TRAINING NOTES(3.

9 Capacitance /Capacitors)
a) Operation and function of a capacitor;
b) Factors affecting on capacitance:- area of plates, distance between plates, number of plates,
dielectric and dielectric constant, working voltage, voltage rating;
c) Capacitor types, construction and function;
d) Calculations of capacitance and voltage in series and parallel circuits;
e) Exponential charge and discharge of a capacitor, time constants;
f) Testing of capacitors.

 CAPACITOR:-
 If we have two metal plates close together, but separated by an insulator or dielectric (which could be
air) and we apply a voltage across them, electrons are removed from one plate and applied to the other
and each becomes charged.
 The charge held by the combination may be very large because of the concentration of the electric field
between the plates. This represents a basic capacitor.

Thus, a capacitor is a device which opposes voltage change in a circuit through its capacity to store
electrical energy (or charge) in the form of an electric field.
 CAPACITOR SYMBOLS:-
 The diagram below gives the symbols for capacitors. The pre-set capacitor (sometimes referred to as a
padder or trimmer) allows slight variations to be made about its fixed value.


 CAPACITANCE:-
 If we increase the voltage between the plates, the charge increases, but the ratio of charge to voltage
remains the same. This ratio gives the capacitance (C) of the capacitor.
Charge/Voltage = A constant called capacitance
 When the charge (Q) is in coulombs and the voltage (V) in volts, then the capacitance (C) is in farads
(F).
C =Q/V(and also Q = VC, V =Q/C)
 A capacitor has a capacitance of one Farad when a charging current of one ampere, flowing for one
second, causes a change of voltage of one volt between its plates.
 The Farad is a huge unit and smaller units are used in practice.
1 microfarad (µF) = 10-6 farad
1 picofarad (pF) = 10-12 farad
 FACTORS AFFECTING CAPACITANCE:-
 The factors which affect the capacitance of a parallel-plate capacitor are:
 Overlapping area of the plates (A). The capacitance increases as the area of overlap increases since
a larger plate area provides more room to accommodate the increase charge.
 Distance between the plates (d). The capacitance increases as the distance between the plates
decreases, since the electric field then becomes more concentrated.
 Material between the plates. This introduces a constant called the absolute permittivity (ε). The
constant ε is actually the product of two constants, the permittivity of space (εo) which has a value of
8.85 x 10-12 Fm-1 and the relative permittivity (εr), which is basically a multiplication factor (no units)
that indicates how many more times the material is able to concentrate the electric flux compared with
space. For example, if waxed paper is inserted between the plates instead of air, the ability to
 concentrate a flux (the permittivity) is multiplied by approximately 3, therefore the relative permittivity
(εr) of waxed paper is approximately 3.
 We may summaries this in equation form as:
C =εA/d
 The units of ‘C’ are Farads if the units of the other quantities are:
• Area (a) – square meters (m2).
• Distance between plates (d) – meters (m).
• Absolute permittivity (ε) – farads per meter (Fm-1).
 ENERGY STORED IN A CAPACITOR
 Energy is stored in the electric field of a charged capacitor.
 If a dielectric is inserted, extra energy is stored above that stored in free space, due to the distortion of
electron orbits in the atoms.
 The energy stored is given by the equation:
Energy = ½CV2 joules
= ½QV since CV = Q
= ½Q2/C since V = Q/C

 CAPACITOR CONSTRUCTION
 FIXED CAPACITORS
 Fixed capacitors usually consist of sheets of metal foil between which is sandwiched the dielectric, or
alternatively the metal, such as aluminium, is deposited onto both sides of the dielectric.
 The characteristics and quality of the capacitor depends mainly on the dielectric, which may be paper,
chemically impregnated paper, plastics mica or ceramic.
 VARIABLE CAPACITORS
 Variable capacitors are usually meter plates with air as the dielectric.
 The variation is achieved by varying the area of overlap of the plates.
 Preset capacitors may use air, mica or ceramics as the dielectric.
 ELECTROLYTIC CAPACITORS
 Electrolytic capacitors use the metal oxide as the dielectric which is formed directly on the metal plates.
High values of capacitance can be achieved here with small physical size.
 Most electrolytic capacitors must be connected into circuit with the correct polarity or damage (possibly
including explosion) may result.
 CAPACITORS IN SERIES:-

 When three capacitors are connected in series.

 If one electron moves from the negative terminal of the cell to the right hand plate of C3, and one electron
moves from the left hand plate of C1 to the positive terminal of the cell, one electron will move between
C1 and C2 and between C2 and C3.
 Thus, the total charge moved is one electron and the charge on each capacitor is one electron.
 Thus:
QTOTAL = Q1 = Q2 = Q3
but V = V1 + V2 + V3 (Kirchhoff’s second law)
also V = Q/C
Therefore Q / CTOTAL = Q/ C1 + Q/ C2+ Q/ C3

Hence
 Therefore, the three single capacitors may be replaced by a single capacitor whose capacitance (C) is
given by the above equation, provided its safe working voltage is of a sufficiently high value to withstand
the applied voltage.
 CAPACITORS IN PARALLEL

 Three capacitors are connected in parallel. If on closing the switch S a current I flows in the circuit, then
from Kirchoff’s first law:
I = I1 + I2 + I3
therefore It = I1t + I2t + I3t (where ‘t’ is the time)
but Q = It
therefore QTOTAL = Q1 + Q2 + Q3
therefore QTOTAL /V= Q1 /V+ Q2/V + Q3/V
but Q /V= C
Therefore C = C1 + C2 + C3
 Thus, we may replace capacitors in parallel by a single capacitor whose value is given by the above
equation.
 CHARGE & DISCHARGE CHARACTERISTICS:-
 A capacitor opposes voltage change in a circuit; indeed, if we had a perfect d.c. circuit and a perfect
capacitor, then only an instantaneous current would flow, charging the capacitor instantaneously to equal
the applied voltage (but in the reverse sense) and so preventing further current flow. However, in any real
circuit, resistance is present in the form of:
• the connecting wires.
• Internal resistance within the d.c. source.
 CHARGING A CAPACITOR

 In the diagram below, all of the resistance in the circuit is added together and shown as a single value R.
 With S1 closed and S2 open, the capacitor will charge up.
 Note that Kirchhoff’s second law always applies, that is:
E = VR + V C
 The charging sequence is as follows:
 On closing S1, no current has yet flowed, the capacitor plates have no charge on them and hence, there
is no voltage across it.
 The whole of the applied voltage is developed across the resistor :VR = E
 The initial charging current is equal to the current through the resistor:
 As C charges, the potential difference across it (VC) increases, opposing the applied voltage (E) so that
the charging current is progressively reduced.
 Finally the capacitor is fully charged (VC = E) and current ceases (consequently VR = O).
 This sequence is shown graphically below.

 The curves are called ‘exponential’ curves and it can be seen that the slopes dVc/dt and dI/dt are
progressively decreasing as time increases.
 TIME CONSTANT
 It is found that the time taken to charge up the capacitor depends on the product of capacitance and
resistance. This product is called the ‘time constant’ of the circuit and its value is in seconds, providing R
is in ohms and C in farads.
TIME CONSTANT = CR

 DISCHARGING A CAPACITOR
 On opening S1 and closing S2 (after the capacitor is fully charged), the capacitor discharges, thus
current flows (in the opposite direction to the original current) and the voltage across the capacitor falls to
zero exponentially.
 In this case the voltage across the capacitor falls by 63.2% to 0.368E in CR seconds and takes 5CR
seconds to fall to zero (0.368 is sometimes taken as 1/3 in calculations).

 SAFETY & TESTING

 A charged capacitor can store a large amount of energy which it releases on discharge. It is therefore
important to ensure that capacitors, especially large ones, are discharged before you attempt to touch
them. Particular care is required when servicing faulty high voltage equipment.
 A capacitor can be tested using an ohmmeter. When connected across a capacitor, the ohmmeter's
battery charges the capacitor. The charging of the capacitor is indicated by a changing value of
resistance, from zero to infinity as the capacitor charges. If the charging process is too quick to see, a
resistor can be placed in series with the meter and capacitor to slow it down (time constant =CR).
 In many cases it is necessary to remove the capacitor from the circuit in order to test its serviceability.

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