Tips - A Guide To The Solidification of Steels

A Guide
to the Solidilication
01 Steels
Jernkontoret, Stockholm 1977.

Jern kontoret
Box 1721
S-111 87 Stockholm
Ljungberg Tryckeri AB, S6dertalje 1977
ISBN 91-7260-156-6
FOREWORD
An investigation into the solidification structures in steels of commercial in-

terest was started by Jernkontoret in 1974. The planning and supervision of
work was the responsibility of a Research Committee, having the Jernkontoret
reference of 408/74. Membership of this Committee comprised:
G. Grunbaum, (Sandvik AB), Chairman, B. Call mer, (Swedish Institute for Metals
Research), Secretary, b. Hammar, (Sandvik AB), P. Havola, (Ovako Oy), L.
Hellner, (AB Bofors), S. Maim, (Uddeholms AB), L. Morsing, (Avesta Jernverks
AB) and A. Nilsson, (Stora Kopparberg AB).
The experimental programme was carried out at the Swedish Institute for
Metals Research, Stockholm, where initially B. Carlsson and, from 1975, B.
Callmer, were responsible for the work, including evaluation of results. Metal-
lography and photomicrography were performed by H. Modin. The companies
represented on the Committee supplied samples of steels and made other
contributions to the experimental programme. D. Dulieu (BSC, Sheffield Lab-
oratories, England), assisted with the preparation of the English text. The project
was partly financed by the Swedish Board for Technical Development.
CONTENTS
Foreword 5
Introduction 9
1. Experimental Techniques 11
2. Carbon and Low Alloy Steels 17
3. Chromium Steels 55
4. Stainless and Heat Resistant Steels 81
5. High Speed Steels 133
6. Conclusions and Comments 142
7. References 151
8. Alloy Index 154
INTRODUCTION
The purpose of the present work is to provide a systematic compilation of

solidification data, describing the formation of the as-cast microstructures in
steels of technical importance. The compositions have been chosen to cover a
large part of the spectrum of steels in current production. Where a specific steel
is not included, it should be possible to gain an outline of its solidification
characteristics from related compositions present.
The book is not intended to provide a theoretical treatment of solidification
processes in steels. It is hoped rather that the descriptions of the microstructu-
res formed on solidification will assist in solving, or avoiding, some of the
problems arising in casting, hot working and welding. However, specific pro-
duction and materials problems have not been described. A knowledge of
solidification processes is also relevant to problems of quality in the final
product; for example, in understanding the effects of segregation arising
during solidification on the microstructure of wrought material. The work
should find use also in metallurgical education as a source of basic informa-
tion.
In the planning stage, the Project Committee hoped to collect data from both
the technical literature and unpublished laboratory reports. However, a study of
these sources soon showed that most investigations were unique in both their
experimental techniques and presentation of results. In addition, thermal ana-
lysis at varying cooling rates had been identified in this project as a powerful
technique for investigation of solidification. Little systematic experimental work
employing this method was found in the literature. It was decided, therefore, to
generate the data needed within the study and to use the same reproducible
methods for all the steel compositions studied.
The Committee gave considerable attention to the problem of relating structu-
res obtained in small, laboratory ingots to those found in large ingots under
production conditions. This aspect is discussed in chapter 1, where the experi-
mental techniques are described and the format adopted for diagrams and
tables is explained.
Chapters 2-5 comprise the main body of the book, with results for each
individual steel described. These sections are printed in a standardized form for
ease of quick reference. The large number of steels has made it necessary to
limit the amount of information given. Wherever possible in these chapters,
descriptive passages have been avoided in favour of figures, diagrams and
micrographs.
The alloys have been brought together into four broad classes:
Carbon and Low Alloy Steels (Ch. 2)
Chromium Steels (Ch. 3)
Stainless and Heat Resistant Steels (Ch. 4)
High Speed Steels (Ch. 5)
Although the intention was to arrange the steels in a logical way, this was not
always possible. In most cases, however, a steel type will be classified easily
within the four groups.
Each of chapters 2 to 5 is introduced by a paragraph describing those specific
steels which have been studied. The reader can quickly ascertain whether a
steel composition is included or not, by examining either the tables accompany-
ing each chapter, or the index tables given in chapter 8.
Chapter 6 contains some general conclusions regarding solidification pheno-
mena which are common for the groups of steels. References to the relevant
literature have been made throughout and are listed in full in chapter 7.
Chapter 8 comprises master tables of chemical compositions and thermal
analysis data for all the steels included in the study. In addition, this chapter
includes tables of dendrite arm spacings and microsegregation.
11
1. Experimental Techniques
The object of the laboratory experiments was to produce According to reported data (for cooling rates [20], solidifi-
microstructures identical to those obtained under produc- cation rates [4, 21] and local solidification times [22]),
tion solidification conditions. A suitable experimental ingots produced by the electroslag remelting or vacuum
technique would allow the following: arc remelting processes follow, in general, the pattern
• Determination of pertinent temperatures, such as shown in figure 1.1.
those of the liquid us, solidus and high temperature No experimental values of cooling rates in continuous
reactions, together with the relative amounts of the casting were found in the literature. Calculations based
phases formed. on mathematical models of heat transfer show these
• The ability to freeze instantaneously the solidification cooling rates to be slightly higher than for ingots up to
reaction by rapid quenching. 20-30 mm under the surface, as shown in figure 1.1 [5,6].
At larger depths no great difference exists, as cooling rate
• A controlled cooling rate which could be varied within
is governed by heat conduction in the solidified shell. This
wide limits.
has been established by comparisons between measured
• A reproducible relationship between the structures solidification speeds in ingots and continuously cast ma-
obtained in laboratory samples and those found in terial, [4, 7, 8].
full-size ingots.
Solidification of weld metal takes place at high cooling
To fulfill these requirements, the experiments were car- rates. Depending on process parameters, such as the size
ried out on small ingots (35 g) solidified in a ceramic of the weld pool, rates have been reported to vary between
crucible at a preset, controlled cooling rate. The develop- 20 and 200°C/s, [10, 11].
ment of the solidification microstructure is governed In powder metallurgy very high cooling rates are en-
mainly by alloy composition and the rate of heat removal. countered, Calculations lead to an estimate of 103-104
By using samples of commercial alloys and letting them
°C/s for the solidification of argon atomized steel particles
cool at a rate similar to that found in full scale ingots,
[9]. Welding and powder metallurgy are thus not directly
good reproduction of microstructural features was ob- covered by the experiments reported in the present work.
tained.
A range of cooling rates in steel ingots, evaluated from
published cooling curves, is shown in figure 1.1, [1-4,23,
26, 93, 96] * .The results refer to different ingot sizes; which
means that values on the abscissa are only indicative of
position within an ingot. The figure shows that the range ('C/s)
of cooling rates of practical interest lies between 0,05 and
\000
3°C/s. Accordingly, the specimens in this study were
cooled at 0,1, 0,5 and 2°C/s. E
.3-500
~
~300
u
;t200
l1'I
Cooling rate
:::li
°C/minoC/s ~ 100
600 10 Ingot weight < 1 tonne x >-
a::
1 tonne 0 ~ 50
z
2,5- 9 tonnes I:!.
o
300 5 u
W 30
x Continuous cast, calcul. • l1'I
20
200 3 1 2 3 5 10 20 30 50 100 200 500 1000
AVERAGE COOLING RATE (·C/minl
2
100
Figure 1.2 Dendrite arm spacings in commercial 0,14-0,88%
C-steel ingots (After Suzuki A. et ai, J. Japan Inst, of Metals,
(1968) 1301 -1305.) [28]
30 0,5
20 0,3
0,2
10 The cooling rate may be related to the microstructure
through its effect on the secondary dendrite arm spacing.
6 0,1 This decreases with increasing cooling rate in the manner
shown in figure 1.2, [28]. Many diagrams of this type are
available in the literature. When extrapolated to cooling
3 0,05 rates prevailing in welding and powder solidification, the
relationship predicts fairly well the secondary dendrite
arm spacings in weld metal and steel powder, [14, 9, 96].
3 5 10 20 30 50 100 200 300 500
As shown in later sections, the arm spacings found in the
Distance from surface. mm
small samples are of the same order of magnitude as
those reported for ingots of the same composition. Figure
• References appear in chapter 7 1.3 shows examples of secondary dendrite arm spacing
measurements in the columnar zones of ingots of low
Figure 1.1 Cooling rates in steel ingots and continuously cast alloy steel ranging in weight from 1 to 9 tonnes, together
billets with results from a 1,7 tonne stainless ingot, [12, 13,26].
12
Secondary dendrite ARGON INLET

arm spacing, j.Jm •.....---WINDOW
400 -- TEFLON PLUG
300
rI
FURNACE THERMOCOUPLE
FOR POWER REGULATION
THERMOCOUPLE
ANALYSIS
CRUCIBLE
FOR
WITH SAMPLE
SOOmm
AND LID
200
AI 0) FIBRE
2
BRASS TUBES
REFLECTING WALL
MOLYBDENUM WIRE
SUPPORT ROD
100 AI 0)
2
TUBE
ARGON INLET
o
o 20 40 60 80 100 120
Distance from surface, mm
Figure 1.3 Dendrite arm spacings in production scale ingots Figure 1.4 Experimental furnace
Thermal analysis
The steel samples of 35 ± 1 g were melted in alumina The temperature and cooling rate of the furnace was con-
crucibles in an atmosphere of argon (02 < 5 ppm), Samp- trolled by the power input. The desired furnace cooling
les inserted in the hot furnace, shown in figure 1.4, mel- rate was achieved by presetting a programmable tempera-
ted in five minutes. ture-time regulator (Data Trak). An artificial thermoelec-
A tube of alumina was resistance heated by a molybde- tric voltage-time function was generated and compared
num wire element. Argon was flushed through the tube with the actual output of the furnace thermocouple. The
from the top at a rate of approximately 0,1 lis. The outside system minimized any difference by adjusting the furnace
of the tube with the molybdenum wire was subjected to a power input. Theaccuracy in cooling rate which was obtain-
non-flowing argon atmosphere. The tubular furnace shell ed was better than ten percent. Figure 1.5 shows sche-
was double-walled and water cooled, with the inside matically the regulating and measuring system of the fur-
chromium plated to give good heat reflection. No insula- nace.
tion was used so that the furnace had a low thermal The temperature of the steel sample was measured at its
inertia, enabling cooling rates of up to 2,0°C/s to be centre by means of a thermocouple (PtlPt-10% Rh). The
achieved down to 1000°C. The samples were quenched in thermocouple output was registered by a digital microvolt
brine within about three seconds from removal at the meter. The cold junction was maintained at O°C.One regi-
bottom of the furnace. stration of specimen temperature per degree fall in furna-
FURNACE
Figure 1.5 Control systems

13
ce temperature was used for all the cooling rates. The a minimum, see figure 1.6. After this point the cooling rate
result was punched on a paper tape and evaluated in a of the sample started to approach the cooling rate of the
minicomputer. The thermocouples and the other compo- furnace, since no more latent heat was evolved. The deri-
nents used were checked by determining the liquidus vative is more useful for evaluation of the cooling curve,
temperature of a pure nickel melt. The precision of the showing changes more clearly than the temperature-time
temperature measurements was found to be ± 2°C. curve itself.
Thermal analysis, as used here, is based on an analysis of The end of solidification, as defined here, is denoted the
the temperature versus time curve of a solidifying sample. solidus temperature and is strongly dependent on the
The furnace and the molten sample are subject to a con- cooling rate. It was particularly difficult to determine the
stant cooling rate, but when the sample starts to solidify solidus temperature by thermal analysis in steels with a
the latent heat evolved decreases the cooling rate of the high carbon content. This is a result of their wide solidifi-
sample. In fact, all reactions or transformations evolving cation ranges and very low growth rates near the end of
latent heat decrease the cooling rate of the sample. The solidification. Furthermore, eutectic reactions occurred at
growth of the solid phase starts at the walls of the crucible the end of solidification over a large temperatu re range
and proceeds to the centre. The dendrites grow at an which led to poorly defined minima in the derivative.
almost constant temperature, shown by the plateau of the The solidus temperature was also determined as the start
temperature-time curve in figure 1.6. When the tips of the of melting in heating tests. The samples cooled at a,1 and
dendrites reach the thermocouple the heat transfer from a,5°C/s were reheated at a,5°C/s. The start of melting and
the thermocouple becomes markedly more rapid and the the end of solidification in cooling trials generally differed
amount of latent heat sensed by the thermocouple is di- only by a few degrees. The lowest of these temperatures
minished. As a consequence the registered temperature was chosen as the solidus temperature and rounded off to
starts to decrease. within five degrees. Quenching experiments confirmed
that this method for determining the solidus temperature
was acceptable. In a few cases a small amount of the melt
TEMPERATURE COOLING RATE could solidify below the reported solidus temperature, but
T dT for practical purposes the reported solidus temperatures
(·C) d't" are relevant.
T
(·C/s) All temperatures given in the tables are mean values of
two to five measurements and thus are not necessarily
those which can be evaluated from the cooling curves
+ shown.
o
R
t
furnace _." "-..,.
TIME, T (s)
T
liquidus
Figure 1.6 Thermal analysis, temperatures and events:
~
CD Start of growth of primary phase ........... -....1...
® Growth temperature of dendrites, used as liquidus tempe-

I'
rature
I ' , I I
® Dendrite tips reach thermocouple in centre of sample I -....J
1 I .•.•..•.,
@) Start of secondary phase precipitation
1 I ••..•.••.•
® Maximum reaction rate for secondary phase precipitation, 1
I
I Ifurnace .
........•.
maximum temperature, used as temperature of formation w a
of the secondary phase ~ ~T I I I
® End of solidification, used as solidus temperature ~ 0 - -1- - - - ---, _
w I 1
-R Preset cooling rate of furnace u. I I
u.
a - I I
w 1 Tfurnace -
Cl::
1
='4 I
: Tsample
Cl::
W I I
The temperature of the plateau was taken as the liquidus 0-
~ b I I
w
temperature in this work. This temperature is slightly lo- •....dT
wer than that of the true equilibrium liquidus, but the d't
difference is very small and of no practical significance.
0
Supercooling was generally observed before nucleation w
and growth. The degree of supercooling was generally •....
<i -R
Cl::
larger and more varied at the start of the secondary (peri-
t?
tectic) reaction than for primary (ferrite) nucleation in the z
solidification of a ferritic-austenitic steel. The temperatu- :i
0
0
res given for the secondary phase formation are thus less u c
accurate than those of the primary phase formation (liqui- o '[,
dus). The end of solidification was defined as the tempe- TIME ('r)
rature at which the temperature-time curve had its inflec-
tion point, that is, where the cooling rate dJ~) reached
Figure 1.7 a-c. Derivation of fraction solid phase.
14
The fraction solid phase, f5, as a function of time was Metallographic Examination
calculated using the following principles [90]. When the
Metallographic examination of samples was carried
sample starts to solidify, latent heat, L, is evolved which
out after mechanical preparation and etching in a
decreases the cooling rate g~ as shown in figure 1.7 a range of solutions appropriate to the individual steel
and c. The cooling rate of the furnace is not affected and composition, [15].
thus the temperature difference, <IT, between the furnace The dendritic structure was revealed by the following
and the sample is increased, and varies according to the etching techniques:
curve in figure 1.7 b. The temperature differ-
ence is related to the heat flux dO from the sample to Steel Type Etchant
d.
the furnace, and dO, will vary in the same way as <lT. Carbon, low alloy Saturated solution of picric
d. and 5% chromium acid in water or a mixture
steels. of water and alcohol.
Assuming 00 = Cp· OT, (where Cp is the specific heat), a 13% chromium, Various etchants according
stainless and heat to the etching behaviour of
calculated cooling rate, ~,corresPOnding to the heat resistant steels. the respective alloy.
d. c
a) Copper-containing rea-
flux dO can be derived as follows, see figure 1.7 c. gents (Steads).
d.
b) Mixed acids, HN03, HCI and
U!TI = _1_. ~ water in proportion by
~d.Jc Cp d. volume 1:10:10 with the
addition of some drops of
The difference between the measured cooling rate pickling bath inhibitor.'
(Used at 65°C)
L.QD and LQD is the evolution of latent heat in c) Acid ferric chloride,
~ d.7m \d./c FeCI3, HCI and water in
the sample.
::t (::)J
various proportions.
(Used cold or warm)
:~ = Cp· [( High speed steels Normally 4% nitai solution.
For examination at higher
Hence the area between the two curves in figure 1.7 c is magnification alkaline per-
proportional to ~1' the latent heat evolved in the interval 0 manganate was used (4 wt%
to .1. NaOH saturated with KMnO.).
.1 .1
~1
J o
~d.=
d. Jo
c, [(:a - E:~2Jd'
Table 1.1 Summary of etchants
• In general, this etching reagent gives only a gentle surface relief and no
selective darkening. To reveal the dendrites clearly the following techni-
The latent heat evolved is proportional to the fraction que has been used: The structure is under- or overfocussed, depending
on where the best image is obtained, and simultaneously the aperture
solid phase at the time considered. As dO is not readily diaphragm is stopped down considerably in order to increase the depth
d. of focus. In this way a sharp image with good contrast is obtained, i.e.
light with dark boundaries or vice versa depending on whether it is
. .
measured, an approximation QdT)
_. 0f
was 0 b·tame d usmg
. under- or overfocussed.
d. c
the cooling rates measured at the start and end of soli-
dification. In an iterative process, the calculated fraction
solid phase was used to improve the approximate value
of (dT\
d·lc
This analysis is the basis for computing the fraction solid
phase. The calculations were more elaborate than the
simplified analysis indicates. Corrections, such as for the
different specific heats of the liquid and solid phases Where both y- and o-dendrites are formed the y-dendrites
and their relative amounts during solidification, were in- appear white and the area occupied by the o-dendrites
cluded in the actual computation. dark at low magnification (figure 1.8 a). The reason for this
The results of these calculations are given graphically on is that, on cooling and quenching, the o-dendrites are
the upper part of each solidification diagram and in the partly transformed to y which contains closely spaced
tables of thermal analysis data. networks of residual 0, figure 1.8 b.
Alternative methods of calculating fraction solid phase To reveal dendritic and interdendritic ferrite, carbides,
are given in references [16-19]. phosphides and intermetallic phases, appropriate et-
chants for the steels in question were used [15]. In some
cases the visual observations were supported by identifi-
cation of the phases using microprobe analysis, X-ray
diffraction and transmission electron microscopy.
The magnification~ of the optical photomicrographs have
been standardized as far as possible to facilitate compari-
sons between structures. (Micrographs have been repro-
duced at actual size, so that magnifications refer directly
to the size ratio between objects in the sample and in the
illustration).
15
'.
,
·l~
<:t) -;
'-:1:..,
t I
Figure 1.8 a Stainless steel shown at low

magnification, (steel number 407)
l y
1J
!J
x 150 100 JLm
I·'
<
Figure 1.8 b Detail of figure 1.8 a showing

transformed c)-areas
x 600
.
(
The secondary dendrite arm spacings have been measu- transformation products, are in general not discussed in
red at a low magnification. The measurements were made the figure captions.
close to and parallel with the parent primary dendrite
stems (figure 1.9). At least four or five secondary arms per Microsegregation
primary arm were counted and at least ten such measu- Microsegregation was studied by electron microprobe
rements were taken within each steel specimen, where analysis of samples cooled at O,5°C/s and quenched from
this was possible. The result reported is the arithmetic just below the solidus temperature. Line scans were per-
mean of the individual secondary arm spacings. In most formed in selected areas of the specimens. Before analy-
samples a large number of observations was possible and sis the samples were etched and the lines to be traversed
the mean values have good statistical significance. were marked with microhardness indentations. Strongly
Exceptions are the specimens obtained at the lowest etched specimens were repolished before measuring.
cooling rate, because the large arm spacings in these Two lines were selected from different areas in each spe-
samples limited the number of observations, together with cimen, on the same principle as that for selecting lines for
the ferritic-austenitic stainless steels, in which a very low dendrite arm measurement. Consequently, in most cases
degree of segregation gave a correspondingly diffuse secondary dendrite arms were crossed at right angles but
microstructure. some primary dendrites were intersected also. A typical
Structures arising from the quench itself, such as fine example of a traverse for analysis is shown in figure 1.9.
16
are defined below and the appropriate values of segrega-

tion ratio, I, or partition ratios, PID or PD' have been repor-
ted for each steel.
In many stainless steels, ferrite is precipitated from the
residual melt in the interdendritic areas together with au-
stenite, (for example in steel 407, figure 10), and a parti-
tion ratio PID has been calculated as:
P 10 _- CX, bID
cx' YID
where Cx is the mean value of the concentration of ele-

ment x in interdendritic band Y . PID is thus a quantity
describing the partition of the element x between inter-
dendritic ferrite and austenite.
When austenite grew into and consumed dendrites which
formed initially as ferrite, thin regions of ferrite remained
in the austenite matrix in some stainless steels, (for ex-
ample in steel 403, figure 7). This solid phase transforma-
tion also gives rise to partitioning of alloying elements
between austenite and dendritic ferrite, and a partition
ratio Po may be calculated:
Po = Cx' bo
Cx, Yo
where Cx is the mean value of the concentration of ele-
ment x in band y in dendritic areas. The specific problem
of segregation and partition ratios in two-phase stainless
steels is discussed further in chapter 6.
Presentation of results
For each type of steel the resu Its are reported on one data
x 50 300 fLm
page and at least one page with micrographs. The more
Figure 1.9 Primary and secondary dendrite arms in a typical important contents of these pages are explained in table
field showing a traverse followed for the measurement of secon-
dary dendrite arm spacings and electron microprobe analysis, 1.2:
(steel number 410).
Item Definition
The total lengths over which analyses were made in each Designations The corresponding Swedish, Ameri-
can and German standard steel desig-
steel and the scanning speeds used were:
nations
Composition The chemical composition of the ac-
Carbon and 5% and 13% Stainless, tual sample
low alloy chromium heat resis-
steels steels tant and Thermal analysis The diagram on a data page repre-
high speed sents a furnace cooling rate of
steels· R=0,5°C/s; fs indicates fraction so-
lidified phase.
Distance 6000 lAm 3000 lAm 2800 lAm The table contains mean values of
pertinent temperatures obtained from
Speed 1,1 IAm/s 0,7IAm/s 1,3 ~lm/s two to five measurements at three
cooling rates. The figures in circles
• Microsegregation in high speed steels was also measured refer to the arrows in the diagram .
by point analysis. These relate to specific curves and
may differ from mean values, they
should be used as an aid to interpre-
tation only.
For quantitative calibration, the X-ray intensities were Solidification range defined as Iiqui-
compared with those of homogeneous standard speci- dus - solidus temperature, °C
mens having accurately analyzed compositions close to Solidification time defined as the time
corresponding to the solidification
those of the experimental samples. range, s
From the microprobe analyses, mean solute concentra- Precipitates Sulphides, carbides, nitrides and in-
tion values were evaluated in dendritic and interdendritic termetallic phases found in the solidi-
areas. The segregation ratio (I) of the alloying element (x) fication structure. .
from the centre of the dendrites (D) to the interdendritic Microsegregation The results refer to samples cooled at
O,5°C/sand quenched from 50- 60°C
areas (ID) was calculated as: below the reported solidus tempera-
CX ID ture.
1= Segregation and partition ratios as
Cx. D defined in detail above.
where Cx is the mean concentration value. I has been Tq Quenching temperature, °C
calculated in a straightforward way when the segregation d Secondary dendrite arm spacing, lAm
occurred within one phase such as ferrite or austenite. In band y Ferrite and austenite
two-phase steels there is, in addition to this segregation, L Quenched liquid
partitioning of alloying elements between the phases,
principally between austenite and ferrite. Partition ratios Table 1.2 Key to presentation of experimental results
17
2. Carbon and Low Alloy Steels

The steels of this group represent the most common Low alloy steels usually contain modest amounts of
commercial steels. They are produced as ingots and cast- chromium, nickel, molybdenum and vanadium for harde-
ings of all sizes. Continuous casting is also widely used nability purposes. One of the elements may be present in
for all except the steels of the highest carbon content. concentrations of up to about 4 %. In its effect on solidifi-
Carbon steels exist with carbon levels from below 0,1 % to cation carbon is still by far the most important element, so
above 1,3%, depending upon the required strength and that these steels generally follow the behaviour shown in
hardness. The carbon steels chosen are listed in table 2.1: figure 2.1. The following commercial low alloy steels were
studied:
No. C Si Mn Others%
No. C Si Mn Cr Ni Mo V %
201 0,11 0,12 1,3
208 0,10 0,3 0,6 1,2 3,2 0,1
202 0,12 0,3 1,5
209 0,20 0,3 0,9 0,8 1,0 0,1
203 0,18 0,4 1,2 0,03 Nb 210 0,27 0,3 1,7 3,5 0,4 0,1
0,02
204 0,19 0,4 1,5 211 0,29 0,2 0,6 1,1 0,1 0,2
205 0,36 0,3 0,6 212 0,30 0,2 0,5 1,0 3,2 0,3
206 0,69 0,2 0,8 213 0,35 0,2 0,7 0,9 0,1 0,2
207 1,01 0,3 0,5 214 0,52 0,2 0,9 1,1 0,1
215 0,55 0,3 0,5 1,0 3,6 0,3
Table 2.1 Carbon steels 216 1,01 0,2 0,3 1,6
Table 2.2 Low alloy steels

Steel 202 was treated with rare earth metals to modify the
sulphide inclusions. The manganese and silicon concen-
trations are typical for silicon killed steels. References
The carbon contents have been selected to represent the The solidification of carbon and low alloy steels has been
main solidification paths expected from the equilibrium investigated and described by many authors. Dendritic
diagram of the Fe-C system shown in figure 2.1. The soli- growth (kinetic aspects, arm spacings etc), has been stu-
dification of steels with lower and higher carbon contents died in both laboratory ingots of varying sizes and in
can be extrapolated. commercial ingots, [24-37]. Quantitative aspects of mic-
rosegregation have been discussed in references [24, 26,
The types of solidification are:
30,31,32,34,35,38-51]. Finally, references [52-54] are
• primary ferrite formation
examples of papers which, while not predominantly con-
• primary ferrite formation followed by a peritectic reac- cerned with dendritic growth or microsegregation, ne-
tion vertheless contain information relevant to the solidifica-
• primary austenite formation tion of carbon and low alloy steels.
Temperature,OC
1550
1500
1450
1400
1350
1300
1250
0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,7 0,8 0,9 1,0
Weight - % carbon
Figure 2.1 Fe-C system (After Metals Handbook, Vol 8, 1973,

275-276)
18 • Steel 201
STEEL 201. 0,1 % CARBON STEEL
Designations
SIS AISI Werkstoff Nr
1413
Composition (wt-%)
C Si Mn p S Cr Ni Mo Cu N
0,11 0,12 1,25 0,040 0,018 0,06 0,03 0,07 0,07 0,038 0,012
Thermal Analysis
fs 0,0 0) 0,4 0,6 0,8 1,0
T dT
(OCl fD d't
(OC/s)
1500 T
1450
+0,5
1400 0
dT
d't -0,5
1350
-1,0
-1,5
R = 0,5°C/s 1300
0 100 200 300 -r (5)
Average Cooling Rate,R, eC/s)
2,0 0,5 0,1
Liquidus temperature, ferritic primary phase, °C CD 1513 1513 1515

Temperature of austenite formation, °C CD 1476 1476 1475
Solidus temperature, °C CD 1445 1450 1455
Solidification range, °C 65 65 60
Solidification time, s 85 240 700
Precipitates
Interdendritic MnS.
Microsegregation
Element Mn
R = O,5°C/s
1,3 Tq = 1390°C
Steel 201 • 19
Partly solidified
Figure 1
R = 0,5°C/s
Tq = 1510°C
d = 65 J.Lm
o-dendrites and quenched liquid (L).
x 25 400J.Lm
Completely solidified
Figure 2
R = 2,0°C/s
Tq = 1390°C
d = 80 J.Lm
Figures 2-4: Former o-dendrites,
transformed to 'Y by the peritectic reaction.
x 25 400 J.Lm
Figure 3
R = 0,5°C/s
Tq = 1390°C
~,"o
'#
d = 130 J.Lm
.y
x 25
Figure 4
R = 0,1°C/s
Tq = 1390°C
d = 300J.Lm
x 25 400 J.Lm
20 • Steel 202
Designations
1.0566
Composition (wt-%)
C Si Mn P S Cr Ni Mo Cu Altot Ce N
0,12 0,27 1,53 0,010 0,005 0,02 0,03 <0,03 0,05 0,029 0,03 0,011
0,0 0,2 0,4 0,5 0,8 ',0

Thermal Analysis
CD
f
'500 T
'450
Average Cooling Rate,R, (OC/s)
2,0 0,5 0,1
Liquidus temperature, ferritic primary phase, QC CD 1514 1515 1514
Temperature of austenite formation, QC CD 1471 1475 1477
Solidus temperature, QC CD 1440 1440

75
1460
55
Solidification range, QC 75
105 230 700
Solidification time, s
Precipitates
Globular rare earth inclusions from addition of Rare Earth Metals (REM).
Microsegregation
Element Mn
R = 0,5°C/s
1,4 Tq = 1390 QC
Steel 202 • 21
Partly solidified
Figure 1
R = 0,5°C/s
Tq = 1510°C
d = 70 fLm
x 25 400 fLm
,,
'.f'
• ,. •••
•
•
\
~ I
r ..#.
••
.•.. "
•
\
.'.. ..,.
• 1I[lI •
Figure 2
R
Tq
= 2,0°C/s
= 1390°C
\
.."
d = 85 fLm
' ..
transformed to y by the peritectic reaction. (
.' •• ~1
x 25 400 fLm ~ /
Figure 3
R = 0,5°C/s
Tq = 1390°C
d = 200 fLm
x 25 400 fLm
..1:' '.
Figure 4 r
R = 0,1°C/s
Tq = 1390°C
d = 390 fLm
x 25 400 fLm
22 • Steel 203
Designations
2106
Composition (wt-%)
C Si Mn p S Cr Ni Mo Cu Nb N
0,18 0,44 1,26 0,016 0,025 0,01 0,02 0,06 0,02 0,03 0,004 0,007
's 0,0 0) 0,4 0,6 0,8 ',0

Thermal Analysis
T dT
(OC) dt
(OC/s)
'500
+',5
+',0
'450
+0,5
0
'400
-0,5
dT
1350 dt -',0
-',5
R == 0,5 C/s
Q
1300
0 100 200 T(s)
2,0 0,5 0,1
Liquidus temperature, lerritic primary phase, QC CD 1507 1506 1507
Solidus temperature, QC 0) 1415 1430 1460
Solidification range, QC 90 80 50
Precipitates
Interdendritic MnS.
Microsegregation
Element Mn
R == 0,5 QC/s
1,4 Tq == 1370 QC
Steel 203 • 23
Partly solidified
Figure 1
R = 0,5°C/s
Tq = 1500°C
d = 65 Mm
x 25 400 Mm
Figure 2
R = 2,0°C/s
Tq = 1370°C
d = 80 Mm
transformed to y by the peritectic reaction.
x 25 400 Mm
l~'
t
Figure 3
R = 0,5°C/s .~
Tq = 1370°C f
d = 190Mm
x 25 400 Mm
Figure 4
R = 0,1°C/s
Tq = 1370°C
d = 250 Mm
x 25
24 • Steel 204
Designations
2172 1.0580
Composition (wt-%)
C Si Mn P S Cr Ni Mo Cu Altot N
0,19 0,40 1,42 0,012 0,007 0,07 0,13 0,02 0,08 0,006 0,005
fs 0,0 0) 0,4 0,6 0,8 1,0

Thermal Analysis
T dT
(DC) dt
(oC/s)
1500
+1,5
+1,0
1450
+0,5
1400 ---- ------- 0
-0)5
dT
1350 dt' -1,0
-1,5
R = O,soC/s 1300 "((5)
0 100 200
Average Cooling Rate,R, rC/s)
2,0 0,5 0,1

45
Solidification range, °C 85 65
Precipitates
Interdendritic MnS.
Microsegregation
Element Mn
R = 0,5 °C/s
1,6 Tq = 1370 °C
Steel 204 • 25
Partly solidified
Figure 1
R = 0,5°C/s
Tq = 1498°C
d = 85 f.Lm
x 25 400f.Lm
•
... ..• .. ,
•••
'. \. '. .
"'\
Figure 2
R = 2,0°C/s
Tq = 1370°C
d = 75 f.Lm
., "
Figures 2 - 4: Former o-dendrites,
"' .•.. . :~
x 25 400 f.Lm
~ I •. •. ~ • ."
,
• t.
r'", -....
•
J ""J
~ , ••
~ -"<, I
i.
Figure 3
R = 0,5°C/s
Tq = 1370°C
d = 120 f.Lm
x 25
•
f.
;
..~
!' 'f . ,.
:I ,"
.. .~
Figure 4
R = 0,1°C/s
Tq = 1370°C
d = 230f.Lm
x 25
26 • Steel 205
Designations
1550 1034 1.1181
Composition (wt-%)
0,36 0,27 0,58 0,015 0,012 0,08 0,05 0,02 0,12 0,004 0,007
1450
1400
1350
R = 0,5°C/s 1300
o 100 200 300 T( 5)
Average Cooling Rate,R, (eC/s)
2,0 0,5 0,1

Temperature of austenite formation, QC (3) 1479 1480 1483
Solidus temperature, QC CD 1415 1425 1440
Precipitates
Interdendritic MnS.
Microsegregation
Element Mn
R = 0,5 QC/s
1,6 Tq = 1370 °c
Partly solidified
Figure 1
R = 0,5°C/s
Tq = 1480°C
d = 50 fLm
x 25 400 fLm
Figure 2
R = 2,O°C/s
Tq = 1370°C
d = 85 fLm
transformed to 'Y by the peritectic reaction.
x 25 400 fLm
.•- ... .,A

~..,
Figure 3
R
Tq
= 0,5°C/s
= 1370°C
•
• . .,
•....• .- ".
• l ,)<
.,,'
'
d = 90 fLm
x 25 400 fLm
•
t
Figure 4
R
Tq
d
= 0,1°C/s
= 1370°C
= 280 fLm
x 25 400 fLm
-
28 • Steel 206
Designations
1770 1070 1.1231
Composition (wt-%)
0,69 0,23 0,72 0,022 0,024 0,02 0,02 0,01 0,03 0,006 0,002
fs 0,0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1,0

Thermal Analysis
T dT
(OC) d1:
(OC/s)
+1,5
+',0
1450
+0,5
1400 -(])--- 0
~~0 -0,5
1350 Ql
-1,0
d't'
-1,5
R = 0,5 C/s
Q
1300
0 100 200 '((5)
2,0 0,5 0,1
Liquidus temperature, austenitic primary phase, QC CD 1471 1466 1474

Temperature of formation of eutectic, QC CD 1370-1335 1370-1355 1420-1370
Solification time, s 105 250 1020
Precipitates
1. Interdendritic Fe3P - Fe3C - austenite eutectic. The eutectic remained after cooling to 850 QC, (see figures 9 and 10),
but was dissolved after homogenizing for 4 h at 1200 QC.
2. MnS. (Distribution and morphology at different cooling rates shown in figures 5-8.)
Microsegregation
Element Mn
R = 0,5 QC/s
1,7 Tq = 1300 QC
Partly solidified
Figure 1
R = O,5°C/s
Tq = 1455°C
d = 70 fLrn
y-dendrites and quenched liquid (L),
x 25 400 fLrn
. ,.... -,'r'
fir
.•.~ ,.
}
4 l
"•
} •• ,
.J
, , .. . , , . - .-
Completely solidified •• ""
• ~ "t . ••
•I .( . I
' .
~ , • .I ,.
•
.. , .... •
.. .. • .......
• t
1,I •
• ',: .....•. '
Figure 2
, " t •
" I I
i·'
, )
"
." I'\.
'"
~
•• •
""
,.• •
...
•tt'
R = 2,O°C/s .... ••
,
'
Tq = 1300°C A I •
, 1
d = 75 fLrn
Figures 2-4: y-dendrites.
,; ,
..,
. ,..
. ,.
..•
•• •
" '
x 25
..", .., 4\ ••
- • I .,.
'
• 11
• I, ,
~ J.j.")...,"~''.~ /"
if ~ *
*•• ¥._~_....,,.... ...,.e' "w' •••. , •• _- ~.,f #> (, ;'j', ';"I
Figure 3
R = O,5°C/s
Tq = 1300°C
d = 130fLrn
x 25
.•.... -
','
" .
tt'
t
Figure 4
R = O,1°C/s
.. •
Tq
d
= 1300°C
= 160fLrn
x 25
(\ • • •
••
If •
I
"
'1
30 • Steel 206
Figure 5
R = 0,5°C/s
Tq = 1300°C
~
.. . Interdendritic MnS.
\
../
100 fLm x 150
Figure 6
R = 2,0°C/s
Tq = 1300°C
Figures 6-8 show the influence of cooling rate
, on manganese sulphide coarseness.
.•...
x 600
{ 7
.\..- ~
,
• I
,
Figure 7
R = 0,5°C/s
Tq = 1300°C
x 600
Figure 8
R = 0,1°C/s
Tq = 1300°C
••• t •..• 'lit
25 fLm x 600
Steel 206 • 31
Figure 9
R = 0,5°C/s
Tq = 1300°C
Figures 9-10: Interdendritic Fe3P-Fe3C-austeni-
te eutectic (E), approximately 0,05 vol-%.
x 1000 10 fLm
Figure 10
R = 2,0°C/s "- E
Tq = 800°C
Etched to darken and confirm the existence of
the Fe3P phase in the eutectic (E). The eutectic
contains 2 wt-% P.
x 2000 5 fLm
32 • Steel 207
STEEL 207. 1,0% CARBON STEEL
Designations
1870 1095 1.1274
Composition (wt-%)
1,01 0,25 0,46 0,012 0,009 0,02 0,03 0,02 0,03 .$.0,004 0,002
fs 0,0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1,0

Thermal Analysis T dT
(QC) CD dt
1450
t (QC/s)
T +1,5
+1,0
1400
+0,5
1350 0
-0,5
1300
-1,0
-1,5
R = O,soC/s 1250
0 100 200 300 1:(5)
2,0 0,5 0,1
Liquidus temperature, austenitic primary phase, cC CD 1457 1457 1459

Precipitates
1. MnS
2. Interdendritic eutectic « 0,05 vol. %), as in steel 206
Microsegregation
Element Mn
R = 0,5 °C/s
2,1 Tq = 1260 °C
Steel 207 • 33
Partly solidified
Figure 1
R 0,5°C/s
Tq 1445°C
d 50j.Lrn
y-dendrites and quenched liquid (L).
x 25 400j.Lrn
•~..
t ..
'. '\
"
I .',
"\
" :
Completely solidified ,':",.i..
. ... ~
I "
•.. ,
;'
. ,
\.
"
". " \',
.Y~
'.
-+,.1
. .- '"
"
".j •••
Figure 2
, .,; "r '-. . , ;~, ..
R
Tq
d
2,0°C/s
1260°C
70j.Lrn
'-
'\
-, l
.,.-~.- r.'
,..
1-
•
.
--' .
Figures 2-4: y-dendrites. .. • , ;

..:.) ,
" ..,. ,-
'"
\. ,
x 25 400j.Lrn
.'..
"
'
"
.~. " .•.....
f"
\ .• :.i
. ,;"
".
I ,
.'
•• "
'. .. .•..
\.
1Y
<t
l;'
""
•
,.
., Cl.,
•.II
••
.""
~'o.t
Figure 3 • , "\
..
.1ft'
.,-
R 0,5°C/s
Tq
d
1260°C
BOj.Lrn
"",. "
, '" .. I
,
f • e, .*, ~
." '" t~:~
x 25 400j.Lrn
." .41' ~ "
••• ~~ ~.
," •
Figure 4
R 0,1°C/s
Tq 1260°C
d 210 j.Lrn
x 25 400j.Lrn
34 • Steel 208
STEEL 208. 0,1 % C Cr Ni LOW ALLOY STEEL
Designations
9310
Composition (wt-%)
C Si Mn p S Cr Ni Mo Cu v N
0,10 0,28 0,57 0,008 0,009 1,14 3,3 0,14 0,11 0,02 0,013 0,009
fs 0,0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1,0

Thermal Analysis
T dT
(oC)
CD dT
(oC/s)
1500
t fI>
1450
1400 0
dT
1350 dt
-1,5
R = 0,5°C/s 1300
0 100 200 lIs)
2,0 0,5 0,1

Precipitates
Microsegregation
Element Cr Ni Mo
R = 0,5°C/s
1,3 1,4 2,5 Tq = 1400°C
Steel 208 • 35
Partly solidified
Figure 1
R = O,5°C/s
Tq = 1495°C
d = 70 J.Lm
x 25 400J.Lm
Figure 2
R = 2,O°C/s
Tq = 1400°C
d = 75 J.Lm
x 25 400 J.Lm
Figure 3
R = 0,5°C/s
Tq = 1400°C
d = 110J.Lm
x 25 400 J.Lm
,·.l
#
,f
e'
• 4f
.. \ .
,. '"
.•.. ~
-.
.. , ,,.,'
j1r
.. .,
If
Figure 4
R
Tq
= 0,1°C/s
= 1400°C
•• ;..
t ,
,
d = 250J.Lm
x 25 400 J.Lm
36 • Steel 209
STEEL 209. 0,2 % C Cr Ni lOW AllOY STEEL
Designations
2512
Composition (wt-%)
0,20 0,25 0,90 0,014 0,039 0,81 1,05 0,06 0,07 0,02 0,036 0,009
fs 0,0 0) 0," 0,6 0,8 1,0

Thermal Analysis
T dT
(QC) CD dt
(QC/s)
~
1500
T .1,5
.1,0
1450
.0,5
1400 0
-0,5
1350
-1,0
-1,5
R = 0,5 C/s
Q
1300
0 100 200 300 1'(5)
2,0 0,5 0,1

Temperature of MnS-formation, QC CD 1460-1420 1460-1425 -1445
Precipitates
MnS. The steel was resulphurized (see figures 5-7).
Microsegregation
Element Cr Ni
R = 0,5 QC/s
1,5 1,4 Tq = 1370 QC
Steel 209 • 37
Partly solidified
Figure 1
R = O,5°C/s
Tq = 1495°C
d = 60 fLm
x 25 400 fLm
Figure 2
R = 2,O°C/s
Tq = 1370°C
d = 85 fLm
transformed to"y by the peritectic reaction. )-
• -'<' I'~ .~-" .... - ~.
,..J
x 25 400 fLm . :)"',.-/'
, '"',,-J. "
•
,. •
,
i
.
,.,. ) . "
•
,. .. <{.
. )
I.
Figure 3
R = O,5°C/s
Tq = 1370°C
d = 110fLm
x 25 400 fLm
,..,
Figure 4
R = O,1°C/s
Tq
d
= 1370°C
= 180fLm /
.
.•.
x 25 400 fLm
38 • Steel 209
"
--
,"
,'.
( :;
t'
J Figure 5
R = 2,0°C/s
-.-
'"
,
Tq = 1370°C
',",:,
Figures 5-7: Interdendritic MnS.
.•... .'~
" , I
100 Mm x 150
~ '- •
"-
.I
.. • ..- ,
I
~ Figure 6
R = 0,1°C/s
Tq = 1370°C
x 150
.'
' •.•. ::'.,'
.' ~.
".'
::',:',
•.•
.. ,
# ••••
't,
Figure 7
R = 2,0°C/s
, ·r· Tq = 1370°C
~ --;' ,,~
, f,'
y x 600
Steel 210 • 39
STEEL 210. 0,3 % C Cr Ni Mo LOW ALLOY STEEL
Designations
Composition (wt-%)
0,27 0,02 0,32 0,006 0,008 1,66 3,5 0,42 0,04 0,08 0,044 0,007
Thermal Analysis fs 0,0 0) 0,4 0,6 0,8 1,0

T dT
(OC) CD CD d't
(OC/s)
f ~
+1,5
T
+1,0
1450
+0,5
1400 0
-0,5
dT
1350 dt
-1,0
-1,5
R = O,soC/s 1300
0 100 200 300 L(s)
Average Cooling Rate,R, (CC/s)
2,0 0,5 0,1

Precipitates
Very small amount of fine interdendritic carbides containing Mo and V.
Microsegregation
Element Cr Ni Mo v
R = 0,5 °C/s
1,6 1,3 2,2 2,0 Tq = 1350°C
40 • Steel 210
Partly solidified
.•........
::a. •. ~. 'f
\ ": I
.~.. '-
"
I
. <
.
.:. ~-.. '.~
," .•
Figure 1
R = 0,5°C/s
Tq = 1488°C
d = 60 fLm
o-dendrites and quenched liquid (L),
-.'""'!.-
........ 400 fLm x 25

,,' .:
.
)--
•.. ' Completely solidified
_.
·4
I
~~. ....•..._J" I' • Figure 2

'-.. .......• ,I,. {J :.;-.
.. I
.. .-'
~
..- f".
"\.:
,
R = 2,0°C/s
Tq = 1350°C
Y ". .•.. d = 70 fLm
.\.....
.-,
-~.....•
,
-
','
'" . ~ x 25
Figure 3
R = 0,5°C/s
Tq = 1350°C
d = 90 fLm
,
·I 400 fLm x 25
f f •
Figure 4
.• R
Tq
d
= 0,1°C/s
=
1350°C
160 fLm
.r· x 25
Steel211 • 41
STEEL 211. 0,3 % C Cr Mo LOW ALLOY STEEL
Designations
2225 4130 1.7218
Composition (wt-%)
0,29 0,21 0,62 0,012 0,006 1,11 0,15 0,21 0,04 0,04 0,011 0,004
Thermal Analysis 0,0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1,0
CD
t
1500
1450
1400 0
dT
d,(
1350
-1,5
R = a,scC/s 1300
0 100 200 300 t(s)
2,0 0,5 0,1
Liquidus temperature, ferritic primary phase, cC CD 1501 1501 1503

Temperature of austenite formation, cC CD 1460 1471 1475
Solidus temperature, cC CD 1420 1435 1450
Solidification range, cC 85 65 55
Precipitates
Small amount of MnS.
Microsegregation
Element Cr Mo
R = 0,5 CC Is
1,6 2,0 Tq = 1360 cC
Partly solidified
Figure 1
R = 0.5°C/s
Tq = 1495°C
d = 60 fLm
8-dendrites and quenched liquid (L).
400 fLm x 25
'"' \ ~..¥.f \0.....,

" '. \ \.'\.~. ~
.. r~,~'"\'\,.''lo. >"":'. ..,tJ-
'"\" \ •
•
..•....•. ..).
\ '"
. ',:)0
\- '.
',,"
'
..')
~ ~ ....,
.. ', -'\ '.
'. . ".
~
,.
r..) ..,.;
~
.. '
, J Completely solidified
... \ \..
.
.:'-..
\'
\.\.
'. \
,
~.
.
'.'
.."..' \. \.
')
\'"
/ .•......•.
. .'-,', \.''.
~ 1.."
\ .,'-
) ... '-\.
\
•
.
""
".')-.
M·.,~
"'-
\ \\.:\ ••••.. \
\.' ..'\ •." >..•.•.
•• , •.•••...•
t
IAl.
r.
'. '. • "~"...:-, \ ,,':... .••• ." ••••••......' l I
\ '.
•'t~:,
"".'" "'. "'
•
. \ '. .•.•
' \" ."
\.. '\" \'. . r
'I,
' "'li .•. r\.)
" Figure 2
,
". \ ~,'. ~.: .~"
, •..••.. :. /.
i'~
\.'
•••.
,,'
I ••.•
••. '. "
.•
'l. '-
'. J'
'.
'.
'....
~ .
I"
~I
_....
"" "' •.••.

"
"..
- t..' ~
".
_
A
R = 2.0°C/s
Tq = 1360°C
" •• \. t • • I ~ r ~ d = 70 fLm
. (., "" ' '.: ... •• ~ J' I Figures 2-4: Former 8-dendri~es. .
\. .,'. 'r' .,~-t. ..{ (. I transformed to y by the peritectlc reaction.
'\," 4.'·"~~'J·,·.(,'j
." \...
-r::
.•••.•
-.....f..
. r.", ."" ,..
~
••••••-.' I",,' " • # •• ,.
.,- ,':~' ,.-'.' .......- ../ •• :. ~ Jo,.~

x 25
'\. '" .•. " , ,.'•.~. .• . ....
,. \ T" . ~ ". -.f:' ""..... ,'\.
.••.. J I
Figure 3
R = 0.5°C/s
Tq = 1360°C
d = 90 fLm
x 25
Figure 4
", R = 0.1°C/s
Tq = 1360°C
d = 150fLm
400 fLm x 25
Steel 212 • 43
Designations
2534
Composition (wt-%)
0,29 0,22 0,52 0,009 0,010 1,02 3,2 0,25 0,05 0,03 0,010 0,005
Thermal Analysis 0,0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1,0
1450
1400
1350
R = O,5 C/s
Q
o 100 200 300 't'(s)
Liquidus temperature, austenitic primary phase, QC

Liquidus temperature, ferritic primary phase, QC CD
Temperature of austenite formation, QC CD
Solidus temperature, QC CD
Solidification range, QC
Solidification time, s
Precipitates
Microsegregation
Element Cr Ni Mo
R = 0,5 QC/s
1,7 1,4 2,2 Tq = 1360 QC
Partly solidified
Figure 1
R = 0.5°C/s
Tq = 1480°C
d = 70 fLm
o·dendrites and quenched liquid (L).
400 fLm x 25
. j , I
<",l ,, ), \ 'r f I'
..
.. ..
.'>
(
)
.I
"
\ ) \
..
.,\
Y ~
f " ••
, . , I
)- J.
,1,.- , ... ' I
r i
~
"
,
/,
.. .
'f ~,
~ ',': •....•
1&
.• ,.
. ~
(
' ,. .. •
Figure 2
;/:
.\; / . ) t.. ,c, .'- R
Tq =
= 2,O°C/s
1360°C
~, d = 75 fLm
, ~ y-dend rites.
(Note: primary y at this cooling rate.)
- "
,
• J
\
-- 1...
' .. ,, x 25
Y r
,...-
..,... ~Jf'
.A
I , I ~
, ,...-' ".,. •..
\
.
'\
I •,
r
<
<.. \
\
;'
A
.
1 J
'.
Figure 3
R = O,5°C/s
I
,-.
\'" Tq = 1360°C
\ ...I •.. (
d =110fLm
,.., , , Figures 3-4: Former o-dendrites,
• }
.J
,
I
~ ..,..
Jo
•• . , r -
x 25
Figure 4
R = O,1°C/s
Tq = 1360°C
d =180fLm
400 fLm x 25
"
",
Steel 213 • 45
STEEL 213. 0,35% C Cr Mo LOW ALLOY STEEL
Designations
2234 4135 1.7220
Composition (wt-%)
0,35 0,24 0,67 0,010 0,020 0,92 0,05 0,19 0,07 0,02 0,004 0,008
fs 0,0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1,0

Thermal Analysis
T
(oe)
CD
1500 t .1,5
T
.1,0
1450
.0,5
1400 o
-0,5
1350
- 1,0
-1,5
R = O,5°C/s 1300
o 100 200 't( 5)
2,0 0,5 0,1

Precipitates
Microsegregation
Element Cr Mo
R = 0,5 °C/s
1,5 2,4 Tq = 1340 °C
46 • Steel 213
Partly solidified
Figure 1
R = 0,5°C/s
Tq = 1485°C
d = 65 J1.m
400 J1.m x 25
Figure 2
.(--
.•..-
'
./'
/
.
"
j
:t R
d
= 2,0°C/s
Tq = 1340°C
= 80 J1.m
Figures 2 - 4: Former Il-dendrites,
.~ \
\.
\\ \
400 J1.m x 25
...• ; .
•,; t f :.
.1
..... ,",
,
...
.'" I
"
~,'
(
,
,. ,.. ),
"" ·1
I T.··." "
r
- .,.;'
,r
.# "
j S
"'"
.. ....,
.••..
-""",,
... 4.
-<
l
••
.. '.. ~i> •
.. ' .r .•..
",,'
..•••. - .. --.~ Figure 3

.. "
..y
. ... ..-
R
Tq
= 0,5°C/s
= 1340°C
. ....
"- --' .. .- -'"
,-
"- d = 100J1.m
-
.••.. I
, -" .- x 25
••
•-.
I ,
••
..
"'. .. • •
I
• • I
" t 1JIl
"
Figure 4
R = 0,1°C/s
I
•• Tq
d
= 1340°C
= 190J1.m
x 25
Steel 214 • 47
STEEL 214. 0,5% C Cr LOW ALLOY STEEL
Designations
2230 6150 1.8159
Composition (wt-%)
0,52 0,22 0,85 0,010 0,006 1,07 0,07 0,07 0,04 0,14 ~0,004 0,008
fs 0,0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1,0

Thermal Analysis dT
T
(OC) d"t
(OC/s)
1500 CD
t +1,5
T
+1,0
1450
+0,5
1400 0
dT
dt -0,5
1350
-1,0
-1,5
R = O,soC/s 1300
0 100 200 300 't (5)
2,0 0,5 0,1
Liquidus temperature, austenitic primary phase, °C CD 1482 1482 1483

Precipitates
Small amount of interdendritic carbides.
Microsegregation
Element Cr V
R = 0,5°C/s
2,1 1,9 Tq = 1310 °C
48 • Steel 214
"',"
.I
, ..-, .' ;
.:. L',:"~"'>
.
' ,..-.. Partly solidified
"
.'
. ~/ ( ",
• f
( J
•.
' /'!,
...
. .I
j
,
"
.
f
.!/
...
J;.~
, •..I ~ '<..
"
/; Figure 1
-.
;;,
f
f
!A '. ,f R = 0,5°C/s
- .f
Tq = 1470°C
'. :' d = 55 fLm
',',
,I /: y-dendrites and quenched liquid (L).
, .'~....
'. \
-.
f' .!r .,•• ../ '>.
;'..~:,~ ,..., 400 fLm x 25

-,
,,. { ,
" Jr'.
~
\
. \
\ \ \
t\ .
~ '-
, • \ \.
{ , \
.~ Completely solidified
\
\ t I
\ 'I
'\ I
\ \
'. '\ \
f
'\
\ .~
t
,
.
\ \ \
\ '.
\ '. • ,
I
,
'.' .
.' \
\ : ~
..•
"... " .
Figure 2
R = 2,0°C/s
Tq = 1310°C
"
I"- \ I
\ \
\ '\'
d = 75 fLm
" Figures 2-4: y-dendrites.
\ ,, •
'.
\ \
.
\
\
.
, \'1.
. -, ),
~ 400 fLm x 25
J ,"'. ).. ".

( ..,
, \..- .r .•.
,
). ." ""
I ~" ..
f
,... -
J
••• ......, ... ,I
, 1
•
lo • ') -.-.
...•• " I
I.
.• " .
,,
Figure 3
J
,; R = 0,5°C/s
} ,. ,
•
Tq = 1310°C
., I
• I I , .. ~ .•.
...J
d = 90 fLm
J
I /' ( , f - 400 fLm x 25
! ....I ~
..,/
• ••
~ Figure 4
~ I' R
Tq
= 0,1°C/s
1310°C
d = 140 fLm
•• ""
, 400 fLm x 25
~
Steel 215 • 49
Designations
2550 1.2721
Composition (wt-%)
0,55 0,27 0,50 0,019 0,012 0,99 3,0 0,31 0,06 0,08 0,011 0,008
fs 0,0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1,0

Thermal Analysis
T dT
(OCl de
(OC/s)
1500
+',5
T
1450
1400 0
dT
d't'
1350
-1,5
R = O,5°C/s 1300
0 100 200 300 T(s)
2,0 0,5 0,1

Temperature of formation of eutectic, °C 1365-1335 -1370 -1375
Precipitates
Interdendritic carbide-austenite eutectic, Fe3P and MnS, (see figure 5).
Microsegregation
Element Cr Ni Mo v
R = 0,5°C/s
2,1 1,2 2,5 2,0 Tq = 1290 °C
Partly solidified
Figure 1
R = 0,5°C/s
Tq = 1465°C
d = 65 fLm
y-dendrites and quenched liquid (L),
400 fLm x 25
-
""
.....•
" ,
l ,,J
Figure 2
R = 2,0°C/s
Tq =1290°C
d = 70 fLm
Figures 2-4: y-dendrites,
400 fLm x 25
J " ...j) :( -\ r
iT- .
.../ ...., t . ·'A.-
1 f' ('. \"
'",
"
"\.,. ,t.......,
"
" Figure 3
R = 0,5°C/s
". Tq = 1290°C
d = 90 fLm
400 fLm x 25
1 \.
Figure 4
R = 0,1°C/s
Tq 1290°C
•
' . d = 130 fLm
. ;/J .. I x 25
Steel 215 • 51
Figure 5
R = O,5°C/s
Tq = 1290°C
Interdendritic area with carbide-austenite
eutectic (El, Fe3P and MnS.
x 1000
52 • Steel 216
STEEL 216. 1,0 % C Cr LOW ALLOY STEEL
Designations
2258 52100 1.3505
Composition (wt-%)
1,01 0,23 0,33 0,021 0,026 1,55 0,02 0,01 0,04 0,04 0,011 0,003
Thermal Analysis Is 0,0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 0,9 1,0

T dT
d't
(OC)
CD (OC/s)
145O
t
T +',5
+',0
1400
.0,5
1350
°
-0,5
1300
-1,0
- 1,5
R = 0,5 C/s 125O
100 200 300 L(S)
°
Average Cooling Rate,R, ("C/s)
2,0 0,5 0,1
Liquidus temperature, austenitic primary phase, DC CD 1450 1450 1451

Temperature of formation of eutectic, QC CD 1320-1270 1340 -1300 -1300
Solidus temperature, C CD 1270 1300 ~1300
Solidification range, C 180 150 150
Solification time, s 170 330 1400
Precipitates
1. Interdendritic Fe3P-carbide-austenite eutectic (14% Cr, 5% P). The eutectic remained after cooling to 850 DC (see
figures 5 and 6), but was dissolved after homogenizing for 4 h at 1200 cC.
2. Interdendritic MnS.
Microsegregation
Element Cr
R = 0,5 cCls
2,6 Tq = 1250 cC
Partly solidified
Figure 1
R = 0,5°C/s
Tq = 1440°C
d = 60 JLm
x 25 400 JLm
Figure 2
R = 2,0°C/s
Tq = 1250°C
d = 75 JLm
x 25 400 JLm
Figure 3
R = 0,5°C/s
Tq = 1250°C
'-.:a; R..' ,,:' •
d = 90 JLm
.---- 1'...,...
x 25 400 JLm
..• "...,. '-
'.1J
• ..• ". '
.'
. I
••
~
;'
•
~.
p • ,0"
,
y
..•..
J
~:~ ~
,f
.-1
V ..
.• ..
,
Figure 4
1 IJ
'
,
~
f . ~~
#': . .)..~
R
Tq
=
=
0,1°C/s
1250°C
~
.•.. -' .} ? J.•..
d = 140 JLm
x 25 400 JLm
I
•• 4 , .-
•
•• : .!:.'"
Figure 5
R = 2,0°C/s
'-E Tq = 1250°C
Interdendritic Fe3P-carbide-austenite eutectic
(E) (approximately 0,1 vol-%). The eutectic con-
tains 14% Cr and 5% P.
x 1000
• t •
Figure 6
R = 2,0°C/s
Tq = 850°C
After cooling to 850°C, small amounts of the
eutectic shown in figure 5 remained. (Annealing
for 4 h at 1200°C completely eliminated the
eutectic.)
x 1000
55
3. Chromium Steels
Steels with chromium as the only, or the dominant alloy- Temperature ;C
ing element are normally called chromium steels. The two 1600
common groups included here are steels with 5 and 13% I I 5% Cr
l+a
chromium. In the first family the alloying addition is used I
to increase hardenability and to give the final product a 1500
favourable combination of strength and toughness. a l
In the 13% Cr-steels, chromium imparts both corrosion 1400
resistance and strength. With reference to the structure of
the steel products, the group comprises ferritic stainless
(C < 0,08%), hardenable martensitic stainless (C ~ 1300
0,09%), and low carbon hardenable martensitic stainless
steels with 4-6% nickel. Because of their constitutional 1200
similarity at high temperatures, the 5 and 13% chromium
l+y+Kc
steels are kept together in this work, rather than grouping
the 13% Cr- steels with the Cr-Ni stainless materials.
Steels containing 17-25% chromium have not been ex-
amined. They are similar to the 13 % Cr-group in regard to 1000
solidification and structure at high temperatures.
Chromium steels are produced as castings and ingots of
900
moderate size, continuous casting is unusual.
Both the groups of steels investigated are made with a
o 1 2 3 -4
Weight -%carbon
wide range of carbon contents. For a given chromium
level the solidification mode is strongly dependent on
Figure 3.1 Fe-5Cr-C system
carbon; this can be seen in the pseudobinary phase dia-
grams, figures 3.1 and 3.2. Account was taken of this
effect of carbon when chosing the production steels for
examination; these are given in tables 3.1 and 3.2:
Temperature~C
No. C Si Mn Cr Ni Mo V %
1600
301 0,13 0,4 0,4 5,0 0,6 13 % Cr
302 0,35 1,0 0,5 5,2 0,2 1,3 1,0
303 0,50 1,0 0,5 5,1 0,2 1,4 1,2 1500
304 0,96 0,3 0,7 5,2 0,1 1,2 0,2
a L
Table 3.1 5% chromium steels 1400
1300
No. C Si Mn Cr Ni %
1200
305 0,04 0,5 0,6 13,4 5,5
306 0,07 0,5 0,5 12,9 0,2
307 0,14 0,2 0,7 12,0 1,2 1100
308 0,32 0,2 0,3 13,9 0,2
309 0,69 0,4 0,6 13,1 0,2 y+K2
1000
Table 3.2 13% chromium steels (see also table 4.1)
a
900
0 O'+y+K 1 2 3
As indicated in figures 3.1 and 3.2 these grades cover the Weight - % carbon
following solidification processes:
• primary ferrite formation Figure 3.2 Fe-13Cr-C system
• primary ferrite formation followed by a peritectic reac-
(Figures 3.1 and 3.2 after Bungardt et al. Arch. EisenhOttenw. 29
tion (1958) 3, 193-203, Kc = Fe3 C, K, = M23C6, K2 = M7C3)
• primary austenite formation
It should be noted that the pseudobinary phase diagrams
are strictly valid for ternary Fe-Cr-C-alloys only. The super-
imposed lines for the commercial steel grades are there-
fore only indicative.
References
The solidification of chromium steels has not been widely
studied. General aspects of the process have been repor-
ted, [55-59]. Research work on microsegregation is
described in references [60-64].
56 • Steel 301
STEEL 301. 0,1 % C 5 % CHROMIUM STEEL
Designations
501 1.7362
Composition (wt-%)
C Si Mn p S Cr Ni Mo Cu W v N
0,13 0,36 0,37 0,003 0,007 5,0 0,01 0,58 0,02 0,01 0,01 0,009 0,006
Thermal Analysis fs 0) 0,4 0,6 0,8 0,9 1,0

T dT
(OC) CD d't
(OC/s)
1500 ~
+1,5
+1,0
1450
+0,5
1400 0
-0,5
dT
1350 dt -1,0
-1,5
R = 0,5 C/s
Q
1300
0 100 200 '[(5)
2,0 0,5 0,1

Precipitates
Microsegregation
Element Cr Mo
R = 0,5 QC/s
1,1 1,4 Tq = 1375 QC
Partly solidified
Figure 1
R = 0,5°C/s
Tq = 1495°C
d = 65 j.Lm
x 25 400 j.Lm
Figure 2
R = 2,0°C/s
Tq = 1375°C
d = 85 j.Lm
x 25 400 j.Lm
Figure 3
R = O,5°C/s
Tq = 1375°C
d = 160j.Lm
x 25 400j.Lm
;. I
't .•••• ".
Figure 4
R = O,1°C/s
Tq = 1375°C ",... ff
".
d = 275 j.Lm
J
x 25 400j.Lm
58 • Steel 302
STEEL 302. 0,35 % C Mo V 5 % CHROMIUM STEEL
Designations
2242 H 13 1.2344
Composition (wt-%)
0,35 1,03 0,46 0,020 0,007 5,2 0,23 1,34 0,11 0,091,00,013 0,026
Thermal Analysis Is 0,0 D) 0,4 0,6 0,8 1,0

T dT
(OC) CD dt
f (OC/s)
1450 +1,5
+1,0
1400
+0,5
1350 0
-0,5
1300
-1,0
-1,5
R = 0,5 C/s
Q
1250
0 100 200 300 't (5)
2,0 0,5 0,1

Solidus temperature, QC 0) 1335 1360 1380
Precipitates
Small amount of eutectic carbide.
Microsegregation
Element Cr Ni Mo v
R = 0,5 QCIs
1,2 1,0 1,5 1,7 Tq = 1300 QC
Steel 302 • 59
Partly solidified
Figure 1
R = 0.5°C/s
Tq = 1450°C
d = 55fLm
x 25 400 fLm
Figure 2
R = 2.0°C/s
Tq = 1300°C
d = 70 fLm
x 25 400 fLm
Figure 3
R = 0.5°C/s
Tq = 1300°C
d = BOfLm
x 25 400 fLm
• ••~
.J
'" <
. ""-.
.. •. ..•... "
'
\ { .
\
, .' '.i'
Figure 4
R = 0.1°C/s
Tq = 1300°C
d = 120fLm
x 25 400fLm
60 • Steel 303
STEEL 303. 0,5 % C Mo V 5 % CHROMIUM STEEL
Designations
Composition (wt-%)
0,50 1,00 0,48 0,025 0,010 5,1 0,18 1,36 0,10 0,02 1,20 0,013 0,036
fs 0,0 0,2 DJ. 0,6 0,8 0,9 1,0

(QC) CD d't
(QCls)
1450
t
T
1l.O0
1350
1300 0
1250
-1,5
R = 0,5°C/s 1200
o 100 200 300
2,0 0,5 0,1

Temperature of formation of MC-austenite eutectic,QC CD 1320-1240 1345-1300 -1320
Solidification range, cC 320 220 200
Precipitates
1. Interdendritic MC-austenite eutectic, MC was of the VC type, (see figures 6-8).

2. Small amount of interdendritic M23C6-austenite eutectic,(M was Cr, Fe and Mo), precipitated after the MC carbide.
Microsegregation
Element Cr Mo v
R = 0,5 QC/s
1,3 1,5 1,3 Tq = 1200 QC
Steel 303 • 61
Partly solidified
Figure 1
R = 0,5°C/s
Tq = 1445°C
d = 55 j.Lm
x 25 400 j.Lm
Figure 2
R = 2,0°C/s
Tq = 1140°C
d = 60 j.Lm
(transformed to y by the peritectic reaction), and
interdendritic carbide eutectic.
x 25 400 j.Lm
Figure 3
R = 0,5°C/s
Tq = 1200°C
d = 80 j.Lm
x 25 400 j.Lm
Figure 4
R = 0,1°C/s
Tq = 1200°C
d = 110j.Lm
x 25 400 j.Lm
62 • Steel 303
it \ .•. '
,
" '\ ,/" ,'/ ~. t. "I Figure 5

\";; ~.~"
'
•• \ I
t,'
(" R = 2,0°C/s
i11'~ r
Tq = 1290°C
" ' '<llI'
, ' '-.' Quenched liquid.
10 jLm x 1000
\
"
Figure 6
,
, R = 2,0°C/s
Tq = 1200°C
Eutectic formation of MC.
I
", (L->MC+y)
/
/
x 1000
\ .•
.\
Figure 7
R = 2,O°C/s
Tq = 1000°C
Morphology of MC.
x 1000
.1
I
'-- ""';'
,
~.,
"
,. Figure 8
R = 2,O°C/s
,/ "- Tq = 1000°C
I. ..•. • Interdendritic distribution of MC .
..•.. '(
l' •..... -{ x 150

Steel 304 • 63
STEEL 304. 1,0 % C Mo 5 % CHROMIUM STEEL
Designations
2260 A2 1.2363
Composition (wt-%)
0,96 0,29 0,67 0,020 0,015 5,2 0,13 1,19 0,09 0,05 0,21 0,014 0,024
Is
Thermal Analysis 0,0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 0,9 1,0
CD
W
1400
+1,5
+1,0
1350
+0,5
1300 o
-0,5
1250
-1,0
-1,5
R = 0,5 C/s 1200
Q
o 100 200 300 400 L(S)
2,0 0,5 0,1

Temperature of formation of eutectic, QC CD 1150-1130 -1200 -1215
Precipitates
Interdendritic M7C3 - austenite eutectic, (see figures 5-7).
Microsegregation
Element Cr Mo v
R = 0,5 QC/s
1,4 1,9 1,7 Tq = 1200 QC
64 • Steel 304
Partly solidified
Figure 1
R = 0,5 C/s
Tq = 1420'C
d = 55 j.Lm
400 j.Lm x 25
Figure 2
R = 2,0 C/s
Tq = 1130"C
d = 65 j.Lm
Figures 2-4: y-dendrites and interdendritic
carbide eutectic.
Figure 3
R = 0,5°C/s
Tq = 1200 C
d = 80 j.Lm
400 j.Lm x 25
,,'
,.I ,..j
.~
"
.'~ -
'"
.r .' "<!. J
\
,)
Figure 4
R = OYC/s
Tq 1200°C
d = 110j.Lm
400 j.Lm x 25
Steel 304 • 65
.•...,.
"
Figure 5
R = 2,0°C/s
Tq = 1200°C
Quenched liquid.
x 1000
I ,.
Figure 6
R = 2,0°C/s
Tq = 1000°C
Morphology of M7C3.
x 1000
Figure 7
R = 2,0°C/s
Tq = 1000°C
Interdendritic distribution of M 7 C3.
x 150
66 • Steel 305
STEEL 305. 0,04 % C 5 % Ni 13 % CHROMIUM STEEL
Designations
Composition (wt-%)
0,04 0,54 0,61 0,010 0,009 13,4 5,5 0,07 0,07 0,01 0,01 0,019 0,032
Thermal Analysis fs 0,0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 0.9 1,0

T dT
+CD Q) dt
(OC)
1450
T
+ (oC/s)
+1,5
+1,0
1400
+0,5
1350 --- 0
dT
dt -0,5
1300
-1,0
-1,5
R = 0,5°C/s 1250
0 100 200 300 t(s)
2,0 0,5 0,1

Precipitates
Microsegregation
Element Cr Ni
R = O,5°C/s
1,1 1,2 Tq = 1350 °C
Steel 305 • 67
Partly solidified
Figure 1
R = O,5°C/s
Tq = 1473°C
d = 75ILm
I)-dendrites and quenched liquid (L).
x 25
Figure 2
R = 2,O°C/s
Tq = 1350°C
d = 140 ILm
Figures 2-4: Formerl)-dendrites (D).
White interdendritic areas (ID).
Most of the I) transformed to y by the peritec-
tic reaction.
x 25 400 ILm
Figure 3
R = 0,5°C/s
Tq = 1350°C
d = 240 ILm
x 25 400 ILm
Figure 4
R = 0,1°C/s
Tq = 1350°C
d = 520 ILm
x 25 400 ILm
68 • Steel 305
Figure 5
R = 0,5°C/s
Tq = 1200°C
(d12oo = 260 Mm)
Former 8-dendrites (D).
Most of the 8 transformed to y by th9 peritec-
tic reaction.
400 Mm x 25
.\
·1
•
\\
, '.
_."
.
\. Figure 6
R = 2,0°C/s
Tq = 1350°C
.' Residual dendritic ferrite (il)
in the y-matrix.
x 600
;,\ \ .
\ \.
~~ '\ I .
'~~
/
Figure 7
)
R =0,1°C/s
Tq = 1350°C
Residual dendritic ferrite (r';)
in the y-matrix.
x 600
Steel 306 • 69
Designations
2301 410 S 1.4000
Composition (wt-%)
C Si Mn p 5 Cr Ni Mo Cu W v N
0,07 0,54 0,48 0,020 0,006 12,9 0,17 0,02 0,10 0,01 ::; 0,01 0,026 0,039
2,0 0,5 0,1

Temperature of solid phase transformation of ferrite to austenite, QC CD 1325-1270 1330-1290
Precipitates
Microsegregation
Element Cr Ni
R = 0,5 QC/s
1,0 1,0 Tq = 1400 QC
Partly solidified
Figure 1
R = 0,5°C/s
Tq = 1498°C
d = 90 Mm
400 Mm x 25
Figure 2
R = 2,0°C/s
Tq = 1400°C
d = 205 Mm
Figures 2-3: o-dendrites.
Light interdendritic areas.
(Interference contrast.)
400 Mm x 25
Figure 3
R = 0,5°C/s
Tq = 1400°C
d = 260 Mm
400 Mm x 25
Figure 4
R = 0,1°C/s
Tq = 1400°C
d
No dendrites visible due to absence of segrega-
tion. Austenite (dark) precipitated during
quenching.
400 Mm x 25
Figure 5
R = 0,5°C/s
Tq = 1400°C
Austenite
from 1400 (dark
C . ) precipitated during quenching
.
0
x 25 400 JLm
Figure 6
R = 0,5°C/s
Tq = 1200°C
Austenite ( ) cooling to
12000C (SOli~ st~~:ciPitated during
(d12oo= 270 JLm) transformation).
x 25 400 JLm
72 • Steel 307
STEEL 307. 0,1 % C Ni 12 % CHROMIUM STEEL
Designations
2302 (414) 1.4008
Composition (wt-%)
C Si Mn p S Cr Ni Mo Cu W V Altot N
0,14 0,19 0,68 0,009 0,014 12,0 1,20 0,01 0,03 0,01 0,02 0,001 0,040
fs 0,0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1,0

Thermal Analysis
T dT
(OC) .CD dt
(OC/s)
T
1450
+1,5
+1,0
1400
+0,5
1350 - 0
Ql
dt -0,5
1300
-1, 0
-1,5
R = O,SQC/s 1250
0 100 200 300 '[(5)
Average Cooling Rate,R, ( C/s)
2,0 0,5 0,1

Solidus temperature, C CD 1390 1400 1400
Precipitates
Microsegregation
Element Cr Ni
R = 0,5 QCls
1,1 1,3 Tq = 1360 QC
Steel 307 • 73
Partly solidified
Figure 1
R = O,5°C/s
Tq = 1493°C
d = 75/-Lm
x 25 400/-Lm
Figure 2
R = 2,0°C/s
Tq = 1360°C
d = 150 /-Lm
Figures 2 - 4: Former o-dendrites (D).
(Most of the 0 transformed to y by the peritec-
tic reaction.)
x 25 400/-Lm
Figure 3
R = 0,5°C/s
Tq = 1360°C
d = 180 /-Lm
x 25 400/-Lm
Figure 4
R = 0,1°C/s
Tq = 1360°C
d = 470/-Lm
x 25 400/-Lm
74 • Steel 307
Figure 5
R = 0,5°C/s
Tq = 1200°C
(d12oo= 250 fLm)
Former o-dendrites (D).
(Most of the 0 transformed to y by the peritec-
tic reaction.)
400 fLm x 25
Figure 6
R = 2,0°C/s
,1 Tq = 1360°C
Residual dendritic ferrite (0) in the y-matrix.
I ,
x 600
/
Figure 7
/
\' 'j R = 0,1°C/s
Tq = 1360°C
I J --~ Residual dendritic ferrite (0) in the y-matrix.
Figures 6-7: Note the influence of cooling rate
on ferrite coarseness.
I
x 600
Steel 308 • 75
Designations
2304 (420) 1.4028
Composition (wt-%)
0,32 0,15 0,30 0,009 0,008 13,9 0,16 0,01 0,01 0,22 0,03 0,003 0,013
Thermal Analysis fs 0,0 O,L. 0,6 0,8 1.0

T dT
(OC) dT
(OC/s)
1L.50
+1.5
+1.0
1L.00
+0,5
-0,5
1300
-1,0
-1.5
R = 0,5°C/s 1250
0 100 200 300 L (5)
2,0 0,5 0,1

Precipitates
Interdendritic ferrite, (see figures 7 - 8).
Microsegregation
Element Cr Ni
R = 0,5 °C/s
1,2 1,0 Tq = 1345 °C
76 • Steel 308
Partly solidified
Figure 1
R = 0,5°C/s
Tq = 1410°C
d = 75 fLm
8-dendrites (almost completely transformed to y)
and quenched liquid (L), (compare figure 6).
400 fLm x 25
Figure 2
R = 2,0°C/s
Tq = 1345°C
d = 75 fLm
Figures 2-4: Former 8-dendrites,
(transformed to y by the peritectic reaction), and
interdendritic ferrite (8).
400 fLm x 25
Figure 3
R = 0,5°C/s
Tq = 1345°C
d = 100 fLm
x 25
Figure 4
R = 0,1°C/s
Tq = 1345°C
d =210fLm
400 fLm x 25
Steel 308 • 77
Figure 5
R = 0,5°C/s
Tq = 1200°C
(d12oo = 110 j.Lm)
Former o-dendrites, (transformed to y by the pe-
ritectic reaction), and interdendritic ferrite (0).
x 25 400 j.Lm
Figure 6
R = 0,5°C/s
Tq = 1410°C
Former o-dendrite, almost completely transfor-
med to y by the peritectic reaction, with residual
o in the centre. L = quenched liquid.
x 150
Figure 7
R = 2,0°C/s
Tq = 1345°C
Interdendritic ferrite (0).
x 150
Figure 8
R = O,5°C/s
Tq = 1200°C
Interdendritic ferrite (0).
x 150
78 • Steel 309
Designations
Composition (wt-%)
C Si Mn P S Cr Ni Mo Cu W V Altot N
0,69 0,43 0,64 0,014 0,005 13,1 0,20 0,07 0,02 0,22 0,03 0,002 0,025
Thermal Analysis fs 0,0 0,2 0.4 0.6 0,8 0,9 0.95 1,0
T dT
(OC) dt
Q) (OC/s)
1450
~ +3.0
1400 +2.5
+2,0
1350 +1,5
+1,0
1300
+0,5
G)©
t 4
1250 -- -t-- -- 0
dT -0,5
dT
1200 -1,0
-1,5
R = O,SQC/s
1150
0 100 200 300 400 t(s)
2,0 0,5 0,1

Temperature of formation of eutectic, QC CD 1240-1195 1250-1240 1260-1245
Precipitates
Interdendritic M7C3-austenite eutectic. The amount of carbide eutectic increased with increasing cooling rate,
(see figures 5-8).
Microsegregation
Element Cr Ni
R = 0,5 QC/s
Tq = 1240 C Q
1,2 1,0
Steel 309 • 79
Partly solidified
Figure 1
R = O,5°C/s
Tq = 141BoC
d = 50 fLm
Former 8-dendrites, (completely transformed to
y by the peritectic reaction), and quenched liq-
uid (L).
x 25 400 fLm
Figure 2
R = 2,O°C/s
Tq = 1195°C
d = 65 fLm
Figures 2-4: Former 8-dendrites, (transformed
to y by the peritectic reaction).
Interdendritic carbide eutectic (compare figures
5-B).
x 25 400 fLm
Figure 3
R = 0,5°C/s
Tq = 1240°C
d = BOfLm
x 25 400 fLm
Figure 4
R = O,1°C/s
Tq = 1240°C
d = 130fLm
x 25 400 fLm
80 • Steel 309
" , f
.J--'
~"
, ..
/
f
.t
\..
"> •... ~ J 'y
""'\-;
'"
4
.cv "A..
.". l~~\ -\.
t •
Figure 5
R = 0,5°C/s
Tq = 1240°C
., \ Interdendritic M7C3-Y eutectic. 3,5 vol-% carbide .
100 Mm x 150
il..
Figure 6
R = 2,0°C/s
Tq = 1195°C
M7C3-Y eutectic. 4,5 vol-% carbide.
25 Mm x 600
.0
Figure 7
R = 0,5°Cts
Tq = 1245°C
M7C3-Y eutectic (E) and small amounts of
liquid (L).
f I,
25 Mm x 600
.I
Figure 8
R = 0,1°C/s
Tq = 1240°C
M7C3-Y eutectic. 2,4 vol-% carbide.
25 Mm x 600
81
4. Stainless and Heat Resistant Steels

The main alloying element is chromium in amounts bet- The choice of these alloys was based on the solidification
ween 12 and 30%. Most common stainless steels also modes indicated by the pseudobinary phase diagrams,
contain considerable quantities of other alloying elements such as that shown in figure 4.1.
of which molybdenum and nickel are the most important. The types of solidification are:
The main object of these additions is to increase the
corrosion resistance of the steel and to control the phase • primary ferrite formation
composition of the microstructure in the final product. • primary ferrite formation followed by a three-phase
Most commercial stainless and heat resistant steels are reaction between liquid, 0 and y.
found in the following range of standardized composi- • primary ferrite and austenite formation
tions, table 4.1: • primary austenite formation
In this work the transition 0 + liquid ~ y is called peritec-
Structure of the steel product C Cr Ni% tic reaction as long as the 0- phase is in direct contact
Ferritic -0,08 12-14 with the liquid. When 0 is completely surrounded by y
-0,10 16-19 -phase and the reaction rate is governed by solid state
-0,25 24-28 diffusion of the alloying elements through y, the process
Martensitic -0,08 12-14 3-6 is denoted peritectic transformation.
0,09- 12-14
0,15- 16-18 1,3-2,5 The relative amount of austenite usually increases below
Ferritic-austen itic -0,10 18-30 4,5-14 the solidus temperature, i.e. the remaining o-ferrite con-
Austenitic -0,50 16-26 7-35 tent is dependent on temperature. In alloys with a high
carbon content carbides precipitate during solidification.
Table 4.1 Classification of stainless and heat resistant steels
Temperature,OC
The structure of the filial product should not be confused
with the structures present during and immediately after 1500
solidification. Many austenitic steels for instance contain
considerable quantities of ferrite in their solidification
structure. L+ Y
Other common alloying elements are molybdenum up to
5% and copper up to 3%. Nitrogen, which is usually pre-
1400
sent at residual levels of about 0,03-0,06%, can also be y
used as an alloying addition of up to 0,2%.
Austenitic steels are produced as castings, ingots of all
sizes and as continuously cast billets and slabs. The other
types of stainless and heat resistant materials mentioned
in table 4.1 are cast predominantly as ingots of a moderate 1300
size, although martensitic and ferritic-austenitic steels are
also commonly used as castings.
The solidification behaviour is governed by the propor-
tions of austenite- and ferrite-forming elements present.
The first group comprises carbon, nitrogen, nickel, manga- 1200
nese, copper and cobalt. (At high concentrations manga-
nese has been reported to be a ferrite former, [66].)
The most important ferrite formers are chromium, silicon,
molybdenum, niobium, titanium and aluminium. The ferri-
tic and martensitic grades have already been described in
1100
chapter 3. The alloys of the present section, belonging to o 5 10 15 20 25 30
the ferritic-austenitic and the austenitic groups were cho- Weight-% Ni
sen to give examples of the different solidification paths. I I I I I I I
The alloys are listed in table 4.2 in order of increasing 30 25 20 15 10 5 0
tendency to solidify as austenite: Weight-% Cr
Si Mn Cr Ni Mo Others% Figure 4.1 Phase diagram Fe-Cr-Ni at 70% Fe. (After Metals
No. C
Handbook, Vol 8, 1973,424-425)
401 0,04 0,9 0,8 25,1 4,7 1,2
402 0,01 0,3 1,8 19,8 9,9
403 0,02 0,3 0,9 19,5 10,3
404 0,04 0,4 1,2 18,4 9,1 0,4
405 0,07 0,6 1,4 17,2 10,3 0,5 0,5 Ti
406 0,05 0,4 1,7 17,2 12,6 2,8 0,5 Nb
407 0,02 0,5 1,6 17,2 13,5 2,6 References
408 0,05 0,6 1,7 17,7 13,4 2,7
409 1,8 17,4 12,8 2,8 0,19 N
The solidification of stainless and heat resistant alloys has
0,02 0,6
410 0,01 0,2 1,8 25,1 22,2 2,3 been the subject of many research reports. Papers on
411 0,06 1,2 1,8 24,2 20,4 general aspects of solidification and phase equilibria in-
412 0,13 0,5 1,7 24,3 20,5 clude references [65-77]. Quantitative discussions of
413 0,01 0,5 1,7 19,2 25,1 4,4 1,5 Cu microsegregation have been presented, [68, 69, 71, 73,
414 0,41 1,0 1,3 25,2 20,6
415 0,07 0,6 0,6 21,1 31,0
77-82].
Finally, solidification under welding conditions has also
Table 4.2 Stainless and heat resistant steels received attention, [72, 79, 83-86].
82 • Steel 401
STEEL 401. 0,04 % C 25 % Cr 5 % Ni Mo STAINLESS STEEL
Designations
2324 (329) (1.4460)
Composition (wt-%)
C Si Mn P S Cr Ni Mo Cu Co Altot N
0,042 0,86 0,76 0,031 0,010 25,1 4,7 1,22 0,08 0,08 ,:::;0,002 0,077
Creq _
Nieq -
4,01
fs 0.0 0.2 0,4 0,6 0.8 1,0

(OCl .CD dt
T (OCls)
1450
+1,5
+1.0
1400
+0.5
1350 -- 0
dT
-0.5
dt
1300
-1.0
-1.5
R = 0,5°C/s 1250
0 100 200 300 t (s)
2,0 0,5 0,1

Fraction solidified as ferrite, % 100 100 100
Precipitates
M23C6particles and austenite in grain boundaries and M23C6particles in the matrix, (see figures 5-8).
The carbide and austenite were precipitated during quenching from 1360°C.
Microsegregation
Element Mn Cr Ni Mo
R = 0,5 °C/s
1,3 1,0 1,2 1,3 Tq = 1360 °C
Steel 401 • 83
Partly solidified
Figure 1
R = 0,5°C/s
Tq = 1468°C
d = 70 JLm
a-dendrites and quenched liquid (L).
x 25 400 JLm
Figure 2
R 2,0°C/s
Tq 1360°C
d 115 JLm
Figures 2-4: a-dendrites.
White interdendritic areas (ID). Grain boundaries
(G) also visible.
x 25
Figure 3
R 0,5°C/s
Tq 1360°C
d 280 JLm
x 25
Figure 4
R = 0,1°C/s
Tq = 1360°C
d = 550JLm
x 25
84 • Steel 401
Figure 5
R = O,5°C/s
Tq = 1360°C
A grain boundary with austenite.
B grain boundary with carbide
particles.
C ferritic matrix with carbide
and austenite precipitates.
100 f-Lm x 150
, ,
" . /'
\J '
, \1"
Figure 6
R = 0,5°C/s
Tq = 1360°C
Austenite, formed during quenching, in grain
boundary as in fig 5 at A.
x 1000
Figure 7
R = 0,5°C/s
Tq = 1360°C
Carbide particles (M23C6), formed during quen-
ching, in a grain boundary as in fig 5 at B. Elec-
tron micrograph of thin foil (TEM).
x 30000
Figure 8
R = 0,5°C/s
Tq = 1360°C
Carbide particles (M23C6), formed during quen-
ching, in the ferritic matrix as in fig 5 at C. Elec-
tron micrograph of thin foil (TEM).
x 15000
Steel 402 • 85
STEEL 402. 0,01 % C 20 % Cr 10 % Ni STAINLESS STEEL
Designations
30BL 1.4316
Composition (wt-%)
0,012 0,31 1,76 O,OOB O,OOB 19,B 9,9 0,10 0,04 0,02 0,004 0,031
Creq = 1,B2
Nieq
fs 0,0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1,0

Thermal Analysis
T dT
(OC) CD dt
t (OC/s)
1450 T +1,5
+1,0
1400
+0,5
1350 -- 0
dT
dt -0,5
1300
-1,0
-1,5
R = 0,5°C/s 1250
0 100 200 300 '('(5)
2,0 0,5 0,1

Temperature of austenite formation, °C (3) 1366 1391 1405
Precipitates
Microsegregation
Element Si Mn Cr Ni
c _ n ~ 0f'./c
86 • Steel 402
Partly solidified
Figure 1
R 0.5°C/s
Tq 1450°C
d 60 [Lm
400 [Lm x 25
Figure 2
R 2.0°C/s
Tq 1325°C
d 150[Lm
Figures 2-4: Former o-dendrites (D).
(Most of the ,) transformed to y by the peritec-
tic reaction and transformation.)
x 25
Figure 3
R 0.5°C/s
Tq 1325°C
d 270 [Lm
400 [Lm x 25
Figure 4
R O.1°C/s
Tq 1325°C
Steel 402 • 87
Figure 5
R = 0,5°C/s
Tq = 1200°C
(d1200 = 300 JLm)
(Most of the 0 transformed to 'Y by the peritectic
reaction and transformation.)
x 25 400 JLm
Figure 6
R = 2,0°C/s
Tq = 1325°C
13 vol-% dendritic ferrite.
Figures 6-9: Note that the residual ferrite only
appears in the former o-dendrites.
x 150
Figure 7 Figure 8
R = 0,5°C/s R = 0,5°C/s
Tq = 1325°C Tq = 1200°C
19 vol-% dendri- 9 vol-% dendri-
tic ferrite (0). tic ferrite (0).
x 150
Figure 9
R = 0,1°C/s
Tq = 1325°C
20 vol-% dendri-
tic ferrite.
x 150
88 • Steel 403
Designations
(2352) 304L 1.4316
Composition (wt-%)
0,019 0,31 0,94 0,009 0,010 19,5 10,2 0,11 0,03 0,05 0,002 0,044
Creq = 1,74
Nieq
Thermal Analysis fs 0,0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,80,9 1.0

T dT
(OCl CD dT
+ (OC/s)
T +1,5
+1,0
1400
+0,5
1350 - 0
dT
dT -0,5
1300
-1.0
-1,5
R = O,soC/s 1250
0 100 200 300 '[(5)
Average Cooling Rate,R, (CC/s)
2,0 0,5 0,1

Solidus temperature, cC CD 1365 1390 1405
Precipitates
Microsegregation
Element Si Mn Cr Ni
R = 0,5 °C/s
I 1,6 1,5 1,1 1,5 Tq = 1340 °C
PD 1,2 0,7
Partly solidified
Figure 1
R = 0,5°Cts
Tq = 1450°C
d = 65 jLm
<,)-dendrites and quenched liquid (L).
x 25 400 jLm
Figure 2
R = 2,0°Cts
Tq = 1340°C
d = 130jLm
Figures 2-4: Former <,)-dendrites (D).
(Most of the <')transformed to'Y by the peritectic
x 25 400 jLm
Figure 3
R = 0,5°Cts
Tq = 1340°C
d = 160 jLm
x 25 400 jLm
Figure 4
R = 0,1°Cts
Tq = 1340°C
d = 500 jLm
x 25 400 jLm
90 • Steel 403
Figure 5
R = 0,5°C/s
Tq = 1200°C
(d12oo = 170Mm)
(Most of the 0 transformed to y by the peritectic
400 Mm x 25
Figure 6
R = 2,0°C/s
Tq = 1340°C
Figures 6-9: Note that the residual ferrite only
appears in the former o-dendrites (D).
100 Mm x 150
-"
./
.' /'
Figure 7 Figure 8
R = O,5°C/s R = 0,5°C/s
./ Tq = 1340°C Tq = 1200°C
13 vol-% dendritic 5,8 vol-% dendritic ferrite.
(D) ferrite (0).
100 Mm x 150
•
I
"
Figure 9
R = O,1°C/s
, . Tq = 1340°C
. '.
_.,~ .' .,- ' . 9 vol-% dendritic ferrite .
,
., \,
\. "
100 Mm x 150
Steel 404 • 91
Designations
2333 304 1.4301
Composition (wt-%)
0,036 0,44 1,25 0,025 0,010 18,4 9,1 0,38 0,20 0,25 0,002 0,081
Creq =
1,68
Nieq
Thermal Analysis fs 0,0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1.0

T dT
(OC) CD d't
14S0
+ (OC/s)
1400
+O,S
13S0 - 0
dT
dt -a,s
1300
-1,0
-1,5
R = 0,5°C/s 12S0
0 100 200 300 T(s)
2,0 0,5 0,1

Precipitates
Microsegregation
Element Mn Cr Ni
R = 0,5°C/s
I 1,2 1,1 1,3 Tq = 1340 °C
PD 1,2 0,7
92 • Steel 404
Partly solidified
Figure 1
R 0,5°C/s
Tq 1447°C
d 40/Lm
I)-dendrites and quenched liquid (L).
400/Lm x 25
j-:_~~":.'"--.1$ :~-,
<:~~~:iV ~.~~!~~~'?Y:I.~
;~ .• ;' ~~(~ •• -~::'~i.~:.~ :'":\~"\ :;.~,'t'$:"/~:'.1' '", i:t~~i%~; -.,~
:~:\!.:r'ti!lf;ai~~..rtt.~I'·,;,;J)};;~:;;·!;.;'\;Jll,
",I;" .. ,~ .. '\;/ .", -' /p.:'"''''''
>.
,.1.
?-'1i~~>;:
li;--,:?J!)t·":;:'-:,d".··;,,,:,?!,·~.1.~y{f.::1;
.' ?;f.~",' •••. ".' ., ,!",-, ,'I
:1~~' f·- ~}'r.J: 'Y--\l{•..~'+{.··r<l ""'~;'.' •• '·8 . 7)t/ ...• '~/b" tt;~J'.,:...
~,.•. -'~:'"II·' ?~;"~>J ~'e;. t".~~
:~;~ ...: ' 'A\'_ ~;~. , -j"':; ;/.t;:~ti',.t.~: }:: '4,< '~Y' t~;.;f: ~,'.'. ·t_'~;\·Sj.4~./oI··it,\"..$) ..:.;..j'.)o\:'·~:" Completely solidified
""";' ::i: •••• ~;.,. '"vl~"P ': "',' \ ' " .,~,~ t,.~.,~~,tli. 'c ••.·., ..•
:·;~f:;,,;';;):)4,\'. '. <~(~:':.:j><I, .. ;'.,:;~1~·
;f;·;,; ..
I; ;'? ·/.'i{~~;~/~'~;\{4~/~y:~,~;..J::.~
.'\.c: ;-!~,.. ~~ '4,,\-;.,·;.·, "'::1..(~""lf:,A_',':'? ;1'/;(.,.;;4 ';i·~·""f.~:"-"
':";:·'.;·":~tt:.:t·
,..' '~\.t..\t...i~f~~I~~Ji;~~~fi(~~{~:):~;~/~~'J{~Ii::.t:'7l~;tl:
;·~:··,,:/l\:,:::·~
~.' ).1.•; •••.: ·~~/~,_· ·\IJ··;~·,,:~·l.; ...
~ ._~,~ ~ ~.(. ·.i'l-:'l,\~. /". ~,
Figure 2
R 2,0°C/s
Tq = 1340°C
d = 125/Lm
Figures 2-4: Former I)-dendrites (D).
(Most of the I) transformed to'Y by the peritectic
;"T' -;'.',.,~:. '~. ';~~\"''-''~~'''/)J·?,
.. • tv' """~<~f~;';: '.~. "
~~:lf::~
',l\ .••.
'.,,':.,~ ~
~··!::~~~·;:~?~~itfli~1~:~51:~¥~S:~~:+:·.~~~·i~:,~;-~i'; t\~~ x 25
Figure 3
R O,5°C/s
Tq 1340°C
d 190/Lm
x 25
Figure 4
R 0.1°C/s
Tq 1340°C
d 340/Lm
x 25
Steel 404 • 93
Figure 5
R = 0,5°C/s
Tq = 1200°C
(d12oo = 200fLm)
Former {)-dendrites (D).
(Most of the {) transformed to 'Y by the peritectic
x 25 400 fLm
"'~ ' ,.
,\ ,"
. :\ ..
\' ~,'"
\ \ .-' f
'.
-
.'
- ---
-'"-
.
,
.'~
If'
Figure 6
\
-.
R = 2,0°C/s
Tq = 1340°C
2,3 vol-% dendritic ferrite.
Figures 6-9: Note that the residual ferrite only r(-d'~
• . \ 1 • .;J
';'.' I
\
•
appears in the former {)-dendrites (D). . \ J JJ....... _
/
x 150 100 fLm
Figure 7 Figure 8
R = 0,5°C/s R = 0,5°C/s
Tq = 1340°C Tq = 1200°C
4,7 vol-% dendritic 2,0 vol-% dendritic
ferrite. ferrite.
x 150 100 fLm
Figure 9
R = 0,1°C/s
Tq = 1340°C
x 150 100 fLm

94 • Steel 405
STEEL 405. 0,07 % C 17 % Cr 10 % Ni Ti STAINLESS STEEL
Designations
2337 321 1.4541
Composition (wt-%)
C Si Mn P S Cr Ni Mo Cu Co Ti Altot N
0,068 0,59 1,44 0,028 0,001 17,2 10,3 0,47 0,24 0,27 0,51 0,048 0,005
Creq = 1,61
Nieq
Thermal Analysis fs 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

T dT
re) d'(
CD (OCts)
1450 t
+1.5
T
+1.0
1400
+0.5
1350 -- 0
dT
dt -0.5
1300
-1.0
-1.5
R = 0,5°C/s 1250
0 100 200 300 '((5)
2,0 0,5 0,1

Precipitates
Ti(CN), (see figures 6-8).
Microsegregation
Element Si Mn Cr Ni
R = 0,5 QCIs
1,6 1,6 1,1 1,5 Tq = 1320 QC
1,2 0,7
Steel 405 • 95
Partly solidified
Figure 1
R 0.5°C/s
Tq 1430°C
d 50l-tm
x 25 400l-tm
Figure 2
R 2,0°C/s
Tq = 1320°C
d = 85l-tm
Figures 2-4: Former o-dendrites (D).
(Most of the 0 transformed to y by the peritectic
x 25
Figure 3
R 0,5°C/s
Tq 1320°C
d 110 I-tm
x 25
Figure 4
R 0.1°C/s
Tq 1320°C
d 200 I-tm
x 25
96 • Steel 405
Figure 5
R = 0,5°C/s
Tq = 1200°C
(d1200 = 150fLm)
Former <,)-dendrites (D).
(Most of the <')transformed to y by the peritectic
400 fLm x 25
Figure 6
R = 0,5°C/s
Tq = 1380°C
Ti (C,N)
t7-Tj(~,N) 10 fLm x 1000
I.
•
,
,
c
Figure 7
R = 0,5°C/s
~~ Tq = 1200°C
TiCQ,N) Coalesced eutectic Ti(C,N).
/
10 fLm x 1000
Figure 8
R = 0,1°C/s
Tq = 1380°C
Formation of eutectic Ti(C,N).
(L -'> Ti(C,N) + y)
10 fLm x 1000
Figure 9
R = 2,O°C/s
Tq = 1320°C
6 vol-% dendritic ferrite. .
Figures 9 -12: Note that the r~sidual fernte only
appears in the former 8-dendntes (D).
x 150 100 JLm
Figure 10
R = O,5°C/s
Tq = 1320°C .
8 vol-% dendritic fernte.
x 150 100 JLm
Figure 11
R = O,5°C/s
Tq = 1200°C
4,1 vol-% dendritic ferrite
x 150 100 JLm
~ {/- .'
-. ".'
\ '\) "
l . 1 '\
~
" •. J
'" .
. , , \
\ b
,/
.. //
Figure 12 \. ".",
R = O,1°C/s t
Tq = 1320°C
4,8 vol-% dendritic ferrite
? ,
. "
x 150 100 JLm - '--: .. 1
l
(/ /~ ..
'j ).
98 • Steel 406
STEEL 406. 0,05 % C 17 % Cr 12 % Ni 2,8 %Mo Nb STAINLESS STEEL
Designations
316 Cb 1.4583
2,0 0.,5 0,1
Liquidus temperature, ferritic and austenitic primary phases, QC CD 1420 1423 1424
Temperature of maximum rate of formation of austenite, QC CD 1410 1418 1417
Temperature of carbide formation, QC CD 1330-1275 1330-1290 1330-1305
Fraction solidified as ferrite, % <60 <45 <42
Precipitates
1. Interdendritic ferrite, (see figures 4, 6 -11).

2. Eutectic NbC, (see figures 6,7,9-11).
Microsegregation
Element Si Mn Cr Ni
R = 0,5 QC/s
I 1,7 1,5 1,1 1,4 Tq = 1285 QC
Po 1,3 0,6
PlO 1,1 0,8
Partly solidified
Figure 1a Figure 1b
R = O,5°C/s R = O,5°C/s
Tq = 1423°C Tq = 1415°C
d = 45 p,m d = 45p,m
o-dendrites and o-dendrites,
quenched liquid (L). y-dendrites and
quenched liquid
(L). Peritectic
reaction (P).
x 25 400p,m
Figure 2
R = 2,O°C/s
Tq = 1270°C
d = 65 p,m
Figures 2-3: Former o-dendrites, y-dendrites,
dendritic and interdendritic ferrite, (compare fi-
gures 8-9).
x 25
Figure 3
R = 0,5°C/s
Tq = 1285°C
d = 80p,m
x 25
Figure 4
R 0,1°C/s
Tq = 1300°C
d = 135p,m
Former o-dendrites, dendritic and interdendritic
ferrite, (compare figure 11).
x 25
100 • Steel 406
Figure 5
R = 0,5°C/s
Tq = 1200°C
(d12oo = 85fLm)
Former o-dendrites, y-dendrites, dendritic and
interdendritic ferrite, (compare figure 10).
400 fLm x 25
NbC/
-/"'
I
Figure 6
" R = O,5°C/s
Tq = 1200°C
Eutectic NbC and dendritic (D) ferrite (0).
x 600
Figure 7
R = 0,5°C/s
Tq = 1200°C
Solid state precipitation of NbC around inter-
dendritic ferrite (100).
25 fLm x 600
\
Figure 8
R = 2,O°C/s
Tq = 1270°C
4,0 vol-% ferrite, dendritic (08) and interdendri-
tic (108).
x 150 100 JLm
Figure 9
R = 0,5°C/s
Tq = 1285°C
tic (108).
x 150 100 JLm
Figure 10
R = 0,5°C/s
Tq = 1200°C
tic (108).
x 150 100 JLm
7
;
Figure 11
R = 0,1°C/s
Tq = 1300°C
tic (108).
x 150 100 JLm .'
",17
~
~
'
102 • Steel 407
STEEL 407. 0,02 % C 17 % Cr 13 % Ni 2,5 % Mo STAINLESS STEEL
Designations
2353 316 L 1.4435
Composition (wt-%)
0,023 0,53 1,58 0,020 0,006 17,2 13,5 2,63 0,19 0,07 0,004 0,031
Creq = 1,43
Nieq
fs 0.0 0.2 O,L. 0.6 0.8 1.0

Thermal Analysis dT
T
(OCl +CD ,'1) dL'
T (OC/sl
1400
+1.5
+1,0
1350
+0.5
1300 -- 0
dT
dL' -0.5
1250
-1.0
-1.5
R = 0,5°C/s 1200
0 100 200 300 L'(s)
2,0 0,5 0,1
Liquidus temperature, ferritic and austenitic primary phases, °C CD 1423 1427 1428
Temperature of maximum rate of formation of austenite, °C CD 1418 1421 1425
Precipitates
Interdendritic ferrite, (see figures, 5, 8 -12).
Microsegregation
Element Mn Cr Ni Mo
R = 0,5 °C/s
1,5 1,2 1,2 2,2 Tq = 1320 °C
1,2 0,8
Steel 407 • 103
Partly solidified
Figure 1
R = O,5°C/s
Tq = 1427"C
d = 55 fLm
0- and y- dendrites, growing simultaneously and
quenched liquid (L).
x 25 400 fLm
Figure 2
R = 2,O°C/s
Tq = 1320°C
d = 40 fLm
Former o-dendrites, y-dendrites, dendritic and
interdendritic ferrite, (compare figure 9).
x 25 400 fLm
Figure 3
R = O,5°C/s
Tq = 1320°C
d = 90 fLm
Figures 3-4: Former o-dendrites, y-dendrites
and interdendritic ferrite, (compare figures 10
and 12).
x 25 400 fLm
Figure 4
R = O,1°C/s
Tq 1320°C
d = 100fLm
104 • Steel407
Figure 5
R = 0,5°C/s
Tq = 1200°C
(d1200 = 100 ILm)
Former I)-dendrites, y-dendrites and interdendri-
tic ferrite, (compare figure11).
400 ILm x 25
Figure 6
R = 0,5°C/s
Tq = 1427°C
I)-dendrites and quenched liquid (L), (compare
figure 1).
x 150
Figure 7
R = 0,5°C/s
Tq = 1415°C
y growing into both I)-dendrites and liquid.
x 150
'-.
..
~.
..-;;.~
... ','~
.
'"
y
Figure 8
R = O,5°C/s
Tq = 1320°C
Austenite precipitated in interdendritic ferrite
~_r"'-/ during quenching. Dark structure in figure 10.
~""- ..;
Steel 407 • 105
Ii.
-,' ':. ". ~> " ....

~ 1 ..•.
Figure 9
-- "'-
. --.
'.
J (i, ,...,
R = 2,0°C/s
f.~. ~;
Tq = 1320°C . I
5,5 vol-% ferrite, dendritic (Do) and interdendri-

tic (100).
;/ V
\
x 150 100 fLm

'"". • r-" /'-:
of" ( I J. , '(
"
'.J,"4"j.
1'1' ••.
" {,
Figure 10
R = 0,5°C/s •
Tq = 1320°C
5,6 vol-% ferrite, mainly interdendritic (100).
,~,
x 150 /
I1
j)
~
Figure 11
R = 0,5°C/s 108-
Tq = 1200°C e,/.
15
x 150 )7 ~
{I ~ /
\
{ L
()
(
7
Figure 12
R = 0,1°C/s
Tq = 1320°C
4,4 vol-% ferrite, mainly interdendritic (100). • o
~
,
- • <
1.
106 • Steel 408
STEEL 408. 0,05 % C 18 % Cr 13 % Ni 2,5 % Mo STAINLESS STEEL
Designations
2343 316 1.4401
Composition (wt-%)
0,048 0,63 1,65 0,018 0,007 17,7 13,4 2,68 0,15 0,07 0,004 0,045
Creq = 1,42
Nieq
fs 0,0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1,0

Thermal Analysis
T dT
(OC) .CD +Q) d't
T (OC/s)
1400
+1.5
+1,0
1350
+0,5
1300 -- 0
dT
d't -0,5
1250
-1,0
-1.5
R = O,soC/s 1200
0 100 200 300 '[(5)
2,0 0,5 0,1
Liquidus temperature, ferritic and austenitic primary phases, °C CD 1419 1423 1421
Temperature of maximum rate of formation of austenite, °C CD 1414 1422 1415
Solidus temperature, °C 1330 1360 1370
Precipitates
Interdendritic ferrite, (see figures, 5, 8 -11).
Microsegregation
Element Mn Cr Ni Mo
R = 0,5°C/s
I 1,6 1,2 1,2 2,1 Tq = 1305 °C
PlO 1.2 07
Steel 408 • 107
Partly solidified
Figure 1
R = O,5°C/s
Tq = 1423°C
d = 50 JLm
0- and y- dendrites, growing simultaneously, and
quenched liquid (L).
x 25 400 JLm
Figure 2
R = 2,O°C/s
Tq = 1305°C
d = 55 JLm
Former o-dendrites, y-dendrites and interdendri-
tic ferrite. Some dendritic ferrite can also be
seen, (compare figure 8).
x 25
Figure 3
R = O,5°C/s
Tq = 1305°C
d = 85 JLm
Former o-dendrites, y-dendrites and interdendri-
tic ferrite, (compare figure 9).
x 25
Figure 4
R = O,1°C/s
Tq = 1305°C
d = 140 JLm
Former o-dendrites and y-dendrites. White in-
terdendritic areas, (compare figure 11).
x 25
108 • Steel 408
.....• .•. . ,,'
,
.
'
'.
.,I
.~
(
J
1;
,
"
, .-
~...•.
I
. ..
.. "
'- .!...,4
_. '(
,
.
_ .....•. ~.
r'. '
- " ...•.... .
.", '''4l.
,...' .l'
~
-.
~... 7'
~. • " /
!--;. ;'
.~.
. .•. .,'
/ ~
. "-.,.
. '", . / .•..., .
.. f'
' -/ (. J '') Figure 5
"..•. ,. ... ,
, \.. I
,<jl-~ . ',-
'f ,/ ~
' • ..J. -
,~ R = O,5°C/s
.
'
:\,. ,J: !
Tq = 1200°C
'-t.' ,
'.t·~ ./
(",.. :;>'.
t..
"
I ••
~../ j
'/·r·
/
~. (d1200 = 190 f.Lm)
Former a-dendrites, y-dendrites and interdendri-

.
J~
•
J...•• " • • >' ,-: './, .. tic ferrite, (compare figure 10),
,; '. \.
~',
.~ f'\',;
('.... •••
. J ....
~ , _ J. •. • . T"
,,- ~, •• r'
y.. ," 400 f.Lm x 25
.~ '1. '('
') \. ~ ••.••••
, ....
1 I
,
'"
Figure 6
R = 0,5°C/s
Tq = 1420°C
Simultaneous growth of 15- and y- dendrites. The
transformation a
of into y can also be seen, (peri-
tectic reaction and transformation, compare fi-
gure 7).
L = quenched liquid.
200 f.Lm x 50
Figure 7
R = O,5°C/s
Tq = 1420°C
Transformation of a-dendrites.
Detail of figure 6,
100f.Lm x 150
Steel 408 . 109
- .~
~
) ", f
:( C' •
,
\
-."-
..•.
..••.
'- 1
- J" it'"OS-,.....
o
.
i
'- ~
=-'1
.;
"
~ /~ . '"
\
tJ
--<Jl>, \
)
"
, .t : . " ......
.- '- . P
J
(l
&
Figure 8 "\
. IOS. -.;-
.'
c
/ ,. J r
R = 2,0°C/s
Tq = 1305°C Y .
•..•.
-..: •
0 \)
.
4,0 vol-% ferrite, dendritic (Do) and interdendri- ., - .- \
( I~S.~ <1
tic (100). • "'-
.\
.
" -
Q
. '\}
" --d' ~ ;-..,
I
x 150 100 Mm
)
oS ~
"\
\l
'" 6.....
<{ '.
'--
) -.
Figure 9
R = 0,5°C/s
Tq = 1305°C
.,
(Dark structure (A), austenite precipitated in fer-
rite during quenching.)
x 150 100 Mm
".
Figure 10
R = 0,5°C/s
Tq = 1200°C •
0,1 vol-% ferrite, mainly interdendritic.
x 150 100 Mm
~.
~~~ v f.r' _
-.~. .....
'-,
Figure 11
R = 0,1°C/s
Tq = 1305°C
5,5 vol-% ferrite, mainly interdendritic.
x 150 100 Mm
110 • Steel 409
STEEL 409. 0,02 % C 17 % Cr 13 % Ni 2,5 % Mo 0,2 % N STAINLESS STEEL
Designations
2375 316 N 1.4429
Composition (wt-%)
0,024 0,58 1,79 0,009 0,011 17,4 12,8 2,77 0,03 0,03 0,002 0,20
Creq = 1,32
Nieq
fs 0,0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1,0

(OCl
@ d'[
T (OC/sl
1400
+1,5
+1,0
1350
+0,5
1300 - 0
dT
d't -0,5
1250
-1,0
-1,5
R = 0,5°C/s 1200
0 100 200 300 't(s)
Average Cooling Rate,R, eeC/s)
2,0 0,5 0,1

Precipitates
Interdendritic ferrite, (see figures 5, 8-11).
Microsegregation
Element Mn Cr Ni Mo
R = 0,5 aCls
1,6 1,2 1,1 2,1 Tq = 1305 °C
Steel 409 ° 111
Partly solidified
Figure 1
R = 0.5°C/s
Tq = 1415°C
d = 40 J-Lm
x 25 400 J-Lm
Figure 2
R = 2.0°C/s
Tq = 1305°C
d = 45 J-Lm
Figures 2-4: y-dendrites and interdendritic fer-
rite.
x 25 400 J-Lm
Figure 3
R = 0.5°C/s
Tq = 1305°C
d = 70 J-Lm
x 25 400 J-Lm
. .0'.#,., '\::..\"·i.
•• 9#t'tJa"."
n . cl ~.A~" •••
l) •••4$.
,t
• •.• ,_, •
•
• ~ .", '" ," ~ • tI •• .".,'. • ••..,.1
'" :'J. .. ~' ..••.•.. *~.:-
,'~ ••• "'*c.":ooo'" .t.' .,•......
~
.r' ,.. e •..• "' •• t .• , f.,. ;
• • .' • • "'; • IQ."
-tOo ~. • (, •.,-, .'~ ~ :.. .~
• f •• e.• ·'
" 0,- / • •
'..-, '.'. .
•
•
t .
*
•••••
~
""',. .
'\0
./ ••••.
'. •
. ',-
,.., e ••.•.•
t '
'. I
Figure 4
.., ~
••
~
t
. .., ".. ':' ..

;
.J1
~•• :~ •
III •• • ••
• 'A
I
•
R = 0,1°C/s ,,;. ,.t ..•• ," .' • • (I • '
Tq = 1305°C ; •. \ • t ;."
d = 105 J-Lm •• ' ,,0 "e::J. ~ ~.'

A';. '.' ,,~.. ••
,. f •••• " ,. Or-. '. ~. ~ ••
.
•• __,- •• 4 .4)•••••• ' : 0.- ' '\.. • ~••••••••
e.~._" '~.' r·. •
x 25
.. 'A" .•
.• "..__•
• •
"'. •
_...
• •.•.•_tll·
:...... .••
••
•.•
\ ..I- •••~ ..•••.•••
Figure 5
R = 0,5°C/s
Tq = 1200°C
(d1200 = 75 p,m)
y-dendrites and interdendritic ferrite.
400 p,m x 25
..
Figure 9
R = 0,1°C/s
Tq = 1305°C
0,8 vol-% interdendritic ferrite.
~-. •
x 150
•
Steel 410 • 113
STEEL 410. 0,01 % C 25 % Cr 22 % Ni 2 % Mo STAINLESS STEEL
Designations
Composition (wt-%)
0,008 0,24 1,77 0,009 0,008 25,1 22,2 2,3 0,02 0,02 0,08 0,002 0,067
Creq =
1,21
Nieq
fs 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

Thermal Analysis
T
(OCl
1400
CD
, T
dT
dT
(OC/s)
+1.5
+1,0
1350
+0.5
1300 -- 0
dT
d't' -0.5
1250
-1.0
-1.5
R = 0,5°C/s 1200
0 100 200 300 '[(5)
2,0 0,5 0,1

Precipitates
1. Interdendritic ferrite, (see figures 8-11).

2. Sigma-phase, (see figures 6 and 7).
Microsegregation
Element Mn Cr Ni Mo
R = 0,5 °C/s
1,6 1,2 1,1 2,3 Tq = 1310 °C
1,2 0,8
114 • Steel 410
Partly solidified
Figure 1
R = O,5°C/s
Tq = 1398°C
d = 60 J.Lm
400 J.Lm x 25
Figure 2
R = 2,O°C/s
Tq = 1310°C
d = 60J.Lm
White interdendritic areas.
400 J.Lm x 25
Figure 3
R = O,5°C/s
Tq = 1310°C
d = 80 J.Lm
400 J.Lm x 25
Figure 4
R = O,1°C/s
Tq = 1310°C
d = 160J.Lm
400 J.Lm x 25
Steel 410 • 115
Figure 5
R = 0,5°C/s
Tq = 1200°C
(d1200 = 110 J.Lm)
y-dendrites.
x 25 400 J.Lm
Figure 6
R = O,l°C/s
Tq = 1310°C
Sigma-phase precipitated in ferrite, (dark struc-
ture in figures 9 and 11).
x 600 25J.Lm
Figure 7
R = O,l°C/s
Tq = 1310°C
Sigma-phase precipitated in ferrite.
(Electron micrograph.)
Figure 8
R = 2,O°C/s
Tq = 1310°C
.. ,,
'.
.f' 100J.Lm x 150
\
,'r
), '\ :>
l
J
• Figure 9
R = 0,5°C/s
Tq = 1310°C
x 150
"
•
\
\7-_
Figure 10
R = 0,5°C/s
Tq = 1200°C
o 0,7 vol-% interdendritic ferrite.
o
x 150
."'C
• • v
.~
\ ./
Figure 11
:J
I
J R = O,l°C/s
f'.
(-
,
• Tq = 1310°C
~
100 urn )( 1<;n

Steel 411 • 117
STEEL 411. 0,07 % C 24 % Cr 20 % Ni HEAT RESISTANT STEEL
Designations
2361 310 S 1.4842
Composition (wt-%)
0,055 1,20 1,75 0,011 0,008 24,2 20,4 0,08 0,02 0,03 0,09 0,015 0,051
Creq = 1,15
Nieq
fs 0,0 0.2 0.4 0,6 0,8 1,0

Thermal Analysis dT
,
T
(OCl CD dT
(OC/sl
1400
T +1.5
+1,0
1350
+0.5
1300 - 0
dT
dt -0.5
1250
-1.0
-1.5
R = a,SOCts 1200
0 100 200 300 T(s)
Average Cooling Rate,R, (eC/s)
2,0 0,5 0,1

Solidus temperature, QC (3) 1315 1330 1350
Precipitates
Interdendritic ferrite, (see figures 6-8).
Microsegregation
Element Si Mn Cr Ni
R = 0,5 QCts
2,4 1,9 1,2 1,2 Tq = 1290 QC
Partly solidifjed
Figure 1
R = 0,5°C/s
Tq = 1395°C
d = 65ILm
400 ILm x 25
Figure 2
R = 2,0°C/s
Tq = 1290°C
d = 55ILm
x 25
Figure 3
R = 0,5°C/s
Tq 1290°C
d 85ILm
x 25
.".~'..
,',
. . :... ,
1 .'
• I
..I', ,
..
~ ..•., 1'- •~- ,
Figure 4
... "
\
R 0,1°C/s
... . _. ,-,...
.. .,. ...."-;,( (--
~ ;."'''' - ' ..•.
~' Tq 1290°C
d 125ILm
) ,
.•.. !. • \
"..
t_. ,
'",.. "., f
""
x 25
-I.
''''''- ... _ ..
Steel 411 • 119
Figure 5
R = O,5°C/s
Tq = 1200°C
(d1200 = 90 fLm)
y-dendrites.
x 25 400 fLm
'0
Figure 6
R = 2,0°C/s
Tq = 1290°C
Figures 6-8: Small amounts of interdendritic
ferrite. .,
p
,
"
x 150
,
/
..;
120 • Steel 412
Designations
310 1.4845
Composition (wt-%)
0,13 0,52 1,67 0,009 0,003 24,3 20,5 0,11 0,03 0,04 0,08 0,023 0,053
Creq = 1,03
Nieq
fs 0,0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1,0

(OC) CD dt
+ ft/s)
1400 T +1.5
+1,0
1350
+0,5
1300 -- 0
dT
dt -0,5
1250
-1,0
-1.5
R = O,5°C/s 1200
0 100 200 300 "((5)
Average Cooling Rate,R, (OCts)
2,0 0,5 0,1

Precipitates
Interdendritic ferrite, (see figures 6-8).
Microsegregation
Element Si Mn Cr Ni
R = 0,5 °C/s
2,5 1,9 1,2 1,2 Tq = 1300 °C
Steel 412 • 121
Partly solidified
Figure 1
R = O,5°C/s
Tq = 1400°C
d = 60/-Lm
x 25 400/-Lm
Figure 2
R = 2,O°C/s
Tq = 1300°C
d = 65/-Lm
x 25
Figure 3
R = 0,5°C/s
Tq = 1300°C
d = 90/-Lm
x 25
... . ... ' .. -•. • ", .. 1
.. .. .•...~.... . ..,.. . .
• ',_ , • f •• t
•
~" ~4·*,· \. ~~.\ •.
I' J : ••• :' ,. ,
:'., J # t
'-." " ~f,
.•
1····
t....
J
..• I
I ,
,-/'.1" ,
.. ,.. ....:
--. .... , • j
....'"
,. .,
~.'"
••••. ..,,'
f I' ••
Figure 4
R = 0,1°C/s
,.
Tq 1300°C
d 125/-Lm
x 25
.,
122 • Steel 412
\
\,
,\
.'
.. .
" ..• , 1 '/ I
'/ ", I.
, I •
Figure 5
R = 0,5°C/s
Tq = 1200°C
(d1200 = 100 ~m)
y-dendrites ..
400 ~m x 25
"'", ~
.. .
l
Q
•.!
(
Figure 6
R = 2,0°C/s
Tq = 1300°C
, '
x 150
o
.~ ...
••
o
Figure 8
R = O,1°C/s
Tq = 1300°C
x 150
Steel 413 • 123
STEEL 413. O,Ol%C 19%Cr 25%Ni 4%Mo 1,5%Cu STAINLESS STEEL
Designations
1.4539
Composition (wt-%)
C Si Mn P S Cr Ni Mo Cu Co Ti Ce Altot N
0,013 0,48 1,74 0,007 0,003 19,2 25,1 4,44 1,51 0,02 0,07 0,07 0,034 0,035
Creq = 0,94
Nieq
f5 0,0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1,0

(OCl
1400
CD
, T
dT
(OC/s)
+1,5
+1,0
1350
+0,5
0
dT
dT -0,5
1250
-1,0
-1,5
R = O,5°C/s 1200
0 100 200 300 '"[(5)
2,0 0,5 0,1

Precipitates
Microsegregation
Element Si Mn Cr Ni Mo
R = O,5°C/s
1,8 1,7 1;2 1,1 2,0 Tq = 1280 °C
124 • Steel 413
Partly solidified
Figure 1
R = 0,5°C/s
Tq = 1385°C
d = 70 JLm
400 JLm x 25
Figure 2
R = 2,0°C/s
Tq = 1280°C
d = 55 JLm
400 JLm x 25
Figure 3
R = 0,5°C/s
Tq = 1280°C
d = 80 JLm
400 JLm x 25
Figure 4
R = O,1°C/s
Tq = 1280°C
d = 120JLm
400 JLm x 25
Steel 413 • 12,5
Figure 5
R = 0,5°C/s
Tq = 12000C
(d1200 = 90 JLm)
y-dendrites.
x 25 400 JLm
126 • Steel 414
Designations
310 HC
Composition (wt-%)
0,41 1,00 1,34 0,007 0,010 25,2 20,6 0,08 0,02 0,06 0,10 0,016 0,022
Creq
= 0,89
Nieq
fs 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 0.86 1.0
T dT
(OCl dt
Thermal Analysis CD (OC/s)
1400 t +1.5
T
1350
R = O,5°C/s
o 100 200 300 1:'(5)
2,0 0,5 0,1

Temperature of formation of eutectic, °C CD 1275-1260 1285-1275 1290-1280
Precipitates
Interdendritic M23CS - eutectic. The amount of carbide eutectic increased with increasing cooling rate,
(see figures 6-12).
Microsegregation
Element Si Mn Cr Ni
I 2,1 1,6 1,2 1,1 R = O,5°C/s

PlO Carbide/-y 1,6 Tn = 1?~n or.
Steel 414 • 127
Partly solidified
Figure 1
R = 0,5°C/s
Tq = 1375°C
d = 60 ILm
x 25 400 ILm
Figure 2
R = 2,0°C/s
Tq = 1230°C
d = 50 ILm
Figures 2-4: y-dendrites and interdendritic car-
bide eutectic, (compare figures 6-10, 12).
x 25 400 ILm
Figure 3
R = 0,5°C/s
Tq = 1230°C
d = 80 ILm
x 25
Figure 4
R = O,l°C/s
Tq = 1230°C
d = 105ILm
Figure 5
R = 0,5°C/s
Tq = 1100°C
(dlloo = 90/-Lm)
y-dendrites and interdendritic carbide eutectic,
(compare figure 11).
400/-Lm x 25
Figure 6
R = 2,0°C/s
Tq = 1230°C
M23C6-Y eutectic
Figures 6-8: Note the influence of cooling rate
on carbide coarseness.
25/-Lm x 600
Figure 7
R = 0,5°C/s
Tq = 1230°C
M23C6-Y eutectic (E)
and residual melt (L).
25/-Lm x 600
Figure 8
R = 0,1°C/s
Tq = 1230°C
M23C6-y eutectic.
Steel 414 • 129
./
..~-.
,".ji "
".
Figure 9
~ = 2,0°C/s .' .-""-\-
q = 1230°C
11,4 vol-o;;° M 23 C6.
/"
.,
x 150 100 JLrn
Figure 10
~ = O,5°C/s
q = 1230°C
8,0 vol-Ol 10 M23 C6.
x 150
Figure 11
~ = 0,5°C/s
q = 1100°C
10,7 vol-o;;° M 23 C6.
x 150
\ .
\
\
Figure 12
R
T - 0 1°C/s
-,
q = 1230°C
7,2 vol-Ol 10 M 23 C6.
x 150 100 JLrn

130 • 51eel415
STEEL 415. 0,07% C 21 % Cr 31 % Ni STAINLESS AND HEAT RESISTANT STEEL
Designations
SIS AISI WerksteH Nr
Alloy 800 1.4876
Composition (wt-%)
0,07 0,62 0,56 0,007 0,003 21,1 30,9 0,06 0,02 0,02 0,40 0,39 0,019
Creq = 0,71
Nieq
fs 0,0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1,0

The ••• Annl,ria T dT
(OC) CD dT
(OC/s)
~
1400
T +1,5
+1,0
1350
1300 --
dT
dT
Q)
~.~---- +0,5
-0,5
1250
-1.0
-1,5
R = 0,5 C/s
Q
1200
0 100 200 300 t(s)
2,0 0,5 0,1

Temperature of formation of titanium compounds, QC CD 1305-1280 1310-1295 1350-1330
Precipitates
Ti (C,N) and sulphides containing titanium, (see figures 6 and 7).
Microsegregation
Element Si Mn Cr Ni
R = 0,5 QC/s
2,3 1,7 1,2 1,1 Tq = 1290 .QC
Partly solidified
Figure 1
R 0,5°C/s
Tq 1390°C
d 80 ILm
x 25 400 ILm
Figure 2
R 2,0°C/s
Tq 1280°C
d 50 ILm
Figures 2 - 4: y-dendrites.
x 25
Figure 3
R 0,5°C/s
Tq 1290°C
d 95ILm
x 25
f' .' '. )': \ .1

.~,.
.*""'( , \
.~.. .,
"
• ." - 'If
\. \
{ \
_. i \ : \ \. f
\
l.. \
J
J...•.•
I, .. ..
.,~ ...;;.~
\!
<#
.
.-y,.
,. ,.
. 1.,;-'
/... r, \
J I '. J ~
.\. ("~ \
I, \ y
.-
'. <11 /.~.. ,l.,' .. ..; •
., ,~~" '! ~ ~...., ~ .. J
I' , • _ ••• :", f :. Y t'"
Figure 4 • 'j ••• ~ t. ~"
R 0,1°C/s :
:,'~- •
~
.",,;.. # •.•• " -"
~•.
"'" • • •••..
"'I
~i
••• _~
Tq 1290°C
d 145ILm
x 25
..
132 • Steel 415
Figure 5
R = O,5°C/s
Tq = 1200°C
(d12oo = 1051Lm)
y-dendrites (dark).
--
400 ILm x 25
- '-
•
/
I Figure 6
\ R = O,5°C/s
Tq = 1290°C
/ A TiN, TiC and sulphides containing titanium (A).
11
TiC~-
25ILm x 600
(I'
A ~
y~
/<?
~
c
Figure 7
R = 0,5°C/s
Tq = 1200°C
A TiC and sulphides containing titanium (A).
\
o - 25ILm x 600
133
5. High Speed Steels

High speed steels are highly alloyed tool steels which References
exhibit enhanced hardness and wear resistance at high General investigations of the solidification of high speed
temperatures. These steels have a high carbon content steels dealing with development of the structure, constitu-
and varying amounts of chromium, molybdenum, tung- tion and reaction mechanisms have been reported, [87-
sten and vanadium. 95]. Quantitative data on microsegregation may be found
The wide solidification ranges and microsegregation of in references [90, 91, 94, 98]. Factors controlling dendrite
alloying elements in these steels limit their production to arm spacings and carbide sizes are discussed in referen-
small ingots for rolling and forging. Continuous casting is ces [93, 96, 97].
not practised. Considerable use is made of powder metal-
lurgical methods to produce homogeneous, isotropic ma-
terial.
Although the solidification of high speed steels has been
studied in great detail for many years, they were included
in the present study for the sake of uniformity and for
comparison with other alloys. The two most common
commercial high speed steels were chosen, with chemical
compositions according to table 5.1:
No. C Si Mn Cr Ni Mo W V%
501 0,9 0,3 0,3 3,9 0,4 4,9 6,1 1,9

502 1,0 0,4 0,4 3,8 0,1 9,2 1,5 2,0
Table 5.1 High speed steels
The pseudobinary equilibrium phase diagram in figure

5.1 illustrates schematically the complicated solidification
sequence, which is roughly the same for both steels. The
following reactions take place in order with falling tempe-
rature:
• primary ferrite formation

• peritectic reaction and transformation producing au-
stenite
• eutectic reaction producing austenite and carbides
The distinction, used in this work, between peritectic

reaction and transformation is defined in chapter 4.
Temperature :C
1600
L
1500
1400
1300
1200
a+K
y+K
1100
1000
o 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1,0 1,2 1,4 1,6
Weight-% carbon
Figure 5.1 Phase diagram for steel with approx. 4% Cr, 5% Mo,
6% Wand 2% V. (After Horn E. & Brandis H., DEW- Techn. Ber. 11
(1971),147-154) [89]
134 • Steel 501
STEEL 501. 0,9 % C 4 % Cr 5 % Mo 6 % W 2 % V HIGH SPEED STEEL
Designations
2722 M2 1.3343
Composition (wt-%)
C Si Mn p S Cr Ni Mo Cu Co W v
0,88 0,30 0,32 0,030 0,017 3,9 0,36 4,9 0,10 0,30 6,1 1,9 0,022 0,036
Thermal Analysis 0,2 0,4 0.5 0,6 0,7 0,80.9 1,0

dT
d't
(OC/s)
+3,0
+2,5
+2,0
+1,5
+1,0
+0,5
-0,5
-1,0
-1,5
R = 0,5°C/s 1100
o 100 200 300 400 1'(5)
Average Cooling Rate,R, rc/s)
2,0 0,5 0,1

Temperature of start of austenite formation, °C CD 1341 1342 1350
Temperature of start of MC-austenite eutectic formation, °C CD 1260 1260 1270
Temp. of M2C- and M6C-austenite eutectic formation, °C CD 1228 1232 1255
Precipitates
MC-M2C- and M6C-austenite eutectic. The amount of carbide eutectic decreased with increasing cooling rate,
(see figures 6-9,11-14).
MC contained approximately 45% V, 17% Wand 11 % Mo, and M2C approximately 37% W, 28% Mo and 12% V. M6C
contained mainly Fe, Wand Mo.
Microsegregation
Element Cr Mo W v
R = 0,5°C/s
1,6 1,2 0,8 0,9 Tq = 1155 °C
Steel 501 • 137
Figure 10 Figure 11
R = 0,5°C/s R = 0,5°C/s
Tq = 1335°C Tq = 1245°C
Peritectic reac- MC" eutectic.
tion. WidmanstiHten The MC carbide is
austenite (Yw) the first carbide
precipitated in 0 to precipitate.
during quenching. 0,1 vol-% MC-
carbide.
x 600 25 p'm
Figure 12
R = 2,0°C/s
Tq = 1155°C
Figures 12-14: Carbide morphologies.
x 600 25 p'm
,
, MC
. 6
~
Figure 13
R = 0,5°C/s
Tq = 1155°C
x 600 25 p'm
••
Figure 14
R = 0,1°C/s
Tq = 1155°C
x 600 25 p'm
138 • Steel 502
STEEL 502. 1,0 % C 4 % Cr 9 % Mo 1,5 % W 2 % V HIGH SPEED STEEL
Designations
2782 M7 1.3348
Composition (wt-%)
C Si Mn P S Cr Ni Mo Cu Co W N
1,0 0,38 0,38 0,010 0,037 3,8 0,14 9,2 0,11 0,05 1,5 2,0 0,010 0,036
Thermal Analysis fs 0.0 0,2 0,4 0,45 0.5 0,6 0.8 1,0
T dT
(OCl dt
(OC/s)
1400
+3.0
1350 +2,5
+2,0
1300
+1,5
+1.0
1250
+0,5
1200 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 0
-0.5
1150
-1,0
-1.5
R = 0,5°C/s 1100
o 100 200 300 400 't" (5)
2,0 0,5 0,1

Temperature of start of austenite formation, °C CD 1305 1315 1322
Temperature of MC- and M2C-austenite eutectic formation, °C CD 1222 1226 1233
The second peak on the cooling rate curve is split into two peaks, corresponding
to the peritectic reaction, followed by the Iiquid-to-austenite transformation.
Precipitates
MC- and M2C-austenite eutectic, (see figures 7-9,12-14).
M2C contained approximately 57 % Mo, 11 % V and 9 % W. MC was of the VC type.
Microsegregation
Element Cr Mo W v
R = 0,5°C/s
1,8 1,1 0,6 0,7 Tq = 1155 °C
Steel 502 • 139
Partly solidified
Figure 1
R = O,5°C/s
Tq = 1310°C
d = 35 fLm
8-dendrites, partly transformed to y, and quen-
ched liquid (L), (compare figures 5 and 6).
x 25 400 fLm
Figure 2
R = 2,O°C/s
Tq = 1155°C
d = 25 fLm
Figures 2-4: y-dendrites and carbide eutectics,
(compare figure 7).
x 25
Figure 3
R = O,5°C/s
Tq = 1155°C
d = 35 fLm
(Compare figure 8.)
x 25
Figure 4
R = 0,1°C/s
Tq = 1155°C
d = 70 fLm
(Compare figure 9.)
x 25
140 • Steel 502
Figure 5 Figure 6
R = 0,5°C/s R = O,5°C/s
Tq = 1310°C Tq = 1260°C
Peritectic reac- Growth of auste-
tion and trans- nite, 8 ~ y and L ~ y.
formation, Extensive nucleation
(compare figure 10.) of y after the peri-
tectic reaction, (see
cooling curve and
compare steel 501,
figure 6).
lOOl-tm x 150
Figure 7
R = 2,O°C/s
Tq = 1155°C
Figures 7-9: Carbide structure. Note the influ-
ence of cooling rate on carbide coarseness,
x 150
Figure 8
R = O,5°C/s
'~. Tq = 1155°C
9 vol-% carbides (MC and M2C),
x 150
•
•
• •
:A.;\ Figure 9
<:p'
R = O,l°C/s
Tq = 1155°C
J.. , •
.- 'j
". 10 vol-% carbides (MC and M2C),
x 150
Partly solidified
Figure 1
R 0,5°C/s
Tq = 1335°C
d = 35/-Lm
a-dendrites, partly transformed to y, and quen-
ched liquid (L), (compare figures 5 and 6).
x 25 400/-Lm
Figure 2
R = 2,O°C/s
Tq = 1155°C
d = 30/-Lm
Figures 2-4: y-dendrites and carbide eutectics,
(compare figure 7).
x 25 400/-Lm
Figure 3
R = 0,5°C/s
Tq = 1155°C
d = 40/-Lm
(Compare figure 8.)
x 25 400/-Lm
Figure 4
R = O,1°C/s
Tq = 1155°C
d = 85/-Lm
(Compare figure 9.)
x 25 400/-Lm
136 • Steel 501
Figure 5 Figure 6
R = 0,5°C/s R = 0,5°C/s
Tq = 1335°C Tq = 1245°C
Peritectic reac- Growth of auste-
tion and trans- nite, o~y and
formation, L~y, and MC-y
(compare figure 10). eutectic. 0,1 vol-%
MC carbide,
(compare fig 11).
100/-l-m x 150
Figure 7
. R = 2,0°C/s
Tq = 1155°C
-=-~
I •
;.. Figures 7-9: Carbide structure. Note the influ-

ence of cooling rate on carbide coarseness,
x 150
Figure 8
R = 0,5°C/s
Tq = 1155°C
9 vol-% carbides, (MC, M2C and M6C),
x 150
.~-
Figure 9
R = 0,1°C/s
Tq = 1155°C
12 vol-% carbides, (MC, M2C and M6C),
Melted areas (L) in the centres of the dendrites.
(Compare figure 14).
, x 150
Steel 502 • 141
Figure 10 Figure 11
R = 0,5°C/s R = 0,5°C/s
Tq = 1310°C Tq = 1260°C
y, residual a, and
a-dendrite, surrounded
by y formed by th~
peritectic reaction.
liquid (L).
(No carbides.)
1
Widmanstatten auste-
nite (Yw) preci-
(
pitated in a during
cooling and quenching.
x 600 25J.Lm
•••
Figure 12
R = 2,0°C/s
Tq = 1155°C
Figures 12-14: Carbide morphologies.
x 600 25J.Lm
Figure 13
R = 0,5°C/s
Tq = 1155°C
x 600 25J.Lm
Figure 14
R = 0,1°C/s
Tq = 1155°C
Remelted areas (L) in the centres of the dendrites.
x 600 25J.Lm
142
Temperature,oC
6. Conclusions and Comments
In the preceeding chapters, detailed results have been
reported for individual steel compositions. The purpose of
this section is to illustrate general relationships for groups
1500
of steels. The fact that many of the important solidification
parameters follow a general pattern justifies interpolation
between the steels the behaviour of which has been de-
scribed. This allows data to be estimated for many types
of steel which have not been included.
Thermal analysis 1400
The results on liquid us, solidus and peritectic temperatu-

res, measured for the three cooling rates, are shown as a
function of the carbon content in figures 6.1 - 6.4 for car-
bon, low alloy and chromium steels. The thermal data for
the stainless and heat resistant alloys are plotted as a
function of alloy content, expressed as equivalents of
chromium and nickel, in figure 6.6. 1300 + 0,1°C/s
• 0,5
Temperature, °C 02,0
2.0
••
~o~
1500 -~.~ t Liquidus
1200
0,1 0,3 0,5 0,7 1,0
.~~T;~~~~---- ~,1
Weight-% carbon
,i~ Peritectic .~~.
"~:
.~.
o
•.•....••
~.
0
0,5 & 2,0 Figure 6.2
alloy steels
Liquidus, peritectic and solidus temperatures for low
1400 Temperature,oC
301 302 303 304
1500
Solidus
1300 .0,1 °C/s

·0,5
02,0 1400
1200
0,1 0,3 0,5 0.7 1,0
Weight - % carbon
1300
Figure 6.1 Liquidus, peritectic and solidus temperatures for
carbon steels
The general shape of pseudobinary diagrams of the type

Fe-C-M is shown in figures 3.1 and 3.2. It is seen in these
diagrams that the peritectic line of the binary Fe-C-dia-
1200
+ 0,1°C/s
• 0,5
o 2,0
:~+01 • 0,5
gram (figure 2.1) is substituted by a triangular three-phase
area, but this is not equivalent to the area marked "peri- iC 0,1 (peritect.)
tectic" in figures 6.1-6.4, The experimental points here
indicate the maximum temperature of the peritectic reac-
0_
tion. The scatter in the experimental results depended on
-0 2,0
the varying degree of supercooling, as discussed in chap-
ter 1, However, the highest temperatures given probably
represent the start of the peritectic reaction. in large scale 1100
0,1 0,3 0,5 0,7 1,0
ingots, The reason for the spread in solidus values was
Weight- % carbon
partly the experimental problems described in chapter 1,
but also the fact that the commercial steels used contai- Figure 6.3 Liquidus, peritectic and solidus temperatures for 5%
ned different amounts of alloying and impurity elements. chromium steels
143
Temperature,·C As shown in figures 6.3 and 6.4, steels 303, 304 and 309
305 306 307 308 309 had very low solidus temperatures explained by eutectic
1500 ~+. carbide precipitation, The pseudobinary equilibrium pha-
~.. ~.~.
/ 0+--""'" se diagrams for Fe - 5Cr - C and Fe - 13Cr - C, figures
3.1 and 3.2, indicate a eutectic reaction for carbon con-
tents of 1,2 and 0,8 % respectively. The appearance of
carbide eutectics at much lower carbon concentrations is
a result of microsegregation. In figure 6.4 the solidus lines
~
••
Q
•
0
Perltectlc
""""-'..-""""
I
•
..-
.•.•.• N({{Ui!i.
.•.•.•.•.•.•.•.•.•"""""
_
.
'b-""
If.
0
have been interrupted between steels 308 and 309, as it is
certain that eutectic precipitation of carbides will take
place in steels with carbon contents lower than that of
~ steel number 309.
1400 ~ ~;'- The solidification range widened with an increasing rate
of cooling, see figure 6,5. The constitutional influence of
high carbon and chromium contents was very strong,
o ~
Solidus
1300
+ 0,1 ·C/s
• 0,5
o 2,0
+
'" 0,1 (Peritect) •
1200 o
Solidification range,
0,1 0,3 0,5 0,7 0,9
Tliq - Tsol
Weight -%carbon
·C
1C5Cr
Figure 6.4 Liquidus, peritectic and solidus temperatures for o
13% chromium steels 300
The tendency was for the liquidus and the peritectic tem-
peratures to be independent of cooling rate, whereas the
solidus was markedly lower at a higher cooling rate, The 0,7C13Cr
250
0
reason for this is the higher degree of backdiffusion and
homogenization possible at a low cooling rate,
+~.
The main difference between the carbon and low alloy ____ e
steels, shown in figures 6,1 and 6,2, was the lowering of
the solidus lines by alloying elements, The liquidus tem- 200 +
peratures were also decreased somewhat. It has not been 1C1,5Cr
0
possible to calculate the factors for the temperature de-
pression by, for example, nickel and chromium, as the
levels of other elements were not held constant in the 1C
present work. However, at the low contents present, the 150 + • 0
influence of minor changes in composition can be estima-

ted from the binary phase diagrams,
/.
---~
In figure 6.4, the abnormal behaviour shown by steel +
O,1C5Cr
number 305, containing 0,04% C, 13% Cr, 5,5% Ni,
reflects the depression of both liquidus and solidus tem-
peratures by nickel. At the 13% Cr- level the mean effect
was roughly 5 and 10 degrees per weight percent of nickel
100
+
/.-
.--- • O,1C13Cr
_0
0,2C
for the liquidus and solidus respectively, In spite of the

very low carbon content, steel number 305 had a peritec- +/
50
tic reaction. This is an effect of nickel, as steel number 306 +
with a higher carbon content solidified completely to ferri-
te.
0,1 0,5 2.0

Cooling rate, °C/s
Figure 6.5 Solidification ranges for carbon, low alloy and chro-
mium steels as function of cooling rate
144
Liquidus and solidus temperatures of the stainless and The effect of carbon can be seen in alloy 414, with 25 % Cr,
heat resistant steels are shown in figure 6.6, as a function 21 % Ni, 0,4% C. This had a solidification range of 105-
of alloy content, expressed as equivalents of chromium 125°C, and very low solidus temperatures as a result of
and nickel as follows, [78,83): interdendritic segregation.
Creq = Cr + 1.37Mo + 1.5Si + 2Nb + 3Ti From the thermal analysis data for the stainless and heat
Nieq = Ni + 0.31 Mn + 22C + 14.2N + 1Cu resistant steels, the fraction solidified primarily as o-ferrite
(The elements are expressed in weight percentages.) was evaluated. The results are given in figure 6.7 as a
function of the ratio between the chromium and nickel
equivalents, as defined above. It may be seen that a dras-
tic change in solidification behaviour takes place between
Cr and Ni equivalent ratio values of 1,35 and 1,80; alloys
Temperature, °C with values below this range solidify as 100 % austenite,
above this range as 100% ferrite. Behaviour of this kind
may also be seen in figure 4.1. No substantial influence of
~
~ ~Jt5cr5NiMO cooling rate on the fraction of o-ferrite formed was obser-
1400 +
+~+
+
•
0
ri~~
0 ---_L&~
LiQuidus
t;;-
&tg ~
ved.
The two high speed steels, (numbers 501 and 502), had
o~o·~--o·.__ ===~+~C25c/r21Ni
,...."". + a solidification ranges wider than 200°C, which is in good
agreement with their high concentration of carbon and
alloying elements. The highest cooling rate corresponded
,... v~ ._ 0 +
to the lowest solidus temperature and the widest solidifi-
1300 f1 o---~~~
0
~
17/12 MoNb
~.I:l 0
cation range, as for the other alloy systems in this work,
(see figure 6.5).
sol. ~
1200
+ 0,1 ·C/s
• 0,5
02,0
1100 L.- -+ -+- ~

~ ~ ~ ~
Alloy content Creq + Nieq weight-%
Fraction solidified
as primary ferrite, 0/0
Figure 6.6 Liquidus and solidus temperatures for stainless and
heat resistant steels 100 ~o
90
80
70
60
50 •
40
Again, the highest cooling rate led to the lowest solidus
+ 0,1°C/s
temperature and the widest solidification range. These
ranges were comparatively narrow for this group of steels, • 0,5
30
o 2,0
in most cases 100°C or less (compare figure 6.5).
Two of the alloys, numbers 401 with 25% Cr, 5% Ni, 1%
20
Mo, and 406 with 17% Cr, 12% Ni, Mo-Nb, did not follow
the general trend. The ferritic alloy, 401, exhibited the
highest liquidus and solidus temperatures of all the stain- 10
less and heat resistant steels examined; a constitutional
effect in full agreement with the Fe-Cr-Ni equilibrium pha-
se diagram in figure 4.1. This diagram also indicates a 0
narrow solidification range for this composition. Alloy 406 2 3 4
showed very low solidus temperatures and a wide solidifi- Creq
cation range, 120-150°C. The reason was the pro- Nieq
nounced interdendritic segregation of, mainly, niobium
and carbon. Figure 6.7 Fraction solidified as /I-ferrite in stainless steels
145
Microsegregation I (er)
The microprobe results were derived from samples cooled

•
at O,5°C/s and quenched from just below the solidus tem-
2,5
perature. The dependence on carbon level of the micro-
segregation of manganese and chromium in carbon, low
alloy and chromium steels is shown in figures 6.8 and 6.9.
The high values of the segregation ratio I found at high
carbon levels were caused by slow backdiffusion in au-
stenite, and by a negative interaction known to exist at
least between carbon and chromium, [31, 47]. Primary
formation of austenite was noted at a carbon content
above some 0,4% in carbon and low alloy steels, (chapter ••
2), whereas no chromium steel solidified by formation of
2,0
primary austenite, (chapter 3). As shown in figure 6.9, the
chromium steel number 306, with 0,07% C and 13% Cr,
which solidified completely as ferrite, had no measurable
chromium segregation; emphasizing the importance of
diffusion in ferrite during solidification in reducing the
observed segregation. In contrast, steel number 305, with
0,04% C, 13% Cr, 5,5% Ni, solidified partly to austenite
and showed chromium segregation, despite having a low-
•
er carbon content. Molybdenum, which was present in
appreciable amounts in all the 5% chromium steels, dis-
••
played the same segregation behaviour as chromium in 1,5
relation to carbon, figure 6.10.
1,0
0,1 0,3 0,5 0,7 1,0
Weight- % carbon
Figure 6.9 Microsegregation of chromium in low alloy and

chromium steels
I (Mn)
I (Mo)
2,0 2,0
1,5 1.5
1,0 1,0
0,1 0,3 0,5 0,7 1,0 0,1 0,3 0,5 0,7 1,0
Weight -%carbon Weight -% carbon
Figure 6.10 Microsegregation of molybdenum in 5% chromium

Figure 6.8 Microsegregation of manganese in carbon steels steels
146
As shown by comparison between figures 6.9 and 6.11, The segregation ratio, I, and partition ratios of chromium
nickel segregated less than chromium in the low alloy and nickel in the stainless and heat resistant steels are
steels, the segregation ratio for the element having an shown in figures 6.12 and 6.13. These ratios were defined
inverse relationship with carbon. in chapter 1 as follows:
cX, ID
I (Ni) cx, D
2.0 Cx,OD
Cx'YD
Cx,OID
Cx,YID
where D and ID represent dendrites and interdendritic
areas; Cx is the mean value of the concentration in these
regions.
The chromium-nickel equivalent ratio decreases from left
to right in figures 6.12 and 6.13. The corresponding alloy
compositions are given in table 4.2.
1,5
In a steel solidifying completely as ferrite, number 401,
chromium did not segregate at all but nickel did. When
both austenite and ferrite were formed, in steels such as
numbers 402-406, strong nickel segregation was obser-
ved together with slight, hardly measurable segregation of
chromium. In the fully austenitic mode of solidification,
numbers 409-415, chromium and nickel both segregated
moderately. Steels 407 and 408, which formed the smal-
lest amount of primary ferrite, were similar to the fully
austenitic steels in regard to microsegregation of chromi-
1.0
um and nickel.
0,1 0,3 0,5 0,7 1.0
Weight-% carbon The interpretation of these results is that, in the austenitic
mode of solidification, both chromium and nickel segre-
gate to the interdendritic liquid, whereas only nickel se-
Figure 6.11 Microsegregation of nickel in low alloy steels
gregates in the ferritic mode. The high I (Ni)-values in the
ferritic-austenitic steels are remarkable.
I (C'r)
1,4
1,2
1,0
Steel 401
I (Nj)
1,6
1,4
1,2
1,0
Steel 401 402 403 404 405 406 407 408 409 410 411 412 413 414 415
Creq 4,01 1,82 1,74 1,68 1,61 1,58 1,43 1,42 1,32 1,21 1,15 1,03 0,94 0,89 0,71
Nieq
Figure 6.12 Microsegregation of chromium and nickel in stain-

less and heat resistant steels
147
The segregation of silicon, manganese and molybdenum

in stainless and heat resistant steels is shown in figures
Cr 6.14 a and b. The interdendritic areas were enriched by all
these elements and the interdendritic segregation of both
1,2 - r-
~
-. manganese and silicon was higher in the fully austenitic,
as compared to the ferritic-austenitic solidification mode.
1,0
ill On changing from a fully ferritic solidification path, as in
steel 401 , to one producing a fully austenitic structure, the
intensity of molybdenum (and manganese) segregation
Steel 402 403 404 405 406 407 408 410
Creq increased markedly.
1,821,74 1,68 1,61 1,58 1,43 1,42 1,21 Titanium in steel number 405 was found both in the inter-
Nieq
dendritic austenite and in the carbides. Niobium in steel
PO' PlO
406 segregated to the interdendritic ferrite and was also
Ni - present as carbides. In steel 413, the interdendritic areas
were enriched with copper.
1,2
In high speed steels, the segregation measurements on
~ the alloying elements showed that these were present
1,0 mainly as constituents of carbide phases. It should be
noted that the amount of eutectic carbides decreased with
~ increasing cooling rate. The reverse behaviour was found
for the austenitic steel number 414, with 0,4 % C, 25 % Cr,
0,8 ;;;; ~. 21 % Ni and steel number 309, with 0,7% C, 13% Cr. The
~.
~ L- eutectic carbide content of these steels rose as the
"-
cooling rate was increased. The observed phenomena are
0,6 ~ in full agreement with earlier reports, [62, 63, 94]. Finally,
when following the details of the solidification of the two
Steel 401 402 403 404 405 406 407 408 410
high speed steels, it will be seen that they differed in
regard to the types of carbides precipitated.
Figure 6.13 Partition ratios for chromium and nickel in stainless

and heat resistant steels.
Strictly, the segregation ratio I should only be determined

in a truly single phase structure, which was not the case
for most of the stainless steels studied. The partition ratio
Po, between ferrite and austenite due to the peritectic
reaction and the solid phase transformation of the dendri- I (Si)
tes, is shown in figure 6.13 for steels 402-406, which 2,5
formed the most ferrite on solidification. From number 406
onwards the primary ferrite was gradually substituted by
austenite as the primary phase, until from number 409
onwards austenite was the only primary phase, see figure
6.7. However, as chromium and other ferrite-forming ele-
ments such as molybdenum, niobium and silicon segrega-
te from the growing austenitic phase, ferrite can form 2.0 I--
interdendritically. When the fraction of austenite-forming
elements in the steel increases, the amount of interdendri-
tic ferrite decreases. The content of interdendritic ferrite,
first seen in significant amounts in steel number 406, thus
passed through a maximum on going from a ferritic to an
austenitic solidification path. The partition ratio PlO, be-
tween the interdendritic ferrite and austenite, is shown for 1,5 - -
steels 406-410. The P-values show the enrichment of
chromium in ferrite and that of nickel in austenite.
1,0
402 403 405 406 411 412 413414 415 Steel
1,82 1,74 1,61 1,58 1,15 1,03 ,94 ,89 ,71 Creq
Nieq
148
I (Mn)
2,0
1,5 - I-- - - f---- f---- -
1,0 401 402 403 404 405 406 407 408 409 410 411 412 413
-
414 415
-
I (Mo)
3,0
2,0 I-- I--
1,0
401 402 403 404 405 406
- 408- 409-
407 410 411 412 413 414 415
Steel
4,01 1,82 1,74 1,68 1,61 1,58 1,43 1,42 1,32 1,21 1,15 1,03 0,94 0,89 0,71
Creq
Nieq
Figure 6.14 b Segregation of manganese and molybdenum in stainless and heat resistant
steels.
Ferrite in stainless steels

There was some scatter in the ferrite measurements and
As discussed in the preceeding paragraph, the I)-ferrite in the data fell into two groups with no steels in the region
the solidification structure of stainless steels may be of between the two populations. However, the measure-
either or both dendritic or interdendritic forms. The den- ments can be interpreted in terms of the solidification
dritic ferrite formed as a primary phase is not enriched in behaviour. Figure 6.15 shows that the ferrite content at
solute elements, unlike the interdendritic I)-ferrite, which the solidus was not influenced by cooling rate, but was
forms as a result of segregation. The latter type was usual- governed by the composition. It was shown previously, in
ly seen to be larger in size than the residual, dendritic figure 6.7, that no primary ferrite is formed when the er-Ni
I)-ferrite. As a consequence of this difference in size and equivalent ratio is less than 1,35. The two populations
degree of segregation, the non-equilibrium dendritic ferri- shown in figures 6.15 and 6.16 therefore represent steels
te will in most cases disappear more quickly than the forming predominantly interdendritic and dendritic ferrite
interdendritic form during homogenizing heat treatments. respectively. For a given homogenization time the steels
Ferrite contents were obtained by both magnetic measure- with mainly dendritic ferrite, which solidify with a higher
mpntc. ~nrf ("'\nti,...~1 ""'" ....• +: .....-
..-: •..•....•. "T"l-_ -----.--
149
Ferrite.% These findings can be used to explain the observation that

20 + the surface regions of stainless steel ingots, or continu-
ously cast billets and slabs, have a lower ferrite content
than the central regions. As described above, there is no
+ O.l°C/s effect of cooling rate on ferrite content at the solidus.
• 0.5 However, the faster cooling rate at the surface, compared
02.0 to the centre, produces a finer dendrite arm spacing. The
resultant fine structure is more rapidly homogenized on
cooling below the solidus.
Primary Y I Primary 8 Ferrite .%

20
10 I
8 I •
.0.5'C/s ,solidus
: JY
~+Y
2 0+_'1'
•
o
/
Creq
Nieq
10
x 0.5 °C/s . 1200'C
Primary P
I
I
Primary 15
•
1.0 1.5 2.0

8
I
I
Figure 6.15 ('l-ferrite in stainless steels at the solidus. I
6 I •
4
tic to dendritic forms of ferrite which explains the higher
ferrite contents shown in figures 6.15 and 6.16 for steels of
~'. I
Solidus
2 Creq
er-Ni equivalent ratio of about 1,4, compared to those at • • 1200"C
about 1,6. This is further supported by the amount of •x x-x x
Nieq
interdendritic ferrite probably reaching a maximum at 1.0 1.5 2.0

equivalent ratios of about 1,4.
Figure 6.16 ('l-ferrite in stainless steels at the solidus and
1200°C.
Secondary dendrite
arm spacing. pm
400 0
1 0 Carbon steels
2 x Low alloy steels
300 0 3 c. 5% Cr-steels
o 4 • Stainless & heat resistant steels No.406-415
250 @ 5 C!l High speed steels
o
o
o Mean value
200 8
150 x.
100
80
~
.:
---~--
e -- i
4
------.:-....::
0
60
40
30
20
0.1 0.5 2.0
150
Secondary dendrite arm spacings spacings decreased when the carbon content increased,
A summary of the results is presented in figures 6.17 and and there was also a tendency in this direction for other
groups of steels. This would partly account for the large
6.18. In figure 6.17 the effect of cooling rate and alloy
spread between individual points in figure 6.17.
content can be seen. It is accepted that the arm spacing
decreases when the alloy content increases, although a
linear relationship has not been detected. The results for The well known coarsening process which occurs during
13% Cr-steels and the stainless steels numbers 401-405 solidification may be seen by comparing values at 0,5°C/s
are not presented in figure 6.17 because of the difficulties obtained in samples partly and completely solidified, figu-
in measuring arm spacings accurately. The dendrites were 6.18. The final arm spacings of the dendrites are deter-
re poorly defined because of the high degree of homoge- mined by the local solidification time, which here is
nization occurring in these steels during solidification. roughly the reciprocal of the cooling rate. The results are
accordingly in agreement with previously reported data,
For the 13% Cr-steels it was seen that the dendrite arm see for example figure 1.2.
Mean secondary dendrite

arm spacing. IIm
150
• •
o
Completely
Partly
sol idified.
solidified, 0,5"(;/s
0.5"C/s
100
•
80
• •
0 0
0
60
0 0
0
40
•o
30
Carbon Low 5%Cr 13%Cr Stainless Stainless High
alloy speed
steel no 201-207 208-216 301-304 305-309 401-405 406 -415 501-502
Figure 6.18 Dendrite arm coarsening during solidification

151
7. References
Experimental techniques and general 22. Eisen W. B. & Campagna A., Computer simulation of
1. Jonsson K. 0., Solidification studies with radioactive consumable melted slabs. Metall. Trans. (1970)
849-856
isotopes and thermocouples. Jernkont. Ann., 153
(1969), 193-199 23. Oeters F. & Sardemann K., Untersuchungen zum zeit-
2. Chuang Y. K. & Schwerdtfeger K., Erstarrungsge- lichen Verlauf der Erstarrung in der Randzone erstar-
schwindigkeit van Eisen-Kohlenstoff Legierungen mit renden Eisens. Arch. Eisenhuttenwes., 45 (1974) 8,
517-524
0.6 bis 1.85 % C beim Brammenguss. Z. Metallkunde,
64 (1973) 672-677
3. Jacobi H., Einfluss der 6-y-Umwandlung des Eisens Carbon and low alloy steels
auf den Warmeubergang zwischen Block und was- 24. Kattamis T & Flemings M. C., Dendrite Morphology,
sergekuhlter Kupferkokille. Arch. Eisenhuttenwes., 47 microsegregation and homogenisation of low alloy
(1976),6,345-350 steels, Trans. Met. Soc. AIME, 1965,5,992-999
4. Lepie G. & Rellermeyer H., Untersuchungen uber den 25. Ahearn P. J. & Quigley F. C., Dendritic morphology of
Erstarrungsverlauf in Gussblocken. Arch. Eisenhut- high strength steel castings.JISI, 204 (1966) 16-22
tenwes., 37 (1966) 12,925-934
26. Doherty R. D. & Melford D. A., Solidification and mic-
5. Mizikar E. A., Mathematical heat transfer model for rosegregation in killed steel ingots with particular re-
solidification of continuously cast steel slabs. Trans. ference to 1% C 1.5% Cr-steel. JIS/, (1966) 1131-
A/ME, 239 (1967) 1747-1753 1143
6. Baumann H. G., Temperaturprofile gegossener 27. Tresh H. et aI., Microsegregation in steel castings,
Stahlstrange. Stah/ u. Eisen, 89 (1969) 26, 1467 -1473 Trans. Met. Soc. AIME, 242 (1968) 853-858
7. Thomas J. D. & Tzavaras A. A., Solidification and soli- 28. Suzuki A. et aI., On secondary dendrite arm spacing in
dification rates in continuous casting of steel. Pro- commercial carbon steels with different carbon con-
ceedings of the Continuous Casting Symposium of tent. J. Japan Inst. of Metals, (1968) 1301 -1305
the 102 A/ME annual meeting, Metallurgical Society
of AIME, 1973, 125-140 29. Rose A. & Boer H. & Hougardy H. P., Einfluss einiger
Elemente auf die Kristallisation von Eisen bei der Er-
8. Holzgruber W. & Tarmann B., Secondary cooling in starrung. Arch. Eisenhuttenwes. 39 (1968), 793-797
continuous casting and it's influence on solidification
parameters. Steel Times, 195 (1967) 217 - 225 30. Flemings M. C. et aI., Microsegregation in iron base
alloys. JISI, 208 (1970) 371-381
9. Petrov A. K. et ai, Solidification of metal powders
during the atomization of a liquid phase. Sov. Powder 31. Hammar O. & Grunbaum G., Influence of backdiffu-
Metall. Met. Ceram. 12 (1973) 1, 13-16 sion on microsegregation during solidification of low
alloy steels. Scand. J. Metallurgy. 3 (1974) 11 - 20
10. Dorschu K. E., Control of cooling rates in steel weld
metal. Weld. J., Res. Suppl., 47 (1968) 49 s-62 s 32. Chuang Y. K. & Reinisch R. & Schwerdtfeger K., Kine-
tics of the diffusion controlled peritectic reaction du-
11. Schulze G. & Krafka H., Untersuchungen uber den ring solidification of iron-carbon alloys. Metall. Trans.
Einfluss von Erwarm- und Abkuhlgeschwindigkeit auf A, 6 (1975) 235-238
das Zahigkeitsverhalten unlegierter und niedriglegier-
ter Stahle. Schweissen u. Schneiden, 29 (1977) 5, 33. Steinmetz E. & Kast M., Vorgange bei der schnellen
179-183 Erstarrung von Eisen mit gelostem Sauerstoff und
Schwefel, Arch Eisenhuttenw. 46 (1975) 629 - 634
12. Ericson L. & Fridfeldt C., Thesis Royal Institute of
Technology, Stockholm, 1970 34. Ohashi T. et aI., A study on solidification, segregation
and fluid flow of molten steel in continuously cast
13. Laren I. & Fredriksson H., Relations between ingot slabs. Trans ISIJ, 15 (1975) 571-579
size and microsegregation. Scand. J. Metallurgy. 1
(1972) 59-68 35. Edvardsson T & Fredriksson H. & Svensson I., A study
of the solidification process in low carbon manganese
14. Backerud L. & Edvardsson T, Influence of process steels. Metal Science, 10 (1976) 298-306
variables during submerged arc welding on the pri-
mary structure, Scand. J. Metallurgy, 4 (1975) 267- 36. Choudhury A. & Jauch R. & Lowenkamp H., Primar-
272 struktur und Innenbeschaffenheit herkommlicher und
nach dem Elektro-Schlacke-Umschmelzverfahren
15. Modin H. & Modin S., Metallurgical microscopy. But- hergestellter Blocke. Stahl U. Eisen, 96 (1976) 946-
terworths, London (1973) 951
16. Wlodawer R., Die technologische Kalorimetrie. 37. Jacobi H. & Schwerdtfeger K., Dendrite morphology
Schweizer Archiv, 37 (1971), 72-85
of steady state unidirectionally solidified steel. Metall.
17. Rabus D., Deutung von Erstarrungsvorgangen in be- Trans., A, 7(1976) 811-820
liebigen realen Gussti.icken mittels differenzierter 38. Clayton D. B. & Smith T. B. & Brown J. R., Application
technologischer Kalorimeterkurven. Schweizer Ar- of electronprobe microanalysis to the study of micro
chiv 38 (1972), 79 - 88
segregation in a low alloy steel. J. Inst. of Metals 90
18. Hribovsek B. & Marincek B., Einige Bemerkungen zur (1961-62) 224-228
Erstarrungsgleichung. Material und Technik, (1973) 2, 39. SmithT. B., Microsegregation in low alloy steels. Iron
69-71
& Steel, 37 (1964) 536-541
19. Hribovsek B. & Marincek B., Bestimmung der gesam- 40. Philibert J. & Weinryb E. & Ancey M., A quantitative
ten freiwerdenden Warme und des Kristallisations- study of dendritic segregation in iron-base alloys with
warmeanteiles aus der Abkuhlungskurve einer the electronprobe microanalyzer. Metallurgie, (1965)
Schmelze. Z. Metallkunde, 65 (1974) 242-245 203- 211
20. Takada H., An evaluation of the electroslag remelted 41. Ward R. G., Effect of annealing on the dendritic se-
ingot. Proc. 2nd Int. Symp. on ESR, Mellon Inst, 1969 gregation of manganese in steel. JISI, 194 (1956)
21. Grunbaum G. & Gustafsson K., Electroslag remelting 930-932 .
..•.• _1._1- --_ r T 0 ~ ••••.••..•••.•.•
" 0 li ~J1i,...,..nC::::QnrQn;:::lti()n in
152
43. SchneidhoferA. & Plessing R. & Krainer E., Betriebser- 62. Fredriksson H., The mechanism of the peritectic reac-
fahrungen mit Elektroschlacke-Umschmelzanlagen. tion in iron-base alloys. Metal Science, 10 (1976)
Berg- u. Huttenm. Mh, 115, (1970),11,367-373 77-86
44. Hoffmeister H., Kristallseigerungen und eutektische 63. Fredriksson H., Segregation phenomena in iron-base
Karbidausscheidungen in Eisen-Kohlenstoff-Molyb- alloys. Scand. J. Metallurgy, 5 (1976), 27-32
dan-Legierungen. Arch. Eisenhuttenw., 43 (1972) 64. Maim S., Influence of Si and Mn on the solidification
689-692
of 1.5 % C - 11% Cr-steels. Scand. J. Metallurgy, 5
45. Hoffmeister H., Kristallseigerungen und eutektische (1976) 137-144
Karbidausscheidungen in Eisen-Kohlenstoff-Vana-
din-Legierungen. Arch. Eisenhuttenw., 44 (1973)
349-355
46. Chuang Y. K. & Wepner W. & Schwerdtfeger K., Be- Stainless and heat resistant steels
rechnung der interdendritischen Anreicherung von
65. Mayerhofer S. & Kohl H., Matematisch-statistische
Kohlenstoff und Sauerstoff bei der Erstarrung von
Untersuchungen uber den Deltaferritgehalt bei au-
Stahl. Arch. Eisenhuttenw. 44 (1973) 243-250
stenitischen Stahlen. Berg- u. huttenm. Mh, 111
47. Fredriksson H. & Hellner L., The influence of carbon (1966) 9, 443 - 453
on the segregation of chromium in steel. Scand. J.
66. Guiraldenq P., Action alphagene et gammagene des
Metallurgy 3 (1974), 61-68
principaux elements d'addition dans les aciers inox-
48. Burns D. & Beech J., Blowhole formation during so- ydables nick'el-chrome derives du type 18-10. Mem.
lidification of iron alloys.lronmaking and steelmaking Sci. Rev. Met., 64 (1967),907-938
(Quarterly), (1974) 4, 239-250
67. Kohl H., Der Delta-Ferritgehalt austenitischer
49. Fuchs E. G. & Roosz A., Homogenization of iron base Chrom-Nickel-Stahle im Gleichgewichts- und Un-
cast alloys. Metal Science, 9 (1975) 111 -118 gleichgewichtszustand. Arch. Eisenhuttenw. 40
50. Fredriksson H. & Stjerndahl J., On the formation of a (1969) 143-146
liquid phase during cooling of steel. Metall. Trans. B, 68. Lefevre I. & Tricot R. & Castro R., Segregation et
6 (1975) 661-664 homogemeisation des aciers inoxydables austenitiqu-
51. Ohide T. & Ohira G., The solidification structures of es. Mem. Sci. Rev. Met., 66 (1969) 517-529
iron-carbon-phosphorous ternary alloys. Brit. 69. Blanc G. & Tricot R., Solidification, segregation et
Foundryman, 68 (1975) 4,106-115 homogemeisation des aciers inoxydables austenitiqu-
52. Bibby P. A. & Beech J., Solidification behaviour of es contenant de la ferrite delta. Mem. Sci. Rev. Met.,
low alloy steel castings, JISI 211 (1973),290-292 68 (1971),735-753
53. Jacobi H. & Pitsch W., Untersuchung der Kristallisa- 70. von Fircks H. J., Gluhtemperaturabhangige Bildung
tionsabfolge bei der Erstarrung niedriglegierter Stah- von b-Ferrit in austenitisch-ferritischen Chrom-Nick-
le, Arch. Eisenhuttenw. 46 (1975) 417 - 422 el-Stahlen. Neue Hutte, 17 (1972) 210-215
54. Schmidt L. & Fredriksson H., Formation of macro se- 71. Fredriksson H., The solidification sequence in an
gregation and centre-line cracks in continuously cast 18- 8 stainless steel investigated by directional solidi-
steel. Iron making and Steelmaking (Quarterly), 2 fication. Metall. Trans., 3 (1972), 2989 - 2997
(1975) 61-67 72. Masumoto J. et aI., Einfluss der Primarkristallisation
bei peritektischer Reaktion auf die Heissrissneigung
von Stahlschweissgut. Schweissen u. Schneiden, 27
(1975),450-454
Chromium steels 73. Heritier J. & Levy J., On the mechanisms of melting of
55. Subramanian S. V. & Haworth C. W. & Kirkwood D. H., Fe-Cr-Ni-alloys in the two-phase solid-liquid region.
Scripta Met. 10 (1976),107-110 or in Mem. Sci. Rev.
Growth morphology and solute segregation in the
Met. 73 (1976), 523 - 535
solidification of some iron alloys. JISI, 206 (1968),
1027 -1 032 74. Dacker C. A. & Fredriksson H., Fororeningars inverkan
56. Staska E. & Bloch R. & Kulmberg A., Untersuchungen pa varmsprickbenagenheten i rostfria stal. Styr. f.
tekn. utveckl. report, Stockholm, March 1976
an Fe-Cr-C-Legierungen mit Zusatzen von karbidbil-
denden Elementen. Mikrochimica Acta, (1970), suppl 75. Schurmann E. & Brauckmann J., Untersuchungen
IV, 62-74 uber die Schmelzgleichgewichte in der Eisenecke des
57. Barthel A. & Hoffmeister H. & Schurmann E., Einfluss Dreistoffsystems Eisen-Chrom-Nickel. Arch. Eisen-
huttenwes. 48 (1977) 3-7
der chemischen Zusammensetzung und der Abkuh-
lungsbedingungen auf den Gefugezustand von Guss- 76. Leffler B. & Maim S., Volume changes accompanying
eisen mit rd. 3% C und 14% Cr fUr Walzen. Arch. solidification of some austenitic stainless steels. Me-
Eisenhuttenw. 45 (1974) 795-801 tals Technology 4 (1977), 81-90
58. Staska E. & Bloch R. & Kulmberg A., Untersuchungen 77. Schurmann E. & Voss H. J., Seigerungsverhalten der
an Fe-Cr-C-Legierungen mit Molybdanzusatzen. Legierungselemente in Eisen-Chrom-Nickel-Schmel-
Mikrochimica Acta, (1974) suppl V, 111-127 zen und bei Zusatz von Molybdan und Vanadin. Arch.
Eisenhuttenwes. 48 (1977) 129-132
59. Fredriksson H. & Brising S. & Remeus B., Studium av
karbidutskiljning vid stelning av verktygssUll. Del 11 78. Hammar O. & Svensson U., The influence of steel
Kromstal. Jernkontoret, Stockholm, Rep. 0 114, 1975 composition on segregation and microstructure du-
ring solidification of austenitic stainless steels. Solidi-
60. Hoffmeister H., Kristallseigerungen und primare Kar-
fication Conf., Sheffield, 1977
bidausscheidungen in chromlegierten gegossenen
Werkzeugstahlen. Giessereiforschung, 22 (1970), 3, 79. Hoffmeister H., Kristallseigerung und Deltaferritbil-
121-127 dung in austenitischem Schweissgut. Schweisen u.
61. Straube H. & Bloch R. & Plockinger E., Die Abhangig- Schneiden, 25 (1973) 164-166
keit der Kohlenstoffverteilung im Dreistoffsystem 80. Siegel U. & Gunzel M., Mikroseigerung in austeniti-
Eisen-Chrom-Kohlenstoff von der erstarrungsbeding- schen Chrom-Nickel-Stahlen, Teil I, Neue Hutte 18
ten Kri~t::lII~Ain~nlnn rioe- f'hrr"· ....
..,... ,,",...,.,..,11 1"'\1'\ I •• n~r\ ,....
153
81. Moharil D. B. & Jin I. & Purdy G. R., The effect of

D-ferrite formation on the post-solidification homo-
genization of alloy steels. Metall. Trans, 5 (1974),
59-63
82. Spies H. J., Beitrag zur Kennzeichnung erstarrungs-
bedingter Entmischungen in SHihlen, Neue Hutte, 21
(1976) 344-348
83. Hull F. C., Delta ferrite and martensite formation in
stainless steels. Weld. J. Res. Suppl., 52 (1973)
193s-203s
84. Delong W. T., Ferrite in austenitic stainless steel weld
metal. Weld. Res. Suppl. 53 (1974), 273s-286s
85. Astr6m H. et aI., Hot cracking and microsegregation
in 18-10 stainless steel welds. Metal Science, 10
(1976) 225-234
86. Thier H., Delta-Ferrit und Heissrisse beim Schweissen
chemisch bestandiger austenitischer Stahle. Dtsch.
Verlag fur Schweisstechnik (DVS) Dusseldorf 1976,
100-104
High speed steels

87. Kunze E. & Horn E., Zusammenhang zwischen Er-
starrungsverlauf und Gefugeausbildung von Schnell-
arbeitsstahlen. DEW-Techn. Ber. 1 (1961),6-15
88. Brandis H. & Wiebking K., Einfluss einer Legier-
ungsanderung beim Stahl S6-5-2 (Mo 20) auf seinen
Erstarrungs- und Aufschmelzverlauf. DEW- Techn.
Ber. 11 (1971),139-146
89. Horn E. & Brandis H., Betrachtung zur Ausbildung der
Phasen im Schnellarbeitsstahl S6-5-2 (Mo 20) mit ab-
nehmendem Kohlenstoffgehalt. DEW- Techn. Ber. 11
(1971) 147-154
90. Backerud L. & Pfeifer H. U., Structure development in
some tool steels during the solidification process.
Scand. J. Metallurgy 1 (1972),159-165
91. Barkalow R. & Kraft R. W. & Goldstein J. I., Solidifica-
tion of M2 high speed steel. Metall. Trans. 3 (1972),
919-926
92. Galda E. J. & Kraft R. W., The effect of Mo and W on
solidification of high speed steels. Metall. Trans., 5
(1974),1727-1733
93. Gunji K. et aI., Solidification structure of high speed
tool steel. Trans. ISIJ, 14 (1974),257- 266
94. Fredriksson H. & Brising S., The formation of carbides
during solidification of high speed steels. Scand. J.
Metallurgy, 5 (1976), 268-275
95. Kulmburg A. & Wilmes S. & Korntheuer F., Zeit-Tem-
peratur-Aufschmelzschaubilder einiger gebrauch-
licher Schnellarbeitstahle. Arch. Eisenhuttenwes. 47
(1976) 319-324
96. Brandis H. & Wiebking K., Einfluss von Giesstempera-
tur und Erstarrungsverlauf auf die Gefugeausbildung
von Schnellarbeitsstahl. DEW-Techn. Ber., 11 (1971)
158-165
97. Mellberg P. O. & Sandberg H., Solidification studied
by ESR remelting of high speed steel. Scand. J. Metal-
lurgy, 2 (1973) 83-86
98. Sandberg H., Influence of titanium on micro segrega-
tions in high-speed steel ingots. Scand. J. Metallurgy,
2 (1973), 233-241
154
8. Alloy Index
Table 8.1 Index to the steels.
Steel
Number Page
201 ........... . . .. . 18
202 20
203 22
204 ................... ~
205 ... 26
206 . 28
207 .. 32
208 . . . 34
209 ........ .. 36
210 ......... ... . 39
211 .. 41
212 ................ . .... 43
213 ... .. 45
214 ....... 47
215 .... 49
216 52
301 ............ .... . .. 56

302 ............. . ..... 58
303 ........ 60
304 ....... 63
305 ........... . ~
306 ....... . 69
307 72
308 75
309 78
401 . 82
402 85
403 88
404 ... 91
405 94
406 ...................... 98
407 .. ........ . .102
408 . .. . 106
409 ............... .. 110
410 .113
411 ................... 117
412 ..................................................... 120
413 .123
414 ...... ........ .126
415 ..... ......... ...... .130
501 ..... ..134

502 .. .. . .. .. .. . . .. 138
155
Table 8.2 a: Carbon and Low Alloy Steels, composition (wt-%).
Steel C Si Mn P S Cr Ni Mo Cu Altot N Others

Number
Carbon:
201 0,11 0,12 1,25 0,040 0,018 0,06 0,03 0,07 0,07 0,038 0,012
202 0,12 0,27 1,53 0,010 0,005 0,02 0,03 ~0,03 0,05 0,029 0,011 0,03Ce
203 0,18 0,44 1,26 0,016 0,025 0,01 0,02 0,06 0,02 0,004 0,007 0,03Nb
204 0,19 0,40 1,42 0,012 0,007 0,07 0,13 0,02 0,08 0,006 0,005
205 0,36 0,27 0,58 0,015 0,012 0,08 0,05 0,02 0,12 0,004 0,007
206 0,69 0,23 0,72 0,022 0,024 0,02 0,02 0,01 0,03 0,006 0,002
207 1,01 0,25 0,46 0,012 0,009 0,02 0,03 0,02 0,03 ~0,004 0,002
Low Alloy:
208 0,10 0,28 0,57 0,008 0,009 1,14 3,3 0,14 0,11 0,013 0,009 0,02 V
209 0,20 0,25 0,90 0,014 0,039 0,81 1,05 0,06 0,07 0,036 0,009 0,02 V
210 0,27 0,02 0,32 0,006 0,008 1,66 3,5 0,42 0,04 0,044 0,007 0,08 V
211 0,29 0,21 0,62 0,012 0,006 1,11 0,15 0,21 0,04 0,011 0,004 0,04 V
212 0,29 0,22 0,52 0,009 0,010 1,02 3,2 0,25 0,05 0,010 0,005 0,03 V
213 0,35 0,24 0,67 0,010 0,020 0,92 0,05 0,19 0,07 ~0,004 0,008 0,02 V
214 0,52 0,22 0,85 0,010 0,006 1,07 0,07 0,07 0,04 ~0,004 0,008 0,14 V
215 0,55 0,27 0,50 0,019 0,012 0,99 3,0 0,31 0,06 0,011 0,008 0,08 V
216 1,01 0,23 0,33 0,021 0,026 1,55 0,02 0,01 0,04 0,011 0,003 0,04 V
Table 8.2 b: Chromium Steels, composition (wt-%).
Steel C Si Mn P S Cr Ni Mo Cu W V Altot N
Number
301 0,13 0,36 0,37 0,003 0,007 5,0 0,01 0,58 0,02 0,01 0,01 0,009 0,006
302 0,35 1,03 0,46 0,020 0,007 5,2 0,23 1,34 0,11 0,09 1,0 0,013 0,026
303 0,50 1,00 0,48 0,025 0,010 5,1 0,18 1,36 0,10 0,02 1,20 0,013 0,036
304 0,96 0,29 0,67 0,020 0,015 5,2 0,13 1,19 0,09 0,05 0,21 0,014 0,024
305 0,04 0,54 0,61 0,010 0,009 13,4 5,5 0,07 0,07 0,01 0,01 0,019 0,032
306 0,07 0,54 0,48 0,020 0,006 12,9 0,17 0,02 0,10 0,01 ~0,01 0,026 0,039
307 0,14 0,19 0,68 0,009 0,014 12,0 1,20 0,01 0,03 0,01 0,02 0,001 0,040
308 0,32 0,15 0,30 0,009 0,008 13,9 0,16 0,01 0,01 0,22 0,03 0,003 0,013
309 0,69 0,43 0,64 0,014 0,005 13,1 0,20 0,07 0,02 0,22 0,03 0,002 0,025
Table 8.2 c: Stainless and Heat Resistant Steels, composition (wt-%) and Cr-Ni equivalent ratios.'
Creq
Steel C Si Mn P S Cr Ni Mo Cu Co Altot N Others
Number Nleq
401 0,042 0,86 0,76 0,031 0,010 25,1 4,7 1,22 0,08 0,08 ~0,002 0,077 4,01
402 0,012 0,31 1,76 0,008 0,008 19,8 9,9 0,10 0,04 0,02 0,004 0,031 1,82
403 0,019 0,31 0,94 0,009 0,010 19,5 10,2 0,11 0,03 0,05 0,002 0,044 1,74
404 0,036 0,44 1,25 0,025 0,010 18,4 9,1 0,38 0,20 0,25 0,002 0,081 1,68
405 0,068 0,59 1,44 0,028 0,001 17,2 10,3 0,47 0,24 0,27 0,048 0,005 0,51Ti 1,61
406 0,052 0,44 1,71 0,013 0,007 17,2 12,6 2,80 0,03 0,03 0,004 0,010 0,54Nb 1,58
407 0,023 0,53 1,58 0,020 0,006 17,2 13,5 2,63 0,19 0,07 0,004 0,031 1,43
408 0,048 0,63 1,65 0,018 0,007 17,7 13,4 2,68 0,15 0,07 0,004 0,045 1,42
409 0,024 0,58 1,79 0,009 0,011 17,4 12,8 2,77 0,03 0,03 0,002 0,20 1,32
410 0,008 0,24 1,77 0,009 0,008 25,1 22,2 2,3 0,02 0,02 0,002 0,067 0,08Ti 1,21
411 0,055 1,20 1,75 0,011 0,008 24,2 20,4 0,08 0,02 0,03 0,015 0,051 0,09Ti 1,15
412 0,13 0,52 1,67 0,009 0,003 24,3 20,5 0,11 0,03 0,04 0,023 0,053 0,08Ti 1,03
413 0,013 0,48 1,74 0,007 0,003 19,2 25,1 4,44 1,51 0,02 0,034 0,035 O,07Ti 0,07Ce 0,94
414 0,41 1,00 1,34 0,007 0,010 25,2 20,6 0,08 0,02 0,06 0,016 0,022 0,10Ti 0,89
415 0,07 0,62 0,56 0,007 0,003 21,1 30,9 0,06 0,02 0,02 0,39 0,019 0,40Ti 0,71
• Equivalents according to [78, 83J see chapter 6.
Table 8.2 d: High Speed Steels, composition (wt-%).
Steel C Si Mn P S Cr Ni Mo Cu Co W V Altot N
Number
501 0,88 0,30 0,32 0,030 0,017 3,9 0,36 4,9 0,10 0,30 6,1 1,9 0,022 0,036
n n~"'7 'l Q n 14 q? 011 0.05 1,5 2,0 0,010 0,036
156
Table 8.3 a: Carbon and Low Alloy Steels, liquidus and solidus temperatures and temperatures of formation of austenite and precipitates.
Average
Temperatures, cC, of
Cooling
Steel Rate Primary Formation of Formation of
Number Type Analyses °C/s Phase Liquidus Austenite Precipitates Solidus
Carbon:
201 0,1 % C 2,0 1513 1476 1445
0,5 1513 1476 1450
0,1 1515 1475 1455
202 0,12% C 2,0 1514 1471 1440
0,5 1515 1475 1440
0,1 1514 1477 1460
203 0,18% C 2,0 1507 1467 1415
0,5 1506 1470 1430
0,1 1507 1473 1460
204 0,2%C 2,0 1503 1480 1425
0,5 1503 1477 1440
0,1 1506 1480 1460
205 0,4% C 2,0 1496 1479 1415
0,5 /) 1498 1480 1425
0,1 1501 1483 1440
206 0,7% C 2,0 1471 1370-1335 Fe3P-Fe3C- 1335
0,5 y 1466 1370-1355-austenite 1355
0,1 1474 1420-1370 eutectic 1370
207 1,0% C 2,0 1457 1310
0,5 y 1457 1320
0,1 1459 1340
Low Alloy:
208 0,1 %C Cr Ni 2,0 1501 1485 1450
0,5 1501 1485 1450
0,1 1502 1487 1465
209 0,2%C Cr Ni 2,0 1502 1474 1460-1420 1420
0,5 1502 1474 1460-1425 MnS 1425
0,1 1503 1465 -1445 1445
210 0,3%C Cr Ni Mo 2,0 1487 1471 1395
0,5 1493 1490 1430
0,1 1492 1490 1445
211 0,3% C Cr Mo 2,0 1501 1460 1420

0,5 /) 1501 1471 1435
0,1 1503 1475 1450
212 0,3%C Cr Ni Mo 2,0 y 1486 1415
0,5 /) 1487 1478 1425
0,1 b 1486 1477 1435
213 0,35% C Cr Mo 2,0 1494 1479 1405
0,5 /) 1493 1474 1415
0,1 1495 1480 1425
214 0,5% C Cr 2,0 1482 1380
0,5 y 1482 1385
0,1 1483 1400
215 0,55% C Cr Ni Mo 2,0 1471 1365-1335 carbide- 1335
0,5 y 1471 -1370 -austenite 1370
0,1 1472 -1375 eutectic 1375
216 1,0%C Cr 2,0 1450 1320-1270 Fe3P-carbide- 1270
0,5 y 1450 1340-1300 -austenite 1300
0,1 1451 -1300 eutectic 1300
157
Table 8.3 b: Chromium Steels, liquidus and solidus temperatures and temperatures of formation of austenite and precipitates.
Average
Temperatures, QC,of
Cooling
301 0,1 %C 5% Cr 2,0 1508 1443 1405

0,5 1501 1426 1415
0,1 1506 1444 1440
302 0,35% C Mo V 5% Cr 2,0 1471 1370 1335
0,5 1464 1387 1360
0,1 1470 1412 1380
303 O,5%C Mo V 5% Cr 2,0 1460 1410 1320-1240 MC- 1140
0,5 1460 1410 1345-1300-austenite 1240
0,1 1460 1412 -1320 eutecti c 1260
304 1,0%C Mo 5% Cr 2,0 1435 1150-1130 M7C3- 1130
0,5 y 1434 -1200-austenite 1200
0,1 1438 -1215 eutectic 1215
305 0,04% C 5% Ni 13% Cr 2,0 1470 1410 1355

0,5 1476 1419 1395
0,1 1476 1425 1420
306 0,07% C 13% Cr 2,0 1497 1435
0,5 1500 1440
0,1 1500 1455
2,0 solid phase 1325-1270
0,5 6~y 1330-1290
307 0,1 %C Ni 12% Cr 2,0 1490 1416 1390

0,5 1495 1425 1400
0,1 1494 1401 1400
308 0,3%C 14% Cr 2,0 1480 1400 1370
0,5 1483 1407 1375
0,1 1482 1401 1390
309 0,7% C 13% Cr 2,0 1442 1414 1240-1195 M7C3- 1195
0,5 1448 1422 1250-1240-austenite 1240
0,1 1444 1415 1260-1245 eutectic 1245
Table 8.3 d: High Speed Steels, liquidus and solidus temperatures and temperatures of formation of austenite and precipitates.
Temperatures, QC,of
Average Start of For- Formation

Cooling Start of mation of of Carbide
Steel Rate, Primary Formation MC-Austenite -Austenite
Number Type Analyses °C/s Phase Liquidus of Austenite Eutectic Eutectic Solidus
501 0,9%C 4% Cr 5%Mo 2,0 1414 1341 1260 1228 1175

6%W 2%V 0,5 1423 1342 1260 1232 M2C + MsC 1185
0,1 1427 1350 1270 1255 1220
502 1,0% C 4%Cr 9%Mo 2,0 1401 1305 1222 1175

1,5%W 2%V 0,5 1400 1315 1226 MC+M2C 1180
0,1 1400 1322 1233 1185
158
Table 8.3 c: Stainless and Heat Resistant Steels, liquidus and solidus temperatures and temperatures of formation of austenite and
precipitates.
Average
Temperatures, °C, of
Cooling
401 0,04% C 25% Cr 5% Ni Mo 2,0 1465 1390

0,5 1471 1410
0,1 1469 1420
402 0,01 % C 20% Cr 10% Ni 2,0 1447 1366 1325
0,5 1454 1391 1360
0,1 1449 1405 1390
403 0,02% C 19%Cr 10%Ni 2,0 1447 1404 1365
0,5 1455 1415 1390
0,1 1453 1418 1405
404 0,04% C 18%Cr 9% Ni 2,0 1452 1423 1365
0,5 1451 1409 1385
0,1 1452 1424 1405
405 0,07% C 17 % Cr 10% Ni Ti 2,0 1436 1397 1335
0,5 1440 1406 1370
0,1 1440 1412 1390
406 0,05% C 17% Cr 12% Ni 2,8% Mo Nb 2,0 1420 1410' 1330-1275 NbC- 1275
0,5 o+y 1423 1418' 1330-1290-austenite 1290
0,1 1424 1417* 1330-1305 eutectic 1305
407 0,02% C 17% Cr 13% Ni 2,5% Mo 2,0 1423 1418' 1345
0,5 o+y 1427 1421' 1375
0,1 1428 1425' 1380
408 0,05% C 18% Cr 13% Ni 2,5% Mo 2,0 1419 1414' 1330
0,5 o+y 1423 1422' 1360
0,1 1421 1415' 1370
409 0,02% C 17 %Cr 13% Ni 2,0 1411 1310
2,5% Mo 0,2% N 0,5 Y 1421 1350
0,1 1422 1370
410 0,01 % C 25% Cr 22% Ni 2% Mo 2,0 1401 1335

0,5 y 1402 1345
0,1 1401 1355
411 0,07% C 24% Cr 20% Ni 2,0 1399 1315
0,5 y 1401 1330
0,1 1399 1350
412 O,1%C 24% Cr 20% Ni 2,0 1405 1325
0,5 Y 1407 1335
0,1 1405 1355
413 0,01 % C 19% Cr 25% Ni 4% Mo 2,0 1389 1305

1,5%Cu 0,5 Y 1391 1315
0,1 1391 1345
414 0,4% C 25% Cr 20% Ni 2,0 1383 1275-1260 M23C6- 1260

0,5 y 1385 1285-1275-austenite 1275
0,1 1385 1290-1280 eutectic 1280
415 0,07% C 21 % Cr 31 % Ni 2,0 1399 1305-1280 formation 1280

0,5 Y 1401 1310-1295 of titanium 1295
0,1 1400 1350-1330 compounds 1330
, The temperatures refer to the maximum rate of formation of austenite.

159
Table 8.4 a: Carbon and Low Alloy Steels, secondary dendrite arm spacings (f.lm).
Partly Solidified Completely Solidified

Average Cooling Average Cooling
Rate, QC/s Rate, QC/s
Steel
Number Type Analyses 0,5 2,0 0,5 0,1
Carbon:
201 0,1 %C 65 80 130 300
202 0,12% C 70 85 200 390
203 0,18% C 65 80 190 250
204 0,2 %C 85 75 120 230
205 0,4 % C 50 85 90 280
206 0,7 %C 70 75 130 160
207 1,0 %C 50 70 80 210
Low Alloy:
208 0,1 %C Cr Ni 70 75 110 250
209 0,2 %C Cr Ni 60 85 110 180
210 0,3 %C Cr Ni Mo 60 70 90 160
211 0,3 %C Cr Mo 60 70 90 150
212 0,3 %C Cr Ni Mo 70 75 110 180
213 0,35% C Cr Mo 65 80 100 190
214 0,5 % C Cr 55 75 90 140
215 0,55% C Cr Ni Mo 65 70 90 130
216 1,0 %C Cr 60 75 90 140
Table 8.4 b: Chromium Steels, secondary dendrite arm spacings (f.lm).

Steel
301 0,1 %C 5 % Cr 65 85 160 275

302 0,35% C Mo V 5 %Cr 55 70 80 120
303 0,5 %C Mo V 5 % Cr 55 60 80 110
304 1,0 % C Mo 5 % Cr 55 65 80 110
305 0,04% C 5% Ni 13% Cr 75 140 240 520

306 0,07% C 13%Cr 90 205 260
307 0,1 %C Ni 12 % Cr 75 150 180 470
308 0,3 % C 14% Cr 75 75 100 210
309 0,7 % C 13% Cr 50 65 80 130
Table 8.4 c: Stainless and Heat Resistant Steels, secondary dendrite arm spacings (f.lm).

Steel
401 0,04% C 25% Cr 5 %Ni Mo 70 115 280 550

402 0,01 % C 20% Cr 10% Ni 60 150 270 450
403 0,02% C 19% Cr 10% Ni 65 130 160 500
404 0,04% C 18% Cr 9 %Ni 40 125 190 340
405 0,07% C 17% Cr 10% Ni Ti 50 85 110 200
406 0,05% C 17% Cr 12% Ni 2,8% Mo Nb 45 65 80 135

407 0,02% C 17%Cr 13% Ni 2,5% Mo 55 40 90 100
408 0,05% C 18% Cr 13% Ni 2,5% Mo 50 55 85 140
409 0,02% C 17% Cr 13% Ni 2,5% Mo 0,2% N 40 45 70 105
410 0,01 % C 25% Cr 22% Ni 2% Mo 60 60 80 160
411 0,07% C 24% Cr 20% Ni 65 55 85 125
412 0,1 %C 24% Cr 20% Ni 60 65 90 125
413 0,01 % C 19%Cr 25% Ni 4%Mo 1,5% Cu 70 55 80 120
414 0,4 %C 25% Cr 20% Ni 60 50 80 105

<;n Q<; 14<;
160
Table 8.4 d: High Speed Steels, secondary dendrite arm spacings (J.'m).

Rate,oC/s Rate,oC/s
Steel
501 0,9%C 4%Cr 5%Mo 6%W 2%V 35 30 40 85

502 1,0%C 4%Cr 9%Mo 1,5%W 2%V 35 25 35 70
Table 8.5 a: Carbon Steels, microsegregation in completely

solidified samples, (average cooling rate 0,5°C/s).
Steel Type Ele-

Number Analyses ment
201 0,1%C Mn 1,3

202 0,12%C Mn 1,4
203 0,18% C Mn 1,4
204 0,2%C Mn 1,6
205 0,4% C Mn 1,6
206 0,7%C Mn 1,7
207 1,0% C Mn 2,1
Table 8.5 b: Low Alloy Steels, microsegregation in completely Table 8.5 c: Chromium Steels, microsegregation in completely
solidified samples, (average cooling rate 0,5°C/s). solidified samples, (average cooling rate 0,5°C/s).
Steel Type Ele- Steel Type Ele-

Number Analyses ment Number Analyses ment
208 0,1 % C Cr Ni Cr 1,3 301 0,1 % C 5 % Cr Cr 1,1

Ni 1,4 Mo 1,4
Mo 2,5
302 0,35%C Mo V 5%Cr Cr 1,2
209 0,2%C Cr Ni Cr 1,5 Ni 1,0
Ni 1,4 Mo 1,5
210 0,3%C Cr Ni Mo Cr 1,6 V 1,7
Ni 1,3 303 0,5% C Mo V 5% Cr Cr 1,3
Mo 2,2 Mo 1,5
V 2,0 V 1,3
211 0,3%C Cr Mo Cr 1,6 304 1% C Mo 5 % Cr Cr 1,4
Mo 2,0 Mo 1,9
212 0,3%C Cr Ni Mo Cr 1,7 V 1,7
Ni 1,4
Mo 2,2 305 0,04% C 5% Ni 13% Cr Cr 1,1
213 0,35% C Cr Mo Cr 1,5 Ni 1,2
Mo 2,4 306 0,07% C 13% Cr Cr 1,0
214 0,5% C Cr Cr 2,1 Ni 1,0
V 1,9 307 0,1 % C Ni 12% Cr Cr 1,1
215 0,55% C Cr Ni Mo Cr 2,1 Ni 1,3
Ni 1,2 308 0,3%C 14% Cr Cr 1,2
Mo 2,5 Ni 1,0
V 2,0 309 0,7% C 13% Cr Cr 1,2
216 1,0% C Cr Cr 2,6 Ni 1,0
Table 8.5 e: High Speed Steels, microsegregation in completely solidified samples, (average cooling rate 0,5°C/s).
Steel Ele-
Number Type Analyses ment
501 0,9%C 4%Cr 5%Mo 6%W 2%V Cr 1,6

Mo 1,2
W 0,8
V 0,9
502 1,0% C 4% Cr 9% Mo 1,5% W 2% V Cr 1,8

Mo 1,1
W 0,6
161
Table 8.5 d: Stainless and Heat Resistant Steels, microsegregation in completely solidified samples, (average cooling rate 0,5°C/s).
Steel Ele-
Number Type Analyses ment
401 0,04% C 25% Cr 5% Ni Mo Mn 1,3

Cr 1,0
Ni 1,2
Mo 1,3
402 0,01 % C 20% Cr 10% Ni Si 1,7
Mn 1,4
Cr 1,0 1,2
Ni 1,5 0,7
403 0,02%C 19%Cr 10%Ni Si 1,6
Mn 1,5
Cr 1,1 1,2
Ni 1,5 0,7
404 0,04% C 18% Cr 9% Ni Mn 1,2
Cr 1,1 1,2
Ni 1,3 0,7
405 O,07%C 17%Cr 10%Ni Ti Si 1,6
Mn 1,6
Cr 1,1 1,2
Ni 1,5 0,7
406 0,05%C 17%Cr 12%Ni 2,8%Mo Nb Si 1,7

Mn 1,5
Cr 1,1 1,3 1,1
Ni 1,4 0,6 0,8
407 O,02%C 17%Cr 13%Ni 2,5%Mo Mn 1,5
Cr 1,2 1,2
Ni 1,2 0,8
Mo 2,2
408 0,05% C 18% Cr 13% Ni 2,5% Mo Mn 1,6
Cr 1,2 1,2
Ni 1,2 0,7
Mo 2,1
409 O,02%C 17%Cr 13%Ni 2,5%Mo O,2%N Mn 1,6
Cr 1,2
Ni 1,1
Mo 2,1
410 0,01%C 25%Cr 22%Ni 2%Mo Mn 1,6

Cr 1,2 1,2
Ni 1,1 0,8
Mo 2,3
411 0,07% C 24% Cr 20% Ni Si 2,4
Mn 1,9
Cr 1,2
Ni 1,2
412 0,1 % C 24% Cr 20% Ni Si 2,5
Mn 1,9
Cr 1,2
Ni 1,2
413 0,01 % C 19% Cr 25% Ni 4% Mo 1,5% Cu Si 1,8
Mn 1,7
Cr 1,2
Ni 1,1
Mo 2,0
414 0,4% C 25% Cr 20% Ni Si 2,1

Mn 1,6
Cr 1,2
Ni 1,1
415 O,07%C 21%Cr 31%Ni Si 2,3
Mn 1,7
Cr 1,2
Ni 1,1
162
Table 8.6: Stainless and Heat Resistant Steels, formation of primary <'i-ferrite and ferrite content in completely solidified samples at the
solidus temperature and at 1200°C.
Ferrite in
Average Solidified Completely
Steel Cooling as Primary Solidified
Number Type Analyses Rate,OC/s <'i,% Sample, %
401 0,04% C 25% Cr 5%Ni Mo 2,0 100

0,5 100
0,1 100
402 0,01 % C 20% Cr 10% Ni 2,0 92 13
0,5 91 19
0,1 97 20
0,5 (1200°C) 9
403 0,02% C 19% Cr 10% Ni 2,0 91 11
0,5 92 13
0,1 98 9
0,5 (1200°C) 5,8
404 0,04% C 18% Cr 9%Ni 2,0 84 2,3
0,5 82 4,7
0,1 86 10
0,5 (1200°C) 2,0
405 0,07% C 17% Cr 10% Ni Ti 2,0 82 6
0,5 82 8
0,1 82 4,8
0,5 (1200°C) 4,1
406 0,05% C 17% Cr 12% Ni 2,8% Mo Nb 2,0 < 60 4,0
0,5 < 45 4,0
0,1 < 42 3,9
0,5 (1200°C) 2,9
407 0,02% C 17% Cr 13% Ni 2,5% Mo 2,0 < 46 5,5
0,5 < 50 5,6
0,1 < 34 4,4
0,5 (1200°C) 3,5
408 0,05% C 18% Cr 13% Ni 2,5% Mo 2,0 < 36 4,0
0,5 < 35 5,0
0,1 < 34 5,5
0,5 (1200°C) 0,1
409 0,02% C 17% Cr 13% Ni 2,5% Mo 0,2% N 2,0 0 0,8
0,5 0 0,8
0,1 0 0,8
0,5 (1200°C) 0,1
410 0,01 % C 25% Cr 22% Ni 2%Mo 2,0 0 1,0
0,5 0 1,0
0,1 0 1,0
0,5 (1200°C) 0,7
412 O,1%C 24% Cr 20% Ni 2,0 0 0,5
0,5 0 0,5
0,1 0 0,5
0,5 (1200°C) 0,4
Table 8.7: Chromium, Heat Resistant and High Speed Steels, carbide content in completely solidified samples (vol-%).
Average Cooling Rate, °C/s

Steel Type of
Number Type Analyses Carbide 2,0 0,5 0,1
Chromium Steel
309 O,7%C 13%Cr 4,5 3,5 2,4
Heat Resistant Steel

414 O,4%C 25%C 20%Ni 11,4 8,0 (1230°C) 7,2
10,7 (1100°C)
High Speed Steels

501 O,9%C 4%Cr 5%Mo 6%W 2%V MC+M2C+MsC 9 12
502 1,0% C 4% Cr 9% Mo 1,5% W 2% V MC + M2C 9 10

Tips - A Guide To The Solidification of Steels

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Tips - A Guide To The Solidification of Steels

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Tips - A Guide To The Solidification of Steels

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

A Guide

Jernkontoret, Stockholm 1977.

Ljungberg Tryckeri AB, S6dertalje 1977

An investigation into the solidification structures in steels of commercial in-

The purpose of the present work is to provide a systematic compilation of

Secondary dendrite ARGON INLET

400 -- TEFLON PLUG

Figure 1.5 Control systems

® Growth temperature of dendrites, used as liquidus tempe-

Figure 1.8 a Stainless steel shown at low

x 150 100 JLm

Figure 1.8 b Detail of figure 1.8 a showing

are defined below and the appropriate values of segrega-

where Cx is the mean value of the concentration of ele-

2. Carbon and Low Alloy Steels

Table 2.2 Low alloy steels

Figure 2.1 Fe-C system (After Metals Handbook, Vol 8, 1973,

STEEL 201. 0,1 % CARBON STEEL

Average Cooling Rate,R, eC/s)

2,0 0,5 0,1

Liquidus temperature, ferritic primary phase, °C CD 1513 1513 1515

STEEL 202. 0,12 % CARBON STEEL

0,0 0,2 0,4 0,5 0,8 ',0

Average Cooling Rate,R, (OC/s)

2,0 0,5 0,1

Liquidus temperature, ferritic primary phase, QC CD 1514 1515 1514

Temperature of austenite formation, QC CD 1471 1475 1477

Solidus temperature, QC CD 1440 1440

STEEL 203. 0,18 % CARBON STEEL

's 0,0 0) 0,4 0,6 0,8 ',0

Average Cooling Rate,R, eC/s)

2,0 0,5 0,1

Liquidus temperature, lerritic primary phase, QC CD 1507 1506 1507

Temperature of austenite formation, QC CD 1467 1470 1473

Solidus temperature, QC 0) 1415 1430 1460

STEEL 204. 0,2 % CARBON STEEL

fs 0,0 0) 0,4 0,6 0,8 1,0

1400 ---- ------- 0

Average Cooling Rate,R, rC/s)

2,0 0,5 0,1

Liquidus temperature, ferritic primary phase, °C CD 1503 1503 1506

Temperature of austenite formation, °C CD 1480 1477 1480

Solidus temperature, °C CD 1425 1440 1460

STEEL 205. 0,4 % CARBON STEEL

1550 1034 1.1181

Average Cooling Rate,R, (eC/s)

2,0 0,5 0,1

Liquidus temperature, ferritic primary phase, QC CD 1496 1498 1501

.•- ... .,A

STEEL 206. 0,7 % CARBON STEEL

1770 1070 1.1231

fs 0,0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1,0

Average Cooling Rate,R, eC/s)

2,0 0,5 0,1

Liquidus temperature, austenitic primary phase, QC CD 1471 1466 1474

Solidus temperature, QC CD 1335 1355 1370

Solidification range, QC 140 120 105

Solification time, s 105 250 1020

100 fLm x 150