Methodology

Research methods are the specific procedures for collecting and analysing data (Shona McCombes
2021). This section of this work outlines the methods deployed for this study. This study adopted a
secondary research method which relies on the review of existing and published literature on the
topic as the major data source for reaching its final findings (cite pls). This involved carrying out a
search of already completed relevant research work and examining the findings to reach new
conclusions (Smith, 2008, p.4). Relying on existing data meant that the study didn’t require any form
of primary data collection or physical field visits to gather data for this work.

According to (Preston, Aveyard, 2018) literature review is used to determine one or

more research questions that are subsequently answered using a systematic methodology. More so,
a literature review can address research questions with a power that no single study can match by
combining findings and interpretations from a variety of empirical data, (Snyder,2019). Hence, the
methodology for this study aims to synthesize findings in order to present evidence on a meta-level
and to identify areas where more research needs to be done, which is an essential step in
developing theoretical frameworks and conceptual models, (Snyder,2019).

Additionally, the choice of this method allowed leverage on a key advantage of secondary data
which is its cost effectiveness (O’leary 2017, p.268). The author would have been responsible for the
main cost of the data generated for the reports through primary methods as such the researcher
does not have to commit too much monetary resources to this phase of the study (O’leary 2017,
p.268). In cases where authors must pay to access secondary data, the cost are usually for less than
the cost of generating primary data which usually include stipends or salaries for enumerators,
transportation, and other field related logistic cost that is usually associated with collecting primary
data. (P Joaquim. 2017 p.53)

Secondary methods also comes with less hassles and so saves the author time since the data has
already been collected and, in most cases, processed into findings in the form of reports or briefs
usually stored in physical and or electronic format (SMS Kabir, 2016). Secondary data also allows the
author to exercise preference on the time saved from data collection, instead these become useful
resources spent on testing hypothesis or vetting findings from selected journal articles to determine
their alignment with the objectives of the proposed study and their suitability in responding to the
research question. (S Martins, 2018 p. 35).

While the study has benefitted from some of the major advantages of engaging a secondary method
in research, it also had to deal with a few limitations associated with a literature review as a major
research methodology. The research topic also hold potential to influence the authors reasoning
(Lee Jussim 2012 p. 141), considering the sentiments that is usually associated with religion
especially in Nigeria (C Kwaja, 2020). Following this, it was necessary for the author to maintain
neutrality in investigating the different resources pulled for this research, all studies were considered
with critical attention to the context, tone and logic that framed their arguments (P Leavy 2017 p. 4),
this was quite similar to conducting a multiverse analysis. Deploying A multiverse analysis involves
identifying all potential analytic choices that could justifiably be made to address a given research
question, implementing them all and reporting the results. Notably, this method differs from the
traditional approach in which findings from only one analytic method are reported. (J Baldwin 2022).

It was therefore important to be deliberate about emotions and seek ways to play down sentiments,
this can be managed by putting together findings across different studies and identifying points of
similarities and divergent opinions to identify the specific contribution of the different studies to the
research question (J. Baldwin 2022, p.2). Ascertaining studies with strong alignments to the research
question and focusing more on them was also helpful and this strategy have benefitted from a
deliberately selected approach in reaching the final search yield ensuring only studies with strong
evidence base were selected for this review (C Hoadley 2004 p.58)

The study also relied on some set of theories; this was to guide what to look for in the different
studies pieced together in this investigation. Theories are useful in predicting outcomes of a study
and they also help in analysing and interpreting the data pulled together across different resources
(Sutton & Staw 1995). This means writing critically looks beyond just summarising different theories
to explaining how they guide research design and data interpretation as well as stating any
limitations and how they have been dealt with (cite pls). Where possible, theoretical perspectives or
school of thoughts are key in providing justification for the choices reached in this investigation
(cite).

The key for this investigation was being able to establish what constituted existing knowledge about
the study and what is not yet known, and this allows the author to understand the current state of
knowledge about the research question to ensure effective linkages with this work and to identify
gaps in existing knowledge (Aveyard,2016). . A literature review helps to resolve a debate, establish
the need for additional research, and or define new topics of inquiry. (A Norin 2015 p. 8)

Search strategy

As stated by Aveyard (2014),this study has adopted a search strategy that enabled it narrow its focus
to only studies that related to the research question, this was further refined to a geographical
location limiting interest to studies in Nigeria and Africa at most. Key consideration in the research
strategy included

Key Terminologies and Synonyms: Key terms (figure 1) are entered for each article submitted to
databases, so using appropriate terms allowed for identification within the searches, finding relevant
titles and abstracts available (Aveyard et al., 2016, p.67-68). The key terms captured the essence of
the research question, and synonyms were employed to ensure alternative terms used by authors
throughout the field were considered, making sure studies were not missed. Boolean operators
(AND, OR, NOT) were employed according to Aveyard et al. 's (2016, p.75) recommendation, which
either limit the search (AND), widen by picking up either the key term or alternatives (OR), or give
the option of excluding terms (NOT). Truncation was employed to allow for all possible forms of a
term to be included.

S/N Key words Synonyms

1 Religion Faith, belief, Creed,
2 Vaccination Jab, Immunization,
Inoculation
3 Public Health Communal Health,
4 Believe systems Spiritual leader
5 Religious Leaders Faith leaders
6 Faith actors Religious Leaders,
Religious groups

Figure 1: Key terms

Determining the Database

A database system is a unified collection of related articles, with details of the description of the
contents. In fundamental terms, the database system is similar to a computer-based record keeping
system used for recording and managing information or data. (G Bhojaraju 2003). The search
strategy included a comprehensive search using The University of Northampton Electronic Library
Search Online (NELSON) which comprises of: CINAHL, Biomed Central Journals, Wiley Online Library
Journals, Medline, PubMed, SAGE Journals Online, Science Direct, PMC and other web-based and
electronic database system using defined inclusion and exclusion guides to prioritise the search
process. The search used relevant, specific databases to maximise the identification of appropriate
literature (Aveyard et al. 2016, p.72). The table below presents the list of the databases used to
reach the search yield for this investigation.

S/N Database Mode of Storage Area searched

1 Research Gate Web Based Research Methods
2 PDF Drive Web Based Combined Articles
3 Academia Web Based Combined Articles
4 Scientific Research Web Based Social Science and Life
Science
5 PubMed Central Web Based Public Health and Religion
6 Cambridge University Press Web Based General Research Topics
7 CINAHL
8 Medline
9 Sage journals online

Inclusion & exclusion criteria

The inclusion and exclusion criteria guide are effective for refining the search and ensuring
continuous alignment of data to the objective of the study and most importantly keeping a focus on
reports that are relevant to the research questions (Aveyard et al. 2016, p.76). They also help
investigators describe precise components of their study objectives as well as contribute to
transparency which is a key systematic review value (Petticrew & Roberts, 2006). The table below
present a snapshot of the inclusion and exclusion criteria for this work.
S/N Inclusion criteria Exclusion criteria
1 Peer reviewed research Geographical Scope of the literature
2 Vaccination campaign Studies older than 10 years
3 Qualitative studies exploring voluntary Systematic reviews
vaccine up-take in Nigeria
4 Public Health specific religious quotes Online Blogs and Editorials
5 News item
Figure 2: Inclusion and Exclusion criteria

Venn diagram
The Venn diagram is a popular tool for showing relationships in biomedical studies. (C Gao, 2021 p.
24). The Venn Diagram is a graphical representation of the distribution of the key search terms in
the final search yield. (B Hur, 2019, p. 58). The Venn Diagram for contains 3 circle labelled A, B and C.
 Circle A depicts all research that have been reviewed for this study (i.e., reports that directly
contributes to responding to the research questions, Circle B for articles that contributed
background and context information and Circle C for articles that contributes to introductory and
formatting related information. The search yield has been rated based on the weight of the key word
contained in them.
Set A = Reports with key terms that directly contributes to responding to the research questions

Set B = Reports with key terms that contributed to background and context information

Set C = Reports with key terms that contributes to introductory and formatting related information

B
AC
BC

Figure 3: Venn diagram (C Gao, 2021)

Data Management
This study adopted a systematic approach to data handling for the reports or publications selected
for this study (Aveyard et al., 2016, p.79). This included a table chart with headers for key themes of
interest in each publication, for this study the focus was on the Title of the publication, the
Author(s), Year of publication, Research Methodology, relevance among others. The table below
shows details of the key headers in the data collection tool used for this study. See the annexes for a
completed table with the total search yield.
Title Author Year Objective Method Participants Critical Themes Outcome / Relevance
appraisal Findings

Figure 4: Data handling table headings

As a study carried out using a secondary research method this work prioritised carefully screening
selected publications to gain insight of the strengths, limitations, and relevance of the selected
studies as a criterion for assuring the reliability of the findings and conclusion reached in them. The
study also ensured that methods including data collection data collection and data analysis tools
suits the study and appropriate to respond to the research question. (Bowling, 2014, p.166).
Observation and excerpts were noted down and reviewed taking note of the citation details and
page numbers where relevant for easy tracking of key findings.

This study adopted the reviewed version of the popular McMaster University Occupational Therapy
Evidence-Based Practice Research Group Critical Review Form. The guidelines of this tool were
critical in enabling the appraisal of the selected articles for this work, focusing on key study
components like Citation, Study Purpose, Literature, and the entire Study Design (Letts et al., 2007).
These tools were originally designed by the McMaster University Occupational Therapy Evidence-
Based Practice Research Group, they are easy to deploy as they written in basic terms that can be
understood by researchers as well as clinicians and students interested in conducting critical
literature reviews.

The Critical Review Form allowed for a detail review of the study and understanding of how the
author(s) have reached their final findings based on an understanding of the key study component
(McMaster University, 2021). Adopting critical appraisal tools that allows for effective analysis of the
process authors have adopted in the design and implementation of their studies enhances the
confidence in the findings they put forward as well facilitate easy acceptance among target
audience. (Aveyard et al. 2016, p.109)

Data analysis
This study has reached its findings by analysing relevant data on the impact of religion on
vaccination in Nigeria, it reviewed, critiqued, and synthesized representative literature on the impact
of religion on vaccination in Nigeria to reach new frameworks and perspectives on the topic of this
work. (Arshed, Norin & Danson, Mike. (2015)). This study prioritised the relevance of reports from
the search yield in responding to the research questions then proceed to identify data across these
studies that related to the objective of this work and then putting them together to reach the final
findings of this work. The analysis meant that we are able to propose a new argument that looked
entirely different from those you could deduce from reading the different literature used for this
work individually. (H Aveyard, 2014 p. 138-140). The goal is to ‘produce a new and integrative
interpretation of findings that is more substantive than those resulting from individual investigation’
(Finfgeld 2003, p. 894).
This has been completed bearing in mind that literature reviews are usually supposed to consider
the research question, especially in terms of clarity and specificity, the search strategy,
Methodology, presentation of findings and recommendation (H Aveyard, 2014 p.22). Using existing
data has allowed the quick review of existing opinions and scientific evidence on public health issues
focusing on howe religion facilities or limits voluntary vaccine uptake in Nigeria. It is important that
most existing data sets have been designed to capture belief and behavioural outcomes and their
linkages to religious influences it has become easier to link papers or studies with similar these and
then complete a comparative analysis on the justification for the conclusion reached across papers
and varying authors. (T. P. Vartanian 2011 p. 15)

Putting together the summaries from different articles posed some challenges as a result of the
complexity related to how different authors present information. This study was interrogative in
nature using a research question that has been framed to be investigative in outlook. (H Aveyard,
2014 p. 28). Literature reviews that uses interrogative form in framing research question … clarity
rather than appearing as regular statements. In her argument Helen Aveyard believes adopting
interrogative form of research questions helps to keep literature reviews focussed which she also
believes enables the entire work to remain aligned to responding to the questions and objectives of
a study. (H Aveyard, 2014 p. 30). This approach enabled this study to prioritise data from different
articles according to relevance and closeness to the research question. The subjective nature of most
authors and the sentiments that can arise from dealing with a socially complex topic like religion is
further minimised by continuously focusing on seeking answers to the research questions minimising
bias and emotional deviations, acknowledging that deviations in a process are common, but noting
that what is more important is how and what one does about the deviation (S. Ostrove 2016)

Ethical considerations
The methodology adopted for this work largely minimized most Research Ethics related risks,
however, this didn’t entirely constitute waiver entirely for ethical considerations. (Smith, E. 2008, p.
79). This study still made effort to adhere to the Royal College of Occupational Therapists (RCOT,
2015) direction that all studies and their authors exercise duty of care to service users, including
consent to participate and capacity to understand the research context (RCOT, 2015, p.19). As such
this research was deliberate about examining studies to be sure they have fulfilled ethical
considerations and requirement for conducting acceptable studies. This means that all resources
included in this study had been conducted with consideration to its costs and benefits to
participants, as well as confidentiality and anonymity (Punch, 2016, p.25 & 101), in this study
anonymity has been prioritised over confidentiality except in cases where very sensitive information
has been noticed in a publication, understanding how and where a study-related data has been
collected was useful in determining the sensitivity and gravity of any potential ethical concern.
Cresswell and Cresswell’s recommendation on the importance of personal privacy when engaging
internet-based resources (Cresswell and Cresswell 2018, p.88) have been strictly adhered to in this
study. The study has been deliberate in completing checks for compliance with ethical guides to
ensure statements of ethical approvals.

As it is dependent on the study approach, the author examined each piece of research on its own
merits, appraising the impact of any social research upon participants, identifying issues requiring
consideration such as the potential for harm upon participants, or competence to undertake the
research design (Punch, 2016, p.31). The author always tried to remain non-biased in approaching
the research, representing the body of research without placing personal beliefs & values on the
studies (Robson, 1998, p.68).

Resources and facilities

Resourcing for data for this study heavily relied on the internet following the continuously growing
dependency on the internet as ready source of information. There have always been viable
alternatives to source for information for different studies and by different categories of people
(Burkell, et al., 2006; Wong and Sam 2010; Hersberger, 2001; Yusuf 2012; Ukachi, 2007), However,
the universality of the Internet and its ability to deliver information on virtually any topic of interest
with simple clicks of a button at minimal costs has made it a preferred option to physical alternatives
in search for information. The Web has exploded into an information platform of tremendous
importance, with several hundred million users and over a billion Web pages (Buscher, et al., 2009;
Pitkow, et al., 2009).
While this study has relied heavily on internet resources, it also benefitted from other sources of
information and more importantly on guidance from colleagues, practitioners, professorial
supervision among others to ensure alignment to acceptable research practices (Biggam, 2009, p.27-
29).

Below is a table listing the data sources that contributed to this work.

Academic library
Professional project supervisor
Computer
Study space at home
Logbooks
Aid and Development Workers
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