2 
a . a  a 
 
 
1
(v) Let, R  r 2  
2
r
  
d R d  2 1  d 2 d  1  d r 2 dr
then,  r     r      2r 
dt dt   dt dt  2  dt dt
 r2  r  r3
2
  
dr
(vi) Let, R  m 
 dt 
 
    2    
  
dR d  d r   d r d 2
r d r d 2
r
Then,  m   m 2 . 2   2m . 2
dt dt   dt    dt dt  dt dt
     
 2 
 d r
 d r 
 2r.
 dt dt 
 
 
 r a
(vii) Let, R   
r 2  a2
Then,
  

        
d R d  r a  1 d    d  1  
       r  a          r  a 
dt dt  2 2   2 2  dt    dt  2 2    
r  a   r  a    r a 
       
 
 
1  d  d   1 d  2 2      
    r a r  a   r  a 
 2 2   dt dt    2 2 2 dt    
r  a   r  a  
    


 dr
2r.
dt  r  a 
1 dr  
     
 2 2  dt  2 2 2  
r  a   r a 
   
 


 d r d  
 d a d
 0, r  2 r .
2
, a 2  0
 dt dt dt dt 
 
 
 r a
(viii) Let, R   
r .a
  

   
d R d  r a  1 d  
 d  1      
Then,        r  a 
     r  a 
dt dt  r . a    dt     

   r . a    
dt  
   r .a 
  
   
 
d   1 
1 d     d  
    
    r a r a     r . a   r  a 
   dt dt      2 dt    
 r .a   r .a 
     

  
dr   dr  
a .a
dt  dt    
     r a 
      2   
 r .a   r .a 
     
12.6 SUMMARY
After completion of this unit learners are able to memorize and analyze
 The application of vector triple product and scalar triple product.

 The application of differentiation of vectors.
12.7 GLOSSARY
  
 Vector triple product:  a b   c is the vector triple product of
 
  
three vectors a , b and c .
  
 Scalar triple product:  a b . c is the vector triple product of
 
  
three vectors a , b and c .
12.8 REFERENCES
 Spiegel, R. Murray (1959), Vector Analysis, Schaum‟s Outline
Series.
 N. Saran and S. N. Nigam, Introduction to vector analysis,

Pothishala Pvt. Ltd. Allahabad.
 Erwin. Kreyszig, "Advanced engineering mathematics, 10th

eddition", 2009.
 A. R. Vasishtha, “Vector Calculus”, 20th edition, Krishna
publication, 2020.

 Shanti Narayan (2003), A Textbook of Vector Calculus, S. Chand
Publishing.
 Shanti Narayan and P. K. Mittal (2010). A textbook of matrices, S.
Chand Publishing.

Objective Question
1. The value of i. j  k   j. k  i   k.i  j 
a) 0 b) 1
c) 2 d) 3
2. The volume of parallelopiped whose edges are given by
  
OA  2i  3 j, OB  i  j  k , OC  3i  k is
a) 1 b) 4
c) 2/7 d) None
3. If [ a, b, c] is the scalar triple product of three vectors a, b, c then [
a, b, c] is equal to
a) [ b, a, c] b) [ c, b, a]
c) [ b, c, a] d) [ a, c, b]

4. If i, j, k are the orthogonal right handed triad of unit vector and a
is a vector then
     
i   a i   j   a j   k   a k  is equal to
     
 
a) a b) 2a

c) 3a d) 0

     
t  t d2 r
5. If r  a e  b e , a , b are constant vectors then   2
r is
dt 2
equal to
a) 1 b) 0
c) 2 d) none of these

6. If a particle moves along the curve r  et cos t i  et sin t j  et k ,
then find the magnitude of velocity at t  0 is
3
a) 2 3 b)
2
c) 3 d) none of these
Fill in the blanks
1. If {i, j, k} be a set of orthonormal unit vectors, then [i, j, k] =
……….
     
   A . B C B . A C
2. If A, B, C be three non-coplanar vectors, then   
   

C A . B C . A B
…………
   
       
3. For any three vectors a , b , c , a  b c   b  c  a   c   a b  
     
…………
     
4. If a , b , c and a ' , b' , c ' are reciprocal system of vectors, then find
     
a . a  b . b'  c . c '  …
'
  
  
5. If the vectors a , b , c are coplanar, then  a b  . c = ………………
 
 

dr d2 r
6. If r  3i  6t 2 j  4tk , then  ……….;  …………
dt dt 2
  d  
7. If u  t 2i  tj  (2t  1)k , v  (2t  3)i  j  tk , then  u . v  
dt  
……….

 
d2 r
8. If r  (cos t )i  (sin t ) j, then r  2  …………
dt

9. The necessary and sufficient condition for the vector a (t ) to be
constant direction is ...
True or False
  
1. If x. a  x. b  x. c  0 , for some non-zero vectors x , then
   
 a b c   0
2. If i, j, k be orthonormal set of unit vectors, then i  ( j  k )  0
3. The orthonormal unit vector triads, i, j, k form a reciprocal
system.
4. A vector is said to be constant only if its direction changes and
magnitude is fixed.

5. The necessary and sufficient condition for the vector a (t ) to have

da 
constant direction is a . 0
dt
Short answer type question:
1. Prove that the identity a  [a  (a  b)]  (a . a)(b  a)
2. If a, b, c and a ' , b' , c ' are reciprocal system of vectors, prove that
(i) a  a '  b  b'  c  c'  0
abc
(ii) a'  b'  b'  c'  c'  a ' 
[a b c]
(iii) a.a '  b.b '  c.c '  3
3. Show that i. j  k  1 .
4. Show that [a  b, c, d ]  [a, c, d ]  [b, c, d ] .
5. Prove that [i  j , j  k , k  i ]  0
Long answer type question:
1. Prove that the four points

6a  4b  10c,  5a  3b  10c, 4a  6b  10c and 2b  10c are
coplanar.
2. Prove that a  (b  a)  (a  b)  a
3. Prove that any three vectors A, B, C ,

( A  B) . (( B  C )  (C  A))  ( A . B  C ) 2 .
1 dr
4. If r  t 3i  (2t 3  2
) j , show that r  k
5t dt
5. If r  e nt a  e  nt b) where a, b are constant vector, show that

d 2r
2
 n2r  0
dt
12.11 ANSWERS
Answer of objective type questions
1. (d) 2. (b) 3. (c) 4. (b) 5. (b) 6. (c)

Answer of fill in the blanks
1. 1 2. 0 3. 0 4. 3 5. 0
6. 12tj  4k ; 12 j 7. 6t 2  10t  2 8. 0

 da
a 0
9. dt
Answer of true and false question.
1. T 2. F 3. T 4. F 5. T
UNIT 13: GRADIENT, DIVERGENCE AND

CURL
CONTENTS:
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Objectives
13.3 Partial derivatives of vectors
13.4 Gradient of scalar field
13.5 Divergence of vector point function
13.6 Curl of vector point function
13.7 Laplacian operators
13.8 Summary
13.9 Glossary
13.10 References
13.13 Answers
13.1 INTRODUCTION
A gradient in calculus is the differential operator that is used to
create a vector from a three-dimensional vector-valued function. The
gradient is denoted by the symbol  (nabla). For instance, if "f" is a
function, then " f " is used to represent a function's gradient. Let's go into
depth about the definition of a function's gradient, directional derivative,
characteristics, and solved instances in this unit. Divergence and curl are
the two essential operations performed on the vector field in mathematics.
Both are important in calculus because they aid in the development of the
higher-dimensional version of the calculus fundamental theorem.
Divergence often explains the field's behaviour in relation to a point or
away from it. The rotational extent of the field around a certain point is
also measured using curl.
In rectilinear coordinates, the gradient of a scalar and the
divergence and curl of a vector have a straightforward form. If the origin
is moved or the coordinates are rotated while using rectilinear coordinates,
the form is preserved. However, if you pick arbitrary coordinates, their
shapes alter, and they appear fairly different even in polar coordinates in
the plane, as well as in cylindrical and spherical coordinates in three
dimensions.
13.2 OBJECTIVES
 Implementation of application of vector triple product and scalar

triple product in vector calculus
 Memorized about the basic differences and relations between the
gradient, divergence and curl operators.
 Application of gradient, divergence and curl operators and there
use in vector calculus.
 Memorized the useful theorems and their application of vector
triple product and scalar triple product.
13.3 PARTIAL DERIVATIVES OF VECTORS

 
If a vector r is depending on two or more variable i.e., r  f ( x, y, z ) .

Then partial derivative of r with respect to x is defined as

r f  x   x, y, z   f ( x, y, z )
 lim
x  x0 x

r 
if this limit exists. Thus is just ordinary differentiation of r only with
x
respect to the variable x and other variable y and z are regarded as

r
constant. Similarly, we can find another partial derivative like and
y

r
.
z
Other higher order partial derivative can also define as,

  
  
 
2 r    r  2 r    r  2 r    r 
 ,  , 
x 2 x  x  y 2 y  y  z 2 z  z 
     

  
  
 
2 r    r  2 r    r  2 r  r 
 ,  , 
xy x  y  yx y  x  zy z  y 
     

If r has continuous partial derivatives of the second order, then,
 
2 r 2 r

yx xy
  
If r  f ( x, y, z ) , then total differential d r of r is given by,
  
r
 r r
dr dx  dy  dz
x y z
The vector differential operator: The vector differential operator  (
read as del or nabla) is defined as
     
 i j k i  j k
x y z x y z
  
Here, the symbols , , can be treated as its component along i, j , k
x y z
.
13.4 GRADIENT OF SCALAR FIELD

Let f ( x, y, z ) be a differentiable function at each point ( x, y, z ) in the
space (i.e., defines a differential scalar field). Then gradient of f , written
as grad f or f and defined as
    f f f
f   i  j k f  i j k
 x y z  x y z
Note: (i) Gradient of f is a vector quantity whose three successive
f f f
components are , ,
x y z
(ii) Gradient of a scalar field defines a vector field it means if f is a scalar
point functionthen its gradient will be a vector point function.
Theorems involving gradient.
Theorem 1: Gradient of addition of two scalar point function: If f
and g are two scalar point function then,
grad ( f  g )  grad f  grad g or ( f  g )   f   g
Proof:
      
grad ( f  g )   i  j  k ( f  g)  i ( f  g)  j ( f  g)  k ( f  g)
 x y z  x y z
     
i f i g  j f  j g k f k g
x x y y z z
         
 i fj f k f   i g  j g  k g 
 x y z   x y z 
 grad f  grad g
i.e., ( f  g )   f   g
Similarly, we can prove that grad ( f  g )  grad f  grad g or
( f  g )   f   g
Theorem 2: Gradient of a constant function:The necessary and
sufficient condition for scalar point function to be constant is that  f c  0
Proof: Let us suppose that f c is a constant function it means its three
f c f f
successive components are zero i.e.,  0, c  0, c  0 .
x y z
f f f
grad f  i  j k
x y z
Then gradient of constant function is, grad fc  i.0  j.0  k.0  0 i.e.,
 fc  0
Conversely, let  f c  0 .
f c f f
It means, i  j c  k c  0i  0 j  0k
x y z
f c f f
equating both side component of i, j, k we get,  0, c  0, c  0
x y z
 fc must be independent from x, y, z.
 fc must be constant function.
Hence the condition is sufficient.
Theorem 3: Gradient of the product of two scalar point function: If f
and g are two scalar point function, then grad ( fg )  f grad g  g grad f
or ( fg )  f g  gf .
Proof:Wehave
      
( fg )  grad ( fg )   i  j  k  ( fg )  i ( fg )  j ( fg )  k ( fg )
 x y z  x y z
 g f   g f   g f 
 i f  g  j f  g k f g 
 x x   y y   z z 
 g g g   f f f 
 f i  j  k   g i  j  k 
 x y z   x y z 
( fg )  f g  gf or grad ( fg )  f grad g  g grad f
In particular, if c is a constant function, then,

(c f )  f c  cf  0  cf  cf
Theorem 4: Gradient of the quotient of two scalar functions: If f and
 f  gf  f g
g are two scalar point function, then    .
g g2
Proof:
f      f  f  f f 
    i  j  k    i    j    k  
 g   x y z  g  x  g  y  g  z  g 
f g f g f g
g f g f g  f
f x x ,   f   y y   f 
    ,    z 2 z
x  g  g 2
y  g  g 2
z  g  g
 f g   g f  f g   f g 
g
 f   x  f   y  g  f 
x  j  
  k  z 2 z 
y
    i 2  2
g  g   g  

g 
     
 f g   f g   f g 
g  f i   g  f  j g  f k
 f   x x   y y   z z 
   
g g2
f g f g f g
g i f ig j f jg k f k
x x y y z z

g2
f f f  g g g 
ig  g k  f i f j f
z 
g k
x y z  x y

g2
gf  f g

g2
Solved Example
2
Example 1:Evaluate the value of  A  B  at (1, 0, -2) where,
xy
A  x 2 yzi  2 xz 3 j  xz 2k , B  2 zi  yj  x 2k .
Answer: First we have to find the value of A  B
i j k
So, A  B  x yz 2 xz xz 2
2 3
2z y  x2
  2 x3 z 3  xyz 2  i   2 xz 3  x 4 yz  j   x 2 y 2 z  4 xz 4  k
Now,
2 2
xy
 A B 
xy
 
2 x3 z 3  xyz 2  i   2 xz 3  x 4 yz  j   x 2 y 2 z  4xz 4  k 
2   
xy x  y

 A  B     2 x3 z 3  xyz 2  i   2 xz 3  x 4 yz  j   x 2 y 2 z  4 xz 4  k 



  xz 2i  x 4 zj  2 x 2 yzk 
x
  z 2i  4 x3 zj  4 xyzk
2
Thus, value of  A  B  at the point (1, 0, -2) evaluated by putting
xy
x  1, y  0, z  2
 2 
 xy  A  B   4i  8 j
  1,0, 2
Example 2:Evaluate grad f at the point (1, -2, -1) where,
f  x, y, z   3x2 y  y3 z 2 .
Answer: We have given f  x, y, z   3x2 y  y3 z 2
   
So, grad f   i  j  k   3x 2 y  y 3 z 2 
 x y z 
  
 i  3 x 2 y  y 3 z 2   j  3 x 2 y  y 3 z 2   k  3x 2 y  y 3 z 2 
x y z
 6 xyi   3x 2  3 y 2 z 2  j  2 y 3 z k
Thus, value of grad f at the point (1, -2, -1)
 grad f (1, 2, 1)  12i  9 j  16k
 
Example 3: If r  r where, r  xi  yj  zk , then prove the following:
1
(i) f (r)  f ' (r)r (ii) r  r (iii)
r

f (r)  r  0
 

1 r  r 
(iv)      3 (v)  log r  (vi)  r n  nr n2 r
r r r2

Answer: Let r  xi  yj  zk , then

r  r  x 2  y 2  z 2 or r 2  x 2  y 2  z 2
      
(i) f (r )   i  j  k  f (r )  i f (r )  j f (r )  k f (r )
 x y z  x y z
r r r
 i f ' (r )  j f ' (r )  k f ' (r )
x y z
 r r r 
 f ' (r )  i  j  k   f ' (r )r
 x y z 
   
 

(ii)  r   i  j  k  x2  y 2  z 2
 x y z 
  
i x2  y 2  z 2  j x2  y 2  z 2  k x2  y 2  z 2
x y z
2x 2y 2z
i j k
2 x2  y 2  z 2 2 x2  y 2  z 2 2 x2  y 2  z 2

2 xi  2 yj  2 zk xi  yj  zk r
   
2 x y z
2 2 2
x y z
2 2 2
r
(iii) As we know from (i) proof that f (r)  f ' (r)r and from (ii)
1
proof that r  r
r
1
So, f (r)  f ' (r) r
r
 1  1  1
Now, f (r)  r  f ' (r) r  r  f ' (r)  r  r   f ' (r) .0  0 [As we
r r  r
 
know r  r  0 ]
1      1   1  1  1
(iv)     i  j  k    i    j    k  
 r   x y z   r  x  r  y  r  z  r 
1 r 1 r 1 r
i 2 j 2 k 2
r x r y r z
1  r r r  r
 2 
i  j k  2
r  x y z  r
1
Since we know that r  r
r

 1  r 1  1   r
So,     2  2  r    3
r r r r  r
       
(v)  log r   i  j  k  log r  i log r  j log r  k log r
 x y z  x y z
1 r 1 r 1 r 1  r r r 
i j k  i  j  k 
r x r y r z r  x y z 
1 r 1 r 1 r 1  r r r 
i j k  i  j  k 
r x r y r z r  x y z 

1 r
 r  2
r r
     r n r n r n
(vi) r n   i  j  k  r n  i j k
 x y z  x y z
r r r
 nr n1 i  nr n1 j  nr n1 k
x y z
 r r r 
 i j  k  nr n1
 x y z 

r 
n1 n1
 nr r  nr  nr n2 r
r
Example 4: If f   2 x 2 y  x 4  i   e xy  y sin x  j  x 2 cos y k , then verify
2 f 2 f
that  .
yx xy
Answer: We have given, f   2 x 2 y  x 4  i   e xy  y sin x  j  x 2 cos y k
2 f 2
Then, 
yx yx
 
2 x 2 y  x 4  i   e xy  y sin x  j  x 2 cos y k 
 
 
y  x
 
2 x 2 y  x 4  i   e xy  y sin x  j  x 2 cos y k 

    
 
y  x
 2 x 2 y  x 4  i   e xy  y sin x  j  x 2 cos y k 
x x 


y
4 xy  4 x3  i   ye xy  y cos x  j  2 x cos y k 
  
  4 xy  4 x3  i   ye xy  y cos x  j  2 x cos y k
y y y
 4 xi   e xy  xye xy  cos x  j  2 x sin y k
2 f 2
Similarly, 
xy xy
 
2 x 2 y  x 4  i   e xy  y sin x  j  x 2 cos y k 
  
 
x  y

 
2 x 2 y  x 4  i   e xy  y sin x  j  x 2 cos y k 

    
 
x  y
 2 x 2 y  x 4  i   e xy  y sin x  j  x 2 cos y k 
y y 


x

2 x 2i   xe xy  sin x  j  x 2 sin y k 
  
 2 x 2i   xe xy  sin x  j  x 2 sin y k
x x x
 4 xi   e xy  xye xy  cos x  j  2 x sin y k
2 f 2 f
Hence, we can easily see that  .
yx xy
Equipotential surfaces or level surfaces: Let a scalar field f ( x, y, z )  c
in the region R. The points which are satisfying the equation f ( x, y, z )  c
, constitutes family of surfaces in the three-dimensional space. The
occurred surface of this family is called level surfaces.
Any surface of this family is such a way that the value of the
function f at any point of it is the same. Hence these surfaces are also
called iso-f-surfaces.
13.5 DIVERGENCE OF A VECTOR POINT

FUNCTION
Let V be the differentiable vector point function. Then the divergence of V
denoted as divV or .V and defined as follows:
     V V V V
.V   i  j  k  .V  i.  j.  k.   i.
 x y z  x y z x
It should be noted that divV is always a scalar quantity.
Solenoidal vector: Adifferentiable vector point function V is said to be
solenoidal if divV  0
Theorem 5: If V  V1i  V2 j  V3k is differentiable vector point function,
then
    V V V V
.V   i  j  k  .V1i  V2 j  V3k   1  2  3   1
 x y z  x y z x
Proof: We have given that, V  V1i  V2 j  V3k
Then,
      
.V   i  j  k  .V1i  V2 j  V3k   i .V1i   j .V2 j   k .V3k 
 x y z  x y z
V V V
 1  i.i   2  j. j   3  k .k 
x y z
V V V
 1 2 3
x y z
V V V
Hence, .V  1  2  3
x y z
13.6 CURL OF A VECTOR POINT FUNCTION

Let F be any differentiable vector point function. Then the curl or
sometime called rotation of F denoted as curlF or  F and defined as
follows:
    F F F F
 F  i  j  k  F  i   j k  i 
 x y z  x y z x
It should be noted that curlF is always a vector quantity.

Irrotational vector: Adifferentiable vector point function F is said to be
irrotational if curl F  0 .
Theorem 6: If F  f1i  f 2 j  f3k is differentiable vector point function,
then
 f f   f f   f f 
curl F   3  2  i   1  3  j   2  1  k
 y z   z x   x y 
i j k
       
Proof:   F   i  j  k    f1i  f 2 j  f 3k  
 x y z  x y z
f1 f2 f3
 f f   f f   f f 
  3  2 i   1  3  j   2  1  k
 y z   z x   x y 
OR
The curlF is also prove as,
   
 F   i  j  k    f1i  f 2 j  f3k 
 x y z 
  
i   f1i  f 2 j  f 3k   j   f1i  f 2 j  f 3k   k   f1i  f 2 j  f 3k 
x y z
as we know that,
i  i  0, j  j  0, k  k  0, i  j  k , j  i  k , i  k  j , k  i   j , j  k  i, k  j  i
 f 2 f   f f   f f 
so,  F   k 3 j 1 k  3 i 1 j  2 i
 x x   y y   z z 
 f f   f f   f f 
 F   3  2  i   1  3  j   2  1  k
 y z   z x   x y 
13.7 LAPLACIAN OPERATOR

The Laplacian Operators  2 : The Laplacian operator mathematically
2 2 2
denoted as  2 and defined as, 2   
x 2 y 2 z 2
2 f 2 f 2 f
If f is a scalar point function, then, 2 f    , here 2 f is
x 2 y 2 z 2
also a scalar quantity.
  
2 f 2 f 2 f
 
If f is a vector point function, then,  f  2  2  2 , here  2 f
2
x y z
is also a vector quantity.
Laplace’s Equation:The Laplace equation is defined as 2 f  0 . A
function which satisfied Laplace equation is called Harmonic function.
Solved Example

Example 5: Show that div r  3 .

Answer: As we know that r  xi  yj  zk .
     
So, div r  . r   i  j  k  . xi  y j  z k 
 x y z 
  
 i . xi  y j  z k   j . xi  y j  z k   k . xi  y j  z k 
x y z
x y z
 (i.i)  (j. j)  (k.k)
x y z
 1 1 1  3

Example 6: Show that curl r  0 .
     
Answer: curl r   r   i  j  k    xi  yj  zk 
 x y z 
i j k
    z y   z x   y x 
  i    j   k  
x y z  y z   x z   x y 
x y z
 0i  0 j  0k  0

Hence, we can say that curl r  0
Example 7: If f  x 2 y i  2 xz j  2 yz k , then find the following:
  
(i) div f (ii) curl f (iii) curl curl f
Answer: (i) We have given that, f  x 2 y i  2 xz j  2 y k
    
Then, div f   i  j  k  . x 2 y i  2 xz j  2 yz k 
 x y z 
  
i . x 2 y i  2 xz j  2 yz k   j . x 2 y i  2 xz j  2 yz k   k .  x 2 y i  2 xz j  2 yz k 
x y z
 2 xy  0  2 y  2 y ( x  1)
    
(ii) curl f   i  j  k    x 2 y i  2 xz j  2 yz k 
 x y z 
i j k
     y         
  i  2 yz  2 xz   j  2 yz  x 2 y   k   2 xz  x 2 y 
x y z  y z   x z   x y 
x y 2 xz 2 yz
2
 i  2 z  2 x   k  2 z  x 2   2( x  z )i  (2 z  x 2 )k

 

(iii) curl curl f       f      2( x  z )i  (2 z  x 2 )k 
 
i j k
  

x y z
2( x  z ) 0 (2 z  x 2 )
        
 i  (2 z  x 2 )    (2 z  x 2 )  (2 x  2 z )  j  0  (2 x  2 z )  k
 y   x z   y 
 0i  (2 x  2) j  (0  0)k  (2 x  2) j
Example 8: If the vector, V  ( x  3 y ) i  ( y  2 z ) j  ( x  az ) k , is

solenoidal then find the constant a.
Answer: As we know that a vector will be called solenoidal if divV  0 .
   
Now, divV   i  j  k  . ( x  3 y ) i  ( y  2 z ) j  ( x  az ) k   0
 x y z 
  
 ( x  3 y ) i.i  ( y  2 z ) j. j  ( x  az ) k .k  0  i.i  j. j  k.k  0
x y z
1  1  a  0
 a  2
Example 9: If the vector, V  (sin y z ) i  ( x cos y  z ) j  ( x  y )k , then
show that V is irrotational.
Answer: As we know that a vector will be called irrotational if curlV  0
.
   
Now, curlV   i  j  k    (sin y z ) i  ( x cos y  z ) j  ( x  y )k 
 x y z 
i j k
  

x y z
sin y  z x cos y  z x y
        
  ( x  y )  ( x cos y  z )  i   ( x  y )  (sin y z)  j   ( x cos y  z )  (sin y z)  k
 y z   x z   x y 
 (1  1)i  (1 1) j   cos y  cos y  k  0
Hence, curlV  0 , which shows the vector V is irrotational.
 x
Example 10: Show that,  2  3   0 .
r 
2 2 2
Answer: As we know that, 2   
x 2 y 2 z 2
 x   x   x   x
2 2 2
So, 2  3   2  3   2  3   2  3 
 r  x  r  y  r  z  r 
 2  x      x     1 3x r 
First, we evaluate, 2  3     3     3  4 
x  r  x  x  r   x  r r x 
  1 3x r    1 3x 2 
      
x  r 3 r 4 x  x  r 3 r 5 
 2 r x 
 r  x 2
 y 2
 z 2
, then 
x r 
 2  x    1 3x 2  3 r 6 x 15x 2 x 9 x 15x3
             7
x 2  r 3  x  r 3 r 5  r 4 x r 5 r6 r r5 r
 2  x      x     3x r    3x y 
Again, 2  3     3     4    4 
y  r  y  y  r   y  r y  y  r r 
 2 r y 
 r  x  y  z , then y  r 
2 2 2
 
 2  x    3xy  3x 15 xy r 3x 15xy 2
            7
y 2  r 3  y  r 5  r5 r 6 y r5 r
2  x  3x 15 xz 2
Similarly, we evaluate,      7
z 2  r 3  r5 r
Therefore,
2  x  2  x  2  x  9 x 15x3  3x 15xy 2   3x 15xz 2 
           7  5  7  5  7 
x 2  r 3  y 2  r 3  z 2  r 3  r5 r  r r   r r 
9 x 15 x3 3x 15 xy 2 3x 15 xz 2
     7  5 7
r5 r7 r5 r r r
  5  7  x2  y 2  z 2 
15 x 15 x
r r
15 x 15 x
  5  7 r 2  0
r r
x  x  x  x
2 2 2
Hence, 2  3   2  3   2  3   2  3   0
 r  x  r  y  r  z  r 
SOME IMPORTANT RESULTS ON VECTOR IDENTITIES:

1. Prove that div  A  B   div A  div B or . A  B   . A  .B
    
Proof: div  A  B   . A  B    i  j  k  . A  B 
 x y z 
  
 i.  A  B   j.  A  B   k .  A  B 
x y z
 A B   A B   A B 
 i.    j.    k.  
 x x   y y   z z 
A B A B A B
 i.  i.  j.  j.  k.  k.
x x y y z z
 A A A   B B B 
  i.  j.  k .    i.  j.  k . 
 x y z   x y z 
 .A  .B  div A  div B
2. Prove that curl  A  B   curl A  curl B or
  A  B    A   B
   
Proof: curl  A  B      A  B    i  j  k    A  B 
 x y z 
  
 i   A  B  j   A  B  k   A  B
x y z
 A B   A B   A B 
 i    j     k   
 x x   y y   z z 
A B A B A B
 i i  j  j k k
x x y y z z
 A A A   B B B 
 i  j   k    i  j k 
 x y z   x y z 
   A    B  curl A  curl B
3. If A and  are differentiable vector and scalar function
respectively, then
div  A   grad  .A   divA or . A   .A   .A
   
Proof: As we know, div  A  . A   i  j  k  . A
 x y z 
     
 i.  A  j.  A  k.  A   i.  A 
x y z   x 
   A 
  i. A   
  x x  
       A  
  i. A     i.   
  x     x  
      A  
   i  .A      i.    a.(mb)  (ma).b  m(a.b) 
 x     x  
      A 
   i  . A     i.      . A    .A 
  x    x 
4. If A and  are differentiable vector and scalar function
respectively, then
curl  A   grad    A   curlA or   A     A    A
   
Proof: As we know, curl  A    A   i  j  k    A
 x y z 
     
 i  A  j   A  k   A   i    A 
x y z   x 
   A  
  i   A   
  x x  
       A  
  i   A     i     
  x     x  
      A  
   i   A      i   
 x     x  
 a  (mb)  (ma)  b  m(a  b) 
      A 
   i    A     i        A     A 
  x    x 
5. Prove that
div  A  B   B.curl A  Acurl
. B or . A  B   B. A  A. B 
  
Proof: As we know that, div  A  B   .  A  B    i. ( A  B ) 
 x 
  A B     A    B  
  i.  B  A      i.  B     i. A   
  x x     x    x  
 A     B 
   i   .B   i.  A  
 x     x 
 a.(b  c)  (a b).c and a.(b c)   a.(c b) 
  A    B  
   i   .B    i   . A
  x    x  
  B  
  curl A .B    i   . A   curl A .B  A.curl B
  x  
6. Prove that curl  A  B    B.  A  Bdiv A   A.  B  Adiv B
  
Proof: As we know that, curl  A  B      A  B    i   A  B  
 x 
  B A    B     A 
  i   A    B     i   A      i    B  
  x x    x     x 
 B    B   A   A  
   i.  A    A.i      B.i      i.  B 
 x    x   x   x  
  B         A  
   i.   A   A. i  B   B. i  A    i.  B
  x    x   x    x  
  div B  A   A. B   B.  A   div A B
7. Prove that grad  A.B   ( B.)A (A.)  B curlA A curlB
Proof: We have,
 B A
grad  A.B    A. B    i  A. B    i  A.  .B 
x  x x 
 B    A  
   A.  i     B.  i  …. (1)
 x    x  
Since we know that,
a   b  c    a.c  b   a.b  c   a.b  c   a.c  b  a  b  c 
 B    B    B  
Thus,   A. x  i     A.i  x     A   i  x 
   B 
  A. i  B  A    i     A.  B  A     B  …. (2)
 x   x 
 A  
Similarly,   B. x  i    B.  A  B    A ….
(3)
Now, putting the value of equation (2) and equation (3) in equation (1)
We get, grad ( A.B)   A.  B  A    B    B.  A  B   A
8. Prove that div grad  2 i.e., .   2
         
Proof: div grad  .   i  j  k  . i j k 
 x y z   x y z 
           
   i.i    j. j    k .k
x  x  y  y  z  z 
 2  2  2   2 2 2 
         
2

x 2 y 2 z 2  x 2 y 2 z 2 
9. Prove that, curl of the gradient of  is zero, i.e.,
     0 i.e., curl grad   0
         
Proof: curl grad         i  j  k    i j k 
 x y z   x y z 
i j k
     2  2    2  2    2  2 
    
i    
j   k
x y z  yz zy   zx xz   xy yx 
  
x y z
0i  0 j  0k  0
10. Prove that divCurl A  0 i.e, .  A  0
Proof: Let A  Ai
1  A2 j  A3k , Then
          
divCurl A  .  A   i  j  k  .  i  j  k    Ai
1  A2 j  A3k  
 x y z   x y z  
   
First we find out,  A   i  j  k    Ai
1  A2 j  A3k 
 x y z 
i j k
    A3 A2   A1 A3   A2 A1 
   i     j   k
x y z  y z   z x   x y 
A1 A2 A3
Now,
      A A   A A   A A  
divCurl A  .  A   i  j  k  .  3  2  i   1  3  j   2  1  k 
 x y z   y z   z x   x y  
  A3 A2    A1 A3    A2 A1 
    (i.i)     ( j. j )     (k.k )
x  y z  y  z x  z  x y 
 2 A3  2 A2  2 A1  2 A3  2 A2  2 A1
     
xy xz yz yx zx zy
  2 A3  2 A3    2 A1  2 A1    2 A2  2 A2 
      0
 xy yx   yz zy   zx xz 
SOLVED EXAMPLE
 x  y z 
Example 11: Find  and  , where    x 2  y 2  z 2  e
2 2 2 1/2
.
Solution: Let r  xi  yj  zk , then r 2  x 2  y 2  z 2 .
  
So, we can write   r 2e r , then   i j k
x y z
  r r
  2re  r  r 2e  r    2re  r  r 2e  r 
x
We consider, 
x r x x r
  r
  2re r  r 2e r  and
y
Similarly, 
y r y r
  r
  2re  r  r 2e  r 
r

z r z z
Now,    2re r  r 2e r  i   2re r  r 2e  r  j   2re  r  r 2e  r  k

x y z
r r r


   2re  r e
r 2 r
 rr   2  r  e r
r


And    2re  r e r 2 r
 rr   2  r  e r
r   2  r  re  r
 
Example 12: Prove that div  r n r    n  3 r n .
 
   
 
Solution:We know that, div   A     div A   A .grad 
   
    
So, div  r n r   r n  div r   r .grad r n
   
Since,
       
div r   i  j  k  . xi  yj  zk   x(i.i )  y(j. j)  z(k.k)  3
 x y z  x y z
And
        r r r 
grad r n   i  j  k  r n  i r n  j r n  k r n  nr n1  i  j k
 x y z  x y z  x y z 

n 1 x y z  n 1 r
 nr  i  i  i   nr
r r r  r

So, grad r n  nr n2 r
Now,
      
div  r n r   r n  div r   r .grad r n  3r n  nr n2 r . r  3r n  nr n   3  n  r n
   

r
Example 13: Prove that div  3   0 .
r 
 
 
Proof:As we know that, div  r n r    n  3 r n …………… (1)
 
Now putting n = -3 in equation (1)
 
So, div  r 3 r    3  3 r 3  0
 
^ 2
Example 14: Prove that div  r   .
  r

r  
Proof:We have div    div  r 1 r 
r  
 
 
As we know that, div  r n r    n  3 r n …………… (1)
 
Now putting n = -1 in equation (1)
^   2
So, div  r   div  r 1 r    1  3 r ( 1) 
    r

Example 15: Prove that vector f (r ) r is irrotational.
 
Proof: As we know that any vector A is irrotational if curl A  0

So, if we have to show that the vector f (r ) r is irrotational we have to
show
 

curl  f (r ) r   0
 
 
Since, curl   A    grad    A   curl A
 
 
  
Now, curl  f (r ) r    grad f (r )   r  f (r ) curl r
 
 
   

  f ' (r ) grad r   r  f (r ).0  curl r  0
  
 
 
r 1 
  f (r )   r  f ' (r )  r  r   0
'
 r  r 
 
2
Example 16:Prove that  2 f (r )  f '' ( r )  f ' ( r ) .
r
Proof: As we know that if  is a scalar function, then 2  .  
So,  2 f (r )  .  f (r )   div  grad f (r )  div  f ' (r ) grad r
1 
 1  
1 
 div  f ' (r ) r   f ' (r )div r  r .grad  f ' (r ) 
r  r r 
  1 

  d  3 '
3 ' 1 '    1  r
 f (r )  r .   f (r )  grad r   f (r )  r .  2 f (r )  f (r ) 
' ''
r  dr  r   r  r r r
 
3 ' 1  1 1     
 f (r )    2 f ' (r )  f '' (r )   r . r 
r r  r r   
3 ' 1  1 1 
 f (r )    2 f ' (r )  f '' (r )  r 2
r r  r r 
3 ' 1 2
f (r )  f ' (r )  f '' (r )  f '' (r )  f ' (r )
r r r
c
Example 17: If  2 f (r )  0 , show that f (r )  1  c2 , where
r
r 2  x 2  y 2  z 2 and c1, c2 are arbitrary constant.
Answer: From the previous example we know that,
2
 2 f (r )  f '' ( r )  f ' ( r ) , where r 2  x 2  y 2  z 2
r
2 '
Since, we have given that  2 f (r )  0 , then f '' (r )  f (r )  0
r
f '' (r ) 2
 '

f (r ) r
c
Integrating with respect to r we get, log f ' (r )  2log r  log c  log
r2
c
 f ' (r ) 
r2
c
Again, integrating we get, f (r )    c2 , where c2 is a constant
r
c
After replacing constant c by c1 , we get f (r )  1  c2
r
SELF CHECK QUESTION

Fill in the blanks:

1. If F  ( x2  y 2 )i  2 xy j , then F .d r  …….
P
2. If P  e xyi  ( x  2 y) j  ( x sin y)k , then  ………
x
  
3. If a is a constant vector then grad ( a . r )  ……….
  
4. If a is a constant vector then .( a r )  ……….
 
5. If r  xi  yj  zk , then the value of div r 
 
6. If A  x 2 zi  2 y 3 z 2 j  xy 2 zk , then div A at (1, -1, 1) = ……….
 
7. If r  xi  yj  zk , then the value of curl r  ……….
 
8. For any vector A , div curl A  …….

9. A vector V is said to be solenoidal if ……

10. A vector F is said to be irrotational if ……
11. If   x 2 y  2 xy  z 2 , then curl grad  …….
13.8 SUMMARY
 The application of gradient, divergence, curl operators and

Laplacian operators.
 The relations between gradient, divergence and curl operators.
13.9 GLOSSARY
 Gradient of a vector function f: f
 Divergence of a vector function f: . f
 Curl of a vector function f:   f
13.10 REFERENCES
Series.


eddition", 2009.

publication, 2020.

Publishing.
Chand Publishing.

Objective type question:
1. What will be the value of constant a, if the vector

V  ( x  3 y)i  ( y  2 z ) j  ( x  az )k is solenoidal?
a. 0 b. 1
c. -2 d. 2
2. What will be the value of directional derivative of

 ( x, y, z)  x 2 yz  4 xz 2 , at the point (1, -2, -1) in the direction of the vector
2i  j  2k .
a. 37/3 b. 1
c. -2 d. 2

3. Choose the correct value of  2 r n , where r  xi  yj  zk and

r r
a. n(n  1)r n b. n(n  1)r n1

c. n(n  1)r n2 d. none of these
1
4. Choose the correct value of  2  
r
a. 2 / r 3 b. 2 / r3
c. 0 d. none of these
  
5. Choose the correct value of curl ( r  a ) , where r  xi  yj  zk and

a is constant vector.
 
a. a b. 2 a

b. 3 a d. none of these
^
6. Choose the correct value of div r is
2 1
a. b.
r r
c. 0 d. none of these
Find True and False Statement.


1. The vector r  xi  yj  zk is solenoidal
 
2. divV  0 , if V is a constant vector.

3. F  2 xyzi  y 2 zj  2 yz 2k , is irrotational vector.
4. curl grad   0 , if  is a differential scalar function.
5. div grad   2 , if  is a differential scalar function.
6. . A  B   A.  B   B.  A
7. Function which satisfies the Laplace‟s equation is called harmonic
function.

1. If f  x 2 y  2 xy  z 2 , then verify that curl grad f  0
2. Show that curl ( )     further prove that,
   curl  
   
3. If a is a constant vector then show that curl ( a . r ) a  0

4. For the constant vector a prove the followings:
     
(i)   a . u    a .  u  a curl u
   
   
(ii) .  a u    a .curl u
 
     
(iii)    a u   a div u   a .  u
   

5. If a is a constant unit vector then show that

       
a .   v . a      v  a    div v
    
  1  
6. If a is a constantvector then show that curl a  (r )   ' (r ) r  a
r
Long answer type question:

1. If a is a constantvector then show that,
   
 
curl r  r n ( a r )   (n  2)r n a  nr n2  r . a  r
   
2. If  2 f (r )  0 show that f (r )  c1 log r  c2 , where
r 2  x 2  y 2  z 2 , where c1, c2 are
arbitrary constant.
1 2      
3. Show that  a   a .  a  a curl a
2  
   
r
4. Show that  . 2    2r 4
2
  r 
  

     
5. If a is a constant vector then find the value of div  a  r  a  
  
   
6. Find grad  div u  , where u  1/ r  r
 
13.13 ANSWERS

1. x 2
 y 2  dx  2 xydy 2. ye xyi  j  sin y k

3. a
4. 0 5. 3
6. -3
7. 0 8. 0

9. divV  0

10. curl F  0 11. 0
Answer of objective questions:
1. c 2. a
3. c
4. c 5. b
6. a
Answer of true and false questions:
1. F 2. T
3. F
4. T 5. T
6. F
7. T
Answer of long answer type questions:
2
Answers: 5. 2a 2 6.  r
r3
UNIT-14: GREEN’S, GAUSS’S AND

STOKE’S THEOREMS
CONTENTS:
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Objectives
14.3 Introduction of vector functions
14.4 Line integral
14.5 Surface integral
14.6 Volume integral
14.7 Green‟s theorem
14.8 The divergence theorem of Gauss
14.9 Stoke‟s theorem
14.10 Summary
14.11 Glossary
14.12 References
14.15 Answers
14.1 INTRODUCTION
Green’s theorem is mainly used for the integration of the line
combined with a curved plane. This theorem shows the relationship
between a line integral and a surface integral. It is related to many
theorems such as Gauss theorem, Stokes theorem. Green‟s theorem is used
to integrate the derivatives in a particular plane. If a line integral is given,
it is converted into a surface integral or the double integral or vice versa
using this theorem. In this unit, we will going to learn what is Green‟s
theorem, its statement, formula, applications and examples in detail.
This unit finally begins to deliver on why we introduced div grad

and curl. Two theorems, both of them over two hundred years old, are
explained: Gauss‟ Theorem enables an integral taken over a volume to be
replaced by one taken over the surface bounding that volume, and vice
versa. Why would we want to do that? Computational efficiency and/or
numerical accuracy! Stokes‟ Law enables an integral taken around a
closed curve to be replaced by one taken over any surface bounded by that
curve.
14.2 OBJECTIVES
 Memorized about the introduction of vector functions, line

integrals, surface integrals and volume integrals.
 Analyze about the Green‟s theorem and applications of Green‟s
theorem.
 Analyze about the Gauss divergence theorem and applications of
this theorem.
 Analyze about the Stoke‟s theorem and applications of Stokes‟s
theorem.
14.3 INTRODUCTION OF VECTOR FUNCTIONS

We shall usually define integration as the reverse process of
differentiation. Let two vector functions f (t ) and F(t ) of the scalar
function t such that
d
F(t )  f (t )
dt
Here, F(t ) is called the indefinite integral of f (t ) with respect to t and

symbolically we denote
 f (t )dt  F(t ) ……. (1)
The function f (t ) which to be integrated is called integrand. If c is

arbitrary constant vector independent from t , then
d
F(t )  c  f (t )
dt
Which will equivalent to,  f (t )dt  F(t )  c ……. (2)
From above equation (2) it is obvious that the integral F(t ) of f (t ) is

indefinite to the extent of an additive arbitrary constant c . Therefore F(t )
is called the indefinite integral of f (t ) .
d
If F(t )  f (t ) for all values of t in the interval [ a, b] , then the definite
dt
integral between the limits t  a and t  b can be defined as,
d 
b b
 f (t )dt    dt F(t )  dt   F (t )  c   F (b)  F (a )

b
a
a a
Some important rule of integration (without proof)
1. If f (t )  f1 (t )i  f 2 (t ) j f3 (t ) k , then
 f (t )dt  i  f (t )dt  j  f (t )dt  k  f (t )dt

1 2 3
d dr ds
2. We have  r.s   .s  r. therefore,
dt dt dt
 dr ds 
  dt .s  r. dt dt  r.s  c
2
d  dr  dr d 2r
3. We have    2 . therefore,
dt  dt  dt dt 2
 dr d 2r 
2
 dr 
  2 dt . dt 2 dt   dt   c
2
 dr  dr dr
4.    .
 dt  dt dt
d  dr  dr dr d 2r d 2r
5. We have  r      r  2  r  2 therefore,
dt  dt  dt dt dt dt
 d 2r  dr
  r  dt 2 dt  r  dt  c
d da dr dr
6. We have  a  r   r  a  a therefore,
dt dt dt dt
 dr 
  a  dt dt  a  r  c
 
d  ^  d  r  1 d r 1 dr 
7. We have  r     r therefore,
dt   dt  r  r dt r 2 dt
 
 

 1 d r 1 dr   ^
  r dt r 2 dt dt  r  c
 r
 
8. If c is constant scalar and r a vector function of the scalar t then,

 cr dt  c  r dt
9. If r and s are two vector function of the scalar t then,
  r  s  dt   r dt   s dt
Solved Example
Example 1: If f (t )   t  t 2  i  2t 3 j  3k then find,
2
(i)  f (t )dt (ii)  f (t )dt
1
Answer (i):
 f (t )dt   t  t  i  2t 
j  3k dt  i  t  t 2 dt  j  2t 3dt  k  3dt
2 3
 t2 t3  t4
    i  j  3tk  c
2 3 2
 
2 2 2 2 2
(ii):  f (t )dt    t  t 2  i  2t 3 j  3k dt  i   t  t 2  dt  2 j  t 3dt  3k  dt

1 1 1 1 1
2
 t 2 t 3  t 4 
    i  j  3tk   c
 2 3  2 1
2
 t 2 t 3  t 4 
    i  j  3tk   c
 2 3  2 1
2 2
t2 t3   t4  5 15
    i    j   3t 1 k   i  j  3k
2
 2 3 1  2 1 6 2
Example 2: Evaluate the value of r which satisfying the equation

d 2r
 a , where a is a constant vector. It is given that at a time t  0, r  0
dt 2
dr
and u.
dt
d 2r
Answer: Given differential equation on r is a.
dt 2
Now, integrating both side the equation with respect to t we get,
dr
 ta  b , here b is arbitrary constant vector.
dt
dr
Since it is given that at a time t  0, r  0 and u.
dt
Then, u  0a  b i.e., b  u
dr
  ta  u
dt
Again, integrating both side with respect to t we get.
1
r  t 2 a  tu  c
2
at time t  0, r  0
0  00c or c  0
1 2
So, r  t a  tu
2
Example 3: If r (t )  5t 2i  tj  t 3k then show that

2
 d 2r 
1  r  dt 2 dt  14i  75 j 15k
 d 2r  dr
Answer: As we know that,   r  2  dt  r   c
 dt  dt
 d 2r 
2
 dr 
2
So,   r  2 dt   r  
1
dt   dt 1
dr
First, we evaluate r  .
dt
  5t 2i  tj  t 3k   10ti  j  3t 2k
dr d
Since, r (t )  5t 2i  tj  t 3k then
dt dt
i j k
So, r    5t i  tj  t k   10ti  j  3t k   5t t t 3
dr 2 3 2 2
dt
10t 1 3t 2
  3t 3  t 3  i   15t 4  10t 4  j   5t 2  10t 2  k  2t 3i  5t 4 j  5t 2k
Now,
2
 dr 
1   2t i  5t j  5t k at t 2   2t i  5t j  5t k at t 1
2
r 
 dt    2t 3
i  5t 4
j  5t 2
k  3 4 2 3 4 2
  16i  80 j  20k    2i  5 j  5k   14i  75 j  15k
 dr 
3
2i  j  2k , if t  2
Example 4: Prove that   r. dt  10 , where r (t )  
2
dt  4i  2 j  3k , if t  3
 dr  r2
Answer: We know that,   r.  dt   c
 dt  2
3
3
 dr   r2 
So,   r. dt   
2
dt   2 2
When t  2, r (t )  2i  j  2k then
r 2  r.r   2i  j  2k . 2i  j  2k   4  1  4  9
Similarly, t  3, r (t )  4i  2 j  3k then
r 2  r.r   4i  2 j  3k . 4i  2 j  3k   16  4  9  29
 dr 
3
1
Thus,   r. dt   29  9   10
2
dt  2
Example 5: At a time t  0 , the acceleration of a particle is given by,
dv
a  12cos 2t i  8sin 2t j  16 t k
dt
If at a time t  0 , the velocity (v ) and displacement (r) are zero, then find
v and r at any time.
Answer: We have given that acceleration at a time is

dv
a  12cos 2t i  8sin 2t j  16 t k
dt
Integrating both side with respect to t we get,
12sin 2ti 8cos 2tj 16t 2k

v   12cos 2ti  8sin 2tj  16tk dt     c  6sin 2ti  4cos 2tj  8t 2k  c
2 2 2
At a time t  0, v  0 , then 0  0  4 j  0  c  c  4 j
So, v  6sin 2ti  4cos2tj  8t 2k  4 j  6sin 2ti   4cos2t  4  j  8t 2k
dr
Since, v   6sin 2ti   4cos 2t  4  j  8t 2 k
dt
Integrating both side with respect to t we get,
6cos 2ti  4sin 2 t  8t k

3
r    6sin 2ti   4cos 2t  4  j  8t k dt  d  
2
  4t  j  d
2  2  3
8
 3cos 2ti   2sin 2 t  4t  j  t 3k  d
3
At a time t  0, r  0 , then 0  3  0  0  d  d  3i
8
r  3cos 2ti   2sin 2 t  4t  j  t 3k  3i
3
8
r   3  3cos 2t  i   2sin 2 t  4t  j  t 3k
3
14.4 LINE INTEGRAL

An integral which is to be evaluated along a curve is called a line integral.
Let r (t )  x(t ) i  y (t ) j  z (t ) k , be a position vector of  x, y, z  i.e.,

r  x i  y j  z k , defines a piecewise smooth curve joining two points A
and B. Let at the time t  t1 point be at A and at the time t  t2 point is at
B. Suppose F  x, y, z   Fi
1  F2 j  F3k is a vector point function defined
and continuous along C. If s denotes the arc length of the curve C, then
dr
 t is a unit vector along the tangent to the curve C at the point r. The
ds
dr
component of the vector F along the tangent is F . . The integral of
ds
dr
F . along C from A to B written as
ds
 dr 
B B
A  F . ds ds  A F .dr  C F .dr

is an example of a line integral. It is called the tangent line integral of F
along C.
Remarks:
1. If the equation of the curve C given in the parametric form i.e.,

x  x(t ), y  y (t ), z  z (t )
t t2
 dx dy dz 
thus, we may write 
C
F .dr    F dt  F
t t1
1 2
dt
 F3 dt .
dt 
2. If r is the position vector of a point in C and let F be the force

acting on the particle. Then the work done (W) by F in this displacement is
given by the line integral,
W   F .dr , here r be taken in the sense of displacement.

C
14.5 SURFACE INTEGRAL

Any integral which evaluated over a surface is called a surface integral.
Let S is a finite surface area. Suppose f  x, y, z  is a single valued

function defined over S. If we divide the area of S into m small areas like
 S1,  S2 ,  S3 ,...,  Sm . In each part  Sk we choose an arbitrary point Pk
whose coordinates are  xk , yk , zk  .
We define f ( Pk )  f  xk , yk , zk 
n
From the sum  f ( P ) S
k 1
k k
Taking limit of this sum as n   in such a way that largest area  Sk

approaches zero. If this limit is exist called surface integral of f  x, y, z 
over S and is denoted by
 f ( x, y, z)dS
S
If the surface S is piecewise smooth and the function is continuous over S,

then the above limit exists i.e., is independent of the choice of sub-
divisions and points Pk .
Flux: Suppose a Piecewise smooth surface S and F  x, y, z  is a vector

function of defined position and continuous over S. Let P be a point on the
surface S and let n be the unit vector at P in the direction of outward
drawn normal to the surface S at P. Then F . n is the normal component of
F at P. The integral of F . n over S is,
n
F
dS .P
S
 F .n dS , is called the flux of F over S.

S
Let us associate with the differential of surface area dS a vector dS (called

vector area) whose magnitude is dS and direction is that of n. Then dS = n
dS. Therefore, we can write,
 F .n dS   F .dS
S S
Let we consider at the point P the outward normal to the surface S makes
the angle  ,  ,  with the positive direction of x, y, z . If the direction
cosines of the outward drawn normal are l, m, n , then
l  cos  , m  cos  , n  cos 
Also n  cos  i  cos  j  cos  k
let F ( x, y, z )  F1 cos   F2 cos   F3 cos   Fl

1  F2m  F3n
Therefore, we can write
 F .n dS    F cos  F cos   F cos  dS

S S
1 2 3
If we define  F cos dS   F dydz ,  F cos  dS   F dzdx ,

S
1
S
1
S
2
S
2
 F cos  dS   F dxdy
S
3
S
3
then,
 F .n dS    F dydz  F dzdx  F dxdy dS

S S
1 2 3
Note 1. Other surface integrals are  f n dS ,  F  dS

S S
Note 2. Let we consider the surface S in such a way that any line
perpendicular to the xy- plane meets S in no more than one point. Then the
equation of surface S can be written in the form z  h( x, y )
R
X
Let R be the orthogonal projection of S on the xy-plane. If  is the acute

angle the undirected normal n at P(x, y, z) to the surface S makes with z-
axis, then it can be shown that
cos  dS  dx dy
where dS is the small element of area of surface S at the point P.
dx dy dx dy
Therefore dS   , where k is unit vector along z-axis.
cos  n. k
dx dy
Hence S
F .n dS   F .n
R
n.k
So, a double integral integrated over R can be used to evaluate the

surface integral on S.
14.6 VOLUME INTEGRAL

The volume V that is enclosed by surface S. Let f ( x, y, z ) be a single-
valued positional function defined over V. Split the volume V into n
volume components  V1,  V2 ,...,  Vn . In each part  Vk we choose an
arbitrary point Pk whose co-ordinates are  xk , yk , zk  . We define
f ( Pk )   xk , yk , zk 
n
From the sum  f ( P )V
k 1
k k
Now taking the limit of this summation as n   in a manner that the

largest of the volumes  Vk approaches zero. This limit exists, is called the
volume integral of f ( x, y, z ) over V and is denoted by
 f ( x, y, z) dV
V
If the function f ( x, y, z ) is continuous and surface is piecewise smooth

over V, then the above limit exists i.e., is independent of the choice of sub-
division and points Pk . If V is the volume of small cuboids, then
dV  dx dy dz , so, the will becomes
 f ( x, y, z) dx dy dz
V
If F( x, y, z ) is a vector function,  F dV is

V
the example of volume
integral.
Solved Examples
Example 6: Find  F .dr , where F  x 2i  y 3 j and curve C represents the

C
parabola's arc y  x 2 in the x-y plane from (0,0) to (1,1).
Answer: Method 1. Since we have given curve C is parabola. First, we

have to convert the equation of parabola in parametric form by putting
x  t and y  t 2 .
So, F  t 2i  t 6 j and we know that r (t )  xi  yj  ti  t 2 j
dr
Then  i  2tj
dt
 dr 
  
Now,  F .  dt  t 2i  t 6 j . i  2tj  dt  t 2  2t 7 dt
 dt 

At the point (0,0), t  x  0 . At the point (1,1), t  1

1
 dr 
1
 t 3 2t 8  1 1 7
  0     3  8   3  4  12

2 7
 F .  dt t 2t dt
C  dt   0
Method 2. As we know that r  xi  yj
 dr  dxi  dyj
Thus F .dr   x 2i  y 3 j  . dx i  dy j   x 2dx  y 3dy
  F . dr   x 2dx  y 3dy
C C
Now along the curve C, y  x 2 . Therefore dy  2 xdx
  F . dr    x 2dx  x 6 (2 x)dx     2 x 7  x 2 dx

1 1
0 0
C
1
 2 x8 x 3  1 1 7
     
 8 3  0 4 3 12
Example 7: Find  F .dr , where F   2x  yz  i  xz j  ( xy  2z)k along

C
the curve x  y  1, z  1 in the positive direction from (0,1,1) to (1,0,1).

2 2
Answer: Let the curve is denoted by C and the points A and B are the
points (0,1,1) to (1,0,1) respectively.
As we know the position vector of a point is, r  xi  yj  zk
 dr  dx i  dy j  dz k
Thus
F.dr    2x  yz  i  xz j  ( xy  2z )k . dxi  dy j  dz k    2x  yz  dx  xzdy  ( xy  2z )dz
  F . dr    2 x  yz  dx  xzdy  ( xy  2 z )dz
C C
Along the curve from A to B, x varies from 0 to 1, y varies from 1 to 0 and

z remains constant i.e., dz  0
1 0
  F . dr    2 x  y  dx   xdy  0
C 0 1
 0 a

  f ( x) dx   f ( x)dx 
a 0 
 
1 1
  2 x  1  x 2 dx   1  y 2 dy
0 0
1 1 1
  2 x   1  x 2 dx   1  y 2 dy (Integration does not
0 0 0
depend upon variable)

1
  2 xdx   x 2   1
1
0
0
Example 8: If C is the line segment of the line y  2 x in the xy-plane

from (-1, -2) to (1, 2), then find
Answer: Since we have given curve C is line. First, we convert the

equation of line in parametric form by putting x  t and y  t .
So, r (t )  xi  yj  ti  2tj
dr
Then i2j
dt
dr dr ds
As we know that, 
dt ds dt
dr dr ds ds dr
   (Because, is the unit vector)
dt ds dt dt ds
ds dr
   i2j  5
dt dt
1 1
ds 16
 xy ds   xy dt   t (2t )3 5dt  8 5  t 4dt 
3 3
C C
dt 1 1 5
Example 9: Find the value of  F .dr ,

C
where C is the xy-plane curve
formed by the straight lines from (0, 0) to (2, 0) and then to (3, 2), where
F   2x  y  i  3 y  x  j .
Answer: The figure of the path of curve C in the xy-plane is shown below.
It consists straight lines OA and AB.
O (0,0) A
X
We have,  F .dr   (2 x  y)i  (3 y  x) j .(dxi  dyj )

C C
  (2 x  y)dx  (3 y  x)dy
C
Along the straight-line OA, y  0, dy  0 and x varies from 0 to 2 and

equation of the straight line AB is,
20
y0  ( x  2) i.e., y  2 x  4
3 2
Along AB, y  2 x  4, dy  2dx and x varies from 2 to 3.
2 3
 F .dr   (2 x  0)dx  0   (2 x  2 x  4)dx  2  6 x  12  x  dx 

C 0 2
3 3
  x    14 x  28dx  4  14  x  2  dx
2 2
0
2 2
3
 ( x  2) 2 
 4  14    4  7  11
 2 2
Example 10: If C is the rectangle bounded by y  0, x  a, y  b, x  0 in

the xy-plane then evaluate  F .dr , where F   x
C
2
 y 2  i  2 xyj .
Answer: The path of the integration C has been shown in figure which
consists the straight lines OA, AB, BD and DO.
B (a,b)
D(0,b)
O A (a,0)
X
Now we have,
 F .dr    x  y 2  i  2 xyj .  dxi  dyj 

2
C C
   x 2  y 2  dx  2 xydy
C
In the line OA, y  0, dy  0 and x varies from 0 to a.
In the line AB, x  a, dx  0 and y varies from 0 to b.
In the line BD, y  b, dy  0 and x varies from a to 0.
In the line DO, x  0, dx  0 and y varies from b to 0.
a b 0 0
 F .dr   x dx   2aydy    x  b dx   0dx

2 2 2
C 0 0 a b
a b 0
 x3   y 2   x3 
    2a      b 2 x   0  2ab 2
 3 0  2 0  3 a
14.7 GREEN’S THEOREM

Let R be a closed bounded region in the x-y plane whose boundary C
consists of finitely many smooth curves. Let M and N be continuous
M N
functions of x and y having continuous partial derivatives and in
y x
 N
M 
R. Then   x dxdy    Mdx  Ndy  , the line integral being
R
y  C
taken along the entire boundary C of R such that R is on the left as one
advances in the direction of integration.
Greens theorem in the plane (in vector notation):
We know that the position vector of a point is r  xi  yj so that

dr  dxi  dyj.
Let F  Mi  Nj . Then Mdx  Ndy   Mi  Nj . dxi  dyj   F .dr
i j k
   N M  N M 
Since curl F    F   i j  k
x y z z z  x y 
M N 0
N M
   F  .k  
x y
Thus, the Green‟s theorem in plane can be written as
    F .kdR   F .dr
R C
… (1)
Where dR  dxdy and k is the perpendicular unit vector to the xy-plane.
If s is the arc length of C and t denotes the unit tangent vector to C, then
dr
dr  ds  tds . So, the equation (1) can also be rewritten as,
ds
    F .kdR   F .t ds
R C
Solved Examples
Example 11: If C is the closed curve of the region bounded by the straight
line y  x and the parabola y  x 2 then verify the Green‟s theorem in the
  xy  y  dx  x dy .
2 2
plane
C
Answer: Since by the Green‟s function in plane, we have
 N M 
R  x  y dxdy 

  Mdx  Ndy 
C
… (1)
  xy  y  dx  x dy we get,
2 2
So, after comparing equation (1) with
C
M  xy  y 2 , N  x 2
The curves y  x and y  x 2 intersect at the point (0,0) and (1,1) and
positive direction in traversing C is as show in figure.
A(1,1)
Y=x
Y=x2
O (0,0) X
Thus,
R
 N
  x 
M
y


 2
dxdy    ( x ) 
R 
x

y
xy  y
2
 dxdy
   2 x  x  2 y dxdy    x  2 y dxdy
R R
x 1 x 1 x
    x  2 y dydx    xy  y 
2
dx

x 0 y  x 2 0 yx 2
1 x 1
  xy  y  dx    x 2  x 2  x3  x 4 dx
2
0 y  x2 0
1
1
 x5 x 4  1 1
   x  x dx        
4 3 1
0  5 4 0 5 4 20
Now we evaluate the line integral along C. Along the curve

y  x 2 , dy  2 xdx . Thus, along the curve y  x 2 , the line integral equals
 
1 1
   x   x   x dx  x  2 x  dx     3x  x dx  20
2 4 2 3 4 19
0 0
Along y  x, dy  dx . Therefore, along the curve y  x , the line integral

equals
0 0
  x  x   x  dx  x dx    3x dx  1
2 2 4
1 1
19 1
Hence the required line integral  1   .
20 20
Thus, the theorem is verified.
Example 12: Using the Green‟s theorem find the value of

 x  cosh y dx   y  sin x  dy , where C is the rectangle having vertices
2
(0,0),( ,0),( ,1),(0,1) .
Answer: As we know by Green‟s theorem,

 N M 
  x 
R
dxdy 
y    Mdx  Ndy 
C
…. (1)
B( ,1)
D(0,1)
( ,0)
O (0,0) A ( ,0)
X
Comparing the equation (1) with the given equation

 x  cosh y dx   y  sin x  dy we get,
2
M  x 2  cosh y, N  y  sin x
M N
   sinh y,  cos x
y x
Thus, the given line integral is equal to

x 1
  cos x  sinh y dxdy     cos x  sinh y  dydx

R x  0 y 0
 y 1 
   y cos x  cosh y  dx   cos x  cosh1  1dx
x 0 y 0 x 0
 sin x  x cosh1  x 0  cosh1  1


Example 13: Prove that the area bounded by a simple closed curve C is
1
 xdy  ydx  also find the area generated by the ellipse
2 C
given by
x  a cos , y  b sin  .
Answer: As we know for the plane region bounded by closed curve C,

Green‟s theorem is
 N M 
  x 
R
y
dxdy 

  Mdx  Ndy 
C
putting M   y, N  x we get,
  
  xdy  ydx     x  x   y   y dxdy
C R
1
 2 dxdy  2 A , where A   xdy  ydx  is the area bounded by
R 2 C
C.
The area of the ellipse

  2
1 1  dy dx 
   xdy  ydx     a cos   b sin  d
2C 2 0  d d 
2 2
 
1 1 ab
   xdy  ydx   ab cos   ab sin  d   d   ab .
2 2
2C 2 0
2 0
Example 14: Prove that the Green‟s function may be written as

 divAdxdy   A.n ds , where
R C
A  Ni  Mj , n is the outward unit normal
vector to C and s denotes the arc length of C.
Answer: Since we have, A  Ni  Mj
N M
 divA  
x y
 N M 
  divAdxdy    x 
R R
dxdy 
y    Mdx  Ndy  ,
C
by Green‟s
theorem
Y t
n
O
X
Since we can write, Mdx  Ndy   Mi  Nj . dxi  dyj 
 dr 
  Mi  Nj  .dr   Mi  Nj  .  ds
 ds 
dr
Let t is unit tangent vector to C, then t  and we also know that the
ds
unit vector k is perpendicular to xy-plane. Then, t  k  n
So, Mdx  Ndy   Mi  Nj  .t  ds   Mi  Nj  . k  n   ds
  Mi  Nj   k  .nds   Mi  k  Nj  k  .nds   Ni  Mj  .nds  A.nds
Hence proved.
Note: Putting A   in previously discussed result, we get
 div   dx dy     .nds

V C
 
  dx dy   n ds, since   n n
2
Or
V C
14.8 THE DIVERGENCE THEOREM OF GAUSS

Assume that V is the volume enclosed by the closed, piecewise smooth
surface S. Assume F ( x, y, z ) is a continuous vector function of position
with a continuous first partial derivative in V. Then
 .FdV   F .n ds
V S
where n is the unit normal vector drawn outward from S.
Here, F.n is normal component of vector F , consequently, the

divergence theorem may be explained as follows:
The integral of the divergence of a vector F taken over the surface's

enclosed volume is the same as the surface integral of the normal
component of a vector F taken over a closed surface.
Divergence theorem in cartesian form:
Let F  Fi
1  F2 j  F3k is vector function.
F1 F2 F3

Thus, .F  divF    .
x y z
If cos  ,cos  ,cos  are the direction cosines of the outward drawn unit
normal n where  ,  ,  are the angles which are taking with the positive
direction of x, y, z axes.
n  cos  i  cos  j  cos  k
F .n  ( F1i  F2 j  F3 k ).(cos  i  cos  j  cos  k )
 F1 cos   F2 cos   F3 cos 
Thus the divergence theorem can be rewritten as,
 F1 F2 F3 

  x
V

y

z
dxdydz   ( F1 cos   F2 cos   F3 cos  )dS
 S
  ( F1dydz  F2 dxdx  F3 dxdy)
Remarks: The divergence theorem is significant because it shows how a

surface may be written as a volume integral and vice versa.
Note: If a region V is surrounded by two closed surfaces S1 and S 2 , one of

which falls within the other, the divergence theorem applies to that region.
Some important deduction from divergence theorem:
1. Green’s Theorem: Let  and  be scalar point functions which

together with their derivatives in any direction are uniform and continuous
within the region V bounded by a closed surface, then
     dV     .nds

2 2
V S
2. Harmonic Function: If a scalar point function  satisfies

Laplace‟s equation  2  0 , then  is called harmonic function. If  and
 are both harmonic functions, then  2  0 ,  2  0 .
   
Since from Green‟s second identity, we get  
S
n
 dS  0 .
n 
Note 1:   dV    n dS
V S
2:    B dV   n  B dS
V S
Solved Examples
Example 15: For any closed surface S, prove that  curlF . n ds  0

S
Solution: By divergence theorem, we have
 curlF . n ds   (div curl F ) dV , where V is the volume enclosed by S

S V
 0, since div curl F  0 .
Example 16: Evaluate  r. n ds, where S is a closed surface.

S
Solution:  r. n ds   . r dV   3 dV , Since . r  div r  3

S V V
 3V , where V is the volume enclosed by S .
Example 17: If F  ax i  by j  cz k , a, b, c are constant then prove that

4
 F. n ds  3  (a  b  c) , where S is the surface of unit sphere.
S
Solution: By the divergence theorem we have,
 F . n ds   (. F ) dV , where V is the volume enclosed by S.

S V
   
  [. (ax i  by j  cz k )]dV    (ax)  (by )  (cz )dV
V V 
x y z 
4
  (a  b  c)dV  (a  b  c)V  (a  b  c) 
V
3
Since the volume V is enclosed by a sphere of unit radius is equal to

4 4
 (1) 3 i.e.,  .
3 3
Example 18: If n is the unit outward drawn normal to any closed surface
S, show that
 div n dV  S .
V
Solution: Since we have the divergence theorem,
 div n dV   n.ndS   dS  S

V S S
dV r. n
Example 19: Prove that,  r
V
2
 
S
r2
dS .
r.n r  r 
Solution:  r
S
2
dS  
S
r 2
.ndS   .  2 dV , (by using divergence
V r 
theorem)
 r  1 1
So, .  2   2 (. r )  r.  2 
r  r r 
3  2  3 2 r  3 2 1
  r.   3  r   2  3  r.   2  4 r 2  2
 r  r
2
r r  | r | r r r
Example 20: Using divergence theorem, prove that the volume V of a

region T bounded by a surface S is,

 x dydz   x ( x) dV   dV  V
S V V
… (1)

 y dzdx   y ( y) dV   dV  V
S V V
… (2)

 z dxdy   z ( z) dV   dV  V
S V V
… (3)
Adding equation (1), (2) and (3) we get the result
3V   ( x dydz  y dzdx  z dxdy)

S
1
3 
V ( x dydz  y dzdx  z dxdy)
S
Example 21: If F  ( x 2  yz)i  ( y 2  zx) j  ( z 2  xy)k taken over the

rectangular parallelepiped 0  x  a, 0  y  b, 0  z  c . Then verify the
divergence theorem.
Solution: We have div F  . F
 2  
 ( x  yz )  ( y 2  zx)  ( z 2  xy)  2 x  2 y  2 z
x y z
 Volume integral   . F dV   2( x  y  z ) dV

V V
a
c b a
 x2  c b
 2    ( x  y  z )dx dy dz  2     yx  zx  dydz
z 0 y 0   x 0
z 0 y 0 x 0
2
b
c
 a2
b
 c
 a2 y2 
 2     ax  az dydz  2   y  a  azy  dz
z 0 y  0   z 0   y 0
2 2 2
c
 a 2b ab 2
c
  a 2b ab 2 z2 
2    abz dz  2 z z  ab 
z 0    2
2 2 2 2 0
 [a 2bc  ab 2c  abc 2 ]  abc(a  b  c)
Surface integral: We shall now calculate  F. n dS

S
over the six faces of
the rectangular parallelepiped.
Z
B
C
D
E
O A Y
G F
X
^
Over the face DEG, n  i, x  a .
Therefore,  DEFG
F. n dS
  a     
c b
 2
 yz i  y 2  za j  z 2  ay k . idydz
z 0 y 0
b
 2 y2 
 
c b c
   a  yz dydz   a y  z  dz
2
z 0 
z 0 y 0
2  y 0
c
c
 zb 2   2 z2 2  c 2b 2
  a 2 b     2

2   4  0
dz a bz b a bc
z 0   4
^
Over the face ABCO, n  i, x  0 . Therefore,
 ABCO
F . n dS   [(0  yz)i  ...  ...] . (i)dydz
b
c b
 y2 c
 c
 b2  b 2c 2
   yzdydz    z  dz    z dz 
z 0   y 0 z 0  
z 0 y 0
2 2 4
^
Over the face ABEF, n  j , y  b . Therefore,
  x     
c a
 F. n dS   bz i  b 2  bz j  z 2  bx k . jdxdz
2
ABEF
z 0 x 0
c a
a 2c 2
   (b  zx)dxdz  b ca 
2 2
z 0 x 0
4
^
Over the face OGDC, n   j, y  0 . Therefore,
c a
c2a 2
 OGDC
F. n dS    zxdxdz 
z 0 x 0
4
^
Over the face BCDE, n  k , z  c . Therefore,
b a
a 2b 2
 F. n dS    (c  xy)dxdy  c ab 
2 2
BCDE
y 0 x 0
4
^
Over the face AFGO, n  k , z  0 . Therefore,
b a
a 2b 2
 AFGO
F. n dS    xydxdy 
y 0 x 0
4
Now adding six surface integrals, we get
 2 c 2b 2 c 2b 2   2 a 2c 2 a 2c 2   2 a 2b 2 a 2b 2 
S F . n dS  


a bc 
4
 
4  
  b ca 
4
 
4  
  c ab 
4

4 

 abc(a  b  c)
Hence the theorem is verified.
 x dydz  y dzdx  2z( xy  x  y)dxdy

2 2
Example 22: Evaluate
S
Where S is the surface integral of the cube 0  x  1, 0  y  1, 0  z  1 .
Proof: By using divergence theorem, we convert the given surface

integral into volume integral
  2  
  x ( x ) ( y )  {2 z ( xy  x  y )}dV
2
V y z 
1 1 1 1 1 1
2   [2 x  2 y  2 xy  2 x  2 y]dx dy dz  2    xydx dy dz
z 0 y 0 x 0 z 0 y 0 x 0
1 1
1 1
 x2  1
 y2  1
2   y  dy dz     dz   1 / 2 dz  1 / 2
z 0 
z  0 y 0 
2  x 0 2  y 0 z 0
14.9 STOKE’S THEOREM

Let S be a piecewise smooth open surface bounded by a piecewise smooth
simple closed curve C . Let F ( x, y, z ) be a continuous vector function
which has continuous first partial derivatives in a region of space which
contains S in its interior. Then
 F. dr     F . nds   (curl F ). ds
C S S
Where C is traversed in the position direction. The direction of C is called

positive if an observer, walking on the boundary of S in this direction,
with his head pointing in the direction of outward drawn normal n to S ,
has the surface on the left.
 dr 
Note:  F . dr    F . ds ds   F . t ds, where t is unit tangent vector to C
C C C
. Therefore F. t is the component of curl F in the direction of outward

drawn normal vector n of S . Therefore in other words Stoke‟s theorem
may be stated as follows:
The line integral of the tangential component of vector F taken around a

simple closed curve C is equal to the surface integral of the normal
component of the curl of F taken over any surface S having C as its
boundary.
Cartesian equivalent of stokes theorem:
Let F  F1i  F2 j  F3k . Let outward drawn normal vector n of S make

angles  ,  ,  with positive directions of x, y , z axes. Then
n  cos  i  cos  j  cos  k .
Also,
i j k
    F3 F2   F2 F3   F2 F1 
 F    i    j  k
x y z  y z   z x   x y 
F1 F2 F3
 F F   F F   F F 
(  F ).n   3  2  cos    2  3  cos    2  1  cos 
 y z   z x   x y 
Also, F . dr  ( F1i  F2 j  F3k ). (dx i  dy j  dz k )  F1dx  F2 dy  F3dz
So, Stoke‟s theorem can be rewritten as,
 F3 F2   F F   F F  
 F dx  F dy  F dz    y
C
1 2 3
S
  cos    1  3  cos    2  1  cos  dS
z   z x   x y  
Note: Green’s theorem in plane is special case of Stoke’s theorem. If R is

a region in the xy  plane bounded by a closed curve C, then in vector
form Green‟s theorem in plane can be written as
   F . kdR   F . dr
S C
This is nothing but a special case of Stoke‟s theorem because here k  n 

outward drawn unit normal to the surface of region R .
Solved Example
Example 23: Prove that  r . dr  0

C
Solution: By Stoke‟s theorem  r . dr   (curl r ). n ds  0 , since

C
S
curl r  0
Example 24: By Stoke‟s theorem prove that div curl F  0
Solution: Let V is the volume enclosed by a closed surface. Then using

the divergence theorem
 . (curl F ) dV   (curl F ). n dS

V S
Divide the surface S in two section S1 and S 2 by a closed curve C (as in
figure). Then
S1
S2
 (curl F ). n dS  
S S1
(curl F ). n dS1   (curl F ). n dS 2
S2
… (1)
In the right hand side of equation (1) by Stoke‟s theorem

  F . dr   F . dr  0
C C
Here, the negative sign indicate because the positive directions about the
boundaries of the two surfaces are opposite.
 . (curl F ) dV  0
V
Now this equation is true for all volume element V . Therefore we have,
. (curl F ) dV  0 or div curl F  0
Example 25: Using Stoke‟s theorem prove that curl grad   0 .
Solution: Let S be the surface which is enclosed by a simple closed curve

C . Then by Stoke‟s theorem, we have
 (curl grad  ). n dS   grad. dr

S
C
Now
       
grad. dr   i  j k . dx i  dy j  dz k   dx  dy  dz  d
 x y z  x y z
 grad . dr   d   A , where A is any point on C

A
C C
0
Therefore we have  (curl grad  ). n dS  0

S
Now this equation is true for all surface elements S .
Therefore we have, (curl grad  )  0
Example 26: Verify the Stoke‟s theorem for F  yi  zj  xk , where S is

the upper half surface of the sphere x 2  y 2  z 2  1 and C is its
boundary.
Solution: The boundary C of S is a circle in the xy  plane or radius

unity and centre origin. The equations of the curve C are
x 2  y 2  1, z  0 .
Let us assume x  cos t , y  sin t , z  0, 0  t  2 are parametric equation

of C . Then
 F . dr   ( yi  zj  xk). (dxi  dyj  dzk )   ( ydx  zdy  xdz)   ydx ,

C C C C
Since on C , z  0 and dz  0 .
2 2
dx
  sin t dt    sin 2 tdt
0
dt 0
2 2
1 1  sin 2t 
   (1  cos 2t )dt   t    … (1)
2 0 2 2  0
Now let us evaluate  curl F . ndS . We have

S
i j k
  
curl F    F   i  j  k
x y z
y z x
If S1 is the plane region bounded by the circle C , then by an application of

divergence theorem, we have
 curl F . ndS  
S S1
curl F .k dS [Always remember]
  (i  j  k ).k dS   (1) dS    dS   S1

S1 S1 S1
But S1  area of a circle of radius 1   (1) 2  
  curl F . ndS   … (2)

S
Now from (1) and (2), the theorem is verified.
Example 27: Verify Stoke‟s theorem for F  (2 x  y)i  yz 2 j  y 2 zk ,

where S is the upper half surface of the sphere x 2  y 2  z 2  1 and C is its
boundary.
Solution: The boundary C of S is a circle in the xy  plane of radius unity

and centre origin. Suppose x  cos t , y  sin t , z  0, 0  t  2 is
parametric equation of C . Then
 F . dr   [(2 x  y)i  yz j  y 2 zk ). (dxi  dyj  dzk )   [( 2 x  y )dx  yz 2 dy  y 2 zdz ]

2
C C C
 (2 x  y)dx , since z  0 and dz  0

C
2 2 2
dx 1
 (2 cos t  sin t )
0
dt
dt   (2 cos t  sin t ) sin tdt 
0
 [sin 2t  2 (1  cos 2t )]dt
0
2
 cos 2t 1 1 sin 2t   1 1  1 1 
    t        (  0)  ( 0  0)  
 2 2 2 2  0  2 2  2 4 
… (1)
And
i j k
  
(  F )   (2 yz  2 yz )i  (0  0) j  (0  1)k  k
x y z
2 x  y  yz 2  y2z
Let S1 be the plane region bounded by the circle C . If S ' is the surface
consisting of the surfaces S and S1 , then S ' is the closed surface.
Using the application of Gauss divergence theorem, we have
 S'
curl F. n dS  0
 curl F . n dS  
S S1
curl F . n dS  0 [S ' consists of S and S1 ]
 curl F . n dS  
S S1
curl F . k dS  0 [on S1 , n  k ]
 curl F . n dS  
S S1
curl F . k dS
  curl F . n dS   curl F . k dS   k . k dS   dS  S1  
S S1 S1 S1
… (2)
Note that S1  area of a circle of radius 1   (1) 2  
Thus by equation (1) and equation (2) Stoke‟s theorem is verified.
Example 28: Verify Stokes theorem for F  ( x 2  y 2 )i  2 xyj taken round

the rectangle bounded by x   a, y  0, y  b .
E Y=b B
X=-a X=a
D Y=0 X
i j k
  
Solution: We have curl F   (2 y  2 y )k  4 yk
x y z
x2  y2  2 xy 0
Also n  k
b a
  (curl F ).n dS    (4 yk ). k dxdy
S
y 0 x   a
 
b a b b
 4   y dxdy  4  xy dy  4  2aydy  4 ay 2
b
 4ab 2
a
x  a 0
y 0 x   a y 0 y 0
 F . dr   [( x  y 2 )i  2 xy j ]. (dxi  dy j )   [( x 2  y 2 )dx  2 xydy]

2
Also
C C C
  [( x 2  y 2 )dx  2 xydy]      
DA AB BE ED
Along DA, y  0, dy  0 . Along AB, x  a, dx  0 . Along

BE , y  b, dy  0 . Along ED, x  a, dx  0 .
a b a 0
  F . dr   x dx 
2
  2aydy   ( x  b )dx 
2 2
 2aydy .
C x  a y 0 x  a y b
a a b
  x dx   ( x  b )dx  4a  ydy
2 2 2
x  a x  a 0
b
a
 y2 
b
   x dx  4a  ydy  2ab  4a    4ab 2
2 2
x  a 0  2 0
Thus,  F . dr   (curl F ) . ndS

C
S
Hence the theorem is verified.
SELF CHECK QUESTION

Fill in the blanks:
1
 [ti  (t  2t ) j ]dt  0 ………………..
2
12.
0
13. If F (t )  3t 2i  t j  2k and G(t )  6t 2i  (t  1 ) j  3tk , then

 dF
1 dG 
  dt .G  F . dt dt  0 ……….
0
14. Any integral which is to be evaluated along a curve is called a

……………
15. Any integral which is to be evaluated over a surface is called a
……………
16.  F. n dS is called the ………….. of F over S
S
17. For any Closed surface S ,  curlF. n dS  ……………..

S
14.10 SUMMARY
 The application of line, surface and volume integrals.

 The applications of Green‟s theorem.
 The application of Gauss divergence theorem.
 The application of Stoke‟s theorem.
 Basic differences between line integral, surface integral, volume
integral, Green‟s, Gauss and Stoke‟s theorem.
14.11 GLOSSARY
 Line integral
 Surface integral
 Volume integral
 Green‟s theorem
 Gauss divergence theorem
 Stoke‟s theorem
14.12 REFERENCES
Series.


eddition", 2009.

publication, 2020.

Publishing.
Chand Publishing.

Objective type question:
7. If C is the curve x 2  y 2  1, z  y 2 , then by Stoke‟s theorem
 ( yzdx  zxdy  xydz) is

C
b. 0 b. 3
d. 5 d. None of these
8. If S denote the surface of the cube bounded by the planes

x  0, x  a, y  0, y  a, z  0, z  a then by application of Gauss
divergence theorem the value of  ( xi  yj  zk ).n dS is
S
3
b. a b. 2a 3
d. 3a 3 d. 0
1
9. If F (t )  ti  (t 2  2t ) j  (3t 2  3t 3 )k , then the value of  F (t )dt is
0
1 2 7 1 2 7
b. i j k b. i j k
2 3 4 2 3 4
1 2 7
d.  i j k d. none of these
2 3 4
10. If x 2i  y 3 j and curve C is the arc of the parabola y  x 2 in the

xy  plane from (0,0) to (1,1) then  F.dr is
C
b. 7/12 b. 5/12
d. 11/12 d. none of these
11. The work done in moving a particle in a force field

F  3x i  (2 xz  y) j  3k along the line joining (0,0,0) to (2,1,3) is
2
c. 12 b. 16
d. 0 d. 20
12. For a closed surface S , the value of  r . n dS is

S
b. V b. 2V
d. 3V d. 0
Find True and False Statement.
 dr d 2 r 
2
 dr 
8.   2 dt . dt 2 dt   dt   C
9. If C is a simple closed curve, then C
F. dr is called the circulation
of F about C .
10. If F  axi  byj  czk , a, b, c are constant, then
2
 F . n dS  3  (a  b  c) where S
S
is the surface of a unit
sphere.
11. For any surface S ,  n dS  0

S
12. Green‟s theorem in plane is a special case of Stoke‟s theorem.

13. Green‟s theorem states that “the surface integral of the normal
component of a vector F taken over a closed surface is equal to the
integral of the divergence of F taken over the volume enclosed by
the surface”.
 F.dr where F is x y 2i  yj and C is y 2  4 x in the xy-
2
7. Evaluate
C
plane from (0,0) to (4,4)

8. Evaluate  ( xdy  ydx) around the circle x 2  y 2  1 .
9. Evaluate  F.dr , where F  yzi  zxj  xyk and C is the portion of

C
the curve r  a cos ti  b sin tj  ctk from t  0 to t   / 2 .

10. Evaluate  F.dr , where F  zi  xj  yk and C is the portion of arc
C
of the curve r  cos ti  sin tj  tk from t  0 to t  2 .

11. Verify Green‟s theorem in the plane for
 [(2 xy  x )dx  ( x 2  y 2 )dy ] , where C is the boundary of the
2
region enclosed by y  x 2 and y 2  x described in the positive

sense.
 [(3x  8 y 2 )dx  (4 y  6 xy)dy] , where C is the boundary of the
2
region defined by y  x and y  x 2 .

13. Evaluate by Green‟s theorem in the plane
 (e
x
sin ydx  e  x cos ydy ] where C is the rectangle with vertices
C
(0,0), ( ,0), ( ,  / 2), (0,  / 2) and y  x 2 .

14. Verify divergence theorem for F  (2 x  z )i  x 2 yj  xz2 k taken
over the region bounded by x  0, x  1, y  0, y  1, z  0, z  1 .
15. Verify divergence theorem for F  4 xzi  y 2 yj  yzk taken over the
region bounded by x  0, x  1, y  0, y  1, z  0, z  1 .
16. Prove that  r  n dS  0 , for any closed surface S .
S
17. By using Gauss divergence theorem evaluate

 ( xi  yj  z k ). ndS , where S is the closed surface bounded by
2
S
the cone x 2  y 2  z 2 and the plane z  1

18. Verify Stoke‟s theorem for F  zi  xj  yk where curve is the unit
circle in the xy-plane bounding the hemisphere z  (1  x 2  y 2 ) .
19. Verify Stoke‟s theorem for A  2 yi  3xj  z 2 k where S is upper
half surface of the sphere x 2  y 2  z 2  9 and C is boundary.
Long answer type question.
7. Verify Stoke‟s theorem for the vector B  zi  xj  yk taken over
half of the sphere x 2  y 2  z 2  a 2 lying about the xy  plane.
8. Evaluate  F.dr by stoke‟s theorem where F  y 2i  x 2 j  ( x  z )k
C
and C is the boundary of the triangle with vertices at

(0,0,0), (1,0,0), (1,1,0) .
9. Verify Stoke‟s theorem for F   y 3i  x 3 j, where S is the circular
disc x 2  y 2  1, z  0 .
10. Evaluate  ( xydx  xy2 dy) by Stoke‟s theorem where C is the
C
positively oriented square with vertices

(1,0), (1,0), (0,1) and (0,1)
11. Use Gauss divergence theorem to show that
S x  yz i  2 x yj  2k . ndS  3 a , where S denotes the

3 2 1 5
surface of the cube bounded by the planes

x  0, x  a, y  0, y  a, z  0, z  a
 ( xi  yj  z k ) . ndS ,
2
12. By Gauss divergence theorem, evaluate
S
where S is the closed surface bounded by the cone x 2  y 2  z 2

and the plane z  1 .
13. If F  axi  byj  czk , where a, b, c are constant, show that
4
S
n . F dS 
3
(a  b  c) , S being surface of the sphere
( x  1) 2  ( y  2) 2  ( z  3) 2  1.
14. Verify Green‟s theorem in the plane to evaluate

 [(2 x  y 2 )dx  ( x 2  y 2 )dy ], where C is the boundary of the
2
surface enclosed by the x-axis and the semi circle y  (1  x 2 )1/ 2 .

 (x  xy3 )dx  ( y 2  2 xy)dy, where C is the square with vertices
2
(0,0), (2,0), (2,2), (0,2). .
14.15 ANSWERS

1 2
1. i j 2. 24 3.
2 3
Line integral
5. Surface integral 5. Flux 6.
0
Answer of objective questions:
2. a 2. c 3.
b
5. a 5. b 6.
c
Answer of true and false questions:
2. T 2. T 3.
F
5. F 5. T 6.
F
Answer of short answer type questions:
1. 264 2. 2 3.
0
4. 3 7. 2(e   1) 11.
7 / 6
Answer of long answer type questions:
2. 1/3 3. 3 / 2 4.
1/3
6. 7 / 6

MT (N) 121

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

MT (N) 121

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

MT (N) 121

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

ALGEBRA,MATRICES AND VECTOR ANALYSIS MT(N)121

Board of Studies- 2023

Prof. P. D. Pant Prof. Harish Chandra Prof. Manoj Kumar

Unit Writer Block Unit

ALGEBRA, MATRICES AND VECTOR ANALYSIS

BLOCK I: THEORY OF EQUATIONS Page No. 01

Unit 3 Algebra of Matrices 64-105

BLOCK-1: THEORY OF EQUATIONS

UNIT 1: RELATION BETWEEN THE

By examining the coefficients, you can deduce properties of the roots,

The main components of Vieta's formulas include:

Product of Roots Formula: The product of the roots is linked to the

Special Cases for Quadratic Equations: Vieta's formulas are especially

After studying this unit, you will be able to

1.3 INTRODUCTION TO ALGEBRAIC

multiplication, division, exponentiation, etc. These equations are

Fig.1 Algebraic Equations

The general form of the algebraic equation is

where is a positive integer.

This form is complete equation.

In this equation, the degree is 1 because the variable is raised

In this equation, the degree is 2 because the variable is raised

In this equation, the degree is 3 because the variable is raised

1.4 SYNTHETIC DIVISION:-

Synthetic division is a method used to perform polynomial long division

EXAMPLE1: Find the quotient and Reminder when

EXAMPLE2: Find the quotient and Reminder when

EXAMPLE3: Find the quotient and Reminder when

1.5 FUNDAMENTAL THEOREM OF ALGEBRA:-

THEOREM1: Theorem n number of roots: Every equation of a degree

Where is a function of of degree .

Continuing this process, we obtain

Thus has roots .

If is a root of the equation , then is also a root of

Where are real, be an equation of degree

Let be the quotient and be the remainder when be

Since is the roots of .Now equating real and imaginary

1.6 REMAINDER AND FACTOR THEOREM:-

REMAINDER THEOREM: If a polynomial be divided by

Taking , we obtain If the division is exact.

SELF CHECK QUESTIONS-1

1.7 RELATION BETWEEN THE ROOTS AND ITS

∑ Sum of the products of the roots taken two at a time

∑ Sum of the products of the roots taken three at a time

∑ Sum of the products of the roots taken at a time

Product of all the roots

1.8 PARTICULAR CASES:-

“Vieta's formula relates the coefficients of polynomials to the sums

 Quadratic Equation: Let be the roots of quadratic

1.9 CUBE ROOTS OF UNITY

Now cubing both side, we obtain or , then

EXAMPLE1: If be the roots of the cubic

SOLUTION: If are the roots of the cubic

EXAMPLE2: Solve the equation , two of the

SOLUTION: The root of the given ratio is and .

Now from (1), we obtain

Putting the value of in (2), we obtain

Hence the required roots are

EXAMPLE3: Solve the equation being