The Civilizations of Ancient India

THE CIVILIZATIONS OF ANCIENT INDIA
(Taken from: http://antropos.galeon.com/html/india.htm )

The roots of Indian civilization go back in time to prehistory. The first human activity on the Indian subcontinent can be found in the Early, Middle and Late Stone Age
(400,000 - 200,000 BC). Utensils from all three of these periods have been found in Rajasthan, Gurajat, Bihar, some parts of what is now Pakistan, and in the
southern tip of the Indian Peninsula. These Paleolithic peoples were semi-nomadic hunters and gatherers for many millennia. There were five major races when the
shift to an agricultural lifestyle took place in the middle of the 9th millennium BC. These were the Negrito race, the Proto-Australoid, the Mediterranean race, the
Mongoloids and the Alpine people. The earliest evidence of agricultural settlement on the western plains of the Indus is roughly contemporaneous with similar
developments in Egypt, Mesopotamia and Persia. These settlements gradually grew and the inhabitants began to use copper and bronze, domesticated animals,
made clay vessels and began trading activities.
1. The Indus Valley Civilization
Settlements
From the beginning of the fourth millennium BC, the individuality of the first village cultures began to be replaced by a more homogeneous style of existence. By the
middle of the third millennium, a uniform culture had developed in settlements spread over nearly 500,000 square miles (800,000 km2) that included parts of Punjab,
Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat, Balochistan, Sind, and the Makra coast.
The first known Indian civilization, the starting point of its history, dates back to around 3,000 BC. Discovered in the 1920s, it was thought to be limited to the Indus
River Valley, hence the name given to it was the Indus Valley Civilization. This was a civilization with high urban development and two of its towns, Mohenjodaro and
Harappa, represent the highest level of these settlements. Later archaeological excavations established that the contours of this civilization were not restricted to the
Indus Valley, but expanded to a wider area in northwestern and western India. Hence this civilization is now better known as the Harappan civilization. Mohenjodaro
and Harappa are now in Pakistan and major sites in India include Ropar in Punjab, Lothal in Gujarat and Kalibangan in Rajasthan.
Urban Development
The emergence of this civilization is as important as its stability for nearly a thousand years. All cities were well planned and built with baked bricks of the same size.
The streets were laid out at right angles with an elaborate covered sewer system. There was a fairly clear division of the localities and the houses were intended for
the highest or lowest layers of society. There were also public buildings, the most famous of which are the Great Bath at Mohenjodaro and the spacious granaries. In
addition, production of various metals such as copper, bronze, lead and tin was carried out and some remnants of the furnaces testify to this fact. The discovery of
brick-making kilns supports the fact that baked bricks were widely used in the construction of domestic and public buildings.
Activities
Evidence also points to the use of domesticated animals, including camels, goats, water buffaloes, and birds. The Harappians grew wheat, barley, peas, sesame and
were probably the first to harvest and make cloth from cotton. Trade appeared to be one of the main activities in the Indus Valley and the number of seals discovered
suggests that each merchant or merchant family had their own seal. These seals appear in various quadrangular shapes and sizes, each with a human or animal
figure engraved on them. The discoveries suggest that the Harappense civilization had an extensive trading relationship with neighboring civilizations in India and
other distant lands in the Persian Gulf and Sumeria (Iraq).
Society and Religion

Harappense society was probably divided according to occupations, and this also suggests the existence of an organized government. The figures of the deities on
the seals indicate that the Harappians worshiped gods and goddesses in male and female forms and have already developed some rituals and ceremonies. No
monumental sculpture has survived, but a large number of human figurines have been discovered, including a soapstone bust of a man thought to be a priest, and a
striking bronze dancer. Countless statues of the Mother Goddess made of terracotta have been discovered, suggesting that she was idolized in almost every home.
Already around 1,700 BC, the Harappense culture was in decline due to repeated flooding of the towns that were located on the banks of the river and also due to
ecological changes that forced agriculture to surrender to the expansion of the desert. Some historians do not rule out invasions by barbarian tribes from the
northwest as the cause of the decline of Harappian civilization. When the migrations of the Aryan people to India began, around 1,500 BC, the developed
Harappense culture was already practically extinct.
2. The Aryans and the Vedic Age

It is said that the Aryans entered India through the legendary Khyber Pass, around 1,500 BC. They intermingled with the local population and
inserted themselves into the social framework. They adopted the agricultural lifestyle of their predecessors, and established small agrarian
communities throughout the state of Punjab.
It is believed that the Aryans brought the horse with them, developed the Sanskrit language and made significant inroads into the religion of
those times. These three factors were to play a fundamental role in the formation of Indian culture. Cavalry warfare facilitated the rapid
expansion of Aryan culture across Northern India and allowed for the rise of great empires. Sanskrit is the basis and unifying factor of the vast majority of Indian
languages. The religion, which took root during the Vedic era, with its rich pantheon of Gods and Goddesses and its
storehouse of myths and legends, became the foundation of the Hindu religion, undoubtedly the most important
common denominator of Indian culture. The Aryans did not have writing but developed a rich tradition. They composed
the hymns of the four Vedas, the great philosophical poems that are the heart of Hindu thought. As Nobel Laureate
Rabindranath Tagore put it, "Hymns are a poetic testament to the collective reaction of a people to the wonder and fear
of existence...A people of vigorous and unsophisticated imagination awoke at the very dawn of civilization, to a sense
of inexhaustible mystery that is implicit in life."
An entrenched lifestyle brought in its wake more complex forms of government and social patterns. This period saw the evolution of the caste system and the rise of
kingdoms and republics. The events described in the two great Indian epics, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, are thought to have occurred around this period
(1,000 to 800 BC). The Aryans were divided into tribes that had settled in different regions of northwestern India. Tribal leadership gradually became hereditary,
although the chief usually operated with the help of the councils of a committee or the entire tribe. With the specialization of labor, the internal division of Aryan
society developed along caste lines. Their social framework was fundamentally composed of the following groups: the Brahmins (priests), the Kshatriya (warriors),
the Vaishya (farmers) and the Shudras (workers). This was in its beginnings a division by occupations and as such was open and flexible. Much later, caste status
and corresponding occupation came to depend on birth, and change from one caste or occupation to another became much more difficult.
3. Rise of Religions and Emergence of the State

Buddhism and Jainism
The 6th century BC was a time of social and intellectual upheaval in India. It was then that Mahavira founded the Jain religion and Gautam Buddha attained
enlightenment. The two great religions, Jainism and Buddhism, preached non-violence to all living creatures, tolerance and self-discipline, values that have become
the cornerstone of Indian ethics. The teachings of
These faiths immediately gained popular acceptance due to their simplicity and practicability; The sermons of both religions were preached in the commonly spoken
languages. Later, Buddhist monks spread their religion southwards to Sri Lanka and northwestwards to China, Japan, Korea and all of Southeast Asia where it is
practiced to this day.
Ascension of the State
With private ownership of land and the division of society on the basis of occupations and castes, the emergence of conflicts and disorders
was more common. Therefore, an organized power emerged to solve these problems, which gradually led to the formation of mature state
systems, including vast empires.
The Mauryan Empire

By the end of the 3rd century BC, most of North India was united by Chandragupta Maurya, who formed the first great Indian empire. His
son Bindusara extended the Mauryan empire over virtually the entire sub-continent, giving rise to an imperial vision that was to dominate
successive centuries of political aspirations. The greatest Mauryan emperor was Ashoka the Great (286 - 231 BC), whose successful
campaigns culminated in the annexation of Kalinga (present-day Orissa). Overcome by the horrors of war, he was probably the first
victorious ruler to renounce war on the battlefield. Ashoka converted to Buddhism, but did not impose his faith on his subjects. Instead, he
tried to convert them through edicts inscribed on rocks in local dialects, using the more ancient post-Harappan script known as Brahmi. The Mauryan economy was
essentially agricultural. The state owned enormous estates that were cultivated by slaves and farmers. The other major sources of income during this era were the
collection of taxes on land, trade, and the manufacture of artisanal objects.
In 327 BC, Alexander of Macedonia crossed into northwestern India. He conquered a large portion of Indian territory before his war-weary generals forced him to
return home. Alexander left behind him Greek governors to govern the Indian territories he had conquered. But over time these regions passed to the Indian states
through conflicts and slow absorption. However, the contact between the two cultures left a more enduring impact on Indian art. The sculptures of the region carry a
marked Greek influence. After Ashoka's death in 232 BC, the Mauryan empire began to disintegrate. This was an open invitation to invaders from Central Asia to
seek their fortunes in India. This period saw the rise of several small kingdoms that did not last long.
4. The Gupta Age

The largest empire in the 4th century BC was the Gupta Empire, which made its debut in the golden age of Indian history. This empire lasted more than two
centuries. It covered a large part of the Indian sub-continent, but its administration was more decentralized than that of the Mauryans. Alternating wars and marriage
alliances with small neighboring kingdoms, the boundaries of the empire fluctuated with each ruler.
The Gupta rulers sponsored the traditions of the Hindu religion and orthodox Hinduism reaffirmed itself at this time.
However, this period also saw the peaceful coexistence of Brahmins and Buddhists and the visits of Chinese travelers
such as Fa Hien. The exquisite caves of Ajanta and Ellora were created in this period. This era saw the emergence of
classical art forms and the development of various aspects of Indian culture and civilization. Erudite treatises were written
on a multiplicity of subjects ranging from grammar, mathematics, astronomy and medicine, to the Kamasutra, the famous
treatise on the art of love. This era saw considerable progress in literature and science, particularly astronomy and
mathematics. The most important literary figure of the Gupta period was Kalidasa whose choice of words and images
elevated Sanskrit drama to new dimensions. Aryabhatta, who lived during this era, was the first Indian to make significant contributions to astronomy. The invasions
of the White Huns marked the end of this era of history, although they were initially defeated by the Guptas. After the decline of this empire, North India broke up into
a number of separate Hindu kingdoms, and was not truly reunified until the arrival of the Muslims.
5. The Southern Kingdoms

While kingdoms rose and disappeared in northern India, the south remained generally unmoved by these upheavals. The Egyptians and Romans had established
trade relations with South India through sea routes and later links were also established with Southeast Asia.
Other external influences in the south included the arrival of Saint Thomas in Kerala in 52 AD, who brought Christianity to India. Great dynasties that emerged in the
south were the Cholas, Pandyas, Cheras, Chalukyas and Pallavas. These empires constantly competed with each other for supremacy. The Chalukyas ruled
primarily over the Deccan region of central India, although at times their reign extended further north. Further south, the Pallavas were the pioneers of Dravidian
architecture with their exuberant, almost baroque style. They also brought Indian art forms and Hinduism to Java in Indonesia, Thailand and Cambodia. In 850 AD, the
Cholas increased their power and surpassed the Pallavas. They were also great builders and their architectural styles can be witnessed in the temples of Thanjavur. Under the rule of
Raja Raja Chola, the Chola empire spread over all of southern India, the Deccan, Sri Lanka, parts of the Malay Peninsula and Sumatra. In Kerala, the Cheras played host to an influx of
Arab merchants who had discovered a quick sea route to India using the monsoon winds. Some of them settled there permanently, and were allowed to freely practice their religion.

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THE CIVILIZATIONS OF ANCIENT INDIA

(Taken from: http://antropos.galeon.com/html/india.htm )

Society and Religion

2. The Aryans and the Vedic Age

3. Rise of Religions and Emergence of the State

The Mauryan Empire

4. The Gupta Age

5. The Southern Kingdoms

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