QUANTUM BLOCKCHAIN FOR CROSS

AUTHENTICATION IN IoT ENVIRONMENT

A DISSERTATION

SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE

AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

Submitted By:
SHASHANK CHAUBEY
2K20/CO/421
ROHIT KUMAR VERMA
2K20/CO/376

Under the supervision of

DR. RAJEEV KUMAR

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

DELHI TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY
(Formerly Delhi College of Engineering)
Bawana Road, Delhi - 110042

DECEMBER 2023

I
 DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
DELHI TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY
(Formerly Delhi College of Engineering)
Bawana Road, Delhi - 110042

CANDIDATE’S DECLARATION

We, Shashank Chaubey (2K20/CO/421), Rohit Kumar Verma (2K20/CO/376) of B.

Tech. (Computer Science and Engineering), hereby declare that the project Dissertation
titled "Quantum Blockchain For Cross Authentication In Iot Environment" which is
submitted by us to the Department of Computer Science, Delhi Technological
University, Delhi in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of the degree of
Bachelor of Technology, is original and not copied from any source without proper
citation. This work has not previously formed the basis for the award of any Degree,
Diploma Associateship, Fellowship or other similar title or recognition.

Place : Delhi (SHASHANK CHAUBEY)

Date: (ROHIT KUMAR VERMA)

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 DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
DELHI TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY
(Formerly Delhi College of Engineering)
Bawana Road, Delhi - 110042

CERTIFICATE

I hereby certify that the Project Dissertation titled "Quantum Blockchain For Cross
Authentication In Iot Environment" which is submitted by Shashank Chaubey
(2K20/CO/421), Rohit Kumar Verma (2K20/CO/376) Computer Science Dept., Delhi
Technological University, Delhi in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award
of the degree of Bachelor of Technology, is a record of the project work carried out by
the students under my supervision. To the best of my knowledge this work has not been
submitted in part or full for any Degree or Diploma to this University or elsewhere.

Place: Delhi (DR. RAJEEV KUMAR)

Date: SUPERVISOR

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We would like to express our sincere gratitude to all those who contributed to the
successful completion of this project. First and foremost, We extend our appreciation to
our advisor Dr. Rajeev Kumar for his invaluable guidance, support, and expertise
throughout the entire project.

We are indebted to Delhi Technological University for providing the necessary

resources and environment for the project's research. Additionally, we would like to
acknowledge the Dept. Of Computer Science for their academic support, without which
this project would not have been possible.

We extend our heartfelt thanks to the participants and volunteers who contributed to the
research direction, as their involvement was critical to the project's success.

Lastly, our gratitude goes to our friends and family for their unwavering encouragement
and understanding during the challenging phases of this endeavor.
Thank you all for being an integral part of this journey.

SHASHANK CHAUBEY ROHIT KUMAR VERMA

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 ABSTRACT

The proposed system presents an innovative approach to secure cross-domain

authentication in an IoT environment by integrating quantum entanglement with Trusted
Execution Environments (TEEs) and post-quantum cryptographic algorithms. The
system involves two domains, each with administrative nodes equipped with TEEs.
Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) protocols, such as BBM92 and E91, leverage
quantum entanglement for secure key exchange. Entangled particles serve as
authentication tokens, enhancing the security of communication. Transactions are
recorded on a quantum-resistant blockchain with a Quantum Blockchain with
Entanglement Protocol (QBE). Secure communication employs Quantum Secure
Communication Protocol (QSCP), and logging is conducted with Quantum Auditing
Protocol (QAP). Continuous monitoring utilizes Quantum Correlation Monitoring
(QCM). The integration of TEEs ensures secure execution and protection of
cryptographic keys throughout the system. While this conceptual framework addresses
the potential of quantum technologies, practical realization depends on advancements in
quantum computing and communication infrastructure. The proposed approach offers a
robust foundation for secure cross-domain authentication in the quantum era.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS:

1. Introduction…………………………………………………………………… 7
1.1. Problem Statement……………………………………………………………8
2. Literature Review………………………………………………………………9
2.1. Architecture…………………………………………………………………...9
2.2. Proposed Approach……………………………………………………………9
2.2.1. Initialization…………………………………………………………………9
2.2.2. Quantum Key Distribution (QKD)………………………………………….9
2.2.3. Entangled Particles as Authentication Tokens……………………………..10
2.2.4. Quantum Blockchain with Entanglement (QBE)…………………………..11
2.2.5. Secure Communication…………………………………………………….11
2.2.6. Logging and Auditing………………………………………………………12
2.2.7. Continuous Monitoring…………………………………………………….12
3. Results…………………………………………………………………………13
3.1. Key Performance Metrics……………………………………………………13
3.2. Considerations for Implementations…………………………………………14
4. Conclusion…………………………………………………………………….15
5. References……………………………………………………………………..16

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LIST OF FIGURES:
1. System Model of the Proposed System
2. Work flow of the Proposed System

LIST OF SYMBOLS, ABBREVIATIONS AND NOMENCLATURE:

1. TEEs - Trusted Execution Environments
2. QKD - Quantum Key Distribution
3. BBM92 - Bennett-Brassard 1992 (BBM92) protocol
4. E91 - E91 (Ekert 1991) protocol
5. QBE - Quantum Blockchain with Entanglement Protocol
6. QSCP - Quantum Secure Communication Protocol
7. QAP - Quantum Auditing Protocol
8. QCM - Quantum Correlation Monitoring

1. INTRODUCTION
The Internet of Things (IoT), a network of numerous interconnected physical devices
via the Internet, has garnered significant attention in recent years. Global end-user
spending on IoT solutions is expected to reach approximately 1.6 trillion dollars by
2025. However, the unsupervised state of IoT devices poses a challenge to widespread
adoption due to potential security threats. Authentication plays a crucial role here. It is a
communication process where one entity verifies a property claimed by another entity.
In IoT systems, devices from different companies or institutions often have shared
resources, forming relatively independent trust domains to prevent unauthorized access.
However, real-world scenarios may involve cooperative relationships across multiple
domains when implementing certain functions. Hence, cross-domain considerations
become essential in IoT device authentication.
Traditional methods for cross-domain authentication can be problematic. They can
require a lot of work to manage encryption keys or depend on trusted third parties,
which may not always be available. Some existing solutions that use blockchain to help
with this kind of authentication still have a problem: they don't completely protect
against potential wrongdoing by people who manage these different security domains.
A new and efficient method for secure device authentication in cross-domain IoT
systems is introduced as "blockchain and TEE-assisted authentication." Their solution

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addresses the issue of not fully trusting the managers of these security domains. It
combines different technologies like blockchain which is used to establish trust between
different security domains.
There is also the introduction of Trusted Execution Environment (TEE) technology that
establishes a secure execution environment, called an enclave, isolating data and
programs from the host operating system and ensuring correct outputs. TEE technology
enables an alternative approach to cross-domain authentication in blockchain-based IoT
systems, offering a secure and reliable solution.
In existing blockchain-based cross-domain authentication schemes, we believe that the
blockchain are thoroughly reliable which means they cannot be directly broken by
adversaries. However, existing IoT device authentication systems are potentially
vulnerable to quantum computing advancements. Traditional cryptographic methods in
blockchain-based authentication systems may become susceptible to quantum attacks.
Malicious attackers can exploit these vulnerabilities to steal private information thereby
endangering people's lives, property, and privacy.
In this proposed scheme, we advocate for combining TEE and quantum blockchain
systems as an emerging research direction. Running smart contracts within a TEE
enhances the confidentiality of data on the quantum blockchain and streamlines the
consensus process for improved efficiency. In our Quantum Blockchain and
TEE-assisted Authentication scheme, TEE acts as a trusted entity, managing IoT device
identity information and generating authentication results. This approach eliminates
concerns about manager-related security risks, as the TEE executes specific processes
independently of the manager. In summary, to address cross-domain authentication
challenges in IoT systems, we present a Quantum Blockchain and TEE-assisted Cross
Domain Authentication scheme.

1.1 Problem Statement

Establishing a secure and resilient cross-domain authentication and communication
framework in an Internet of Things (IoT) environment.
The traditional methods for cross-domain authentication in IoT systems face challenges
such as key management and reliance on trusted third parties. The existing
blockchain-based solutions, while offering some improvement, still have vulnerabilities
related to the trustworthiness of security domain managers. To address these issues, a
novel approach called "blockchain and TEE-assisted authentication" was introduced.

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However, the proposed scheme recognizes the potential vulnerability of existing
blockchain-based authentication systems to quantum attacks. To counter this, the paper
suggests an emerging research direction by combining TEE and quantum blockchain
systems.
The proposed "Quantum Blockchain and TEE-assisted Cross Domain Authentication"
scheme addresses cross-domain authentication challenges in IoT systems by leveraging
the strengths of quantum blockchain and TEE technologies, providing a secure and
reliable solution.

2. LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Architecture

Fig. 1. System Model of the Proposed System.

The proposed system consists of three entities: Quantum Blockchain, administrator

node (AN), and ordinary node (ON). AN and ON collectively constitute a trust domain.
2.2 Proposed Approach
2.2.1 Initialization - Initialization sets the stage for a quantum-resistant and secure
cross-domain authentication workflow. Quantum communication, TEEs, and QKD
collectively establish a robust and resilient foundation.

2.2.2 Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) - Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) is a

revolutionary method for secure communication that leverages the principles of
quantum mechanics. Its primary goal is to establish a secret key between two parties
while detecting any potential eavesdropping attempts.
Bennett and Brassard introduced the BBM92 protocol in 1992, one of the pioneering
QKD algorithms.
2.2.2.1 Key Features:
Utilizes the transmission of polarized photons
Exploits quantum properties to detect eavesdropping attempts

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2.2.2.2 Entangled Particles:
Pairs of entangled particles are shared between communicating nodes.
Measurement on one particle instantaneously influences the state of the other, ensuring
the detection of any interference.
2.2.2.3 Secure Key Exchange Process:
Step 1 - Photon Transmission: Sender (Domain A) transmits polarized photons
representing the key bits to the receiver (Domain B).
Step 2 - Measurement: Receiver (Domain B) measures the photons using a chosen basis.
Step 3 - Basis Comparison: Communicating parties publicly compare their chosen bases
for each bit.
Step 4 - Key Generation: Shared bits measured in the same basis form the secret key.

2.2.3 Entangled Particles as Authentication Tokens - Quantum entanglement

enables the creation of entangled particle pairs with correlated states. These entangled
particles serve as authentication tokens in the cross-domain authentication process.
2.2.3.1 Work flow
Entangled Particle Pair Creation: In Domain A, a pair of entangled particles is generated,
each particle representing a quantum bit (qubit). The states of these particles are
correlated due to quantum entanglement.
Authentication Message Encoding: The authentication message, including user
credentials and timestamp, is encoded onto one of the entangled particles in Domain A.
The other entangled particle remains in Domain A and is prepared for transmission.
Secure Transmission: The encoded entangled particle is securely transmitted to Domain
B using quantum communication channels.
Authentication Verification in Domain B: In Domain B, the received entangled particle
is verified for its quantum state.
Quantum entanglement ensures that the correlated particle in Domain A retains
information about the authentication message.
Authentication Success:Successful verification indicates that the authentication message
is authentic and has not been tampered with. The entangled particles serve as
tamper-evident authentication tokens due to the principles of quantum entanglement.

X
2.2.4 Quantum Blockchain with Entanglement (QBE) - The QBE protocol is a
hypothetical protocol leveraging quantum entanglement for secure transaction
distribution and verification in the quantum-resistant blockchain. It uses entangled
particles to distribute and verify transactions across the network.
Let's consider a simplified example with two entangled particles, A and B, representing
a quantum transaction. The entangled state is prepared as
1
|� = 2
|00 + |11 (1)

- Alice prepares the entangled state ψ and encodes a quantum transaction state ∣t⟩
into the particles.
- The superposition of quantum transaction states ∣T⟩ is created:
1
|� = 2
|� + |� (2)

- The entangled particles are distributed to Bob and other participants in the network.
- Bob receives the entangled particles and verifies the quantum transaction state using
quantum entanglement principles.
- Quantum-resistant hashing is applied to the verified transactions:
Hash(∣T⟩ )=H(∣T⟩ ).
- The hash is appended to the blockchain as a new block.
This process ensures that the transactions are securely distributed across the network,
and the use of entangled particles adds an extra layer of security to the blockchain,
making it resistant to quantum attacks.
The actual implementation would require more complex quantum algorithms and
infrastructure.

2.2.5 Secure Communication - Establishing secure communication channels between

domains A and B using quantum entanglement.
Entangled Particle Exchange: Utilize entangled particles as the foundation for secure
communication. Quantum entanglement ensures the correlation of states between
communicating nodes.
Quantum Key Derivation: Employ quantum entanglement to derive shared secret keys
between Domain A and Domain B.The shared keys serve as the foundation for
quantum-secure communication.
Secure Data Transmission: Leverage the derived quantum-secure keys for encrypting
and decrypting data during transmission. Quantum-resistant encryption algorithms

XI
protect the confidentiality and integrity of the transmitted data.

2.2.6 Logging and Auditing - Devices within the IoT environment are equipped with
quantum sensors capable of generating entangled particle pairs. Each device has a
dedicated Trusted Execution Environment (TEE) to ensure the security of quantum
operations.
When a device generates a log entry, it creates an entangled particle pair
(����������� ��� �������� ).
The state of �����������is correlated with the state of �������� .
1
|� = 2
|0 ������ |0 ��� + |1 ������ |1 ��� (3)

The device creates a log entry (log_data) containing information about its activity and
timestamps.
The log entry is hashed H(log_data)) to create a fixed-size digest.
The hashed digest is attached to the entangled particle qubitlog in a secure manner.
The entangled pair is then sent to the quantum-resistant blockchain for recording.
The entangled pair, along with the log entry, is recorded on the quantum-resistant
blockchain as a transaction.
Periodically, or on-demand, an auditing process is initiated to verify the integrity of log
entries.
Entangled particles are retrieved from the blockchain and measured, revealing the states
of ����������� ��� �������� .

2.2.6 Continuous Monitoring - Continuous monitoring is a crucial component of the

overall security framework, providing proactive detection and response capabilities to
mitigate potential security threats. In the context of the scenario, the monitoring tools
are integrated with the TEEs and the quantum-resistant blockchain to ensure the security
of the system.Continuous monitoring is an integral part of the security architecture,
ensuring the ongoing integrity and resilience of the cross-domain authentication
scenario in the IoT environment. By continuously monitoring TEEs, the
quantum-resistant blockchain, communication channels, and resource usage, the system
can quickly detect and respond to potential security threats, maintaining a high level of
security and trustworthiness.

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 Fig. 2. Work flow of the Proposed System.

3. RESULTS
3.1 Key Performance Metrics
3.1.1 Computation Time: Quantum algorithms, such as those for key exchange and
entanglement-based protocols, may have specific time complexities that impact overall
computation time. Classical cryptographic algorithms used within TEEs also contribute
to computation time.
3.1.2 Communication Overhead: Quantum communication introduces a new layer of
overhead. The efficiency of quantum communication protocols and the reliability of
quantum channels affect communication overhead.

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3.1.3 Classical communication, especially in the context of blockchain transactions,
contributes to overall communication performance.
3.1.4 Resource Utilization: Quantum computers and TEEs have resource limitations.
Monitoring the utilization of quantum resources, TEE resources, and general
computational resources is crucial. Efficient resource management is essential for
achieving optimal performance.
3.1.5 Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) Efficiency: QKD protocols have unique
efficiency metrics, such as the secure key rate and the maximum transmission distance.
These metrics depend on the specific QKD algorithm, quantum technologies, and
environmental conditions.
3.1.6 Blockchain Transaction Throughput: The efficiency of the quantum-resistant
blockchain and the chosen consensus mechanism influence transaction throughput.
Blockchain scalability and confirmation times impact the overall system performance.
3.1.7 Secure Communication Latency: Latency in establishing secure communication
channels using quantum methods and classical cryptographic algorithms affects
real-time applications.

3.2 Considerations for Implementation - The practical implementation of the proposed

workflow involving TEEs, quantum entanglement, and advanced cryptographic
protocols poses several challenges. As of today, quantum technologies, including
quantum computers and quantum communication infrastructure, are still in the early
stages of development, and practical implementations are limited.
Quantum Technologies Readiness: Quantum computers and quantum communication
infrastructure are not yet widely available or matured to the point where they could
support practical implementations of the described workflow.
Quantum Entanglement at Scale: Achieving and maintaining quantum entanglement at
scale, especially in the context of practical and real-world applications, presents
significant technical hurdles. Maintaining entangled states over long distances and in the
presence of environmental factors is challenging.
Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) Challenges: While QKD protocols are theoretically
secure, implementing them at scale and integrating them into existing communication
networks requires addressing various technical and practical challenges.Quantum-Safe
Cryptography: While post-quantum cryptographic algorithms are designed to be secure

XIV
against quantum attacks, their real-world adoption and integration into existing systems
need careful consideration.
TEE Implementation: Deploying TEEs in a widespread and standardized manner across
different systems and platforms is challenging. There may be variations in TEE
technologies, and interoperability could be a concern.
Quantum Communication Infrastructure: Building a reliable and scalable quantum
communication infrastructure is a complex task. Quantum key distribution, for example,
relies on quantum channels that are challenging to establish and maintain.

4. CONCLUSION
In conclusion, the proposed workflow integrates cutting-edge technologies, including
Trusted Execution Environments (TEEs) and quantum entanglement, to establish a
robust and secure framework for cross-domain authentication and communication in an
IoT environment. The incorporation of post-quantum cryptographic algorithms, such as
Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) for secure key exchange and for authentication,
enhances the system's resilience against potential quantum threats.
The integration of TEEs ensures the confidentiality and integrity of cryptographic
operations, while quantum entanglement provides unique security features in key
exchange, authentication, and communication processes. However, practical
implementation is contingent on the advancement of quantum technologies, including
the development of quantum communication infrastructure and quantum computers
capable of processing entangled states. Overall, the proposed workflow represents a
forward-looking approach to addressing the evolving security challenges in the era of
quantum computing.

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