CARBOHYDRATES

Carbohydrates are compounds containing carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in which

the ratio of C:H:O is 1:2:1.
e.g., Glucose C₆H₁₂O6₆
Carbohydrates are formed by plants where the CO₂ is taken from air and water (H₂O)
from soil to form sugar in a process called: Photosynthesis.
Can also be stored in the animal liver and muscles in the form of glycogen.

FUNCTIONS OF CARBOHYDRATES
1. Energy source. 2. Storage form. 3. Structural form.

CLASSIFICATION OF CARBOHYDRATES
Carbohydrates, also known as saccharides.
There are four major classes:
1. Monosaccharides or (simple sugar).
2. Disaccharides: contain 2 monosaccharides.
3. Oligosaccharides: contain 3-12 monosaccharides.
4. Polysaccharides (complex sugars): contain
more than 12 monosaccharides.
Example:
Monomer- Monosaccharide Polymer- Starch

Why are carbohydrates

considered as
macromolecules?

• Molecules are made up of 2

or more atoms that are covalently
bonded.
• Carbohydrates are made up of the following atoms that are covalently bonded:
➢ Carbon ➢ Hydrogen ➢ Oxygen
 • Macromolecules are large molecules. Carbohydrates are large molecules that are made up of subunits
of monosaccharide.
• Monomers assemble to form a larger molecule known as polymer.
➢ Monomers (Glucose, Fructose, and Galactose) assemble to form the polymer carbohydrate
(Starch, Cellulose, Glycogen and Chitin)

TYPES OF CARBOHYDRATES
1. Starch- energy source plants. 3. Glycogen- found in the liver and muscles.
2. Cellulose - serves as structural element (fiber)of plants. 4. Chitin - found in the shell of crustaceans.

The monomers of carbohydrates are the monosaccharides.

1. Glucose- Blood Sugar 2. Fructose- Fruits 3. Galactose- Milk

• Monosaccharides serve as the subunits of the polysaccharides.

• The repeated subunits of monomers are like links in a chain

CLASSIFICATION OF MONOSACCHARIDES

Monosaccharides are single sugars that cannot be broken down into other sugars. Monosaccharides are
classified according to different characteristics:
1. The placement of its carbonyl group.
2. The number of carbon atoms it contains.

ALDOSE OR KETOSE
How are monosaccharide's classified?
According to the placement of its carbonyl group(C=0) which is double bonding.
1. If the C=0 is at the end of the chain, 2. If the C=0 is in the middle of the chain,
• monosaccharide is an aldose, • the monosaccharide is a ketose,
• carbonyl group is an aldehyde. • carbonyl group is a ketone.

Classification according to the number of carbon atoms:

➢ Trios: 3 carbons. ➢ Hexose: 6 carbons.

➢ Tetrose: 4 carbons. ➢ Heptose: 7 carbons.
➢ Pentose: 5 carbons.
Monosaccharides
All carbon atoms in the monosaccharide are linked together by a single bond.
And all are attached to -H and-OH groups except one carbon that has =0 double
bonded to it.

Monosaccharides with 5 or more carbon atoms can form a ring

structure. This sugar will be in the cyclic form.

Cyclic Glucose

Structural Representation of Sugar

1. Fischer Projections
2. Haworth Projection

Common Monosaccharides

• The most common monosaccharides are hexoses: glucose, fructose, and galactose.
• Glucose is an aldohexose that is known as grape sugar. It is the most important sugar in our body present
in blood or stored in tissues.
• Galactose is also an aldohexose.
• Fructose is a ketohexose that is known as fruit sugar.

Reducing Properties of Monosaccharides

Hexose sugars with a free or potentially free aldehyde or
ketone group have reducing properties in alkaline
solutions. These reducing sugars can reduce cupric ions
(Cu+2) into cuprous ions (Cu+1).
 DISACCHARIDES
Disaccharides are formed by the combination of two
monosaccharides by a glycosidic bond. This bond is formed when a
water molecule is removed, -H from the anomeric carbon of one
sugar and -OH from any other carbon of the second sugar.
Glucose + Glucose → Maltose

Galactose + Glucose → Lactose

Fructose + Glucose → Sucrose

Common Disaccharides

• There are three common disaccharides: Sucrose (cane sugar/ at home),

Maltose (malt sugar), and Lactose (milk sugar).
• Sucrose a-Glucose + B-Fructose linked by a-1,2 glycosidic bond.
• Maltose a-Glucose + B-Glucose linked by a-1,4 glycosidic bond.
• Lactose B-Galactose + (a/ß)-Glucose linked by B-1,4 glycosidic
bond.

Reducing Properties of Disaccharides

Maltose and Lactose are reducing sugars because they have free aldehyde
group while Sucrose is not a reducing sugar because it lacks a free aldehyde
or ketone group.

POLYSACCHARIDES
Polysaccharides are polymers of monosaccharides. There are two types of polysaccharides:
1. Homopolysaccharides: contain one kind of 2. Heteropolysaccharides: contain different
monosaccharide. kinds of monosaccharides.

Common Polysaccharides
• The most common polysaccharides are:
1. Starch 3. Glycogen
2. Cellulose 4. Dextrin
Note: All these polysaccharides are only made up of glucose.
• Plants store their food as starch.
• Plants use cellulose as supporting and structural parts (wood, cotton, paper).
• Animals store their food as glycogen. And in our body, glucose is stored in the liver and muscles as
glycogen.
Properties of polysaccharides
They differ from monosaccharides and disaccharides in many properties.
Property Monosaccharide and Polysaccharide
Disaccharide
Molecular Mass Low Very High
Taste Sweet Tasteless
Solubility in Water Soluble Insoluble
Filtration through membranes Pass Do not pass
Reducing property Yes No

The Complex Carbohydrates

• Cellulose (Dietary fibers)

➢ Provide structure in plants.

➢ Cannot be broken down by human enzymes.
➢ Found in fruits and vegetables.
➢ Insoluble fibers are non-viscous and are not digested by intestinal bacteria.
o These fibers are found in grains and vegetables.

DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION OF CARBOHYDRATES

How are carbohydrates digested?
The salivary enzyme amylase in the mouth
begins to hydrolyze starch into short
polysaccharides and maltose.

The acid in the stomach continues to

hydrolyze starch while fiber delays gastric
emptying and provides a feeling of fullness
(satiety).

The pancreatic amylase in the small

intestine, among other enzymes (maltase,
sucrase, and lactase) hydrolyzes starches
to disaccharides and monosaccharides.

The fibers in the large intestine, remain and

attract water to soften the stools and
ferment.
Glucose in the Body
• A Preview of Carbohydrate Metabolism • The Constancy of Blood Glucose
➢ The body stores glucose as glycogen in the ➢ The Regulating Hormones
liver and muscle cells. ❖ Insulin moves glucose into the cells and
➢ The body uses glucose for energy. helps to lower blood sugar levels
➢ In the event of fasting, glycogen stores are especially after meals.
converted back into glucose as energy ❖ Glucagon brings glucose out of storage and
source. raises blood sugar levels. This happens
➢ If glucose is consumed excessively, the body during fasting.
can use glucose to make body fat. ❖ Epinephrine acts quickly to bring glucose
out of storage during times of stress.

• Eating balanced meals regularly with adequate Blood glucose can fall outside the normal range
complex carbohydrates can provide an adequate resulting to hypoglycemia or
glucose within the normal range. hyperglycemia/diabetes.

What is meant by glycemic response?

• Glycemic response is how quickly the blood glucose rises and elicits an insulin response.
✓ Glycemic index classifies foods according to their potential for raising blood glucose.
✓ Glycemic load refers to a food's glycemic index and the amount of carbohydrate the food contains.