RADIATION ACCIDENTS

Radiation injury in the general population due to accidents or incidents is a rare

but remarkable event that merits serious study and planning in the health care
system. A radiation accident is defined by the International Atomic Energy
Agency as “an event that has led to significant consequences to people, the
environment, or the facility. They can be related to a wide spectrum of
practices, including industrial use, use of radiation sources in hospitals, activity
in nuclear facilities, and transport of radioactive material. Also, a war or a
possible terrorist nuclear attack can occur. The main scenario of a “major
nuclear accident” is one in which a reactor core is damaged and large amounts
of radiation are released, such as the Chernobyl Disaster in 1986, or more
recently, the Fukushima nuclear power plant accident in March 2011.

 The Chernobyl accident in 1986 was the result of a flawed reactor design
that was operated with inadequately trained personnel.
 The resulting steam explosion and fires released at least 5% of the
radioactive reactor core into the atmosphere and downwind – some 5200
PBq (I-131 eq). PBq = petabecquerel (1015 Bq).
 Two Chernobyl plant workers died on the night of the accident, and a
further 28 people died within a few weeks as a result of acute radiation
poisoning.
 United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effect of Atomic Radiation
(UNSCEAR) says that apart from increased thyroid cancers, "there is no
evidence of a major public health impact attributable to radiation
exposure 20 years after the accident."
 Resettlement of areas from which people were relocated is ongoing. In
2011 Chernobyl has officially declared a tourist attraction.
 The Chernobyl disaster, also referred to as the Chernobyl accident, was a
catastrophic nuclear accident that occurred on 25–26 April 1986 in the
No. 4 nuclear reactor at the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant, near the
now-abandoned town of Pripyat, in northern Soviet Ukraine.

The Chenobyl power station consisted of four reactors, each capable of

producing 1,000 megawatts of electric power. On 25 April, prior to a routine
shutdown, the reactor crew at Chernobyl 4 began preparing for a test to
determine how long turbines would spin and supply power to the main
circulating pumps following a loss of the main electrical power supply. This test
had been carried out at Chernobyl the previous year, but the power from the
turbine ran down too rapidly, so new voltage regulator designs were to be
tested. The reactor was a poorly designed type of equipment and the operators
were technicians. Preceding the test early on the 26th of April morning,
operators shut down the reactor’s power-regulating system and its emergency
safety systems, and they withdrew most of the control rods from its core while
allowing the reactor to continue running at 7 percent power. By the time that the
operator moved to shut down the reactor, the reactor was in an extremely
unstable condition. A peculiarity of the design of the control rods caused a
dramatic power surge as they were inserted into the reactor. The interaction of
very hot fuel with the cooling water led to fuel fragmentation along with rapid
steam production and an increase in pressure. The design characteristics of the
reactor were such that substantial damage to even three or four fuel assemblies
would – and did – result in the destruction of the reactor. The overpressure
caused the 1000 t cover plate of the reactor to become partially detached,
rupturing the fuel channels and jamming all the control rods, which by that time
were only halfway down. Intense steam generation then spread throughout the
whole core (fed by water dumped into the core due to the rupture of the
emergency cooling circuit) causing a steam explosion and releasing fission
products into the atmosphere. About two to three seconds later, a second
explosion threw out fragments from the fuel channels and hot graphite. These
mistakes were compounded by others causing a chain reaction in the core which
then went out of control. Several explosions triggered a large fireball and blew
off the heavy steel and concrete lid of the reactor. This and the ensuing fire in
the graphite reactor core released large amounts of radioactive material into
the atmosphere, where it was carried great distances by air currents. A
partial meltdown of the core also occurred.

The immediate impact of the Chernobyl accident

The accident caused the largest uncontrolled radioactive release into the
environment ever recorded for any civilian operation, and large quantities of
radioactive substances were released into the air for about 10 days. This caused
serious social and economic disruption for large populations in Belarus, Russia,
and Ukraine. Two radionuclides, the short-lived iodine-131, and the long-lived
cesium-137 were particularly significant for the radiation dose they delivered to
members of the public.
It is estimated that all of the xenon gas, about half of the iodine and cesium, and
at least 5% of the remaining radioactive material in the Chernobyl 4 reactor core
(which had 192 tonnes of fuel) was released in the accident. Most of the
released material was deposited close by as dust and debris, but the lighter
material was carried by wind over Ukraine, Belarus, Russia, and to some extent
over Scandinavia and Europe.
The casualties included firefighters who attended the initial fires on the roof of
the turbine building. All these were put out in a few hours, but radiation doses
on the first day were estimated to range up to 20,000 millisieverts (mSv),
causing 28 deaths – six of which were firemen – by the end of July 1986.
The next task was cleaning up the radioactivity at the site so that the remaining
three reactors could be restarted, and the damaged reactor shielded more
permanently. About 200,000 people ('liquidators') from all over the Soviet
Union were involved in the recovery and clean-up between 1986 and 1987.
They received high doses of radiation, averaging around 100 millisieverts.
Some 20,000 of them received about 250 mSv and a few received 500 mSv.
Later, the number of liquidators swelled to over 600,000 but most of these
received only low radiation doses. The highest doses were received by about
1000 emergency workers and on-site personnel during the first day of the
accident.
Initial radiation exposure in contaminated areas was due to short-lived iodine-
131; later cesium-137 was the main hazard. (Both are fission products dispersed
from the reactor core, with half-lives of 8 days and 30 years, respectively. 1.8
EBq of I-131 and 0.085 EBq of Cs-137 were released.) About five million
people lived in areas of Belarus, Russia, and Ukraine contaminated (above 37
kBq/m2 Cs-137 in soil) and about 400,000 lived in more contaminated areas
under strict control by authorities (above 555 kBq/m2 Cs-137). A total of 29,400
km2 was contaminated above 180 kBq/m2.

Some sources state that two people were killed in the initial explosions, whereas
others report that the figure was closer to 50. Dozens more contracted
serious radiation sickness; some of these people later died. Between 50 and 185
million curies of radionuclides (radioactive forms of chemical elements)
escaped into the atmosphere—several times more radioactivity than that created
by the atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Japan. This
radioactivity was spread by the wind over Belarus, Russia, and Ukraine and
soon reached as far west as France and Italy. Millions of acres of forest and
farmland were contaminated, and, although many thousands of people were
evacuated, hundreds of thousands more remained in contaminated areas. In
addition, in subsequent years many livestock were born deformed, and among
humans, several thousand radiation-induced illnesses and cancer deaths were
expected in the long term. The Chernobyl disaster sparked criticism of unsafe
procedures and design flaws in Soviet reactors, and it heightened resistance to
the building of more such plants. Chernobyl Unit 2 was shut down after a 1991
fire, and Unit 1 remained online until 1996. Chernobyl Unit 3 continued to
operate until 2000 when the nuclear power station was officially
decommissioned.

Following the disaster, the Soviet Union created a circle-shaped exclusion zone
with a radius of about 18.6 miles (30 km) centered on the nuclear power plant.
The exclusion zone covered an area of about 1,017 square miles (2,634 square
km) around the plant. However, it was later expanded to 1,600 square miles
(4,143 square km) to include heavily radiated areas outside the initial zone.
Although no people actually live in the exclusion zone, scientists, scavengers,
and others may file for permits that allow them to enter for limited amounts of
time.

During the final stage of World War II, the United States detonated two nuclear
weapons over the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki on August 6 and 9,
1945, respectively. The United States dropped the bombs after obtaining the
consent of the United Kingdom, as required by the Quebec Agreement. The two
bombings killed 129,000–226,000 people, most of whom were civilians. They
remain the only use of nuclear weapons in the history of armed conflict.

By the end of 1945, the atomic bombings of Japan had killed an

estimated 140,000 people at Hiroshima and 74,000 at Nagasaki, including those
who died from radiation poisoning. Often lost in those numbers are the
experiences of the survivors, known as hibakusha (literally “atomic bomb-
affected people”).

The Bombings
On August 6, 1945, the United States dropped its first atomic bomb, a uranium
gun-type bomb nicknamed “Little Boy,” on Hiroshima. It exploded with
approximately 15 kilotons of force above the city of 350,000, causing a
shockwave of destruction and a fireball with temperatures as hot as the sun.
Kimura Yoshihiro, in third grade at the time, saw the bomb fall from the plane.
“Five or six seconds later, everything turned yellow. It was like I’d looked right
at the sun. Then there was a big sound a second or two later and everything
went dark”. Those at the epicenter of the blast were vaporized instantly. Others
suffered horrific burns or were crushed by falling buildings. Hundreds threw
themselves into the nearby river to escape the fires that burned throughout the
city. As Doctor Michihiko Hachiya recalled, “Hiroshima was no longer a city,
but a burnt-over prairie”. Sadako Kurihara also expressed the aftermath in her
poem “Ruins”: Hiroshima: nothing, nothing-old and young burned to death,
city blown away,socket without eyeball. White bones scattered over reddish
rubble; above, sun burning down: city of ruins, still as death.
Three days later, the United States dropped a second bomb, a plutonium
implosion bomb called “Fat Man,” on Nagasaki, home to an estimated 250,000
at the time. Koichi Wada, two miles away from ground zero, remembered, “The
light was indescribable - an unbelievably massive light lit up the whole city.”
Sumiteru Taniguchi, fourteen at the time, was blown completely off his bicycle
by the force of the blast. “The earth was shaking so hard that I hung on as hard
as I could so I wouldn’t get blown away”. Katsuji Yoshida, only a half mile
from the explosion, recalled, “Blood was pouring out of my flesh. I know it
sounds strange, but I felt absolutely no pain. I even forgot to cry”.
The Japanese military quickly sent a three-member documentary crew to record
the bombings for possible propaganda use, though there would be too much
chaos to use the footage. Yamahata Yosuke, the photographer on the team,
remembered, “One blessing among these unfortunate circumstances is that the
resulting photographs were never used by the Japanese army in one last
misguided attempt to rouse popular support for the continuation of warfare”.

Immediate Aftermath
In the days after the bombings, families in Hiroshima and Nagasaki were
advised to leave the cities. Some left with what little provisions they could find,
but many had nowhere to go. They made primitive huts on the edge of the
cities, or slept in train stations and burned-out train cars.
Meanwhile, symptoms of radiation poisoning began. These included hair loss,
bleeding gums, loss of energy, purple spots, pain, and high fevers, often
resulting in fatalities. Rumors quickly spread that the mysterious illness was
contagious. Hibakusha were turned away from homes, and some farmers even
refused to give them food. The Japanese government’s report on August 23
describing radiation poisoning as an “evil spirit” did not help the situation. It
would not be the last time the hibakusha faced discrimination.

Types of Radiation Emergencies

Radiation emergencies may be intentional (e.g., caused by terrorists) or

unintentional. Below is more information on some examples of different types
of radiation emergencies.

Nuclear Emergencies

What is an Improvised Nuclear Device (IND)?

 A nuclear emergency involves the explosion of a nuclear weapon or

improvised nuclear device (IND).
 . The explosion produces an intense pulse of heat, light, air pressure, and
radiation.

 Nuclear explosions produce fallout (radioactive materials that can be

carried long distances by the wind).

What are the main dangers of an Improvised Nuclear Device (IND)?

An IND would cause great destruction, death and injury, and have a wide area
of impact.

People close to the blast site could experience:

 Injury or death (as a result of the blast)

 Moderate to severe burns
 Flash blindness
 Radiation Sickness (also called acute radiation syndrome or ARS)
 Contaminated food and water sources

The best way to protect yourself if an IND explodes is to Get Inside, Stay
Inside, and Stay Tuned.

Dirty Bomb or Radiological Dispersal Device (RDD)

What is a dirty bomb?

 A dirty bomb is a mix of explosives, such as dynamite, with radioactive

powder or pellets. It is also known as a radiological dispersal device
(RDD).
 A dirty bomb cannot create an atomic blast like an improvised nuclear
device or nuclear weapon.
 When the dirty bomb explodes, the blast carries radioactive material into
the surrounding area.

What is the main danger of a dirty bomb?

 The main danger from a dirty bomb comes from the explosion, not the
radiation.
 The explosion from a dirty bomb can cause serious injuries and property
damage.
 Only people who are very close to the blast site would be exposed to
enough radiation to cause immediate serious illness. However, the
radioactive dust and smoke can spread farther away and could be
 dangerous to health if people breathe in the dust, eat contaminated food,
or drink contaminated water.

The best way to protect yourself if a dirty bomb explodes is to Get Inside, Stay
Inside, and Stay Tuned.

Radiological Exposure Device (RED)

What is a Radiological Exposure Device (RED)?

 Radioactive material could be hidden from sight to expose people to

radiation without their knowledge. These devices are called Radiological
Exposure Devices (RED), or hidden sealed sources.
 REDs could be hidden from sight in a public place (e.g. under a subway
seat, in a food court, or in a busy hallway). People who sit or pass close to
the site of a RED could be exposed to radiation.

What are the main dangers of an RED?

 The dangers of a Radiological Exposure Device depend on:

o The type and amount of radioactive material
o How long people were near the device
o What parts of their bodies were exposed
 People exposed to high levels of radiation could develop symptoms of
acute radiation syndrome (ARS), or could develop radiation burns.
 Health effects may take hours, days, or weeks to appear. These effects
range from mild to severe effects, such as death or cancer. Some people
may not experience any health effects.

Report a suspected Radiological Exposure Device to law enforcement officials

immediately. Stay as far away from the suspected RED as possible. If a RED is
identified, and you believe you have been exposed, listen for instructions from
emergency officials and contact your doctor.

Nuclear Power Plant Accident

Nuclear power plants have safety and security procedures in place and are
closely monitored by the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC)External. An
accident at a nuclear power plant could release dangerous levels of radiation
over an area (called a plume).

What are the main dangers of a nuclear power plant accident?

  Radioactive materials in the plume from the nuclear power plant can
settle and contaminate people who are outdoors, buildings, food, water,
and livestock.
 Radioactive materials can also get inside the body if people breathe it in,
or eat or drink something that is contaminated.
 People living close to the nuclear power plant who are exposed to
radiation could experience long-term health effects such as cancer.

What should I do to protect myself?

 If you live near a nuclear power plant, you can get emergency
information materials from the power company that operates your local
nuclear power plant or your local emergency services office. If a nuclear
power plant accident happens, the best thing to do is to Get Inside, Stay
Inside, and Stay Tuned for instructions from emergency officials.

Transportation Accidents

How is radioactive material transported?

 Radioactive material is transported by trucks, rail, and other shipping

methods.
 Shipments involving significant amounts of radioactive material are
required to have documentation, labels, and placards identifying the cargo
as radioactive.

What are the main dangers of a transportation accident involving

radiation?

 The main dangers of transportation accidents involving radiation are

contact with and exposure to radioactive material.
 It is very unlikely that accidents involving transport of radioactive
material will cause any radiation-related injuries or illnesses. Emergency
officials have plans in place to safely respond to transportation accidents
involving radioactive material.

What should I do to protect myself?

 Report any transportation accidents involving radiation to emergency

responders immediately. Stay as far away from the site of the accident as
possible. Do not touch any cargo from the transport container.
 If you believe you have been exposed, listen for instructions from
emergency officials and contact your doctor.
Occupational Accidents

Workplaces like health care facilities, research institutions, and various

manufacturing operations use radiation sources. If radiation sources are used
improperly, or if there are malfunctions of safety controls, accidents can
happen.

How can an occupational accident involving radiation affect people’s health?

The health effects from an occupational accident involving radiation could

range from no health effects to very serious health effects based on several
factors:

 The type and amount of radioactive material

 How long people were near the radioactive material or how long the
radioactive material was in or on the body
 How close people were to the radioactive material
 What parts of the body were exposed

What should I do to protect myself?

 If you work in an occupation that uses radiation sources, be familiar with

safety precautions and procedures and complete required radiation safety
trainings.
 Report any occupational accidents involving radiation to safety officials
immediately. Stay as far away from the site of the accident as possible.
 If you believe you have been exposed, listen for instructions from safety
officials and contact your doctor.