Chapter 2

Psychology applied to the field of social world

The term communication is derived from the Latin word “Communis” which
means to share. Effective communication is when the message conveyed by the
sender is understood by the receiver in the same way as it was intended.

Definition: The Communication is a two-way process wherein the message in

the form of ideas, thoughts, feelings, opinions is transmitted between two or
more persons with the intent of creating a shared understanding.

Definition: Communication is the process of transmitting information from one

person to another. It is the act of sharing of ideas, facts, opinions, thoughts,
messages or emotions to other people, in and out the organisation, with the use
of the channel to create mutual understanding and confidence.

Communication Process

The communication is a dynamic process that begins with the conceptualizing

of ideas by the sender who then transmits the message through a channel to the
receiver, who in turn gives the feedback in the form of some message or signal
within the given time frame. Thus, there are Seven major elements of
communication process:
1. Sender: The sender or the communicator is the person who initiates the
conversation and has conceptualized the idea that he intends to convey it to
others.

2. Encoding: The sender begins with the encoding process wherein he uses certain
words or non-verbal methods such as symbols, signs, body gestures, etc. to
translate the information into a message. The sender’s knowledge, skills,
perception, background, competencies, etc. has a great impact on the success of
the message.

3. Message: Once the encoding is finished, the sender gets the message that he
intends to convey. The message can be written, oral, symbolic or non-verbal
such as body gestures, silence, sighs, sounds, etc. or any other signal that
triggers the response of a receiver.

4. Communication Channel: The Sender chooses the medium through which he

wants to convey his message to the recipient. It must be selected carefully in
 order to make the message effective and correctly interpreted by the recipient.
The choice of medium depends on the interpersonal relationships between the
sender and the receiver and also on the urgency of the message being sent. Oral,
virtual, written, sound, gesture, etc. are some of the commonly used
communication mediums.

5. Receiver: The receiver is the person for whom the message is intended or
targeted. He tries to comprehend it in the best possible manner such that the
communication objective is attained. The degree to which the receiver decodes
the message depends on his knowledge of the subject matter, experience, trust
and relationship with the sender.

6. Decoding: Here, the receiver interprets the sender’s message and tries to
understand it in the best possible manner. An effective communication occurs
only if the receiver understands the message in exactly the same way as it was
intended by the sender.

7. Feedback: The Feedback is the final step of the process that ensures the
receiver has received the message and interpreted it correctly as it was intended
by the sender. It increases the effectiveness of the communication as it permits
the sender to know the efficacy of his message. The response of the receiver can
be verbal or non-verbal.

Note: The Noise shows the barriers in communications. There are chances
when the message sent by the sender is not received by the recipient.

FORMS OF COMMUNICATION

● Formal Communication: Alternatively known as official communication, it

passes through predefined channels which all the members of the organisation
 are bound to follow. In every organisation, a corporate ladder is established,
through which communication flows, which can be:

o Downward: Superior to subordinate

o Upward: Subordinate to superior

o Horizontal: Between employees of the same level, but different areas of

responsibility (department).

o Diagonal: Between employees of different levels and department.

● Informal Communication: The form of communication which grows

spontaneously out of personal or social needs, among members of the
organization, called as grapevine or informal communication. It is a secondary
network of information in an organisation, which can be:

o Single strand chain

o Gossip chain

o Probability chain

o Cluster chain

Informal communication is the fastest form of communication, that rapidly

transmits information to various members of the organisation. Further, the
response of the members can also be obtained quickly.

MODES OF COMMUNICATION
● Verbal Communication: Communication, in which words (spoken or written)
are used to transmit information is called verbal communication. It can be done
in two ways:

o Oral communication: E.g. Face to face conversation, telephonic conversation,

lectures, speeches, conferences, etc.

o Written communication: E.g. Letters, emails, newsletters, SMS, etc.

● Non-verbal Communication: The communication between parties in which

words are not used as a means for interchanging message, i.e. except words,
other means are used like sounds, symbols, actions and expressions.
Communication takes place non-verbally through:

o Body language, E.g. Gestures, postures, body movements, etc.

o Paralanguage, E.g. Pitch variation, tone, speaking speed, word stress, etc.

o Sign language E.g. Hand movement, facial expressions, etc.

o Time language E.g. time used to communicate our message.

o Space language, E.g. Space maintained between the parties to communication,

during the conversation.

Communication is the spine of the organization

that without it no organisation can survive and operate effectively, towards

attaining its goals. It is the primary means, by which organisational members
work together. Further, it ties all the members of an organisation in a single
thread and let them respond to and influence each other.

NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION

Definition: The Non-Verbal Communication is the process of conveying

meaning without the use of words either written or spoken. In other words, any
communication made between two or more persons through the use of facial
expressions, hand movements, body language, postures, and gestures is called
as non-verbal communication.

The Non-Verbal Communication, unlike the verbal communication, helps in

establishing and maintaining the interpersonal relationships while the verbals
only help in communicating the external events. People use non-verbals to
express emotions and interpersonal attitudes, conduct rituals such as greetings
and bring forward one’s personality.

The non-verbal communication in the form of signals, expressions add meaning

over the verbals and help people to communicate more efficiently. It
supplements whatever is said in words, such as people nod to acknowledge and
move their hands to give directions.

The non-verbal communication defines the distance between the communicators

and helps them to exchange their emotional state of mind. Also, it regulates the
flow of communication, for example, an individual can give signals to convey
that he had finished speaking or else he wants to speak.

Sometimes, the non-verbals acts as a barrier to communicating effectively as the

recipient could not understand what the sender is trying to say and may interpret
it wrongly.

General principles of nonverbal communication –

1. Nonverbal communication is multichannel.

2. Nonverbal communication is ambiguous.
3. Nonverbal communications convey emotions
4. Nonverbal communication may contradict verbal communication.
 5. Nonverbal communication is culture bound.

ELEMENTS OF NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION

Nonverbal communication involves numerous elements, such as gestures,

intonation, proximity, volume, word choice, eye contact and many others.
Andrews University says that nonverbal messages serve to repeat, accent,
complement, regulate or substitute for a verbal message. Different
cultures rely on disparate systems of nonverbal communication, making
misunderstandings and faux pas common.

Facial Expressions

The facial expressions you use during communication affect how the listener
interprets your meaning. Extreme facial expressions, such as those that indicate
anger or happiness, indicate that you have obvious feelings about your subject
matter. Less obvious facial expressions, such as raising one eyebrow slightly or
scrunching your face, may impart a variety of meanings, depending on context.
For example, if you scrunch your face during a conversation, the other person
might think you find something displeasing about the subject matter. If you
scrunch your face when there is no conversation going on, an observer might
think you are displeased about something nearby, such as a smell.

Body Posture

How and where you stand is an important element of nonverbal communication.

For example, leaning toward a speaker indicates intense interest. Frequently
looking away from the speaker indicates disinterest or impatience. The meaning
of different body stances and positions varies among cultures, according to
Andrews University. For example, in Thailand, showing someone the soles of
your feet are offensive. Slouching or hunching over is disrespectful in Northern
European cultures. In Turkey, putting your hands in your pockets is rude.

Gestures

Every culture has hand movements and gestures that convey specific meanings,
according to Andrews University. Some hand movements are innocuous in one
culture but aggressive or insulting in another. For example, people in some
cultures, such as the United States, use their index fingers to point. But in many
Asian cultures, pointing with the fingers is rude.

Paralanguage

Paralanguage is the culture-specific stylistic element that people use while

speaking. Andrews University breaks paralanguage down into three groups:
vocal characterizers, vocal qualifiers and vocal segregates. Vocal characterizers
include things like yawning, laughing, crying and moaning, which convey
meanings to an audience. Vocal qualifiers include such elements as tone, tempo,
rhythm, pitch and volume. For example, speaking rapidly and in a high pitch
indicates excitement in many cultures. Vocal segregates include such sounds as
“uh-uh” or “mmmm,” noises which convey messages about internal feelings,
such as dissent or pleasure.

Posture & Nonverbal Communication

What you say is more than the words that come out of your mouth.
Posture and how you move your body are important elements of
nonverbal communication, which can affect how you are perceived by
others. The HelpGuide.org article "Nonverbal Communication" notes that
body language may reveal even more about a person than verbal
 communication does. Being aware of your posture can help you make the
right impression in many areas of your life.

Open Posture

Closed Posture

TYPES OF LISTENING SKILLS

Empathic Listening

Empathic listening, more than any other listening skill, is focused on the needs
of the speaker. When you listen with empathy, you let the speaker know you
care about her. Without passing judgment or offering advice, the empathic
listener encourages the speaker -- through body language and subtle cues -- to
tell his story or state his grievances. The purpose of empathic listening is to
allow another person to release emotions.

Critical Listening

Unlike empathic listening, which is non-judgmental, critical listening involves

judgment. During critical listening, a listener takes into consideration the
possible motives of the speaker and the context, as well as the words. When a
salesman points out the qualities of an item, a critical listener analyses the
speaker's words and the situation and makes judgments about the speaker's
truthfulness or sincerity, as well as the usefulness of the item to the listener.

Active Listening

Active listening is aptly described by the Chinese picture symbol for "listen."
On the left is the symbol for ear, and on the right are symbols for eyes, paying
attention and heart. Both empathic and critical listening skills are used during
active listening, and even silence is an important part of active listening,
according to the article "Active Listening" on the U.S. Department of State
website. By withholding judgments, solutions or advice, the active listener
sometimes simply waits and uses non-verbal language to let the speaker know
that he is paying attention. Unlike empathic listening, active listening involves
asking questions and seeking to understand the other person's meaning. Like
critical listening, active listening analyses the speaker's words for intent.

Listening for Enjoyment

Listening for enjoyment involves attending to sounds for pleasure. Through

enjoyment listening people are entertained and emotionally and physically
affected as pleasure centers in the brain are activated. Paying attention to music
is one of the most popular forms of enjoyment listening. Listening to sports
broadcasts, comedians or poetry readings are other examples of listening for
pleasure.

Barriers in Communication

Barriers of Communication: This far we have seen what we mean by the

process of communication. But, at times even after taking care of every
other detail some misunderstandings arise. So, to eliminate these
misunderstandings, we have to understand the most common barriers
to effective communication.
The process of communication has multiple barriers. The intended
communique will often be disturbed and distorted leading to a condition
of misunderstanding and failure of communication. The Barriers to
effective communication could be of many types like linguistic,
psychological, emotional, physical, and cultural etc. We will see all of
these types in detail below.
Linguistic Barriers

The language barrier is one of the main barriers that limit effective
communication. Language is the most commonly employed tool of
communication. The fact that each major region has its own language is one of
the Barriers to effective communication. Sometimes even a thick dialect may
render the communication ineffective.

As per some estimates, the dialects of every two regions changes within a few
kilometers. Even in the same workplace, different employees will have different
linguistic skills. As a result, the communication channels that span across
the organization would be affected by this.

Thus keeping this barrier in mind, different considerations have to be made for
different employees. Some of them are very proficient in a certain language and
others will be ok with these languages.

Psychological Barriers

There are various mental and psychological issues that may be barriers to
effective communication. Some people have stage fear, speech disorders,
phobia, depression etc. All of these conditions are very difficult to manage
sometimes and will most certainly limit the ease of communication.

Emotional Barriers

The emotional IQ of a person determines the ease and comfort with which they
can communicate. A person who is emotionally mature will be able to
communicate effectively. On the other hand, people who let their emotions take
over will face certain difficulties.
A perfect mixture of emotions and facts is necessary for effective
communication. Emotions like anger, frustration, humour, can blur the decision-
making capacities of a person and thus limit the effectiveness of their
communication.

Physical Barriers to Communication

They are the most obvious barriers to effective communication. These barriers
are mostly easily removable in principle at least. They include barriers like
noise, closed doors, faulty equipment used for communication, closed cabins,
etc. Sometimes, in a large office, the physical separation between
various employees combined with faulty equipment may result in severe
barriers to effective communication.

Cultural Barriers of Communication

As the world is getting more and more globalized, any large office may have
people from several parts of the world. Different cultures have a different
meaning for several basic values of society. Dressing, Religions or lack of them,
food, drinks, pets, and the general behaviour will change drastically from one
culture to another.

Hence it is a must that we must take these different cultures into account while
communication. This is what we call being culturally appropriate. In many
multinational companies, special courses are offered at the orientation stages
that let people know about other cultures and how to be courteous and tolerant
of others.
Organisational Structure Barriers

As we saw there are many methods of communication at an organizational

level. Each of these methods has its own problems and constraints that may
become barriers to effective communication. Most of these barriers arise
because of misinformation or lack of appropriate transparency available to the
employees.

Attitude Barriers

Certain people like to be left alone. They are the introverts or just people who
are not very social. Others like to be social or sometimes extra clingy! Both
these cases could become a barrier to communication. Some people have
attitude issues, like huge ego and inconsiderate behaviours.

These employees can cause severe strains in the communication channels that
they are present in. Certain personality traits like shyness, anger, social anxiety
may be removable through courses and proper training. However, problems like
egocentric behaviour and selfishness may not be correctable.

Perception Barriers

Different people perceive the same things differently. This is a fact which we
must consider during the communication process. Knowledge of the perception
levels of the audience is crucial to effective communication. All the messages or
communique must be easy and clear. There shouldn’t be any room for a
diversified interpretational set.

Physiological Barriers

Certain disorders or diseases or other limitations could also prevent effective

communication between the various channels of an organization. The shrillness
of voice, dyslexia, etc are some examples of physiological barriers to effective
communication. However, these are not crucial because they can easily be
compensated and removed.

Technological Barriers & Socio-religious Barriers

Other barriers include the technological barriers. The technology is developing

fast and as a result, it becomes difficult to keep up with the newest
developments. Hence sometimes the technological advance may become a
barrier. In addition to this, the cost of technology is sometimes very high.

Most of the organizations will not be able to afford a decent tech for the
purpose of communication. Hence, this becomes a very crucial barrier. Other
barriers are socio-religious barriers. In a patriarchal society, a woman or a
transgender may face many difficulties and barriers while communicating.

ASSERTIVE COMMUNICATION is a style in which individuals clearly

state their opinions and feelings, and firmly advocate for their rights and needs
without violating the rights of others. These individuals value themselves, their
time, and their emotional, spiritual, and physical needs and are strong advocates
for themselves while being very respectful of the rights of others.

Assertive communicators will:

♣ state needs and wants clearly, appropriately, and respectfully

♣ express feelings clearly, appropriately, and respectfully
♣ use “I” statements
♣ communicate respect for others
♣ listen well without interrupting
♣ feel in control of self
♣ have good eye contact
♣ speak in a calm and clear tone of voice
♣ have a relaxed body posture
♣ feel connected to others
♣ feel competent and in control
♣ not allow others to abuse or manipulate them
♣ stand up for their rights

The impact of a pattern of assertive communication is that these

individuals:
♣ feel connected to others
♣ feel in control of their lives
♣ are able to mature because they address issues and problems as they
arise
♣ create a respectful environment for others to grow and mature

The assertive communicator will say, believe, or behave in a way that

says:

♣ “We are equally entitled to express ourselves respectfully to one

another.”
♣ “I am confident about who I am.”
♣ “I realize I have choices in my life and I consider my options.”
♣ “I speak clearly, honestly, and to the point.”
♣ “I can’t control others but I can control myself.”
♣ “I place a high priority on having my rights respected.”
♣ “I am responsible for getting my needs met in a respectful manner.”
 ♣ “I respect the rights of others.”
♣ “Nobody owes me anything unless they’ve agreed to give it to me.”
♣ “I’m 100% responsible for my own happiness.”
Assertiveness allows us to take care of ourselves, and is fundamental for
good mental health and healthy relationships.

Definitions

Prejudice is an attitude that one has based mostly on opinions and stereotypes
rather than facts and evidence. Although prejudice is a noun, and not a verb,
prejudiced behavior is often influenced by bias. Once the switch is made from
"thought/feeling" to "action," discrimination has occurred. Psychology
definition experts hold that prejudice involves three main things:

● Negative feelings
● Stereotyped beliefs
● A tendency to discriminate against a stereotyped group

Prejudice: Psychology Definition

The word prejudice is of Latin origin. The prefix ‘pre’ means ‘before,’ while
‘judice’ stems from the same root as ‘judged.’ Although we usually link
prejudice with negative feelings like bigotry or racism, there many other types
of social bias, including:

● Sexism: stereotyping based on gender.

 ● Religious prejudice: disliking a person/group solely based on their
religious beliefs.
● Ageism: bias based on one's age.
● Classism: prejudice against those of a certain social class.
● Homophobia: stereotyping people based on their LGBTQ+ sexual
preference
● Xenophobia: prejudice against those from other countries.

When exhibiting prejudice, people tend to paint everyone in a group with the
same brush. In other words, everyone who fits in a specific category are
considered the same. Although we use the terms interchangeably, there is a
subtle difference between the prejudice psychology definition and that of a
stereotype.

Stereotypes are over-exaggerations that aren't always true but have some merit
based on experience. Stereotypes can be positive (for example, most people
assume that all Asians are good at math). Prejudices, on the other hand, are
almost always negative and aren't based on reason or experience. They often are
supported by a belief that certain people or groups have lesser worth or abilities.

Causes of prejudice

1. Cognitive distortions and expectation

2. The authoritarian personality
3. Competition between groups
4. Threat to social identity

CHARACTERISTICS OF PREJUDICE

Psychologists have identified following characteristics of prejudice:

 1. Prejudice is acquired: Like attitude prejudice is acquired through the
process of learning and socialisation. When born a child is like a blank
slate and is free of any kind of prejudice. It is only when the process of
socialisation begins that he starts imitating his parents and their likes and
dislikes. Norms, values, customs, and traditions of the society of which
he is member make him prejudiced toward members of other group.
Acquisition of prejudice is facilitated by classical conditioning,
instrumental and observational learning. A child learns to hate Pakistanis
only because he sees significant others in the society hating pakistanis.
2. Emotional overtones: Prejudice is always colored with emotions. It is
either for or against some group, community or religion. If favourable,
the person would show too much affection, love, care and sympathy for
members of another group. But if unfavourable the person would show
hatred, dislike and hostility. Prejudice is irrational: Prejudice does not
lend itself to reason, wisdom, and relevance. The individual does not
change his prejudice in the face of information and evidence to the
contrary.
3. Prejudice is functional: Prejudice helps the individual justify his
hostilities, repressed desires and strengthen feelings of self-esteem and
prestige. It helps individual justify his exploitation, discrimination of
members of other group. For example, in Indian society the upper caste
Hindus justified their exploitation of lower castes reasoning that they are
like that only and deserve to be exploited and discriminated against.
4. Prejudice has no connection with reality: It is primarily based on hearsay,
incomplete and wrong information, customs and traditions of the society.
It can’t stand test of logic and reasoning.

TYPES OF PREJUDICE
Prejudices are of different types depending upon the social conditions of the
individual. Sociologist and Psychologists delineate following main types of
prejudices:

Racial prejudice: This is aimed at members of another race. For example,

Negros have been subject of racial prejudice at the hand of whites. Similarly,
Jews were a target of prejudice by Nazis in Germany. Hitler went to the extent
of exterminating at mass scale.

Sex prejudice: This is for centuries women have been target of prejudice. They
have been thought of weak, dependent and intellectually less gifted than men.

Caste prejudice: Indian social structure is the best example of such prejudice.
Our society is divided into numerous castes and each caste is believed to have
specific characteristics. This is often evident when we go to different parts of
India. Prejudice and Discriminaion Particularly in South India it is very
evident. People despise Hindi knowing fully well that it is our national
language. They prefer to speak English but not Hindi even if they know Hindi.
Infact organisation of states in India has been on linguistic basis.

Religious prejudice: This has been a burning problem in India since pre
independence days. Creation of Pakistan was only because of religious
differences. In religious prejudice individual holds positive attitude toward his
own religion and unfavourable attitude toward other religion. Consequently,
misunderstandings and misconceptions about people of other religions crop up.

DISCRIMINATION

Discrimination is the differential treatment of individuals belonging to a

particular social group or community or religion. It is generally the overt or
behavioural expression of prejudice.
Generally the person discriminated is denied some privilege or right that is
accorded to other members of society who do not belong to the minority group.

According to the exchange theory when the reward-cost outcomes of two

separately bounded groups are perceived to be mutually exclusive, so that each
group can increase its gains only at the cost of other, members of each group try
to protect or increase their outcomes.

If the two groups are unequal in power, they will establish different outcomes
unless prevented by norms that restrain exploitation of the weaker by the more
powerful. These different outcomes create differences in the status of the two
groups.

The extent to which the members of the minority group feel discriminated
against and dislike or feel hostile toward the majority group is a function of the
relation between their comparison level and that of the majority group. If the
minority group has the same comparison level as the majority group, it will feel
dissatisfied and hostile. But if comparison is sufficiently low relative to majority
group no adverse feelings would occur.

However, ‘minority groups’ use of comparison level relative to majority group

depends upon past experiences, the outcomes available in alternative relations,
and structural and cultural factors. For example, in Indian society lower caste
people were not allowed to take water from wells reserved for people of upper
castes. They were not supposed to sit before people of upper castes and there
were many more restrictions imposed upon them simply because they were born
in shudra castes.

Sometimes discrimination occurs without the accompanying feeling of

prejudice. For example, a proprietor may refuse to accept as patrons members of
a minority group because he feels it would injure his business. He may not be
prejudiced towards those people but he gives priority to his business.
DEVELOPMENT AND MAINTENANCE OF PREJUDICE AND
DISCRIMINATION

Psychologists have categorised the causal and maintenance factors of prejudice

as given below:

1. Status and Power structures: The structure of relations between

two groups in terms of relative status and power sometimes gives
rise to prejudice. For example, where a dominant group holds
another group in a condition of slavery, slaves are likely to be
considered lazy, irresponsible, and lacking in initiative. These
beliefs emerge from the fact that slaves act upon orders from their
masters and not given an opportunity to demonstrate initiative or
responsibility. Thus, the beliefs about them are consonant with
their behaviour, which is controlled by structure of relations.
2. Historical facts: Prejudice and discrimination develop out of
history of economic conflict as well as from political power
distribution among groups of people . Historical incidents led to the
development of attitude which slowly takes form of prejudice. In
our society prejudice against women is one such example. Women
have always been considered weak, dependant and tools such
prejudice developed out of atrocities perpetrated over women and
they kept tolerating them thinking it to be their duty. Similarly,
some professions have historically been thought to be fit for
men than women. For example, truck driving has never been
considered fit for women, Women in this profession and other such
professions are looked down upon. Another example of historical
 reason of prejudice comes from prejudice against Jews. An image
of Jews as rich, grasping, and shrewd grew out of their
occupational roles as money lenders. The church prohibited
Christians from lending money at interest, but did permit them to
borrow from Jews. Thus the jews Prejudice and Discriminaion
became bankers when this occupation was extremely profitable,
and the cognitive image commensurate with the role became firmly
established. Besides competitive circumstances produced negative
effect against Jews.
3. Situational Factors: The number of situational factors in the
immediate environment of the individual also lead to development
of prejudice: Social learning: Every individual during the process
of socialisation learns and acquires beliefs, values and attitudes
through parents, school, religion and church. These agents of
socialisation invariably transmit prejudices held by them to the
child. Besides childrearing practices adopted by parents have been
shown to help develop prejudice and discrimination.
4. Job Competition: Scarcity of job avenues and abundance of
applicants is one important economic factor for development of
prejudice. It led to the emergence of sons of soil theory. For
example, the Marathi movement against North Indians in Mumbai
and other parts of Maharashtra has one of its reasons based in
economic factors. North Indians coming to Mumbai are ready to
work for longer hours and that too at cheaper wages as against
Local people. They have gradually outplace local people in patty
and traditional jobs thus rendering many of people jobless and
fending for struggle to survive. It has led them to believe that north
Indians are responsible for their plight and are replacing them in
 their own home. Such beliefs lead to development prejudice
against North Indians.
5. Conformity to Norms: Once prejudice and discrimination against
outgroup are well established, the accompanying cognitions and
feelings concerning the out group acquire a normative quality.
They are shared by members of the in group and the members
expect each other to hold such attitudes. The factors underlying
conformity to the norms of prejudice may be explained in terms of
the varying reward-cost outcomes ensuing from conformity or
nonconformity. If prejudice and discrimination against other group
is the norm, then overt expression of prejudice and discrimination
will receive approval from other members of the group.
6. Interaction Patterns: Prejudice and discrimination create certain
interaction patterns that contribute to maintenance of the status
quo. Several interaction patterns
increase cohesion and thus strengthen the power of the group to
enforce conformity to norms of prejudice and discrimination. Any
factor that makes members more dependent on the group is likely
to increase cohesion. Interaction pattern within the ingroup may
also increase the economic dependence of members upon each
other. Finally, if interaction within each group predominates over
interaction across group lines, the development of patterns of
thinking, feeling and behaving unique to each group is fostered.
Such interaction patterns increase the cultural gulf that separates
the two group.
7. Psychodynamic factors: Researches reveal that a number of
psychological factors also give rise to prejudice.
a) Frustration and Aggression: Frustration also gives rise to
prejudice. The underlying theory in it is displaced aggression.
 According to this theory when individual finds some obstacle
between him and his goal he gets frustrated and becomes
aggressive toward the obstacle. Since the interfering agent is
stronger and powerful and has the power to punish him this
frustration and aggression is displaced toward some weaker object.
Thus, the weak person or group becomes scapegoat.
8. Authoritarian Personality: Among psychological factors of
prejudice authoritarian personality has received much attention
from psychologists. People with authoritarian personality exhibit
rigid thinking, punitive tendency. These tendencies predispose
individual toward prejudice. Besides these people value people on
the scale of power, people above them in the power scale are
attributed all good characteristics, and people below them on
power scale are treated as inferior and deserve to be exploited and
hated.
9. Personality needs: A variety of personality needs may support
prejudice and discrimination. One such need is “intolerance for
ambiguity”. Persons differ in the extent to which they are disturbed
by confusing or ambiguous situations. Some persons like to have
everything in black and white i.e. they are unable to tolerate least
uncertainty or complexity in situation while some persons are least
disturbed by confusing or uncertain situations. In general it has
been found that individuals who are more intolerant of ambiguity
are also likely to be more prejudiced because prejudice for them
serves to clarify ambiguity and uncertainty embedded in the
situation. Similarly, a need to achieve superior status may be
supported by prejudice, which provides a group of persons lower in
status than oneself. The need for security may be satisfied through
rejection of outgroup.
MANIFESTATION OF PREJUDICE

As we know that a prejudice is a negative attitude directed toward some

member of a particular group. An attitude is a hypothetical construct observable
only through the behaviour of a person.

A prejudice manifests itself through the following modes of behaviour:

1. Withdrawal: It means moving from the object of prejudice. For example,

a person is prejudiced against jews. He goes to a party and finds that
some jews have been invited to that party. Now instead of making jews
leave that party he decides to move away from that party.
2. Avoidance: Keeping away from the social situation where the object of
prejudice may be present. For example, the person who is prejudiced
against jews and hates them, comes to know before-hand that some of the
invitees at the party are jews. In that condition he may decide to not to
join that party. Thus he is able to avoid a situation where he might have to
interact with object of prejudice.
3. Discrimination: It involves biased behaviour against the object person of
prejudice. For example, a teacher who is prejudiced against a particular
community may fail students belonging to that community. He may not
select students of particular community for school team, although the
students in question deserve and merit selection against all criteria.
4. Lynching: It involves behaviour aimed at causing physical hurt or injury
to the object person of prejudice. For example, the teacher in above
example may go to the extent of subjecting students of a particular
community to physical punishment without any reasonable ground.
5. Extermination: It is an extreme form of manifestation of prejudice. It is
aimed at removing the existence of the object person of prejudice. For
example, in the Second World War, Hitler, the then Chancellor of
Germany, ordered mass extermination of jews. Millions of Jews were
 massacred at the orders of Hitler. Hitler believed himself to be Aryan and
he aimed to cleanse Germany of NonAryans.

METHODS OF REDUCING PREJUDICE AND DISCRIMINATION

Social psychologists have suggested a number of methods for reducing

prejudice which as follow:

1. Intergroup Contact: Allport was the first psychologist to realise the

importance of intergroup contact in between prejudiced person and the
target person. Such interactional situations provide the two parties an
opportunity to know each other from close quarters and understand each
other thereby reducing misunderstandings and misconceptions. However,
for intergroup contact to be effective certain conditions are to be met.
Intergroup contact is an effective method of reducing prejudice only
in those conditions where both the parties have equal status. For this
technique to be effective contact between the prejudiced person and target
person ought to be intimate and not superficial. Intimate and honest
contact between the concerned parties motivates the person to perceive
members of target group more as humans than as stereotypes.
Intergroup contact method is more successful in situations where the
success of both parties is dependent on each other i.e. when a common
goal is to be achieved. In such situation both parties are forced to
understand each other in a better manner.
2. Education: Social psychologists emphasise that appropriate education has
important role to play in reduction of prejudice, particularly racial
prejudice. In it both informal and formal education are important. As far
as informal education is concerned parents ought to be encouraged not to
indulge before children in things which knowingly or unknowingly
promote prejudice. As for formal education, its syllabus and curriculum
should be designed to promote harmony between different sections of
 society. It should aim at developing healthy minds. It has been found that
higher and better formal education leads to decreased prejudice and
increased liberalism. Recently, psychologists have devised a new method
called cultural assimilator. In this method a group of prejudice persons is
explained about traditions, norms, beliefs and value system of people of
other communities and races so that they can appreciate those
communities and races in the light of recent information. A number of
social psychologists have successfully used this method.
3. Antiprejudice propaganda: Through mass media it has also been helpful
in reducing prejudice. In one of the studies it was found that films and
documentaries aimed at reducing prejudice have been successful in
reducing prejudice upto 60 percent. Some other psychologists have
reported antiprejudice propaganda to be more effective than formal
education.
4. Incongruent role: It has been found that when a person is made to play a
role contrary to his prejudice it leads to reduction in prejudice after some
time. It happens because playing such role creates dissonance in the
individual. This dissonance gives rise to tension compelling the
individual to change his prejudice and restore balance between his
behaviour and attitude. The person can’t change Prejudice and
Discriminaion his behaviour as it is public but his prejudice. For example,
if a person prejudiced against a particular community is entrusted the task
of welfare of that community, he is left with no alternative but change his
prejudice because he is not able to change his role.
5. Social legislation: This is another method of reducing prejudice.
Government in different countries have adopted and enacted several
legislations which prohibit expression of prejudice in any form. Any
public manifestation of prejudice is unlawful and liable to punishment.
Let us take the example of our own country. Our constitution states that
 state shall not make any discrimination on the basis of caste, creed, sex,
and religion of the individual and no person shall be allowed to do so.
Consequently, today we don’t mind a harijan sitting beside us and
offering prayer in the temple. Government even encourages people for
intercaste marriages. Persons belonging to deprived communities or
castes have been provided reservation in jobs.
6. Personality change techniques: This is for prejudice reduction to be
effective a person must have balanced personality and open mind.
However in cases where prejudice is an integral part of personality it
becomes imperative to seek help of therapeutic treatment. A number of
psychotherapies have been developed to help such persons. For example,
Play therapy is an important tool for detecting prejudice at early stage and
to bring reformation in personality of children

FORM IMPRESSIONS ABOUT OTHERS.

The process of forming impressions typically involves several stages:

1. Perception: Perception is the initial stage in which individuals observe and

interpret information about others through sensory cues such as appearance,
behavior, and verbal communication. This includes observing physical
attributes (e.g., facial features, body language), vocal cues (e.g., tone of voice,
speech patterns), and contextual factors (e.g., social setting, cultural norms).

2. Categorization: Once individuals perceive relevant information, they

categorize others into social categories or schemas based on similarities and
differences. These categories may include demographic characteristics (e.g.,
age, gender, race), social roles (e.g., occupation, status), and personality traits
(e.g., outgoing, shy, trustworthy).
3. Attribution: Attribution involves making inferences about the causes of
others' behavior, thoughts, and feelings. Individuals may attribute behavior to
internal factors (e.g., personality traits, intentions) or external factors (e.g.,
situational constraints, environmental influences). This process helps
individuals make sense of others' actions and predict future behavior.

4. Evaluation: Individuals evaluate the information they have gathered about

others based on personal values, beliefs, and social norms. This evaluation may
involve forming judgments about others' competence, likability, trustworthiness,
attractiveness, and compatibility with one's own values and goals.

5. Integration: Finally, individuals integrate their perceptions, categorizations,

attributions, and evaluations to form a coherent and multifaceted impression of
the other person. This impression may be influenced by cognitive biases (e.g.,
halo effect, confirmation bias), emotional responses (e.g., empathy, sympathy),
and social context (e.g., group dynamics, cultural norms).

The impact of Social Pressure

1. Conformity: Conformity is the tendency for individuals to adjust their

attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors to align with those of a majority group or social
norms. This phenomenon, studied extensively by social psychologists such as
Solomon Asch, highlights the powerful influence of social pressure on shaping
individual behavior, even in situations where individuals may privately disagree
with the group's consensus.

2. Compliance: Compliance refers to the tendency for individuals to acquiesce

to direct requests or commands from others, particularly authority figures or
social influencers. Research by psychologists like Stanley Milgram has
demonstrated the extent to which individuals may obey authority figures, even
when it involves behaviors that conflict with their moral principles or personal
values.

3. Obedience: Obedience involves following orders or instructions from

authority figures, often without question or resistance. The Milgram
experiments famously illustrated the willingness of participants to administer
potentially harmful electric shocks to others under the guise of a scientific
study, highlighting the powerful impact of social pressure and obedience to
authority.

4. Social Norms: Social norms are unwritten rules and expectations that govern
acceptable behavior within a particular group or society. These norms dictate
how individuals should dress, speak, behave, and interact with others, and
violating them can result in social sanctions or ostracism. The desire to conform
to social norms can exert significant pressure on individuals to adhere to
societal standards and expectations.

5. Group Influence: Group dynamics, such as peer pressure and groupthink,

play a significant role in shaping individual behavior and decision-making. Peer
pressure refers to the influence exerted by peers or social groups to conform to
their attitudes, values, and behaviors. Groupthink occurs when group cohesion
and the desire for unanimity override critical thinking and independent
judgment, leading to flawed decision-making processes.

6. Cultural Influences: Cultural norms and values shape social pressure in

diverse ways, influencing individual behaviors, roles, and expectations within
different cultural contexts. Cultural variations in collectivism, individualism,
power distance, and uncertainty avoidance can influence the extent to which
individuals conform to social norms and respond to social pressure.