1. Is Augustine a Neoplatonist?

- Augustine philosophical beliefs was influenced by Plato and Plotinus beliefs. Therefore, it is safe to say that
Augustine was a Neoplatonist.

2. What is a Neoplatonist?

- Neoplatonists were heavily influenced both by Plato and by the Platonic tradition.

- A Neoplatonist is a philosopher that beliefs that the body and the soul is a two distinct matter as there is a
two realm in our self: the eternal or perfect self and the material and imperfect self.

- As for Plato, Plotinus, and all the other Neoplatonists, body and soul remain irreconcilably divided, two
radically different entities with diverging fates: the body to die, the soul to live eternally in a transcendent
realm of Truth and Beauty.

3. Describe what kind of man Plotinus is

- A Roman philosopher named Plotinus (205–270 c.e.) breathed new life into Plato’s ideas, spearheading an in-
tellectual movement that came to be known as Neoplatonism. Plotinus based his views on Plato’s core
concepts believing, for example, that “the soul, since it is a spiritual substance in its own right and can exist
independently of the body, possesses a categorical superiority over the body.” Plotinus was so fervently
committed to his Platonic ideas regarding the imperfection of his physical body, in contrast to the perfection
of his eternal soul that he refused to celebrate his birthday. His reasoning was that he was ashamed that his
immortal soul had to be contained in such an imperfect vessel as his body, and that celebrating its birth was a
cause for regret, not celebration. Similarly, he refused to have his physical likeness painted or sculpted, as he
wanted no permanent record of his physical self. His disdain for his body led to his neglect of his physical
health, resulting in the loss of his voice and pus-laden sores and abscesses that covered his hands and feet.

4. How similar is the metaphysical view of the world between platonism and christianity?

Augustine was convinced that Platonism and Christianity were natural partners, going so far as to contend, “If
(the Platonists) could have had this life over again with us . . . they would have become Christians, with the
change of a few words and statements.” He enthusiastically adopted Plato’s vision of a bifurcated universe in
which “there are two realms, an intelligible realm where truth itself dwells, and this sensible world which we
perceive by sight and touch,” but then adapted this metaphysic to Christian beliefs. Thus, Plato’s ultimate
reality, the eternal realm of the Forms, became in Augustine’s philosophy a transcendent God. In the same
way, Plato’s vision of immortal souls striving to achieve union with this eternal realm through intellectual
enlightenment became transformed by Augustine into immortal souls striving to achieve union with God
through faith and reason. The transient, finite nature of the physical world described by Plato became in
Christianity a proving ground for our eternal destinies. Plato’s metaphysical framework thus provided
philosophical justification for Christian beliefs that might otherwise have been considered far-fetched.

5. What was Augustine’s initial contention on the relationship of the body and soul?

Like Plato and Plotinus, Augustine believed that the physical body was both radically different from and
inferior to its inhabitant, the immortal soul. Early in his philosophical development, he describes the body as
a “snare” and a “cage” for the soul. He considers the body a “slave” to the soul, and sees their relation as
contentious: “The soul makes war with the body.” As his thinking matured, Augustine sought to develop a
more unified perspective on body and soul. He ultimately came to view the body as the “spouse” of the soul,
with both attached to one another by a “natural appetite.” He concludes, “That the body is united with the
soul, so that man may be entire and complete, is a fact we recognize on the evidence of our own nature.”
 6. If Augustine was heavily influenced by Plato in his synthesis of christianity, who influenced Aquinas?

Aquinas views and beliefs was heavily influenced by Aristotles metaphysics in world. Thomas Aquinas tended toward
Aristotle’s metaphysical views to serve as an intellectual structure for Christianity’s ideas of the self and reality.

7. Was Aquinas a dualist?

Although Aquinas adopted the hylomorphism concept of Aristotles, Aquinas does not agree that the soul perishes along
with its body. Instead Aquinas believe that the human soul is incomplete when the body it animates perishes. When you
die, part of you, your substantial form or soul subsists or survives apart from your body. Thus, the human soul cannot
perish because it is a subsisting substantial form. By adopting the perspective of hylomorphism, Aquinas thus seeks to
travel a middle course between the extremes of materialism (which holds that all aspects of the universe are composed of
matter and energy and can be fully described and explained by physical laws) and substance dualism (which posits a
universe divided into material substances and mental substances). Of course, just as it is possible to believe in a non-
religious form of dualism (as Plato did), it is also possible to adopt a nonreligious form of hylomorphism (as Aristotle
did). Making Aquinas a dualist.

8. What is hylomorphism?

A philosophical theory developed by Aristotle that views “being” as a compound of form and matter.
Hylomorphism is a compound term derived from the Greek words hyle (matter) and morphe (form or shape). According
to hylomorphism, individual organisms consist of both matter and form, which can only exist in relation to one another.
The form or structure that distinguishes living things from nonliving ones is what Aristotle called “soul.” Hylomorphism
has the virtue of preserving the substantial unity of the human being instead of creating a divided, dualistic self-
comprised of a physical self and a nonphysical soul. On the holomorphic account, all parts of the body have life and
existence if and only if they are actualized by the soul.

9. What is the key to understanding Aquinas’ position on human persons as emergent material substances?

- The key to understanding Aquinas’s position on human persons as emergent material substances is his claim that the
human soul is the substantial form of the human being.

10. Is the human soul complete?

- Aquinas contends that the human soul is incomplete when the body it animates perishes. When you die, part of you, your
substantial form or soul subsists or survives apart from your body. Thus, the human soul cannot perish because it is a
subsisting substantial form.

11. Who is the father of Modern Philosophy?

- The French philosopher René Descartes is widely considered the “founder of modern philosophy.”

12. Why was he considered the father of Modern Philosophy?

- Descartes brought an entirely new—and thoroughly modern—perspective to philosophy in general and the self
in particular. He was more concerned with understanding the thinking process we use to answer questions.
Descartes wanted to penetrate the nature of our reasoning process and understand its relation to the human self.
He was convinced that to develop the most informed and well-grounded beliefs about human existence, we
need to be clear about the thinking instrument we are employing.

- Descartes was an integral part of the scientific revolution that was just beginning. (His major philosophical
work, Meditations on First Philosophy, was published in 1641, the year before Galileo died and Isaac Newton
was born.) The foundation of this scientific revolution was the belief that genuine knowledge needed to be
based on independent rational inquiry and real-world experimentation.

13. What was the foundation of Descartes’ intellectual revolution?

Descartes is convinced that committing yourself to a wholesale and systematic doubting of all things you have
been taught to simply accept without question is the only way to achieve clear and well-reasoned conclusions.
 More important, it is the only way for you to develop beliefs that are truly yours and not someone else’s.For, if
you are not willing to question all that you have been asked to accept “on faith,” then you will never have the
opportunity to construct a rock-solid foundation for your beliefs about the world and your personal philosophy
of life. What’s more, you will never have the experience to develop the intellectual abilities and personal
courage required to achieve your full potential in the future. This, then, is the beginning of Descartes’s quest
for true knowledge that leads to his famous first principle: Cogito, ergo sum—“I think, therefore I am.”

14. What school of thought did Descartes belong to

- Descartes is considered an archetypal proponent of the rationalist view of knowledge.

15. What did he say regarding how we should accept knowledge?

genuine knowledge needed to be based on independent rational inquiry and real-world experimentation. It was
no longer appropriate to accept without question the “knowledge” handed down by authorities—as was
prevalent during the religion-dominated Middle Ages. Instead, Descartes and others were convinced that we
need to use our own thinking abilities to investigate, analyze, experiment, and develop our own well-reasoned
conclusions, supported with compelling proof.

16. What was Descartes problem with the current bank of knowledge present and what was his radical solution?

Descartes confesses that he has come to the conclusion that virtually everything he has been taught from
authorities and other adults is questionable and likely false. His radical solution? To establish a fresh start on
gaining true, well-supported beliefs by simply erasing his endorsement of anything he has previously been
taught.

17. What is Descartes’ first principle?

Cogito, ergo sum is the first principle of Descartes’s theory of knowledge because he is confident that no
rational person will doubt his or her own existence as a conscious, thinking entity—while we are aware of
thinking about our self.

18. What is the core idea behind Descartes’ first principle?

Even if we are dreaming or hallucinating, even if our consciousness is being manipulated by some external
entity,
it is still my self-aware self that is dreaming, hallucinating, or being manipulated. Thus, in addition to being
the first principle of his epistemology, cogito ergo, sum is also the keystone of Descartes’s concept of self. The
essence of existing as a human identity is the possibility of being aware of our selves:

19. Is Descartes a dualist?

Descartes believes (as did Plato) that your soul continues to exist, seeking union with the spiritual realm and
God’s infinite and eternal mind. This dualistic view of the self is particularly useful for Descartes, who was
faced with a serious conflict in his personal and professional life. As a devout Catholic who believed in God,
immortal souls, and eternal life, this view of the world was completely unacceptable to Descartes. However,
by advocating
a dualistic metaphysic, Descartes was able to maintain both his scientific integrity and his religious
convictions.

20. What is the role of the BODY to Descartes’ Philosophy?

-The physical self is a part of nature, governed by the physical laws of the universe, and available to scientific
analysis and experimentation. At the same time, the conscious self (mind, soul) is a part of the spiritual realm,
independent of the physical laws of the universe, governed only by the laws of reason and God’s will.
-Physical events with our bodies have a significant impact on our mental lives. For the most part, we experience
our minds and bodies as a unified entity, very different from the two different and completely independent
substances that Descartes proposes.
- Descartes believes that your physical body is secondary to your personal identity. One reason

for this is that he believes you can conceive of yourself existing independently of
your body.
21. What is the context of Descartes’ dualism as opposed to that of Plato and Socrates?
Our thinking and emotions have a profound effect on many aspects of our physical bodies, and physical events
with our bodies have a significant impact on our mental lives. For the most part, we experience our minds and
bodies as a unified entity, very different from the two different and completely independent substances that
Descartes proposes.
Descartes believed that the “intermingling” point of contact was through the pineal gland, a small gland located at
the base of the skull. It was here that he believed that the thinking self connected to the physical brain. Why the
pineal gland? Descartes found its physical location appropriate, and it had no known biological function in
Descartes’s time. Ever the scientist, Descartes dissected a variety of animals to learn more about this mysterious
gland. Recognizing the problem of the mind-body relationship in a dualistic system and solving the problem in a
satisfactory way are two very different things.