Chapter 03

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Chapter 3

AUDIO CIRCUITS

The most natural way of communication for people is to speak to each other.
The voice is transmitted and received in electronic communications, to enable
people communicate over large distances. The first thing that must be done
is to convert voice into an electrical signal, and process it before transmission.
The last process in a transceiver, on the other hand, is to recover voice from the
received RF signal. The audio circuits of TRC-10 are discussed in this chapter.
The mathematical tools necessary to analyze circuits used in TRC-10 are also
developed.

3.1 Complex numbers


The equation x2 +√ 1 = 0 has no real roots. Solution of this equation can be
written as x = ± −1. To handle such problems, we use the complex number
system. Complex numbers are very important in Electrical Engineering, so we
give a brief summary of complex numbers here.
A complex number z has the rectangular form

z = a + jb where j = −1 (3.1)

and a and b are real numbers. j is called the imaginary unit and has the property
of j 2 = −1.∗ a is the real part and b is the imaginary part:

Re{z} = a and Im{z} = b (3.2)

This complex number can be shown as a vector in the complex plane as demon-
strated in Fig. 3.1(a). Two complex numbers a + jb and c + jd are equal if and
only if a = c and b = d. Real numbers are a subset of complex numbers. If the
real part of a complex number is zero, then it is called an imaginary number.
For example, 2 + j0 and −11 + j0 are real numbers, while 0 − j6 is an imaginary
number.
The complex conjugate of a complex number z = a + jb is z ∗ = a − jb.
The algebra of complex numbers is the same as the algebra of real numbers with
∗ Electrical Engineers prefer to use the symbol j rather than i, since the symbol i is reserved

for current.

Koymen & Atalar 77 ANALOG ELECTRONICS


78 CHAPTER 3. AUDIO CIRCUITS

Imag Imag z2 Imag


z1+z2 z1-z2
b z2
r z z1 z1
φ Real Real Real
a
(a) (b) (c)

Figure 3.1: (a)Vector showing the complex number z = a + jb, (b) addition of
two complex numbers, (c) subtraction of two complex numbers.

j 2 replaced by −1:
Addition (see Fig. 3.1(b)):

z1 + z2 = (a + jb) + (c + jd) = (a + c) + j(b + d)

Subtraction (see Fig. 3.1(c)):

z1 − z2 = (a + jb) − (c + jd) = (a − c) + j(b − d)

Multiplication:

z1 z2 = (a + jb)(c + jd) = (ac − bd) + j(bc + ad)

Division:
z1 a + jb ac + bd bc − ad
= = 2 2
+j 2
z2 c + jd c +d c + d2
1 1 c d
= = 2 −j 2
z2 c + jd c + d2 c + d2
Absolute value: !
|a + jb| = a2 + b2
If z = a + jb, then
zz ∗ = |z|2 = a2 + b2
We also have
|z1 z2 | = |z1 ||z2 |
and " "
" z1 " |z1 |
" "=
" z2 " |z2 | if z2 ̸= 0

There is a relation between sinusoids and exponential function as follows:

ejφ = cos φ + j sin φ (3.3)

This is called Euler’s formula. In other words, cos φ is the real part of ejφ , and
sin φ is the imaginary part. Sinusoids can be expressed as
# $
cos φ = Re ejφ (3.4)
3.2. PHASORS 79

or
ejφ + e−jφ
cos φ = (3.5)
2
and ! "
sin φ = Im ejφ (3.6)
or
ejφ − e−jφ
sin φ = (3.7)
2j
in turn. The magnitude of this exponential function is

|ejφ | = 1 (3.8)

regardless of the value of the argument φ.


If z = a + jb we can write the complex number z in trigonometric form as

z = r(cos φ + j sin φ) (3.9)

the exponential form as (see Fig. 3.1)

z = rejφ (3.10)

and the polar form as


z = r̸ φ (3.11)
# $ %
b
r= a 2 + b2 and φ = tan−1 (3.12)
a
With z1 = r1 ejφ1 and z2 = r2 ejφ2 , we write the product as

z1 z2 = r1 r2 ej(φ1 +φ2 )

or
z1 z2 = r1 r2 ̸ (φ1 + φ2 )
the division as
z1 r1
= ej(φ1 −φ2 )
z2 r2
or
z1 r1
= ̸ (φ1 − φ2 )
z2 r2
Clearly, the multiplication and division are easily performed in exponential or
polar forms, while the addition and subtraction are easier in rectangular form.

3.2 Phasors
In Electrical Engineering we frequently deal with sinusoidal signals; sometimes
we add them, sometimes we subtract them from each other. Consider two
sinusoids at the same frequency ω, but with a differing amplitude and phase.
The sum of these sinusoids can be written as

A cos(ωt + θ1 ) + B cos(ωt + θ2 ) =
# & & ''
A sin θ1 +B sin θ2
= A2 + B 2 − 2AB cos(θ2 − θ1 ) cos ωt + tan−1 A cos θ1 +B cos θ2 (3.13)
80 CHAPTER 3. AUDIO CIRCUITS

Just the sum of two sine waves at the same frequency is a rather clumsy equation.
It is obviously difficult to manipulate equations of sine waves using the time-
domain notation above.
We can simplify a great deal if we use the Euler’s formula. From Eq. 3.4 we
can write
A cos(ωt + θ1 ) = Re{Aej(ωt+θ1 ) } = Re{Aejωt ejθ1 } (3.14)
similarly
B cos(ωt + θ2 ) = Re{Bej(ωt+θ2 ) } = Re{Bejωt ejθ2 } (3.15)
To simplify the notation, we can get rid of the ejωt term since the frequency is
common. To simplify further we can also get rid of the real part operator Re:

A cos(ωt + θ1 ) ⇒ Aejθ1 (3.16)

B cos(ωt + θ2 ) ⇒ Bejθ2 (3.17)


Hence, we represent a sine wave with a complex number with no time depen-
dence. The magnitude of the complex number represents the amplitude of the
sine wave and the phase of the complex number corresponds to the phase of the
sine wave. It is also possible to write the complex numbers in polar coordinates
as A̸ θ1 or B ̸ θ2 . We call this notation as phasor notation.
We can easily return to the time-domain notation by taking the real part of
the phasor multiplied by ejωt .

Re{Aejθ1 ejωt } = A cos(ωt + θ1 ) (3.18)

Re{Bejθ2 ejωt } = B cos(ωt + θ2 ) (3.19)


With this phasor notation, the sum of the two sine waves can be found easily
by adding two complex numbers:

A cos(ωt + θ1 ) + B cos(ωt + θ2 ) ⇒ A̸ θ1 + B ̸ θ2 (3.20)

Since adding complex numbers is best done in rectangular form, we write

A̸ θ1 + B ̸ θ2 = (A cos θ1 + jA sin θ1 ) + (B cos θ2 + jB sin θ2 ) =

= (A cos θ1 + B cos θ2 ) + j(A sin θ1 + B sin θ2 ) (3.21)


We can convert the final result to time-domain by multiplying this complex
number by ejωt and taking its real part to get the same result given in Eq. 3.13.
Obviously, adding two complex numbers is much easier than dealing with the
trigonometric identities of Eq. 3.13.

Examples
Below are some examples of conversion from time-domain to phasor notation.
o
5 cos(ωt + 23o ) ⇒ 5ej23

3.2 sin(ωt) = 3.2 cos(ωt − π/2) ⇒ 3.2e−jπ/2 = −3.2j


−10 cos(ωt) ⇒ −10
3.2. PHASORS 81

o o
10 cos(ωt + 12o ) + 8 cos(ωt − 76o ) ⇒ 10ej12 + 8e−j76 =
= 10(cos 12o + j sin 12o ) + 8(cos (−76o ) + j sin(−76o )) =
= 9.78 + j2.08 + 1.93 − j7.76 = 11.71 − j5.68

in the last example, we used Eq. 3.9 to convert from the polar form to rectangular
form.
In the following examples, we use Eq. 3.18 to convert the phasors to time
domain:
o
7e−j12 ⇒ 7 cos(ωt − 12o )
√ √
6 + j6 = 6 2ejπ/4 ⇒ 6 2 cos(ωt + π4)
−1 o
3 − j4 = 5ej tan (−4/3)
= 5e−j53.1 ⇒ 5 cos(ωt − 53.1o )
In the last example, we first used the formulas of Eq. 3.12 to convert the rect-
angular form complex number to the exponential form.

3.2.1 Derivative operator


Let us find what the derivative operator does in phasor domain:

d
A cos(ωt + θ) = −Aω sin(ωt + θ) ⇒ −ωAej(θ−π/2) = jωAejθ (3.22)
dt
Hence, the derivative operator in the time-domain corresponds to a multiplica-
tion by jω in the phasor domain.

3.2.2 Integration operator


Let us find what the integration means in phasor domain:
!
A A j(θ−π/2) 1
A cos(ωt + θ) = sin(ωt + θ) ⇒ e = Aejθ (3.23)
ω ω jω

Hence, the integration operation in the time-domain corresponds to a division


by jω in the phasor domain.

3.2.3 Resistor with sinusoidal excitation


If a resistance has sinusoidal voltage or current then we can use phasors. Ohm’s
law in the time domain is similar in the phasor domain:

vR = RiR ⇒ VR = RIR (3.24)

Therefore, the resistance R in phasor domain is unchanged.

3.2.4 Capacitor with sinusoidal excitation


For a capacitor with sinusoidal voltage or current, we can write

d 1
iC = C vC ⇒ IC = jωCVC or VC = IC (3.25)
dt jωC
82 CHAPTER 3. AUDIO CIRCUITS

Imag Imag
IC=VCjωC VL =ILjωL

VC Real IL Real

(a) (b)

Figure 3.2: Current and voltage phasors for a capacitor (a) and for an inductor
(b).

Notice that the resulting phasor equation is like Ohm’s law with 1/(jωC) re-
placing R. The current and voltage phasors for a capacitor are demonstrated
in Fig. 3.2(a).
We note that real-life capacitors behave like that given in Eq. 3.25 only
up to a frequency limit (SRF) † due to the inductance of the capacitor leads
or internal connections. Above this frequency limit, the capacitor acts like a
small inductor! Since small capacitors have higher SRF, it is recommended to
choose the smallest capacitor that will satisfy the requirements. To extend the
frequency range of capacitors, often small capacitors with higher SRF is placed
in parallel with larger capacitors.

3.2.5 Inductor with sinusoidal excitation


Similarly, an inductor with a sinusoidal voltage or current is specified in phasor
domain as
d
vL = L iL ⇒ VL = jωLIL (3.26)
dt
In this case, the phasor equation is also like Ohm’s law with jωL replacing R.
The current and voltage phasors for an inductor are shown in Fig. 3.2(b).
Real-life inductors behave like that given in Eq. 3.26 only up to a frequency
limit (SRF)‡ due to interwinding capacitance. Above this frequency limit, the
inductor acts like a small capacitance. Therefore, a designer should choose the
smallest inductor value satisfying the requirements.

3.3 Linear circuits


Linearity is a fundamental concept in circuit analysis. Consider the block dia-
gram in Fig. 3.3. A circuit is called linear if it satisfies the following relation:

If input signals x1 (t) and x2 (t) (voltage or current) yield the output signals
y1 (t) and y2 (t), respectively, then a linear combination of inputs, ax1 (t) + bx2 (t)
yields the same combination of the individual outputs, ay1 (t) + by2 (t), where a
and b are real numbers.
† SRF
is the self-resonance frequency (SRF). It can be found in the data sheets of capacitors.
‡ The
self-resonance frequency of inductors can be found in the data sheets of off-the-shelf
inductors or it can be measured for an in-house manufactured inductor.
3.3. LINEAR CIRCUITS 83

Figure 3.3: A linear circuit block with an input signal x(t) and an output signal
y(t).

Consider a circuit formed by a single resistor. If the input signals to the


resistor are currents i1 (t) and i2 (t), and the output signals v1 (t) and v2 (t) is the
voltages developed across the resistor, then we have

v1 (t) = Ri1 (t) and v2 (t) = Ri2 (t) (3.27)

If we apply a combination of two inputs ai1 (t) + bi2 (t), then the total voltage
developed across the resistor is

v(t) = R[ai1 (t) + bi2 (t)] = aRi1 (t) + bRi2 (t) = av1 (t) + bv2 (t) (3.28)

Hence, a resistor is a linear circuit element.


Consider an inductor. If the input signals to the inductor are currents i1 (t)
and i2 (t), and the output signals v1 (t) and v2 (t) is the voltages developed across
the inductor, then we have
d d
v1 (t) = L i1 (t) and v2 (t) = L i2 (t) (3.29)
dt dt
If we apply a combination of two inputs ai1 (t) + bi2 (t), then the total voltage
developed across the resistor is
d d d
v(t) = L [ai1 (t) + bi2 (t)] = aL i1 (t) + bL i2 (t) = av1 (t) + bv2 (t) (3.30)
dt dt dt
Hence, an inductor is also a linear circuit element.
Similarly, a capacitor and a transformer are also linear elements.
However, an ideal diode is not a linear element. We can prove this using
a counter example: Suppose the input signals to an ideal diode are currents
i1 = 2 mA and i2 = 1 mA, and the output signals v1 and v2 is the voltages
developed across the diode, from Eq. 2.41 we have

v1 = 0 and v2 = 0 (3.31)

We apply a combination of two inputs with a = −5 and b = 1, or −5i1 + i2 =


−9 mA, then the total voltage developed across the ideal diode should also be 0.
Obviously, this is not true, because the voltage is zero only for positive currents.
Therefore, an ideal diode is not a linear circuit element.

3.3.1 Steady-state solution of linear RLC Circuits with


sinusoidal excitation
Circuits composed of RLC components are linear. If the excitations in these
circuits are sinusoidal, we can use phasors to simplify solution of such circuits.
84 CHAPTER 3. AUDIO CIRCUITS

We are not limited to first-order circuits with just one capacitor or one inductor.
We can deal with any number of capacitors and inductors.
The phasor method is not able to find the transient solution that occurs right
after the sinusoidal signal is applied. Rather, it can find the steady-state solution
long after the sinusoidal signal is applied and transients have disappeared. Note
that this method is applicable only when the excitation to the circuit sinusoidal.
Moreover, the circuit should not contain any nonlinear elements like diodes.

To find the steady-state solution of linear circuits with sinusoidal exci-


tation, we use the following procedure:

1. Replace inductors with jωL and capacitors with 1/(jωC)

2. Replace voltage or current source with the corresponding phasor.


3. Solve the circuit using nodal analysis.

4. If needed, convert the desired quantities to the time-domain

The procedure is best understood with the following examples.

Example 1
Consider the circuit shown in Fig. 3.4(a) and find the voltage across the capac-
itor.
Since the excitation is sinusoidal and the circuit contains only linear elements
we can use the procedure above:

1K 1K
+ + + +
5cos100t 5µF vC 5 -j2K VC
- -
(a) (b)

Figure 3.4: Example 1 for the phasor solution of an RC circuit

1. Replace the capacitor with 1/(jωC) = 1/(j100 × 5 × 10−6 ) = −j2000 =


−j2K
2. Replace the voltage source with the phasor 5.
3. Referring to Fig. 3.4(b), the voltage phasor across the capacitor can be
found using nodal analysis
VC − 5 VC
+ =0
1K −j2K
Hence
−j2K −j2(1 + j2) √ o
VC = 5= 5 = 4 − j2 = 20e−j26.5
1K − j2K 1+4
3.3. LINEAR CIRCUITS 85

4. In time domain, we have vC (t) = 20 cos(100t − 26.5o ) V

Example 2
Consider the circuit shown in Fig. 3.5(a) and find the voltage v1 (t).

v1 2µH V1 j20

3sin(107t) 50 50
mA 3nF -j3
mA -j33.3

(a) (b)

Figure 3.5: Example 2 for the phasor solution of an RLC circuit

We have a linear circuit excited with a sinusoidal signal. We can use the
phasor method:

1. Replace the inductor with jωL = j107 × 2 × 10−6 = j20, and the capacitor
with 1/(jωC) = 1/(j107 × 3 × 10−9 ) = −j33.3

2. Replace the current source with the phasor −j3 × 10−3 .

3. Referring to Fig. 3.4(b), the voltage phasor across the capacitor can be
found from nodal analysis:

V1 V1 50 − j13.3
−j3 × 10−3 = + = V1
50 j20 − j33.3 −j13.3 × 50

Hence, we find

−1.99 1.99̸ 180o


V1 = = = 0.038̸ 194.9o
50 − j13.3 51.7̸ − 14.9o

where we converted the nominator and the denominator from rectangular


form to polar form to simplify complex division.

4. In time domain, we have v1 (t) = 0.038 cos(107 t + 194.9o ) V

3.3.2 Power relation for phasors


The average power, P , dissipated on a resistor is given by Eq. 3.32:
2
vrms
P = (3.32)
R
For a sinusoidal signal with v(t) = Vp sin(ωt + θ), we find
!
" T
1 Vp
vrms = Vp2 sin2 (ωt + θ)dt = √ (3.33)
T 0 2
86 CHAPTER 3. AUDIO CIRCUITS

Hence, the average power is


Vp2
P = (3.34)
2R
In phasor notation, the signal v(t) is represented by the phasor V = Vp ejθ and
the average power for a resistor can be written as
|V |2 VV∗ V I∗ II ∗ R |I|2 R
P = = = = = (3.35)
2R 2R 2 2 2
∗ ∗
where I is the current phasor and I = V /R or I = V /R.

In general, for circuits where the current and voltage may have phase
difference, the power dissipated in the circuit can be written as
! ∗" ! ∗ "
VI V I
P = Re = Re (3.36)
2 2

For a capacitor with IC = jωCV , the average power is given by


! "
−V jωCV ∗ |V |2
P = Re = Re {−jωC} = 0 (3.37)
2 2
giving zero, consistent with the fact that a capacitor does not dissipate power.
It only stores energy. The same condition holds for an inductor.

3.3.3 Impedance
We have observed that the definition of phasors allowed us to convert the dif-
ferential relations in time into algebraic relations in angular frequency.

Impedance, Z, of a network is defined as the ratio of voltage phasor to


current phasor:
V
Z = R + jX = (3.38)
I

Z is in general a frequency dependent complex quantity and has the units


of Ω. Its real part, R, is known as the resistance and its imaginary part, X, is
referred to as reactance.

3.3.4 Admittance

The inverse of Z is called admittance and it is denoted by Y :


1 I
Y = G + jB = = (3.39)
Z V

The unit of Y is Siemens (S), named after German inventor Ernst Werner von
Siemens (1816–1892). The real part of the admittance, G, is conductance and
the imaginary part, shown by B, is the susceptance.
3.3. LINEAR CIRCUITS 87

Example
Consider the circuit given in Fig. 3.6. The impedance can be found by applying
a voltage phasor V and finding I in terms of it:

I 2µH
+
V 100 3nF
-

Figure 3.6: Example for impedance and admittance calculation

V V
I= +
100 jω(2 · 10 ) + 1/(jω(3 · 10−9 ))
−6

Hence the impedance is given by

V 100[(1/3) · 109 − ω 2 (2 · 10−6 )]


Z(ω) = =
I (1/3) · 109 − ω 2 (2 · 10−6 ) + jω100

the resistive part is

100[(1/3) · 109 − ω 2 (2 · 10−6 )]2


R(ω) = Re{Z} =
[(1/3) · 109 − ω 2 (2 · 10−6 )]2 + ω 2 104

and the reactance is given by

−jω104 [(1/3) · 109 − ω 2 (2 · 10−6 )]


X(ω) = Im{Z} =
[(1/3) · 109 − ω 2 (2 · 10−6 )]2 + ω 2 104

Note that the real part of the impedance acts like a frequency dependent resistor.
On the other hand, the admittance is found as

I (1/3) · 109 − ω 2 (2 · 10−6 ) + jω100


Y (ω) = =
V 100[(1/3) · 109 − ω 2 (2 · 10−6 )]

Hence the conductance is


1
G(ω) = Re{Y } =
100
and the susceptance is

B(ω) = Im{Y } =
(1/3) · 109 − ω 2 (2 · 10−6 )
88 CHAPTER 3. AUDIO CIRCUITS

3.3.5 Transfer function

For networks with an input voltage phasor, Vi , and an output voltage


phasor, Vo , we define the ratio of output to input as a transfer function, H:

Vo (ω)
H(ω) = (3.40)
Vi (ω)

a complex funtion of ω. It specifies the output with respect to input for


any radial frequency ω.

The magnitude of the transfer function |H(ω)| is typically plotted as a graph


to visualize the frequency response of the network. Decibels (dB) may be the
preferred vertical axis to be able to see very small and very large values on the
same graph. ! !
! Vo (ω) !
|H(ω)|dB = 20 log10 !! ! (3.41)
Vi (ω) !
Moreover, the frequency axis may be plotted as a logarithmic axis to be able to
see the response in a wide range of frequencies.
LTSpice can be used to plot transfer functions of linear circuits (see page 341
for a tutorial).

Example
Consider the network given in Fig. 3.7. Let us find the transfer function and
plot the magnitude of the transfer function. We apply a voltage phasor at the

+ 10 2µH +
Vi 3nF Vo
- -

Figure 3.7: Example for transfer function calculation

input and find the output phasor using nodal analysis:

Vo (ω) 1/(jω(3 · 10−9 ))


H(ω) = = (3.42)
Vi (ω) 10 + jω2 · 10−6 + 1/(jω(3 · 10−9 ))

The magnitude |H(ω)| can be plotted in dB scale on a logarithmic frequency


axis using the following MATLAB code:
% MATLAB code to plot the transfer function
clear all % clear all variables in MATLAB
hold off
fmin=1e5; %minimum frequency in Hz
fmax=2e7; %maximum frequency in Hz
C=3e-9; % Capacitor value in F
L=2e-6; % Inductor value in H
3.3. LINEAR CIRCUITS 89

R=10; % resistance in Ohms

f=fmin:fmin:fmax; % Frequency vector


w=2*pi*f; % angular frequency vector
H=1./(j*w*C)./(R+j*w*L+1./(j*w*C)); % MATLAB performs
% an array operation
% Note that we need a "." in front of operators
% to perform array operations
Hdb=20*log10(abs(H)); % calculate the magnitude of
% transfer function in dB
semilogx(f,Hdb,’LineWidth’,2) % plot on a logarithmic x-axis
% with a linewidth of 2
grid on % to plot the grid lines
xlabel(’f (Hz)’) % to place the x-label on the plot
ylabel(’|H(\omega)|_{dB}’) % to place the y-label
title(’Transfer Function Example’) % to place a title on the graph
hold on
axis([fmin fmax -40 10]); % define the axes limits

The resulting graph is shown in Fig. 3.8. Notice that the magnitude of the

Transfer Function Example


10

−5

−10
|H(ω)|dB

−15

−20

−25

−30

−35

−40
5 6 7
10 10 10
f (Hz)

Figure 3.8: Magnitude of the transfer function in dB scale

transfer function is unity (0 dB) for small frequencies. It is greater than unity
(>0 dB) at around 2 MHz, while it is less than 1 (<0 dB) for frequencies more
than 3 MHz.
LTSpice can be also used to plot transfer functions of linear circuits (see
page 341 for a tutorial).
90 CHAPTER 3. AUDIO CIRCUITS

3.4 Thévenin Equivalent Circuit


A purely resistive linear circuit composed of any number of voltage sources, cur-
rent sources and resistances with the terminals A and B as in Fig. 3.9(a) can be
modelled with just two components at the same terminals: A voltage source, vth
and a series resistance, Req as shown in Fig. 3.9(b). This simple model is called
the Thévenin equivalent circuit, named after the French engineer Léon Charles
Thévenin (1857–1926). Since the circuit is linear, its V − I characteristics is a

Rth
A A
+ Vth +
− −
B B
(a) (b)

Figure 3.9: Thévenin equivalent circuit

straight line. Thévenin’s theorem basically states that the straight line can be
modelled with just two parameters: Its slope (Req ) and its intersection on the
voltage axis (vth ).

Thévenin equivalent circuit of a black-box composed of any number


of resistors/voltage and current sources can be found using the following
procedure:
1. Find the voltage between the terminals A and B while those terminals
are open-circuited to determine vth .
2. Kill the voltage and current sources within the black-box: Short-
circuit the voltage sources and open-circuit the current sources. Find
the resistance between the terminals A and B to determine Req .

Example
Consider the circuit given in Fig. 3.10(a). Let us find the Thévenin equivalent
of the circuit inside the dashed box. Applying the procedure:

1. Using nodal analysis, we find the open-circuit voltage at terminals A-B


with 56 Ω removed (Fig. 3.10(b)):

v v − 20
+ =1 or vth = 27V
33 39

2. Kill the sources as in Fig. 3.10(c). Find the resistance between the termi-
nals A and B (also with 56 Ω removed): Req = 33 ∥ 39 = 33·39/(33+39) =
17.8Ω.
3.4. THÉVENIN EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT 91

A
+ A
+ 39 + 39 vth
− 33 56 − 33
20V 1A B 20V 1A - B

(a) (b)

A Req A
39 Req vth + 17.8
33 − 56
B 27V B

(c) (d)

Figure 3.10: Example for Thévenin equivalent circuit

The Thévenin equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 3.10(d).

If a circuit has a nonlinear element, the nonlinear element must be left out
of the black-box as demonstrated in the following example:

Example
Consider the circuit given in Fig. 3.11(a) where v1 (t) is an arbitrary function
of time. Let us find the Thévenin equivalent of the resistive linear parts of the
circuit: Applying the procedure:

R1 A D B R1 A vth B
+ -
+ R2 + R2
v1(t) − R3 v1(t) − R3

(a) (b)
Req
R1 A B Req A B
+ -
R2 vth (t) +
R3 −

(c) (d)

Figure 3.11: Example for Thévenin equivalent circuit for a circuit containing
nonlinear element

1. Using the voltage divider formula of Eq. 2.19, we find the open-circuit
voltage at terminals A-B with diode removed (Fig. 3.11(b)):
R2
vth (t) = v1 (t)
R1 + R2
Note that R3 does not have an effect here, since there is no current through
it.
92 CHAPTER 3. AUDIO CIRCUITS

2. Kill the voltage source as in Fig. 3.11(c). Find the resistance between the
terminals A and B (also with diode removed):
R1 R2
Req = + R3
R1 + R2

The resulting simpler circuit is shown in Fig. 3.11(d).

3.4.1 Thévenin equivalent circuit for RLC networks with


sinusoidal excitation
Thévenin’s theorem is applicable to linear networks containing any number of
resistances, capacitors and inductors as long as the sources are sinusoidal at the
same frequency. In this case, the procedure is slightly modified.

For RLC networks with sinusoidal excitation, the Thévenin equivalent


circuit is found by
1. Find the voltage phasor between the terminals A and B while nothing
is connected to those terminals to determine the phasor Vth (ω).
2. Kill the voltage and current sources within the black-box: Short-
circuit the voltage sources and open-circuit the current sources. Find
the impedance between the terminals A and B to determine Zeq (ω).

Example
Consider the RLC circuit given in Fig. 3.12(a). Since the excitation is sinusoidal,
we can find the Thévenin equivalent circuit: Applying the procedure:

A A
+ + +
R R
C L RL A C L Vth
Acos(ωt) B B

(a) (b)
A A
+
R Zeq + Zeq
C L Vth RL
A B B

(c) (d)

Figure 3.12: RLC circuit example for Thévenin equivalent circuit

1. Using nodal analysis, we find the open-circuit voltage phasor at terminals


A-B with RL removed (Fig. 3.12(b)):
V V V −A jωL
+ + =0 or Vth (ω) = A
jωL 1/(jωC) R R − ω 2 RLC + jωL
3.5. NORTON EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT 93

2. Kill the voltage source phasor as in Fig. 3.12(c). Find the impedance
between the terminals A and B (also with RL removed):
jωRL
Zeq (ω) =
R− ω 2 RLC + jωL

The Thévenin equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 3.12(d).

3.5 Norton Equivalent Circuit


Dual of the Thevenin equivalent circuit is the Norton equivalent circuit, named
after American engineer Edward Lawry Norton (1989–1983). In this case, the
straight line in V − I characteristics is modelled by its slope and its intersection
with the I axis. The equivalent model consists of a current source, iN and a
parallel resistance Req .

The procedure to find the Norton equivalent circuit of a black-box com-


posed of any number of resistors/voltage and current sources is:
1. Find the current flowing between the terminals A and B while those
terminals are short-circuited to determine iN .
2. Kill the voltage and current sources within the black-box: Short-
circuit the voltage sources and open-circuit the current sources. Find
the resistance between the terminals A and B to determine Req .

Clearly, for the same black-box Req is the same value for Thévenin and
Norton equivalent circuits, because they are found in the same way. Since they
represent the same straight line we also have vth = Req iN .

Example
Consider the same circuit example of Thévenin equivalent circuit in Fig. 3.13(a).
Norton equivalent circuit is found by:
1. Using nodal analysis, we find the short-circuit current between the termi-
nals A-B (Fig. 3.13(b)):
20
iN = 1 + = 1.51A
39
2. Kill the sources as in Fig. 3.13(c). Find the resistance between the termi-
nals A and B (with 56 Ω removed): Req = 33 ∥ 39 = 33 · 39/(33 + 39) =
17.8.
The Norton equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 3.13(d). For this example, finding
the Norton equivalent circuit was simpler than finding the Thévenin equivalent.
If there are parallel elements across the terminals A and B, Norton equivalent
circuit should be preferred, since it gets rid of those elements when the terminals
are shorted. On the other hand, if there are series elements at the terminals
A or B, Thévenin should be preferred. The series elements will be eliminated
when the terminals are open-circuited.
94 CHAPTER 3. AUDIO CIRCUITS

A A
+ 39 + 39 iN
− 33 56 − 33
20V 1A B 20V 1A B

(a) (b)

A A
39 iN
33 Req 17.8 Req 56
B 1.51A B

(c) (d)

Figure 3.13: Finding the Norton equivalent circuit

3.5.1 Norton equivalent circuit for RLC networks with si-


nusoidal excitation

Norton method is also applicable to linear RLC networks with sinusoidal


excitation. The procedure is:

1. Find the short-circuit current phasor between the terminals A and B


to determine the phasor IN (ω).

2. Kill the voltage and current sources within the black-box: Short-
circuit the voltage sources and open-circuit the current sources. Find
the impedance between the terminals A and B to determine Zeq (ω).

Example
Refer to the RLC circuit given in Fig. 3.14(a) considered earlier. We can find
the Norton equivalent circuit as

A A
+ +
R R IN
C L RL A C L
Acos(ωt) B B

(a) (b)
A A
+
R Zeq
C L IN Zeq RL
A B B

(c) (d)

Figure 3.14: Finding the Norton equivalent circuit


3.5. NORTON EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT 95

1. Since C and L are shorted, we find the short-circuit current phasor at


terminals A-B easily (Fig. 3.14(b)):

A
IN =
R

2. Kill the voltage source phasor as in Fig. 3.14(c). Find the impedance
between the terminals A and B (with RL removed):

jωRL
Zeq (ω) =
R − ω 2 RLC + jωL

The Norton equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 3.14(d).

3.5.2 Using Thévenin and Norton equivalent circuits


Thévenin and Norton equivalent circuits are used extensively in circuit analysis.
These circuits provide a very efficient way to simplify the circuit to be analyzed.
Whenever a piece of linear circuit is connected to another circuit through two
terminals, the equivalent circuit analysis is often the simplest way to understand
how the latter is affected. Consider the circuit in Fig. 3.15. As far as Circuit
2 is concerned, every effect of the first circuit is summarized by its equivalent
circuit at the interconnection terminals. Once Thévenin equivalent circuit is

Figure 3.15: (a) Two circuit pieces connected to each other by means of two
terminals, (b) Thévenin equivalent of Circuit 1.

obtained, Circuit 1 can be replaced by its equivalent as in Fig. 3.16 and Circuit
2 can be analyzed.
Thévenin and Norton equivalent circuits are equivalent. In other words,
open circuit voltage of Norton circuit, IN Zeq , yields Vth , as discussed above.
Hence, Zeq can also be obtained from Vth and IN :

Vth
Zeq (ω) = (3.43)
IN
96 CHAPTER 3. AUDIO CIRCUITS

Figure 3.16: Thévenin equivalent of Circuit 1 connected to Circuit 2.

Example
Consider the circuit in Fig. 3.17. Voltage across 2.7K resistor can be found in
many different ways.
One of the most effective ways of solving such problems is depicted in
Fig. 3.18. First, the Thévenin equivalent of a part of the circuit, which con-
tains the battery, is evaluated. Note that the equivalent voltage is the open
circuit voltage across 1.8K resistor and the equivalent resistor is 1.2K∥1.8K.
This equivalent circuit is connected to the remaining part and a Norton circuit
is evaluated. To do this we disconnect the part of the circuit at the dotted line

1.2K 2.2K 3.3K 1.5K


+
12V 1.8K 1K 2.7K
1mA

Figure 3.17: Example showing the use of Thévenin and Norton equivalent cir-
cuits.

and short it. The short circuit current is the equivalent current and the equiva-
lent resistor is 0.72K+2.2K. In third step, we notice that the equivalent current
and 1 mA current source are in parallel. Combining them in a single source
of 3.47 mA, we convert the Norton circuit to its Thévenin equivalent. After
another Thévenin equivalent conversion, output voltage is obtained as 0.75V.

3.6 Superposition principle


Superposition principle is another very useful tool that can be used in the solu-
tion of linear circuits. If a circuit has more than one source, the effect of each
source can be determined independently, and their responses can be added up
to give the overall response. This is a direct result of linearity.

The procedure for the superposition principle can be summarized as


follows:
1. Kill all sources except one of them (Killing means that the voltage
sources are short-circuited and the current sources are open-circuited).
Find the desired response using an appropriate method.
3.6. SUPERPOSITION PRINCIPLE 97

Step 1:
1.2K 2.2K 3.3K 1.5K 1.2K 0.72K
+ + +
12V 1.8K 1K 2.7K 12V 1.8K 7.2V
1mA

Step 2:
0.72K 2.2K 3.3K 1.5K 0.72K 2.2K
+ +
7.2V 1K 2.7K 7.2V 2.92K
1mA 2.47mA

Step 3:
3.3K 1.5K 2.92K
+
2.92K 1K 2.7K 2.92K 10.1V
2.47mA 1mA 2.47mA 1mA

Step 4: 2.92K 3.3K 1.5K 2.92K 3.3K 0.861K


+ + +
10.1V 1K 2.7K 10.1V 1K 1.4V

Step 5: 0.861K 1.5K 1.26K


+ +
1.4V 2.7K 0.75V

Figure 3.18: Analysis of circuits using equivalent circuits.

2. Repeat step 1 for all sources one-by-one.


3. Add the resulting responses to find the overall response.

Example
Refer to the resistive circuit depicted in Fig. 3.19(a). We can use the superpo-
sition principle to find the voltage vA (t) as
1. Kill the current source as shown in Fig. 3.19(b). Find the Thévenin equiv-
alent circuit of the circuit in the dashed box. We find vth using the voltage
divider formula (Eq. 2.19) and Rth is found by parallel and series resistor
combination formulas:
R2 R1 R2
vth (t) = v1 (t) and Req = + R3
R1 + R2 R1 + R2
vA1 (t) for the voltage source is found from the voltage divider in Fig. 3.19(c):
R4 R4 R2
vA1 (t) = vth (t) = v1 (t)
Req + R4 Req + R4 R1 + R2
98 CHAPTER 3. AUDIO CIRCUITS

R1 R3 vA R1 R3 vA
+ R2 + R2
v1(t) − R4 v1(t) − R4
i2(t)

(a) (b)
vA R1 R3 vA
vth(t) + Req R2
− R4 R4
i2(t)

(c) (d)

Figure 3.19: Example to use superposition principle

2. Kill the voltage source as in Fig. 3.19(d). We find the total resistance
across the current source, RT , and hence the corresponding vA2 (t) as

Req R4
RT = Req ∥ R4 = and vA2 (t) = −RT i2 (t)
Req + R4

3. The total vA (t) is found by adding the two results:

R4 R2
vA (t) = vA1 + vA2 = v1 (t) − RT i2 (t)
Req + R4 R1 + R2

As an exercise, solve the same circuit, using nodal analysis. As a third alterna-
tive, you can use Norton equivalent circuit for the part in dashed lines to get
two current sources and two resistors in parallel which are easily combined.

3.7 Operational amplifiers


Operational amplifiers (OPAMP) are versatile building blocks very frequently
used in electronic circuits. They can be used to obtain a large variety of func-
tions. The symbol of an OPAMP is shown in Fig. 3.20. v1 and v2 denotes the
voltages at + and − inputs of the OPAMP. +VC and −VC represent the positive
and negative supply voltages.
It is important to introduce the ideal OPAMP concept, because quite often
we are allowed to use the ideal model. The impedance between the two inputs
and the voltage gain of an ideal OPAMP are both infinite (A → ∞). The infinite
input impedance means that there is no current flowing into the OPAMP. The
series output impedance of an ideal OPAMP is zero. The equivalent circuit of
an ideal OPAMP is shown in Fig. 3.20(b).
In the ideal OPAMP equivalent circuit, there is an output voltage source
with the value of A(v1 − v2 ). Such a source is called a controlled voltage source,
because its value is determined by some parameter in the circuit, v1 − v2 in this
case.
3.7. OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS 99

v2 vo
-
+
+VC − A(v1-v2)
v1 +
v2 − vo (b)
Ro
v1 + v2
- vo
Rin +
− A(v1-v2)
-VC v1 +
(a) (c)

Figure 3.20: (a) OPAMP symbol, (b) an ideal OPAMP equivalent circuit, and
(c) real OPAMP equivalent circuit

All real OPAMPs have a maximum, Vmax , and minimum, Vmin voltage
limit at its output. Typically, Vmax is slightly smaller than the positive supply
voltage +VC , and Vmin is slightly greater then the negative supply voltage −VC .
Moreover, the output resistance Ro is not zero as shown in Fig. 3.20(c). The
input resistance Rin may also be finite.

We can express the characteristics of a real OPAMP as follows:



Vmin Vmax

⎨A(v1 − v2 ) if A ≤ vin1 − vin2 ≤ A
vo = Vmax if v1 − v2 > Vmax
A
(3.44)


Vmin if v1 − v2 < Vmin
A

Typically, A is a large number in the order of 105 or 106 . This implies that
as long as Vmin /A ≤ v1 −v2 ≤ Vmax /A is satisfied v1 −v2 is a very small number.
Hence we can write
v1 ≈ v2 if Vmin ≤ vo ≤ Vmax (3.45)
This approximation simplifies the solution of most OPAMP circuits.

3.7.1 Inverting amplifier


Consider the OPAMP inverting amplifier configuration shown in Fig. 3.21(a).
We can analyze this circuit assuming Vmin ≤ vo ≤ Vmax . In this case we have
v1 ≈ v2 . Since there is no current through R3 we have v1 = 0. Hence v2 = 0
also. All the current through R1 must flow through R2 . We write
vin − v2 v2 − v0 vo R2
= or ≈− (3.46)
R1 R2 vin R1
A negative gain value means that the polarity of the output voltage is the
inverse of the input voltage. The ratio of the resistors R2 and R1 determine
100 CHAPTER 3. AUDIO CIRCUITS

R2 R2

vin R1 v2 − R1 v2 −
vo vo
R3 R3
+ +
v1 vin v1
(a) (b)

Figure 3.21: (a) Inverting amplifier, (b) Non-inverting amplifier

the gain value. R3 has no effect on the gain expression. The input impedance
of the amplifier is equal to R1 . For audio amplifiers, R1 is chosen typically
in 1KΩ to 100 KΩ range. Even though R3 is not in the gain expression, it is
recommended that R3 is chosen equal to the parallel combination of R1 and R2
(R1 R2 /(R1 + R2 )) to assure symmetry.
Notice that in OPAMP amplifier circuits we provide feedback always to −
input of OPAMP. This type of feedback is called negative feedback. If we connect
the feedback resistor to the + input of the OPAMP, we have a positive feedback.
With a positive feedback, the output voltage is not stable and can not remain
within the range Vmin ≤ vo ≤ Vmax : It is either Vmax or Vmin .

3.7.2 Non-inverting amplifier


Now, refer to the non-inverting amplifier shown in Fig. 3.21(b). Again, we
assume Vmin ≤ vo ≤ Vmax . Hence we have v1 ≈ v2 . Since there is no current
through R3 we have v1 = vin . Hence v2 ≈ vin also. All the current through R1
must flow through R2 . We write
v2 vo − v2 vo R2
= or ≈1+ (3.47)
R1 R2 vin R1
Input impedance of this amplifier is very high (infinity for an ideal OPAMP),
since no current flows through R3 . Similar to the inverting amplifier, the value
of R1 should be chosen in the range 1 KΩ to 100 KΩ.
If we choose R2 = 0 and/or R1 = ∞, then the gain becomes one. Such a
circuit is called unity gain amplifier or voltage follower, and it is commonly used
as a buffer. Although it does not provide any voltage gain to the input signal,
it is used to transfer the input voltage intact to the output while altering the
impedance that appears at the terminals of vin to the low output impedance of
OPAMP. This can provide a large power gain, because the voltage at the source
can now be applied to a relatively low impedance load.

3.7.3 Summing amplifier


OPAMPs can be used to add two or more signals. A schematic diagram of a
summing amplifier is depicted in Fig. 3.22(a). We assume Vmin ≤ vo ≤ Vmax ,
and use v1 ≈ v2 . Since there is no current in R4 , there is zero voltage across it.
Hence v1 = 0. Writing KCL at node v2 :
3.7. OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS 101

R4
R2 R3
vin2
R3 v2 −
R1 vin2
vin1 v2 − vo
vo R1
vin1 +
v1
+ R2
R4 v1
(a) (b)

Figure 3.22: (a) Summing amplifier, (b) Difference amplifier

v2 − vin1 v2 − vin2 v2 − vo
+ + =0
R1 R2 R3
Since v2 ≈ v1 = 0, we find
! "
R3 R3
vo = − vin1 + vin2 (3.48)
R1 R2
If R1 = R2 = R3 , we get the sum of input signals with inverted polarity:
vo = −(vin1 + vin2 )

Exercise
Design an OPAMP circuit to add four signals (with inverted polarity).

3.7.4 Difference amplifier


Referring to the difference amplifier shown in Fig. 3.22(b), we assume again
Vmin ≤ vo ≤ Vmax and v1 ≈ v2 . Using the voltage divider relation, we write
R2 R4 R3
v1 = vin1 and v2 = vin2 + vo
R1 + R2 R3 + R4 R3 + R4
In the second equation, we used the superposition principle for signals vin2 and
vo . Since v1 ≈ v2 , we get
R2 R3 + R4 R4
vo = vin1 − vin2 (3.49)
R1 + R2 R3 R3

Example
To get vo = 5vin +3, choose vin1 = vin , R1 = R2 , R4 /R3 = 9 and vin2 = −1/3V.

3.7.5 Integrator
An OPAMP can be used to build an integrator as depicted in Fig. 3.23(a). We
observe that v1 = 0, since there is no current in R2 . The current in R1 is equal
to the current in C:
vin − v2 dvC d(v2 − vo )
=C =C
R1 dt dt
102 CHAPTER 3. AUDIO CIRCUITS

vC
+ R1

R1 C vC
vin v2 − vin + v2 −
vo C vo
+ +
R2 v1 R2 v1
(a) (b)

Figure 3.23: (a) Integrator, (b) Differentiator

We use v2 ≈ v1 = 0 and integrate both sides of the equation above from 0 to t


to get
! t
1
v0 (t) = vo (0) − vin (τ )dτ (3.50)
R1 C 0
where vo (0) is the output voltage at t = 0. Recall that this result is valid, as
long as Vmin ≤ vo ≤ Vmax .

Example

Assume that R1 = 1K, C = 10µF, vo (0) = 3V and vin is a 5V pulse waveform


as shown in Fig. 3.24(a). We find the output voltage as plotted in Fig. 3.24(b).

vin vo
5V
3V
1V
2 6 t (ms) 2 6 t (ms)
(a) (b)

Figure 3.24: (a) Input signal, vin , of the integrator, (b) Output signal, vo , of
the integrator

3.7.6 Differentiator
A differentiator is built from an OPAMP as drawn in Fig. 3.23(b). We have
v2 = 0 since v1 = 0. The current in C is equal to the current in R1 :

d(vin − v2 ) dvin v2 − vo vo
C =C = =−
dt dt R1 R1

Hence
dvin
v0 = −R1 C (3.51)
dt
3.7. OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS 103

3.7.7 First-order low-pass-filter (LPF)


A low-pass-filter passes the signals with frequencies less than a predetermined
value, but it attenuates signals with frequencies higher than that value. It is
possible to build a first-order low-pass-filter using an OPAMP by modifying
the inverting amplifier. Refer to Fig. 3.25(a). For analysis, we use phasors

C
v2 −
R2 vo
vin R1 v2 − R2
vo +
vin R1 v3 v1
R3 C2
+ C1
v1
(a) (b)

Figure 3.25: (a) Inverting first-order low-pass-filter amplifier, (b) Non-inverting


second-order low-pass-filter amplifier

(capital letters) assuming that the input signals are sinusoidal. We know that
V2 ≈ V1 = 0. Hence, we write
Vin −Vo
= − Vo jωC
R1 R2
Therefore, the transfer function is given by
Vo (ω) R2 1
H(ω) = =− (3.52)
Vin(ω) R1 1 + jωR2 C

When ωR2 C = 1, the magnitude of low-pass-filter term becomes 1/ 2. This
frequency,
1 1
ω0 = or f0 = (3.53)
R2 C 2πR2 C
is known as the√ corner frequency or cutoff frequency. In decibels the magnitude
is 20 log10 (1/ 2) = −3 dB.
The magnitude of the transfer function in decibels is
! ! " #
! V0 !
! ! = 20 log10 R2 − 10 log10 (1 + (ω/ω0 )2 ) (3.54)
! Vin ! R1
dB

The first term is the dB gain of the inverting amplifier. The second term is the
low-pass-filter term. We plot this transfer function in Fig. 3.26 for R2 = 1K
and C = 0.159µF. For low frequencies when ω ≪ ω0 , the low-pass-filter term
approaches to 1 (20 log10 (1) = 0 dB). On the other hand, at frequencies much
higher than the corner frequency, ω ≫ w0 , we can assume that 1 + j(ω/ω0 ) ≈
jω/ω0 . So the magnitude of low-pass-filter term in decibels is
! ! " # " #
! V0 !
! ! ≈ 20 log10 R2 − 20 log10 (ω/ω0 ) = 20 log10 R2 − 20 log10 (f /f0 )
! Vin ! R1 R1
dB
(3.55)
104 CHAPTER 3. AUDIO CIRCUITS

Frequency response of first and second order low−pass−filters (f0=1KHz)


5
First−order
0 Second−order

−5

−10

−15
|H(ω)|dB

−20

−25

−30

−35

−40
1 2 3 4 5
10 10 10 10 10
f (Hz)

Figure 3.26: Frequency response of first and second order low-pass-filters

For f = 10f0 , the last term is -20 dB. For f = 100f0 , the last term becomes
-40 dB. Clearly, every decade (factor of 10) increase in frequency causes an
additional loss of 20 dB. We express this asymptotic behavior with a slope of
−20 dB/decade, very convenient notation for logarithmic plots like the graph in
Fig. 3.26. The slope can also be expressed in terms of octaves. One octave is a
factor of two. For f = 2f0 , the low-pass-filter term is −6 dB. Hence, the slope is
−6 dB/octave. In Fig. 3.25 the asymptotic line with the slope −20 dB/decade
(or −6 dB/octave) is shown as a dashed line.

3.7.8 Second-order low-pass-filter


A second-order low-pass-filter can be obtained using the circuit in Fig. 3.25(b).
We perform nodal analysis in phasor domain as follows:
V3 − Vin V 3 − V1
+ + (V3 − Vo )jωC2 = 0
R1 R2
and
V3 − V1
= V1 jωC1
R2
Since V1 ≈ V2 = Vo , we find the transfer function as
Vo 1
= (3.56)
Vin 1 + jω(R1 + R2 )C1 − ω 2 R1 R2 C1 C2
Fig. 3.26 also shows the magnitude of the transfer function for this filter for
R1 = R2 = 1K and C1 = C2 = 0.159µF. It has a higher slope (−40 dB/decade)
above the corner frequency.
3.8. BIBLIOGRAPHY 105

3.8 Bibliography
1. Op-Amps and Linear Integrated Circuits, R.A.Gayakwad (Prentice-Hall,
2000).
2. Audio Engineering Handbook, K. B. Blair (McGraw-Hill, 1988)
106 CHAPTER 3. AUDIO CIRCUITS

+0.8v

8K

V2 +
5K Vout

V1
Vin
1K 10K
5K

Figure 3.27: Circuit for Example 1.

3.9 Examples
3.9.1 Example 1
Suppose that the OPAMP shown in Fig. 3.27 is ideal (there is no current into
+ or − terminals, and output of OPAMP acts like a voltage source.). Find Vout
in terms of Vin .

Solution
Since the circuit does not contain any capacitor or inductor, we do not have a
differential equation. Vout can be expressed in terms of Vin algebraically. We
write KCL at node V1 as

V1 − Vin V1 V1 − Vout
. + + =0
1K 5K 10K
or 10(V1 − Vin ) + 2V1 + V1 − Vout =0 We can find V2 from the voltage divider
formula
5K 4
V2 = 0.8 = V
5K + 8K 13
Assume that the output voltage of OPAMP is not saturated and hence it is in
the linear region. From Eq. 3.45, we must have V1 = V2 . Combining equations,
we get
Vout = −10Vin + 4 for Vmin < Vout < Vmax

3.9.2 Example 2
For the circuit given in Fig. 3.28, assume that the input voltage vin (t) is a step
function as shown on the right. Find vout (t) for all t > 0.
3.9. EXAMPLES 107

v1 +
1K vout vin(t)
v2 −
vin 1K RL 1V
R1 10K
R2
C t
-v +10nF
C

Figure 3.28: Circuit for Example 2 and 3.

Solution
This is a first-order RC network. We can use the time-domain solution method
of Section 2.9 on page 39. (We cannot use the phasor method, since the input
is not a sinusoid.)

1. We kill the source vin . In this case, vout = 0. Since v2 = v1 = 0, there is


no current in R1 . Therefore, the total resistance seen by C is R2 only.
2. The time constant is τ = R2 C = 100µs.
3. vout (0− ) = −(R2 /R1 )vin (0− ) = 0 and vC (0− ) = vC (0+ ) = 0V. Hence,
vout (0+ ) = 0V.
4. We open-circuit the capacitor, and write
R2
vout (∞) = − vin (∞) = −10V
R1
Since v1 = v2 = 0, vC (∞) = vout (∞) − v2 (∞) = vout (∞) = −10V
5. We write vout as

vout (t) = −10 + (0 − (−10))e−t/τ = −10 + 10e−t/100µ for t > 0

3.9.3 Example 3
For the OPAMP circuit of Fig. 3.28, the input signal is vin (t) = 0.5 cos(2π1000t).
What is vout (t)?

Solution
Since the input voltage is sinusoidal, we can use phasors. The input phasor is
Vin =0.5. The transfer function is given by
1
Vout R2 ∥ jωC R2 1
=− =−
Vin R1 R1 1 + jωR2 C
Hence, the magnitude ratio is
! !
! Vout ! R2 1 10
! !
! Vin ! = R1 "1 + (ωR C)2 = "1 + (2π103 10−4 )2 = 8.46
2
108 CHAPTER 3. AUDIO CIRCUITS

R1 R2 v1 +
vin vout
C v2 −

R3

Figure 3.29: Circuit for Example 4.

and the phase difference is


Vout
̸ = π − tan−1 (ωR2 C) = 2.59rad
Vin
Therefore

vout (t) = 0.5 · 8.46 cos(2π1000t + 2.59) = 4.23 cos(2π1000t + 2.59)

3.9.4 Example 4
What is the transfer function of the circuit given in Fig. 3.29, assuming that
the input signal is sinusoidal.

Solution
We use phasors to find the transfer function. From the voltage divider at the
input side, we find
1
jωC 1
V1 = 1 Vin == Vin
jωC + R1 1 + jωR1 C

R2 is not in the equation, since there is no current through it. If the output of
OPAMP is not saturated, we have V1 = V2 . Since there is no current through
R3 , we have Vout = V2 . Therefore, we have
Vout 1
=
Vin 1 + jωR1 C

3.9.5 Example 5
What is the Thevenin and Norton equivalent circuits of the circuit given in
Fig. 3.30(a).

Solution
We first find the Thevenin equivalent of 45V, 9K and 18K resistor (inside the
dashed lines): Since 9K∥18K=6K, and 45·18/(18+9)=30V, we have the equiv-
alent circuit shown in Fig. 3.30(b). One more application gives us the circuit
in Fig. 3.30(c). Finally, we have Req =9K∥6K=3.6K and VT H = 20 · 6K/(6K +
9K) = 8V. We can find the Norton current from IN = VT H /Req =49.4 mA
3.9. EXAMPLES 109

9K 3K 3K 6K 3K 3K
vout vout
+ +
45V − 18K 18K 6K − 30V 18K 6K

(a) (b)

6K 3K 3.6K
vout vout
+ +
20V − 6K 8V −

(c) (d)

Figure 3.30: Circuit for Example 5.

++15V ++15V
vout
vin − −
R1 -15V R1 -15V
R2 R2

Figure 3.31: Circuit for Example 6.

3.9.6 Example 6
For the circuit in Fig. 3.31, find vout if (a) R2 /R1 =2 and vin =3 V, (a) R2 /R1 =4
and vin =3 V, (a) R2 /R1 =4 and vin =5 V.

Solution
It is a inverting amplifier configuration. The gain of one stage is −R2 /R1 . We
have Vmax = 15V and Vmin = −15V.
(a) vout = (−R2 /R1 )2 vin = 4 · 3 = 12 V
(b) vout = (−R2 /R1 )2 vin = 16 · 3 = 48 V! The second OPAMP is saturated.
vout =15 V.
(c) vout = (−R2 /R1 )2 vin = 16 · 5 = 80 V! Both OPAMPs are saturated.
vout =15 V.
110 CHAPTER 3. AUDIO CIRCUITS

3.10 Laboratory Exercises


3.10.1 Oscilloscope probe
1. Probes are vital to high quality oscilloscope measurements. A probe makes
an electrical connection between a test point and an oscilloscope, but it is
more than just a piece of wire. An ideal probe has the following properties:
• Signal fidelity (the signal at the test point is faithfully duplicated at
the oscilloscope input)
• Does not load the test point (it does not change the value of voltage
it is trying to measure)
• Immune to electromagnetic noise sources in the environment (it shields
the noise in the environment from reaching the oscilloscope input).
2. Fluorescent lamps and motors in the environment are electrical noise
sources. Connect a 30cm to 1m long wire to the tip of the oscilloscope
probe. Do not connect the wire to anything. Set the Trigger Source to
AC Line in the Trig Menu. Set the SEC/DIV to 5msec. Find out what
the oscilloscope shows on its screen. Move the wire around and observe.
Write down your observations.
3. Touch your finger to the probe tip. Observe the oscilloscope. What hap-
pened? Note that since the human body is conducting, the body picks up
the electrical noise in the environment and this is what you observe on
the oscilloscope. In fact, touching the finger to the probe tip is a fast and
practical way of determining if the probe and/or oscilloscope are working
properly.
4. Connect inner wire (or center pin of the BNC connector) of a coaxial cable
to the probe tip. Observe the signal on the oscilloscope. Now, connect
the ground clip of the probe to the outer wire (or outer metal of BNC
connector) of the coaxial cable. Touch the probe tip to inner wire. What
happened?
5. Consider the equivalent circuit of an oscilloscope input composed of a
resistor Rin in parallel with a capacitance Cin . The oscilloscopes are
frequently used with probes. The oscilloscope input impedance connected
to an oscilloscope probe can be modeled as shown in Fig. 3.32.
The attenuation ratio of the probe is always written on the probe, as 1:1
or 10:1 (sometimes 100:1). Some probes have switches with the option of
setting the attenuation ratio. Assuming that capacitors do not exist and
the oscilloscope input resistance, Rin =1 MΩ, find the value of Rp such
that Vi :Vo is exactly equal 10:1. Note that Rp and Rin forms a voltage
divider and the attenuation ratio is
Vo Rin
= (3.57)
Vi (Rin + Rp )

When the attenuation ratio is 10:1, the probe does not perturb the volt-
age value under measurement significantly. What is the total resistance
between the probe tip and ground?
3.10. LABORATORY EXERCISES 111

6. Read the attenuation ratio of the probe. Set the attenuation ratio to 10:1.
A DC resistance measurement using an ohmmeter can reveal the value of
Rp . Measure the resistance between the probe tip and the center pin of
the BNC probe connector and record it. How does it compare to the value
you found in the previous step?

Figure 3.32: An oscilloscope probe connected to the input of an oscilloscope.

Cc is the capacitance of probe cable and is parallel to Cin (the input capac-
itance of the oscilloscope input). Co is a small compensation capacitance,
usually mounted on the probe connector. It is an adjustable capacitor and
it is parallel to Cin . Its effect can be better understood if we consider the
transfer function from Vi to Vo . Since Cc , Co and Cin are in parallel, the
total capacitance CT can be written as CT = Cc + Co + Cin . Now, we can
find this transfer function as
Vo (ω) 1 1 + jωCp RP
= (3.58)
Vi (ω) 1 + Rp /Rin 1 + jω(CT + Cp )(Rin ∥ RP )

When Co is adjusted such that (CT + Cp )(Rin ∥ Rp ) = Cp Rp , or equiva-


lently CT Rin = Cp Rp , the transfer response becomes just

Vo (ω) 1
= (3.59)
Vi (ω) 1 + Rp /Rin

Hence, Vo (ω)/Vi (ω) is now independent of frequency. We can say that


the probe is compensated. Such circuits are called all-pass filters. Typical
input capacitance of an oscilloscope is Cin =20 pF. Co is a low valued ca-
pacitor, typically about 10 pF. The probe cable capacitance Cc is typically
about 40 pF. Estimate the value of Cp for the 10:1 probe when the probe
is compensated.
When the probe is compensated, the effective input capacitance of the
probe, Cef f , is equal to Cp in series with CT :

CT Cp
Cef f = (3.60)
CT + Cp

Since Cef f < Cp and Cp is a small capacitance, the effective input capac-
itance of the probe is rather small. This fact is especially important for
measurements at high frequency circuits. The capacitance of the probe
does not load the node under measurement. In other words, the probe
does not affect the voltage at the node.
112 CHAPTER 3. AUDIO CIRCUITS

The attenuation ratio of the probe being used must be known by the oscil-
loscope, otherwise the oscilloscope may show false voltage values. Learn
how to set the probe ratio on the Channel Menu of the oscilloscope.
Oscilloscopes have a special terminal for compensation, usually marked
PROBE COMP for probe compensation. This is an output where a 1 KHz
5Vpp square wave signal is provided. Connect the probe tip to this termi-
nal (ground connection is not necessary) to compensate the probe. Display
the signal on the scope. If the signal is a perfect square wave, there is no
need for an adjustment. If the square wave has corners which are higher
or lower than the final level, this is because the probe is uncompensated.
Now take an alignment tool and turn the screw of variable capacitor Co .
If you turn it in correct direction, the signal on the screen will approach a
well-defined square wave. Adjust until you get a well-defined square wave
with right-angled corners. The probe is compensated.
Always use 10:1 setting of the probe to reduce the loading on the circuits
when making measurements.

3.10.2 Amplifier and Level Shifter


1. Consider the TRC-10 amplifier and level shifter circuit shown in Fig. 3.33
making use of TL082 as the OPAMP. We can find the response of this
circuit using superposition principle for two sources: vin2 and vin1 =+15 V.

100pF

470K
+15V
47K v2 −
vin2 vo
82K TL082
vin1 +
+15V v1
4.7K -15V

Figure 3.33: Amplifier and Level Shifter

First let us kill vin2 and find the output voltage from vin1 =+15 V. Since
the capacitor is open-circuit at DC, we write

v2 v2 − vo 4.7K
+ = 0 and v1 = 15 = 0.81V
47K 470K 4.7K + 82K

We find vo = −11 · 0.81 = 8.94V


Now, we kill vin1 =+15 V (set vin1 =0) and assume that the input signal
vin2 (t) is sinusoidal: vin2 = VP cos(ωt). For this case, we can use phasors:
3.10. LABORATORY EXERCISES 113

We write Vin2 = VP and


VP − V2 V2 − Vo
= + (V2 − Vo )jω(100 pF )
47K 470K
Since V2 ≈ V1 = 0, we find
10
Vo = − VP
1 + jω47 · 10−6
We can write the frequency dependence of the gain as
! !
! Vo ! 10
! !
! Vin2 ! = "1 + (f (KHz)/3.38)2

The gain function in decibels is plotted in Fig. 3.34. If f ≪ 3.38 KHz, then
|Vo /V
√ in2 | = 10 = 20 log10 10 = 20dB. If f =3.38 KHz, then |Vo /Vin2 | =
10/ 2 = 7.07 = 17dB. At f = 100 KHz, |Vo /Vin2 | ≈ 10/(100/3.38) =
0.338 = −9.4dB.

TRC−10 Amplifier and Level Shifter Frequency Response


25

20

15

10

5
|H(ω)|dB

−5

−10

−15

−20
2 3 4 5
10 10 10 10
f (Hz)

Figure 3.34: Calculated Frequency Response of Amplifier and Level Shifter

Hence, the total output voltage is the summation of the DC component


of 8.94V and the sinusoidal component defined by the frequency response
above.
2. The complete schematic diagram of the amplifier and level shifter of TRC-
10 is given in Fig. 3.35. JP10 and JP11 are power supply jumpers. Positive
+15 V and negative −15 V supplies are connected to the OPAMP when the
jumpers are soldered in. In TRC-10 jumpers are used for easy debugging
in case a power-supply short-circuit exists in the circuit. The jumpers
may be removed to locate the short-circuit point.
114 CHAPTER 3. AUDIO CIRCUITS

The capacitors C10 and C11 are bypass capacitors, to provide cleaner
±15 V supply voltages to the OPAMP. The bypass capacitors are always
used at the supply terminals of integrated circuits. They provide energy
reserve to meet the demand by the IC when there are short duration high
currents needed by the IC. Using by-pass capacitors meets this current
demand at the closest point to the IC, instead of drawing that current all
the way up from the supply circuit. They are particularly important at
the high-frequency part of the circuit.
From the typical output voltage swing specification of the OPAMP TL082
on page 256, we find Vmax =+13.5V and Vmin = −13.5V for supply volt-
ages of ±15 V. The typical gain factor A of the OPAMP is found at
the same page as 100V/mV=105 . The input resistance is very high:
Rin = 1012 Ω. What is the supply current demand of this amplifier from
+15 V supply? What is the open-loop voltage gain at 10 KHz in dB
(page 260)?
The gain of the OPAMP from its negative input to the output is deter-
mined by the ratio of R12 and R11. Since R12/R11=10, the OPAMP has a
voltage gain of 10. This corresponds to a decibel gain of 20 log10 (10)=20dB.
C12=100 pF and R12=470 KΩ form a low pass filter. The 3-dB corner
frequency of the low pass filter is at 1/(2π 470K 100 pF)= 3380Hz. The
gain of the audio amplifier may be varied between 0 to 10 by the gain
trimpot, R10 (4.7K).

TP14
R14 +15V
JP10
C13 TP11 C10
R13
+
TP13
TP10 TP12 IC10A
− TP15 -15V
R10 R11 JP11
R12 C11

C12

Figure 3.35: Schematic diagram of amplifier and level shifter

The OPAMP is also able to shift the DC level of the output signal: The
positive input of the OPAMP is connected to the variable voltage (at
TP11), obtained by the voltage divider formed by R14 and the trimpot
R13. The voltage at the test-point TP11 is variable between 0V to
R13 4.7
15 = 15 = 0.81V (3.61)
R13 + R14 4.7 + 82
Since the OPAMP has a voltage gain of 10+1=11 from its positive in-
put to the output, the DC level at the output is variable between 0V to
11×0.81=8.9V. The capacitor C13 has the function of filtering the high
frequency signals that may be introduced by the supply voltage.
3.10. LABORATORY EXERCISES 115

3. Place the TL082 (IC10) on the component side of the PCB, into its holes.
Check the orientation of the IC before soldering. Solder all eight pins.
Mount and solder capacitors C10 (0.1 µF), C11 (0.1 µF), C12 (120 pF)
and C13 (10 nF). (Check the markings on the capacitors to make sure
that they have the correct value. For example, 104 means 10 and 4 zeros:
100000 pF=0.1F). Read the color codes of the resistors, R11 (47 KΩ),
R12 (470 KΩ) and R14 (82 KΩ), and measure their value using your
multimeter. Mount and solder all resistances. You must first shape the
resistor leads into a Π shape of correct size to fit into respective holes
properly. Use your long-nose pliers for that purpose. Mount and solder
the trimpots: R10 (1 KΩ) and R13 (4.7 KΩ). Mount and solder the input
connector JM10.
4. The input audio amplifier circuit is now finished. Switch the power ON.
Check the supply voltages +15 V and -15 V, at TP8 and TP9 with your
multimeter. Switch the power OFF. Solder the jumper wires JP10 and
JP11 to connect supply to your amplifier. Switch the power ON. Make
sure that you read the voltages +15 V at TP14 and −15 V at TP15 (the
supply pins of IC10). Check the DC voltage at the output of the OPAMP,
pin 1 (TP13). This voltage can be varied by the DC shift trimpot R13. Try
changing the setting of the trimpot. As you change the trimpot voltage,
pin 3 of IC10 (TP11) must change. Pin 2 (TP12) must be equal to the
same voltage (Remember v1 ≈ v2 is true as long as output voltage of
OPAMP is not saturated). The output voltage at pin 1 (TP13) must
be equal to 1+R12/R11=11 times the voltage at pin 3. Check if this is
correct. For the next step, set the voltage at TP11 to 0 by adjusting the
DC shift trimpot.

5. We now have the part of the circuit depicted in Fig. 3.35 installed. Initially,
we shall use a sinusoidal signal generator to supply the signal to the am-
plifier. Set the output level of the signal generator to 1Vpp or 0.35Vrms
and frequency to 100Hz. High frequency signal generators assume that
they have a load of 50 Ω. If the load value is much higher than 50 Ω,
the actual voltage will be about twice the value displayed on the signal
generator. With 1Vpp setting you should see 2Vpp . Solder a short piece
of wire between TP10 (also labelled IN) and the provided hole. Solder
another short wire to GND. Connect the signal generator leads between
TP10 (red) and GND (black). Connect CH 1 probe to TP10 and CH 2
probe to TP13 (OUT). It is sufficient to connect the ground lead of one
of the probes to GND. Connect a BNC cable between SYNC output of
signal generator and EXT TRIG input of the oscilloscope. Set the trigger
input to Ext. Make sure that the oscilloscope is triggered.

6. Switch the power ON. You should see a sine wave with a peak-to-peak
value of 2V at the input (CH 1) and 20Vpp at the OPAMP output (CH 2).
Adjust the input gain pot R10 if necessary. If the input voltage is increased
beyond 1.5V peak, the output sine wave will be clipped. Try it and see the
clipped sine wave. Clipping is a sign of OPAMP saturation. Adjust the
gain of channels appropriately to read the signal levels at the input and
output. You may use MEASURE button for easy reading of peak-to-peak
voltage in both channels.
116 CHAPTER 3. AUDIO CIRCUITS

Measure the transfer function of the amplifier for the frequency range of
100Hz to 300 KHz. Make sure that the output sine wave signal is not
clipped. If the signal level cannot be greater than Vmax or less than Vmin .
Calculate the transfer function in dB, and plot the transfer function on a
graph paper with logarithmic scales (transfer function on y-axis and fre-
quency on x-axis). 15 frequency points covering 100Hz to 300 KHz should
be sufficient to show the variation, if these frequencies are chosen appro-
priately. (Choose frequencies exponentially, so that they map linearly on
the logarithmic scale: For example, 100, 200, 4000, 800, 1K, 2K, 4K, 8K,
10K, 20K, 40K, 80K, 100K, 200K and 300K). Find the value of the corner
frequency by finding the frequency where the gain is 3-dB less than its low
frequency value. Compare your results with the calculated curve shown
in Fig. 3.34.

7. Make sure that your oscilloscope CH 2 is DC coupled (CH 2 Menu, Cou-


pling, DC). Adjust R13 with your alignment tool and observe that you
can shift the DC level of the OPAMP output voltage at TP13 up to about
8.9V. Now connect the multimeter to TP11 and adjust R13 to its mini-
mum and the reading is approximately 0V DC. Observe on the scope that
the voltage at TP13 has zero or very low level DC component. Leave the
setting of R13 at this level for the rest of the exercises of this chapter. We
shall readjust this pot to set the modulation index later.
Switch the power OFF. IMPORTANT! Switching off the power after an
exercise is finished, is not reminded in the rest of this book. You must
make sure that you follow this good engineering procedure in every exercise
in this course, and always in your professional life. After all, safety means
no accident.

3.10.3 Loudspeaker amplifier


1. A schematic diagram of the loudspeaker amplifier is given in Fig. 3.36.
We analyzed the LPF formed by R20 and C20 in this chapter already.

2. The output of this LPF is connected to IC20 (TDA7052A) audio amplifier


at pin 2. TDA7052A is not an OPAMP. It is an integrated circuit audio
amplifier. The data sheet of TDA7052A is given in page 267. Examine
the data sheet. Which type of package is your integrated circuit, i.e., what
is package pin position and what is package code of your IC? Who is the
producer? What is the supply voltage range of this IC?
Pin 2 is the input pin for the audio signal to be amplified. What is the
input impedance of the amplifier at this pin?

3. The input signal is connected to pin 2 through a HPF formed by R21, C23
and the input impedance (resistance) of TDA7052A (if you have not been
able to find it in the data sheet for exercise above, it is typically 20 KΩ).
Pin 4 is the volume control pin of the audio amplifier. The volume of
the output (in fact the gain of the amplifier) is controlled by the DC
voltage applied to this pin. The gain versus DC voltage level variation is
given in the data sheet of TDA7052A in Figure 3 (in page 272). Examine
this figure. Figure reveals that the gain of the amplifier can be changed
3.10. LABORATORY EXERCISES 117

TP13
JP20 +15V
Audio Loopback JP21
C25 C26 +
TP22
R26 IC20
R25 C24
TP21 TP24
VP OUT- LS1
R20 R21 JM21 JH21
TP20 IN+ NC
C20 C23 GND1 GND2
TP23
VC OUT+
C22 TP25
R23 R24 TDA7052
JM20 JH20
R22

Figure 3.36: Schematic diagram of the loudspeaker amplifier

between −70dB and +35dB, when the control voltage is changed between
0.4V and 1.2V. Find this gain range in terms of ratio.
The gain control is done by R23, R24 and R22. R22 (22K) is a panel
potentiometer, and is used to adjust the output volume to a comfortable
level, by supplying a DC voltage from +15 V supply.
Find the value of V4 at TP23 in terms of R22 value. Notice that R24+R22
and R23 form a voltage divider network. What is the voltage value at
TP23, if R22 is set to its maximum value?

4. Short the middle pin and one of the side pins of R22. Cut two 10cm pieces
of wire and solder them to the respective pins of R22. Crimp the contacts
for PCB jack (female ended) to their other ends. Mount R22 on the panel,
using a pair of pliers. Use anti-slip washer. Fit a knob on the pot swindle.
Fit the jack.

5. Mount and solder all the components in loudspeaker amplifier circuit:


R20, R21, R23, R24, R25, R26; C20, C22, C23, C24, C25, C26; IC20. C25
and C26 are by-pass capacitors. Notice the polarity of C25. Solder the
PCB plugs (male ended) for the loudspeaker (JM21) and volume control,
R22, connection (JM20). Solder a jumper wire at JP20. This connection
provides power supply to IC20. If needed, it can be removed for debugging
purposes.
Check all connections carefully. Switch the power ON. Check the DC
levels by a multimeter at supply connection, at TP22 (+15 V). Check the
DC level at pin 4 of TDA7052A at TP23. Make sure that it is within the
limits, and can be changed by adjusting R25.
Switch the power off.

6. Loudspeakers are electro-acoustic transducers that convert electrical en-


ergy into acoustic energy. Acoustic energy requires a presence of matter
118 CHAPTER 3. AUDIO CIRCUITS

in the medium to propagate (acoustic signals doe not propagate in vac-


uum), unlike electromagnetic energy. Air is the medium of propagation
for audio acoustics, and the matter that supports the propagation is air.
A loudspeaker acts like a piston and forces air in its vicinity to move at
the frequency of the signal and at an amplitude proportional to the signal
amplitude. The structure of an ordinary loudspeaker is given in Fig. 3.37.

Figure 3.37: Parts of a loudspeaker

Loudspeakers most commonly have a circular symmetry. The cone section


in Fig. 3.37 is a cone shaped light diaphragm and it simply acts as the
piston head to push the air. It is very lightly supported at the peripheral
metal frame by corrugated suspension, both at top and at bottom. This
support allows the diaphragm to move easily, but up and down only.
We need a motor to drive the piston head. The motor is at the lower
part. Diaphragm is rigidly attached to the drive coil. The motor part
consists of a magnetic circuit, which moves the drive coil up and down
when there is a current flowing in the coil. Motor can be analyzed in two
parts. The first one is the magnetic circuit. The magnetic circuit is shown
in Fig. 3.38.
The source of the magnetic field is the permanent magnet, whose North-
South poles are aligned vertically in the cross section view. A magnetic
flux emanates from the magnet in that direction as well. The function of
the yoke is to concentrate the magnetic flux into the narrow circular air
slit. Yoke is made of a ferromagnetic material like iron, which conducts
the magnetic flux as copper conducts electric current. Thus almost all
the flux (small amount of flux escapes into surrounding air medium) is
concentrated in the slit, generating a circularly symmetric strong magnetic
field, B (top view).
Secondly, a circular drive coil is placed in this field. This is shown in
Fig. 3.39. When a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic
field, the conductor experiences a force in a direction perpendicular to
3.10. LABORATORY EXERCISES 119

Figure 3.38: Magnetic circuit of a loudspeaker

both the directions of the current and the magnetic field. Now since
current and magnetic field both lies on the same plane, the direction of
the generated force is perpendicular to that plane. For given directions
of field and current, the magnetic force is in the direction shown in the
figure. The magnitude of this force in Newtons is given as

Figure 3.39: Current carrying coil in a loudspeaker

F = N IB (3.62)

where I is the current in the coil, B is the magnetic field in Tesla and N
is the number of turns in the coil.
If the current in the coil is sinusoidal, then the force is obviously sinusoidal.
Whatever the signal (current) is, the force generated is proportional to it.
Therefore, we must apply a current, proportional to the voice signal, to
the drive coil of the loudspeaker. The generated magnetic force is then
proportional to the voice and since the coil is rigidly fixed to the cone
membrane (piston), the air in front of speaker is moved accordingly.
Loudspeakers are specified by their input resistance. 4 Ω, 8 Ω and 16 Ω
are standard input resistance values for this type of loudspeakers.
Cut two 10cm long pieces of wire. Solder one end of each to the lead points
on the loudspeaker. Fit the PCB jack to the other ends of the wires.
120 CHAPTER 3. AUDIO CIRCUITS

7. You must use another type of loudspeaker than the one in TRC-10 kit,
in order to perform this experiment step. The loudspeaker in TRC-10 is
of a low-cost type and its acoustic response at sub-audio frequencies is
poor. The suspension of the cone in this loudspeaker is stiff. You need a
mid-range loudspeaker or, still better, a woofer for this step. Borrow an
appropriate loudspeaker from lab technician. Place the loudspeaker on a
paperback book on the bench, cone facing upwards. Connect the PCB
jack of the speaker to the output of audio amplifier.
Connect the signal generator to the input of loudspeaker amplifier, at
TP21 and GND. Set the signal generator to sine wave output, with a fre-
quency of 1Hz, and amplitude of 0.1V peak. Adjust R15 to mid position.
Switch the power ON.
While watching the surface of the cone diaphragm carefully, increase the
volume until you can see the motion of the diaphragm. Increase the volume
until you can see the diaphragm motion clearly. You cannot hear anything
but you can see that the cone surface moves up and down in a sinusoidal
motion. You cannot hear, because this frequency is far below your audi-
tory systems pass-band. This is simply vibration. The sinusoidal input
voltage is converted into mechanical energy in form of sinusoidal motion.
Acoustic energy is a form of mechanical energy.
Change the signal generator output to a square wave of 50% duty cycle at
the same frequency. Observe the mechanical response of the cone surface.
Change the wave shape back to sinusoidal. While keeping the amplitude
constant, increase the frequency gradually. Find and record the frequency
where you can no longer follow the up and down motion of the dust cover
(i.e., where you can only see a blurred dust cover). This frequency is
approximately the perception threshold for motion of your visual system.
Keep on increasing the frequency. Find the frequency where your auditory
system starts sensing sound, i.e., the lowest frequency you can hear. This
frequency is approximately the lower cut-off frequency of your auditory
system. Record the frequency.
Increase the frequency to 50Hz. Listen to the sound carefully. You will
hear this hum sound in your professional life quite often. It is an indication
that 50Hz is not properly filtered out in the electronic circuit and there is
a leakage of line voltage into your low frequency circuits! As electrolytic
capacitors age, their values tend to become smaller. Hence, old electronic
circuits tend to generate this sound.
Switch off the power and disconnect the signal generator. Disconnect and
return the loudspeaker you borrowed back to the lab technician. Solder
C10, R12 and R13.
Connect the PCB jack of the TRC-10 loudspeaker to the output of audio
amplifier. Mount the loudspeaker on the panel into its brackets. Check
all new connections.

8. Connect the signal generator as you did in Exercise 12 (between TP21 and
GND). Set the signal generator to about 300 Hz sine wave of approximately
100mV peak amplitude. Connect a probe to signal generator output and
3.10. LABORATORY EXERCISES 121

see the sine wave on the oscilloscope. Adjust R22 to mid-range. Switch
the power ON.
Adjust R22 until you can hear a comfortable tone. While watching the
signal on the screen, listen to the sound as you increase the frequency
up to 20 KHz. Record the frequency above which you cannot hear any-
thing. This frequency is the cut off frequency of your auditory system
(subjectively, of course).
Decrease the frequency to 300 Hz. Change the signal type to square
wave of the same amplitude. Try to feel the difference between the sound
produced by a square wave and a sine wave of the same frequency and
amplitude. Although both signals have the same period, the square wave
has additional harmonic components. As the frequency is increased, the
filters in your audio circuits attenuate the harmonics of the square wave.
In addition, harmonics frequencies eventually fall beyond your hearing
cut-off frequency.
Connect another probe to the output at TP24. Make sure both waveforms
are clear and stable on the scope. Increase the frequency while watching
the waveforms, until the difference in the sound you hear from the sine
wave and the square wave becomes insignificant. Record that frequency.
Can you comment on the reason? (Hint: Consider the LPFs along the
way and your auditory system transfer response)
Set the signal generator to sweep mode, between 300 Hz and 3 KHz. In
sweep mode, the frequency of the signal generator output is continuously
varied linearly between lower and upper limits and in a specified period.
Set the period to approximately 1 second. Listen to the sound produced
while watching the waveform.
Switch off the power.

9. Solder a jumper at JP21. Connect a MP3 player’s earphone output to


the input amplifier at JM10. You can use the connector and cable of an
old earphone for this purpose. Turn on the power. Play a music in MP3
player. Enjoy your audio amplifier.
Switch off the power. Disconnect the jumper wire at JP21.
You are now ready to proceed with RF circuits :)
122 CHAPTER 3. AUDIO CIRCUITS

3.11 Problems
1. Expand ejθ in Taylor series, group the real and imaginary parts and show
that real series corresponds to the expansion of cos θ and imaginary series
correspond to the expansion of sin θ.

2. Show that capacitance is a linear circuit element.

3. Show that, if a circuit satisfies the linearity definition for two arbitrary
inputs, it also satisfies the linearity condition for an indefinite number of
inputs.

4. A voltage amplifier input/output characteristics is Vo (t) = AVi (t), where


Vi (t) is the input and Vo (t) is the output voltage, and A is a constant
(gain). Show that this amplifier is a linear circuit component.

5. Design a LPF using a resistor and an inductor. Find the transfer function
for this filter and plot its magnitude with respect to angular frequency.

6. Design a HPF using a resistor and an inductor. Find the transfer function
for this filter and plot its magnitude with respect to angular frequency.

7. Find the impedance of the circuits given in Fig. 3.40 at the specified
frequency. Write the impedance in polar form, i.e., magnitude and phase
(2 significant figures):

Figure 3.40: Circuits for problem 7

8. The voltage (current) sources given in Fig. 3.41 are connected to the cir-
cuits in problem 7. The frequencies of the sources are as given in prob-
lem 7. Find the current through (voltage across) the sources.

9. Calculate the current through the capacitor in problem 7(c) and inductor
in problem 7(e) and (f) using nodal analysis, when the sources in problem 8
are connected across the circuits.
3.11. PROBLEMS 123

Figure 3.41: Sources for problem 8

10. The voltage across and the current through two element series circuits
are given below. Find the component types and their values with two
significant figure accuracy and in regular value notation (like Ω, K for
resistance; µ, p for capacitance, etc.), for each circuit. Determine the
frequency and angular frequency in each case.
(a) v(t)=28.3cos(628t + 150o ) V i(t)=11.3cos(628t + 140) mA
(b) v(t)=5cos(2π300t − 25o ) V i(t)=8cos(2π300t + 5o ) mA
(c) v(t)=10cos(2π796t − 150o ) V i(t)=1.333cos(2π796t − 3π/8) mA
(d) v(t)=8cos(106 t + 45o ) V i(t)=8cos(106 t + 90o ) mA
(e) v(t)=5cos(2π106 t − 160o ) V i(t)=10cos(2π106 t − 75o ) mA
11. A series circuit has a resistor R=120 Ω and an inductor L=780 nH. A
voltage of 10 V peak value with a frequency of 25 MHz (zero phase)
is applied across this circuit. Find the current flowing through it and
write down the expression for the time waveform. Find the current, if the
frequency is increased to 50 MHz.
12. A series circuit has R=1K and C=120 pF. What is the frequency (not
angular frequency) at which the phase difference between the current and
voltage is π/4.
13. A series RC circuit has C=470 pF. Find R, if the phase difference between
current and voltage is 30o at 1 KHz.
14. The voltage and current of a two element series circuit at 500 KHz are
V =3̸ 45o V and I=1̸ 120o mA. When the frequency is changed to another
value f , the phase difference between the voltage and current becomes 30o .
Find f .
15. Assume that the voltage and current pairs given in problem 10 are for
two element parallel circuits. Determine the component types and their
values.
16. Find and draw the Thevenin equivalent of the circuits given in Fig. 3.42.
Express the equivalent voltages and impedances in polar form.
17. Convert the equivalent circuits found in problem 16 into Norton equivalent
circuits and draw them.
18. Find and draw the Norton equivalent of the circuits given in Fig. 3.43.
Express the equivalent currents and impedances in polar form.
124 CHAPTER 3. AUDIO CIRCUITS

19. Find the Veq and Zeq such that the circuit given in Fig. 3.44(a) can be
represented as in (b).

Figure 3.42: Circuits for problem 16

20. Find and draw the Thevenin and Norton equivalent circuits of the circuits
in Fig. 3.45 at DC, 20 MHz and 40 MHz.

21. This problem illustrates how a unity feedback amplifier is used to avoid
loading effects. Consider the divider circuit in the Fig. 3.46(a). What is
Vout ? Assume we want to apply Vout across a 1K resistor as shown in part
(b). What is Vout now? Now assume we place a buffer amplifier between
the divider and 1K resistor as in part (c). Find Vout .
3.11. PROBLEMS 125

Figure 3.43: Circuits for problem 18

Figure 3.44: Circuits for problem 19

22. Assume there are two signals, V1 and V2 . Design a summing amplifier to
produce Vout = 2V1 +0.5V2 , using (a) two OPAMPs, and (b) one OPAMP.

Figure 3.45: Circuits for problem 20

23. Make a table indicating what terminals to connect to the input signal
source or the output in order to get all possible (different) amplification
factors, for the circuit in Fig. 3.47. Also calculate the resulting input
impedance and what the possible gains are, and include them in the table.

24. Find Vo /Vin in the OPAMP circuits of Fig. 3.48 assuming that OPAMPs
are ideal.

25. Find the transfer functions Vo (ω)/Vin (ω) for the circuits given in prob-
lem 24.
126 CHAPTER 3. AUDIO CIRCUITS

Figure 3.46: Circuits for problem 21

Figure 3.47: Circuit for problem 23

26. In the circuits of Fig. 3.49, find the asymptotic behavior of the transfer
function at low frequencies and at high frequencies.
27. Find the transfer function of the circuit given in Fig. 3.50. Is there a
frequency at which the gain is zero? Which frequency? Is there a frequency
at which the gain is ∞?
3.11. PROBLEMS 127

Figure 3.48: Circuits for problem 24


128 CHAPTER 3. AUDIO CIRCUITS

Figure 3.49: Circuits for problem 26

Figure 3.50: Circuit for problem 27

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