Solar thermal

collector

A solar thermal collector collects heat by absorbing sunlight. The term "solar collector"
commonly refers to a device for solar hot water heating, but may refer to large power generating
installations such as solar parabolic troughs and solar towers or non water heating devices such
as solar cooker, solar air heaters.[1]

Water heating system deployed on a

flat roof. The pipes that carry the heat
away can be seen embedded in the
absorber, a flat plate painted black. In
this example the heat is stored in the
tank above the panels.

Solar thermal collectors are either non-concentrating or concentrating. In non-concentrating

collectors, the aperture area (i.e., the area that receives the solar radiation) is roughly the same as
the absorber area (i.e., the area absorbing the radiation). A common example of such a system is
a metal plate that is painted a dark color to maximize the absorption of sunlight. The energy is
then collected by cooling the plate with a working fluid, often water or glycol running in pipes
attached to the plate.

Concentrating collectors have a much larger aperture than the absorber area. The aperture is
typically in the form of a mirror that is focussed on the absorber, which in most cases are the
pipes carrying the working fluid.[2] Due to the movement of the sun during the day, concentrating
collectors often require some form of solar tracking system, and are sometimes referred to
"active" collectors for this reason.

Non-concentrating collectors are typically used in residential, industrial and commercial buildings
for space heating, while concentrating collectors in concentrated solar power plants generate
electricity by heating a heat-transfer fluid to drive a turbine connected to an electrical generator.[3]

Heating water
Flat-plate and evacuated-tube solar collectors are mainly used to collect heat for space heating,
domestic hot water, or cooling with an absorption chiller. In contrast to solar hot water panels,
they use a circulating fluid to displace heat to a separated reservoir. The first solar thermal
collector designed for building roofs was patented by William H. Goettl and called the "Solar heat
collector and radiator for building roof".[4]

Evacuated flat-plate solar collectors are a more recent innovation and can be used for Solar Heat
for Industrial Cooling (SHIC) and Solar Air Conditioning (SAC), where temperature in excess of
100 °C (212 °F) are required.[5][6] These non-concentrating collectors harvest both diffuse and
direct light and can make use of steam instead of water as fluid.
Flat plate collectors

Two flat plate solar collectors side-by-

side

Flat-plate collectors are the most common solar thermal technology in Europe.[7] They consist of
an (1) enclosure containing (2) a dark-colored absorber plate with fluid circulation passageways,
and (3) a transparent cover to allow transmission of solar energy into the enclosure. The sides
and back of the enclosure are typically insulated to reduce heat loss to the ambient. A heat
transfer fluid is circulated through the absorber's fluid passageways to remove heat from the
solar collector. The circulation fluid in tropical and sub-tropical climates is typically water. In
climates where freezing is likely, a heat transfer fluid similar to an automotive antifreeze solution
may be used instead of water, or in a mixture with water. If a heat transfer fluid is used, a heat
exchanger is typically employed to transfer heat from the solar collector fluid to a hot water
storage tank. The most common absorber design consists of copper tubing joined to a high
conductivity metal sheet (copper or aluminum). A dark coating is applied to the sun-facing side of
the absorber assembly to increase its absorption of solar energy. A common absorber coating is
black enamel paint.

In higher performance solar collector designs, the transparent cover is tempered soda-lime glass
having reduced iron oxide content same as for photovoltaic solar panels. The glass may also
have a stippling pattern and one or two anti-reflective coatings to further enhance transparency.
The absorber coating is typically a selective coating, where selective stands for having the special
optical property to combine high absorption in the visible part of the electromagnetic spectrum
coupled to low emittance in the infrared one. This creates a selective surface, which reduces
black body energy emission from the absorber and improves performance. Piping can be laser or
ultrasound welded to the absorber sheet to reduce damage to the selective coating, which is
typically applied prior to joining to large coils in a roll-to-roll process.

Absorber piping configurations include:

harp: traditional design with bottom pipe
risers and top collection pipe, used in
low pressure thermosyphon and
pumped systems;

serpentine: one continuous S-shaped

pipe that maximises temperature but not
total energy yield in variable flow
systems, used in compact solar
domestic hot water only systems (no
space heating role);

flooded: consisting of two sheets of

metal molded to produce a wide
circulation zone that improves heat
transfer;
 boundary layer: consisting of several
layers of transparent and opaque sheets
that enable absorption in a boundary
layer. Because the energy is absorbed in
the boundary layer, heat conversion may
be more efficient than for collectors
where absorbed heat is conducted
through a material before being
accumulated in the circulating liquid.
A flat plate collector making use of a honeycomb structure to reduce heat loss also at the glass
side too has also been made available commercially. Most flat plate collectors have a life
expectancy of over 25 years..
Evacuated tube collectors

Evacuated tube collector

Direct flow evacuated tube

Heat pipe evacuated tube

An array of evacuated tube collectors

on a roof
Evacuated tube collectors are the most common solar thermal technology in the world.[7] They
make use of a glass tube to surround the absorber with high vacuum and effectively resist
atmospheric pressure. The vacuum that surrounds the absorber greatly reduces convection and
conduction heat loss, therefore achieving greater energy conversion efficiency. The absorber can
be either metallic as in the case of flat plate collectors or being a second concentric glass tube
("Sydney Tube"). Heat transfer fluid can flow in and out of each tube or being in contact with a
heat pipe reaching inside the tube. For the latter, heat pipes transfer heat to the fluid in a heat
exchanger called a "manifold" placed transversely with respect to the tubes. The manifold is
wrapped in insulation (glass wool) and covered by a protective metal or plastic case also used for
fixing to supports.

Glass-metal evacuated tubes are made with flat or curved metal absorber sheets same as those
of flat plates. These sheets are joined to pipes or heat pipes to make "fins" and placed inside a
single borosilicate glass tube. An anti-reflective coating can be deposited on the inner and outer
surfaces of such tubes to improve transparency. Both selective and anti-reflective coating (inner
tube surface) will not degrade until the vacuum is lost.[8] A high vacuum-tight glass-metal seal is
however required at one or both sides of each evacuated tube. This seal is cycled between
ambient and fluid temperature each day of collector operation and might lead to failures in time.

Glass-glass evacuated tubes are made with two borosilicate glass tubes fused together at one or
both ends (similar a vacuum bottle or dewar flask). The absorber fin is placed inside the inner
tube at atmospheric pressure. Glass-glass tubes have a very reliable seal, but the two layers of
glass reduce the amount of sunlight that reaches the absorber. The selective coating can be
deposited on the inner borosilicate tube (high vacuum side) to avoid this, but heat has then to
flow through the poorly conducting glass thickness of the inner tube in this case. Moreover,
moisture may enter the non-evacuated area inside the inner tube and cause absorber corrosion in
particular when made from dissimilar materials (galvanic corrosion).

A Barium flash getter pump is commonly evaporated inside the high vacuum gap in between
tubes to keep the internal pressure stable through time.

The high temperatures that can occur inside evacuated tubes may require special design to
prevent overheating. Some evacuated tube collectors work as a thermal one-way valve due to
their heat pipes. This gives them an inherent maximum operating temperature that acts as a
safety feature.[9] Evacuated tubes collectors can also be provided with low concentrating
reflectors at the back of the tubes realising a CPC collector.[10]
Comparisons of flat plate and
evacuated tube collectors
A longstanding argument exists between proponents of these two technologies. Some of this can
be related to the structure of evacuated tube collectors which have a discontinuous absorbance
area. An array of evacuated tubes collectors on a roof has space between the individual tubes
and a vacuum gap between each tube and its absorber inside, covering only a fraction of the
installation area on a roof. If evacuated tubes are compared with flat-plate collectors on the basis
of the area of roof occupied (gross area), a different conclusion might be reached than if the
absorber or aperture areas were compared. The recent revision of the ISO 9806 standard[11]
states that the efficiency of solar thermal collectors should be measured in terms of gross area
and this might favour flat plates in respect to evacuated tube collectors in direct comparisons.

An array of evacuated flat plate

collectors next to compact solar
concentrators
A comparison of the energy output
(kW.h/day) of a flat plate collector
(blue lines; Thermodynamics S42-P;
absorber 2.8 m2) and an evacuated
tube collector (green lines; SunMaxx
20EVT; absorber 3.1 m2. Data
obtained from SRCC certification
documents on the Internet. Tm-Ta =
temperature difference between water
in the collector and the ambient
temperature. Q = insolation during the
measurements. Firstly, as (Tm-Ta)
increases the flat plate collector loses
efficiency more rapidly than the evac
tube collector. This means the flat
plate collector is less efficient in
producing water higher than 25
degrees C above ambient (i.e. to the
right of the red marks on the graph).
Secondly, even though the output of
both collectors drop off strongly under
cloudy conditions (low insolation), the
evac tube collector yields significantly
more energy under cloudiness than
the flat plate collector. Although many
factors obstruct the extrapolation
from two collectors to two different
technologies, above, the basic
relationships between their
efficiencies remain valid.
 A field trial[12] illustrating the
differences discussed in the figure on
the left. A flat plate collector and a
similar-sized evacuated tube collector
were installed adjacently on a roof,
each with a pump, controller and
storage tank. Several variables were
logged during a day with intermittent
rain and cloud. Green line = solar
irradiation. The top maroon line
indicates the temperature of the evac
tube collector for which cycling of the
pump is much slower and even
stopping for some 30 minutes during
the cool parts of the day (irradiation
low), indicating a slow rate of heat
collection. The temperature of the flat
plate collector fell significantly during
the day (bottom purple line) but
started cycling again later in the day
when irradiation increased. The
temperature in the water storage tank
of the evac tube system (dark blue
graph) increased by 8 degrees C
during the day while that of the flat
plate system (light blue graph) only
remained constant. Courtesy ITS-
solar.[12]

Flat-plate collectors usually lose more heat to the environment than evacuated tubes because
there is no insulation at the glass side. Evacuated tube collectors intrinsically have a lower
absorber to gross area ratio (typically 60–80% less) than flat plates because tubes have to be
spaced apart. Although several European companies manufacture evacuated tube collectors
(mainly glass-metal type), the evacuated tube market is dominated by manufacturers in China,
with some companies having track records of 15–30 years or more. There is no unambiguous
evidence that the two designs differ in long-term reliability. However, evacuated tube technology
(especially for newer variants with glass-metal seals and heat pipes) still needs to demonstrate
competitive lifetimes. The modularity of evacuated tubes can be advantageous in terms of
extensibility and maintenance, for example, if the vacuum in one heat pipe tube is lost it can be
easily be replaced with minimal effort.

Chart showing flat-plate collectors

outperforming evacuated tubes up
until 67 °C (120 °F) above ambient
and, shaded in gray, the normal
operating range for solar domestic hot
water systems.[13]

In most climates, flat plate collectors will generally be more cost-effective than evacuated
tubes.[14] However, evacuated tube collectors are well-suited to cold ambient temperatures and
work well in situations of low solar irradiance, providing heat more consistently throughout the
year. Unglazed flat plate collectors are the preferred devices for heating swimming pool water.
Unglazed collectors may be suitable in tropical or subtropical environments if domestic hot water
needs to be heated by less than 20 °C (36 °F) over ambient temperature. Evacuated tube
collectors have less aerodynamic drag, which may allow for a simpler installation on roofs in
windy locations. The gaps between the tubes may allow for snow to fall through the collector,
minimizing the loss of production in some snowy conditions, though the lack of radiated heat
from the tubes can also prevent effective shedding of accumulated snow. Flat plate collectors
might be easier to clean. Other properties, such as appearance and ease of installation are more
subjective and difficult to compare.

Evacuated flat plate collectors

Evacuated flat plate solar collectors provide all the advantages of both flat plate and evacuated
tube collectors combined together. They surround a large area metal sheet absorber with high
vacuum inside a flat envelope made of glass and metal. They offer the highest energy conversion
efficiency of any non-concentrating solar thermal collector,[15] but require sophisticated
technology for manufacturing. They should not be confused with flat plate collectors featuring
low vacuum inside. The first collector making use of high vacuum insulation was developed at
CERN,[16] while TVP SOLAR SA of Switzerland was the first company to commercialise Solar
Keymark certified collectors in 2012.[17]

Evacuated flat plate solar collectors require both a glass-metal seal to join the glass plate to the
rest of the metal envelope and an internal structure to support such plate against atmospheric
pressure. The absorber has to be segmented or provided with suitable holes to accommodate
such structure. Joining of all parts has to be high vacuum-tight and only materials with low
vapour pressure can be used to prevent outgassing. Glass-metal seal technology can be based
either on metallized glass[18] or vitrified metal[19] and defines the type of collector. Different from
evacuated tube collectors, they make use of non-evaporable getter (NEG) pumps to keep the
internal pressure stable through time. This getter pump technology has the advantage of
providing some regeneration in-situ by exposure to sunlight. Evacuated flat plate solar collectors
have been studied for solar air condition and compared to compact solar concentrators.[20]

Polymer flat plate collectors

These collectors are an alternative to metal collectors. These may be wholly polymer, or they may
include metal plates in front of freeze-tolerant water channels made of silicone rubber. Polymers
are flexible and therefore freeze-tolerant and can employ plain water instead of antifreeze, so that
they may be plumbed directly into existing water tanks instead of needing heat exchangers that
lower efficiency. By dispensing with a heat exchanger, temperatures need not be quite so high for
the circulation system to be switched on, so such direct circulation panels, whether polymer or
otherwise, can be more efficient, particularly at low solar irradiance levels. Some early selectively
coated polymer collectors suffered from overheating when insulated, as stagnation temperatures
can exceed the polymer's melting point.[21][22] For example, the melting point of polypropylene is
160 °C (320 °F), while the stagnation temperature of insulated thermal collectors can exceed
180 °C (356 °F) if control strategies are not used. For this reason, polypropylene is not often used
in glazed selectively coated solar collectors. Increasingly, polymers such as high temperate
silicones (which melt at over 250 °C (482 °F)) are being used. Some non polypropylene polymer
based glazed solar collectors are matte black coated rather than selectively coated to reduce the
stagnation temperature to 150 °C (302 °F) or less.

In areas where freezing is a possibility, freeze-tolerance (the capability to freeze repeatedly

without cracking) can be achieved by the use of flexible polymers. Silicone rubber pipes have
been used for this purpose in UK since 1999. Conventional metal collectors are vulnerable to
damage from freezing, so if they are water filled they must be carefully plumbed so they
completely drain using gravity before freezing is expected so that they do not crack. Many metal
collectors are installed as part of a sealed heat exchanger system. Rather than having potable
water flow directly through the collectors, a mixture of water and antifreeze such as propylene
glycol is used. A heat exchange fluid protects against freeze damage down to a locally
determined risk temperature that depends on the proportion of propylene glycol in the mixture.
The use of glycol lowers the water's heat carrying capacity marginally, while the addition of an
extra heat exchanger may lower system performance at low light levels.

A pool or unglazed collector is a simple form of flat-plate collector without a transparent cover.
Typically, polypropylene or EPDM rubber or silicone rubber is used as an absorber. Used for pool
heating, it can work quite well when the desired output temperature is near the ambient
temperature (that is, when it is warm outside). As the ambient temperature gets cooler, these
collectors become less effective.

Bowl collectors
A solar bowl is a type of solar thermal collector that operates similarly to a parabolic dish, but
instead of using a tracking parabolic mirror with a fixed receiver, it has a fixed spherical mirror
with a tracking receiver. This reduces efficiency but makes it cheaper to build and operate.
Designers call it a fixed mirror distributed focus solar power system. The main reason for its
development was to eliminate the cost of moving a large mirror to track the sun as with parabolic
dish systems.[23]

A fixed parabolic mirror creates a variously shaped image of the sun as it moves across the sky.
Only when the mirror is pointed directly at the sun does the light focus on one point. That is why
parabolic dish systems track the sun. A fixed spherical mirror focuses the light in the same place
independent of the sun's position. The light, however, is not directed to one point but is distributed
on a line from the surface of the mirror to one half radius (along a line that runs through the
sphere center and the sun).
 Typical energy density along the 1/2
radius length focal line of a spherical
reflector

As the sun moves across the sky, the aperture of any fixed collector changes. This causes
changes in the amount of captured sunlight, producing what is called the sinus effect of power
output. Proponents of the solar bowl design claim the reduction in overall power output
compared with tracking parabolic mirrors is offset by lower system costs.[23]

The sunlight concentrated at the focal line of a spherical reflector is collected using a tracking
receiver. This receiver is pivoted around the focal line and is usually counterbalanced. The receiver
may consist of pipes carrying fluid for thermal transfer or photovoltaic cells for direct conversion
of light to electricity.

The solar bowl design resulted from a project of the Electrical Engineering Department of the
Texas Technical University, headed by Edwin O'Hair, to develop a 5 MWe power plant. A solar bowl
was built for the town of Crosbyton, Texas as a pilot facility.[23] The bowl had a diameter of 65 ft
(20 m), tilted at a 15° angle to optimize the cost/yield relation (33° would have maximized yield).
The rim of the hemisphere was "trimmed" to 60°, creating a maximum aperture of 3,318 square
feet (308.3 m2). This pilot bowl produced electricity at a rate of 10 kW peak.

A 15-metre (49 ft) diameter Auroville solar bowl was developed from an earlier test of a 3.5-metre
(11 ft) bowl in 1979–1982 by the Tata Energy Research Institute. That test showed the use of the
solar bowl in the production of steam for cooking. The full-scale project to build a solar bowl and
kitchen ran from 1996 and was fully operational by 2001.

In locations with average available solar energy, flat plate collectors are sized approximately 1.2 to
2.4 square decimeter per liter of one day's hot water use.
Applications
The main use of this technology is in residential buildings where the demand for hot water has a
large impact on energy bills. This generally means a situation with a large family or a situation in
which the hot water demand is excessive due to frequent laundry washing. Commercial
applications include laundromats, car washes, military laundry facilities and eating
establishments. The technology can also be used for space heating if the building is located off-
grid or if utility power is subject to frequent outages. Solar water heating systems are most likely
to be cost effective for facilities with water heating systems that are expensive to operate, or with
operations such as laundries or kitchens that require large quantities of hot water. Unglazed liquid
collectors are commonly used to heat water for swimming pools but can also be applied to large-
scale water pre-heating. When loads are large relative to the available collector area, the bulk of
the water heating can be done at low temperature, lower than swimming pool temperatures
where unglazed collectors are well established in the marketplace as the right choice. Because
these collectors need not withstand high temperatures, they can use less expensive materials
such as plastic or rubber. Many unglazed collectors are made of polypropylene and must be
drained fully to avoid freeze damage when air temperatures drop below 44 °F (7 °C) on clear
nights.[24] A smaller but growing percentage of unglazed collectors are flexible meaning they can
withstand water freezing solid inside their absorber. The freeze concern only needs to be the
water-filled piping and collector manifolds in a hard freeze condition. Unglazed solar hot water
systems should be installed to "drainback" to a storage tank whenever solar radiation is
insufficient. There are no thermal shock concerns with unglazed systems. Commonly used in
swimming pool heating since solar energy's early beginnings, unglazed solar collectors heat
swimming pool water directly without the need for antifreeze or heat exchangers. Hot water solar
systems require heat exchangers due to contamination possibilities and in the case of unglazed
collectors, the pressure difference between the solar working fluid (water) and the load
(pressurized cold city water). Large-scale unglazed solar hot water heaters, like the one at the
Minoru Aquatic Center in Richmond, BC operate at lower temperatures than evacuated tube or
boxed and glazed collector systems. Although they require larger, more expensive heat
exchangers, all other components including vented storage tanks and uninsulated plastic PVC
piping reduce the costs of this alternative dramatically compared to the higher temperature
collector types. When heating hot water, we are actually heating cold to warm and warm to hot.
We can heat cold to warm as efficiently with unglazed collectors, just as we can heat warm to hot
with high-temperature collectors.

Heating air
A simple solar air collector consists of an absorber material, sometimes having a selective
surface, to capture radiation from the sun and transfers this thermal energy to air via conduction
heat transfer. This heated air is then ducted to the building space or to the process area where the
heated air is used for space heating or process heating needs. Functioning in a similar manner as
a conventional forced-air furnace, solar-thermal-air systems provide heat by circulating air over an
energy collecting surface, absorbing the sun's thermal energy, and ducting air coming in contact
with it. Simple and effective collectors can be made for a variety of air conditioning and process
applications.

Many applications can utilize solar air heat technologies to reduce the carbon footprint from the
use of conventional heat sources, such as fossil fuels, to create a sustainable means to produce
thermal energy. Applications such as space heating, greenhouse season extension, pre-heating
ventilation makeup air, or process heat can be addressed by solar air heat devices. In the field of
'solar co-generation', solar thermal technologies are paired with photovoltaics (PV) to increase the
efficiency of the system by taking heat away from the PV collectors, cooling the PV panels to
improve their electrical performance while simultaneously warming air for space heating.

Space heating and ventilating

Space heating for residential and commercial applications can be done through the use of solar
air heating panels. This configuration operates by drawing air from the building envelope or from
the outdoor environment and passing it through the collector where the air warms via conduction
from the absorber and is then supplied to the living or working space by either passive means or
with the assistance of a fan. A pioneering figure of this type of system was George Löf, who built
a solar-heated air system in 1945 for a house in Boulder, Colorado. He later included a gravel bed
for heat storage.

Ventilation, fresh air or makeup air is required in most commercial, industrial and institutional
buildings to meet code requirements. By drawing air through a properly designed unglazed
transpired air collector or an air heater, the solar heated fresh air can reduce the heating load
during daytime operation. Many applications are now being installed where the transpired
collector preheats the fresh air entering a heat recovery ventilator to reduce the defrost time of
HRV's. The higher your ventilation and temperature the better your payback time will be.

Process heating
Solar air heat is also used in process applications such as drying laundry, crops (i.e. tea, corn,
coffee) and other drying applications. Air heated through a solar collector and then passed over a
medium to be dried can provide an efficient means by which to reduce the moisture content of
the material.

High temperature process heat can be produced by a solar furnace.

Solar air heating collector types

Collectors are commonly classified by their air-ducting methods as one of three types:

through-pass collectors

front-pass
 back pass

combination front and back pass

collectors
Collectors can also be classified by their outer surface:

glazed

unglazed

Through-pass air collector

Offering the highest efficiency of any solar technology the through-pass configuration, air ducted
onto one side of the absorber passes through a perforated material and is heated from the
conductive properties of the material and the convective properties of the moving air. Through-
pass absorbers have the most surface area which enables relatively high conductive heat transfer
rates, but significant pressure drop can require greater fan power, and deterioration of certain
absorber material after many years of solar radiation exposure can additionally create problems
with air quality and performance.

Back, front, and combination passage air

collector
In back-pass, front-pass, and combination type configurations the air is directed on either the
back, the front, or on both sides of the absorber to be heated from the return to the supply ducting
headers. Although passing the air on both sides of the absorber will provide a greater surface
area for conductive heat transfer, issues with dust (fouling) can arise from passing air on the front
side of the absorber which reduces absorber efficiency by limiting the amount of sunlight
received. In cold climates, air passing next to the glazing will additionally cause greater heat loss,
resulting in lower overall performance of the collector.

Glazed systems
Glazed systems usually have a transparent top sheet and insulated side and back panels to
minimize heat loss to ambient air. The absorber plates in modern panels can have absorptivity of
more than 93%. Glazed Solar Collectors (recirculating types that are usually used for space
heating). Air typically passes along the front or back of the absorber plate while scrubbing heat
directly from it. Heated air can then be distributed directly for applications such as space heating
and drying or may be stored for later use. Payback for glazed solar air heating panels can be less
than 9–15 years depending on the fuel being replaced.

Unglazed systems
Unglazed systems, or transpired air systems have been used to heat make-up or ventilation air in
commercial, industrial, agriculture and process applications. They consist of an absorber plate
which air passes across or through as it scrubs heat from the absorber. Non-transparent glazing
materials are less expensive and decrease expected payback periods. Transpired collectors are
considered "unglazed" because their collector surfaces are exposed to the elements, are often not
transparent and not hermetically sealed.

Unglazed transpired solar collectors

Background
The term "unglazed air collector" refers to a solar air heating system that consists of a metal
absorber without any glass or glazing over top. The most common type of unglazed collector on
the market is the transpired solar collector. The technology has been extensively monitored by
these government agencies, and Natural Resources Canada developed the feasibility tool
RETScreen™ to model the energy savings from transpired solar collectors. Since that time, several
thousand transpired solar collector systems have been installed in a variety of commercial,
industrial, institutional, agricultural, and process applications in countries around the world. This
technology was originally used primarily in industrial applications such as manufacturing and
assembly plants where there were high ventilation requirements, stratified ceiling heat, and often
negative pressure in the building. With the increasing drive to install renewable energy systems on
buildings, transpired solar collectors are now used across the entire building stock because of
high energy production (up to 750 peak thermal Watts/square metre), high solar conversion (up
to 90%) and lower capital costs when compared against solar photovoltaic and solar water
heating.

Solar air heating is a solar thermal

technology in which the energy from
the sun, solar insolation, is captured
by an absorbing medium and used to
heat air.

Solar air heating is a renewable energy heating technology used to heat or condition air for
buildings or process heat applications. It is typically the most cost-effective of all the solar
technologies, especially in large scale applications, and it addresses the largest usage of building
energy in heating climates, which is space heating and industrial process heating. They are either
glazed or unglazed.
Method of operation
Unglazed air collectors heat ambient (outside) air instead of recirculated building air. Transpired
solar collectors are usually wall-mounted to capture the lower sun angle in the winter heating
months as well as sun reflection off the snow and achieve their optimum performance and return
on investment when operating at flow rates of between 4 and 8 CFM per square foot (72 to 144
m3/h.m2) of collector area.

The exterior surface of a transpired solar collector consists of thousands of tiny micro-
perforations that allow the boundary layer of heat to be captured and uniformly drawn into an air
cavity behind the exterior panels. This heated ventilation air is drawn under negative pressure into
the building's ventilation system where it is then distributed via conventional means or using a
solar ducting system.

Hot air that may enter an HVAC system connected to a transpired collector that has air outlets
positioned along the top of the collector, particularly if the collector is west facing. To counter this
problem, Matrix Energy has patented a transpired collector with a lower air outlet position and
perforated cavity framing to perpetrate increased air turbulence behind the perforated absorber
for increased performance.

This cutaway view shows the MatrixAir transpired solar collector components and air flow. The
lower air inlet mitigates the intake of heated air to the HVAC system during summer operation.

The extensive monitoring by Natural Resources Canada and NREL has shown that transpired
solar collector systems reduce between 10-50% of the conventional heating load and that
RETScreen is an accurate predictor of system performance. Transpired solar collectors act as a
rainscreen and they also capture heat loss escaping from the building envelope which is collected
in the collector air cavity and drawn back into the ventilation system. There is no maintenance
required with solar air heating systems and the expected lifespan is over 30 years.

Variations of transpired solar collectors

Unglazed transpired collectors can also be roof-mounted for applications in which there is no
suitable south-facing wall or for other architectural considerations. Matrix Energy Inc. has
patented a roof-mounted product called the "Delta", a modular, roof-mounted solar air heating
system where south-, east-, or west-facing facades are simply not available.

Each ten-foot (3.05 m) module will deliver 250 CFM (425 m3/h)of preheated fresh air typically
providing annual energy savings of 1100 kWh (4 GJ) annually. This unique two-stage, modular
roof-mounted transpired collector operating a nearly 90% efficiency each module delivering over
118 L/s of preheated air per two square meter collector. Up to seven collectors may be connected
in series in one row, with no limit to the number of rows connected in parallel along one central
duct typically yielding 4 CFM of preheated air per square foot of available roof area.

Transpired collectors can be configured to heat the air twice to increase the delivered air
temperature making it suitable for space heating applications as well as ventilation air heating. In
a 2-stage system, the first stage is the typical unglazed transpired collector and the second stage
has glazing covering the transpired collector. The glazing allows all of that heated air from the
first stage to be directed through a second set of transpired collectors for a second stage of solar
heating.

Generating electricity
Parabolic troughs, dishes and towers described in this section are used almost exclusively in
solar power generating stations or for research purposes. Parabolic troughs have been used for
some commercial solar air conditioning systems. Although simple, these solar concentrators are
quite far from the theoretical maximum concentration.[25][26] For example, the parabolic trough
concentration is about 1/3 of the theoretical maximum for the same acceptance angle, that is, for
the same overall tolerances for the system. Approaching the theoretical maximum may be
achieved by using more elaborate concentrators based on nonimaging optics.[25] Solar thermal
collectors may also be used in conjunction with photovoltaic collectors to obtain combined heat
and power.[27][28]
 Parabolic trough

Parabolic trough
This type of collector is generally used in solar power plants. A trough-shaped parabolic reflector
is used to concentrate sunlight on an insulated tube (Dewar tube) or heat pipe, placed at the focal
point, containing coolant which transfers heat from the collectors to the boilers in the power
station.
Parabolic dish

Solar parabolic dish

With a parabolic dish collector, one or more parabolic dishes concentrate solar energy at a single
focal point, similar to the way a reflecting telescope focuses starlight, or a dish antenna focuses
radio waves. This geometry may be used in solar furnaces and solar power plants.

The shape of a parabola means that incoming light rays which are parallel to the dish's axis will be
reflected toward the focus, no matter where on the dish they arrive. Light from the sun arrives at
the Earth's surface almost completely parallel, and the dish is aligned with its axis pointing at the
sun, allowing almost all incoming radiation to be reflected towards the focal point of the dish.
Most losses in such collectors are due to imperfections in the parabolic shape and imperfect
reflection.

Losses due to atmospheric scattering are generally minimal. However, on a hazy or foggy day,
light is diffused in all directions through the atmosphere, which significantly reduces the efficiency
of a parabolic dish. In dish stirling power plant designs, a stirling engine coupled to a dynamo is
placed at the focus of the dish. This absorbs the energy focused onto it and converts it into
electricity.
Power tower

Solar power tower

A power tower is a large tower surrounded by tracking mirrors called heliostats. These mirrors
align themselves and focus sunlight on the receiver at the top of the tower, collected heat is
transferred to a power station below. This design reaches very high temperatures. High
temperatures are suitable for electricity generation using conventional methods like steam
turbine or a direct high-temperature chemical reaction such as liquid salt.[29] By concentrating
sunlight, current systems can get better efficiency than simple solar cells. A larger area can be
covered by using relatively inexpensive mirrors rather than using expensive solar cells.
Concentrated light can be redirected to a suitable location via optical fiber cable for such uses as
illuminating buildings. Heat storage for power production during cloudy and overnight conditions
can be accomplished, often by underground tank storage of heated fluids. Molten salts have been
used to good effect. Other working fluids, such as liquid metals, have also been proposed due to
their superior thermal properties.[30]

However, concentrating systems require sun tracking to maintain sunlight focus at the collector.
They are unable to provide significant power in diffused light conditions. Solar cells are able to
provide some output even if the sky becomes cloudy, but power output from concentrating
systems drops drastically in cloudy conditions as diffused light cannot be concentrated well.
General Principles of
Operation
A solar thermal collector functions as a heat exchanger that converts solar radiation into thermal
energy.[31] It differs from a conventional heat exchanger in several aspects. The solar energy flux
(irradiance) incident on the Earth's surface has a variable and relatively low surface density,
usually not exceeding 1100 W/m² without concentration systems. Moreover, the wavelength of
incident solar radiation falls between 0.3 and 3 µm, which is significantly shorter than the
wavelength of radiation emitted by most radiative surfaces.[31]

The collector absorbs the incoming solar radiation, converting it into thermal energy. This thermal
energy is then transferred to a heat transfer fluid circulating within the collector.[32] The heat
transfer fluid can be air, water, oil, or a mixture including glycol (an antifreeze fluid), especially in
forced circulation systems.[32] Concentration systems may utilize phase change materials such
as molten salts.[33] The thermal energy of the heat transfer fluid can then be used directly or
stored for later use.[34] The transfer of thermal energy occurs through convection, which can be
either natural or forced depending on the specific system.[35][36]

Standards

ISO test methods for solar collectors.[37]

EN 12975: Thermal solar systems and

components. Solar collectors.
EN 12976: Thermal solar systems and
components. Factory-made systems.

EN 12977: Thermal solar systems and

components. Custom-made systems.

Solar Keymark:[38] Thermal solar

systems and components. Higher level
EN 1297X series certification which
includes factory visits.

International Code Council / Solar Rating

& Certification Corporation:[39] Testing is
performed by independent laboratories
and typically includes selection of a
collector to be tested from a sample
group of at least six solar collectors.
 ICC 901/ICC-SRCC™ 100: Solar Thermal
Collector Standard

ICC 900/ICC-SRCC™ 300: Solar Thermal

System Standard

ICC 902/APSP 902/ICC-SRCC™ 400:

Solar Pool and Spa Heating System
Standard

See also

Concentrated solar Energy

power portal
Renewable
Cross-linked energy
portal
polyethylene § PEX-AL-
PEX

Insulated glazing
List of solar thermal power stations

List of thermal conductivities

Nanofluids in solar collectors

Particle receiver

Seasonal thermal energy storage (STES)

Selective surface

Solar cooker

Solar Flower Tower

Solar thermal energy

Solar-assisted heat pump

Trombe wall

Zeolite
References

1. Norton, Brian (2013-10-11). Harnessing

solar heat. Dordrecht: Springer. ISBN 978-
94-007-7275-5. OCLC 862228449 (https://
www.worldcat.org/oclc/862228449) .

2. Rabl, Ari. (1985). Active solar collectors

and their applications. New York: Oxford
University Press. ISBN 1-4294-0091-9.
OCLC 614480348 (https://www.worldcat.o
rg/oclc/614480348) .
3. Sreekumar, S.; Joseph, A.; Kumar C. S., S.;
Thomas, S. (2020-03-10). "Investigation on
influence of antimony tin oxide/silver
nanofluid on direct absorption parabolic
solar collector" (https://doi.org/10.1016%2
Fj.jclepro.2019.119378) . Journal of
Cleaner Production. 249: 588–601.
doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.119378 (https://
doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jclepro.2019.11937
8) .

4. [1] (https://patents.google.com/patent/US
4098260A/en) , "Solar heat collector and
radiator for building roof", issued 1977-02-
07

5. "IEA SHC || Task 49 || IEA SHC || Task 49" (h

ttp://task49.iea-shc.org/) . task49.iea-
shc.org. Retrieved 2019-04-28.
6. "IEA SHC || Task 48 || IEA SHC || Task 48" (h
ttp://task48.iea-shc.org/) . task48.iea-
shc.org. Retrieved 2019-04-28.

7. "IEA SHC || IEA SHC || Solar Heat

Worldwide Markets and Contribution to the
Energy Supply" (http://www.iea-shc.org/sol
ar-heat-worldwide) . www.iea-shc.org.
Retrieved 2019-04-28.

8. "Solar Evacuated Tube Collectors" (http://u

csolar.org/files/public/documents/Poster-
1.pdf) (PDF). Retrieved 2013-10-06.

9. [2] (https://patents.google.com/patent/US
8863740B2/en) , "Heat pipe for a solar
collector", issued 2008-04-07
10. Kim, Yong; Han, GuiYoung; Seo, Taebeom
(April 2008). "An evaluation on thermal
performance of CPC solar collector".
International Communications in Heat and
Mass Transfer. 35 (4): 446–457.
doi:10.1016/j.icheatmasstransfer.2007.09.
007 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.icheatm
asstransfer.2007.09.007) .

11. ISO 9806:2017. Solar energy – Solar

thermal collectors – Test methods
International Organization for
Standardization, Geneva, Switzerland
12. Honeyborne, Riaan (14 April 2009). "Flat
plate versus Evacuated tube solar
collectors" (http://gogreenheatsolutions.c
o.za/sites/default/files/Difference%20bet
ween%20Flat%20plate%20&%20Evac%20T
ube%20-%20Residential_0.pdf) (PDF). Go
Green Heat Solutions, via Internet Archive.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/201
71004085243/http://gogreenheatsolution
s.co.za/sites/default/files/Difference%20b
etween%20Flat%20plate%20%26%20Eva
c%20Tube%20-%20Residential_0.pdf)
(PDF) from the original on 4 October 2017.
Retrieved 2017-10-04.

13. Tom Lane. Solar Hot Water Systems:

Lessons Learned, 1977 to Today. p. 5.
14. Trinkl, Christoph; Wilfried Zörner; Claus Alt;
Christian Stadler (2005-06-21).
"Performance of Vacuum Tube and Flat
Plate Collectors Concerning Domestic Hot
Water Preparation and Room Heating" (htt
p://www.thermo-dynamics.com/pdfiles/te
chnical/Solar_Performane_VTvsLFP.pdf)
(PDF). 2nd European Solar Thermal Energy
Conference 2005 (estec2005). CENTRE OF
EXCELLENCE FOR SOLAR ENGINEERING
at Ingolstadt University of Applied
Sciences. Retrieved 2010-08-25.
15. Moss, R.W.; Henshall, P.; Arya, F.; Shire,
G.S.F.; Hyde, T.; Eames, P.C. (2018-04-15).
"Performance and operational
effectiveness of evacuated flat plate solar
collectors compared with conventional
thermal, PVT and PV panels" (https://doi.or
g/10.1016%2Fj.apenergy.2018.01.001) .
Applied Energy. 216: 588–601.
Bibcode:2018ApEn..216..588M (https://ui.a
dsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2018ApEn..216..58
8M) . doi:10.1016/j.apenergy.2018.01.001
(https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.apenergy.201
8.01.001) .
16. Benvenuti, C. (May 2013). "The SRB solar
thermal panel" (https://doi.org/10.1051%2
Fepn%2F2013301) . Europhysics News.
44 (3): 16–18.
Bibcode:2013ENews..44c..16B (https://ui.a
dsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2013ENews..44c..
16B) . doi:10.1051/epn/2013301 (https://d
oi.org/10.1051%2Fepn%2F2013301) .
ISSN 0531-7479 (https://www.worldcat.or
g/issn/0531-7479) .

17. "DIN CERTCO - Register-Nr. 011-7S1890 F"

(https://www.dincertco.tuv.com/registratio
ns/60081291) . www.dincertco.tuv.com.
Retrieved 2019-04-28.

18. [3] (https://patents.google.com/patent/WO

2005075900A1/en) , "Evacuable flat panel
solar collector", issued 2004-01-22
19. [4] (https://patents.google.com/patent/WO
2010003653A2/en) , "Vacuum solar
thermal panel with a vacuum-tight glass-
metal sealing", issued 2009-07-08

20. Buonomano, Annamaria; Calise,

Francesco; d’Accadia, Massimo Dentice;
Ferruzzi, Gabriele; Frascogna, Sabrina;
Palombo, Adolfo; Russo, Roberto;
Scarpellino, Marco (February 2016).
"Experimental analysis and dynamic
simulation of a novel high-temperature
solar cooling system". Energy Conversion
and Management. 109: 19–39.
doi:10.1016/j.enconman.2015.11.047 (http
s://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.enconman.2015.1
1.047) .
21. Kearney, Meghan; Davidson, Jane H.;
Mantell, Susan (2005). "Polymeric
Absorbers for Flat Plate Collectors: Can
Venting Provide Adequate Overheat
Protection?". Solar Energy. pp. 253–257.
doi:10.1115/ISEC2005-76005 (https://doi.o
rg/10.1115%2FISEC2005-76005) .
ISBN 978-0-7918-4737-4. INIST 17036823
(https://pascal-francis.inist.fr/vibad/index.
php?action=getRecordDetail&idt=1703682
3) .
22. Mendes, João Farinha; Horta, Pedro;
Carvalho, Maria João; Silva, Paulo (2008).
"Solar Thermal Collectors in Polymeric
Materials: A Novel Approach Towards
Higher Operating Temperatures".
Proceedings of ISES World Congress 2007
(Vol. I – Vol. V). pp. 640–643.
doi:10.1007/978-3-540-75997-3_118 (http
s://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-540-75997-3
_118) . ISBN 978-3-540-75996-6.

23. Calhoun, Fryor (November 1983). Duel for

the Sun (https://books.google.com/books?
id=giwEAAAAMBAJ&q=crosbyton%20sola
r%20bowl&pg=PA199) . Texas Monthly.

24. Tom Lane, Solar Hot Water Systems,

Lessons Learned 1977 to Today p7
25. Chaves, Julio (2015). Introduction to
Nonimaging Optics, Second Edition (http
s://books.google.com/books?id=e11ECgA
AQBAJ) . CRC Press. ISBN 978-1-4822-
0673-9.

26. Roland Winston et al., Nonimaging Optics,

Academic Press, 2004 ISBN 978-
0127597515

27. Mojiri (2013). "Spectral beam splitting for

efficient conversion of solar energy — A
review". Renewable and Sustainable
Energy Reviews. 28: 654–663.
doi:10.1016/j.rser.2013.08.026 (https://doi.
org/10.1016%2Fj.rser.2013.08.026) .
28. Taylor, R.A. (2012). "Nanofluid-based
optical filter optimization for PV/T
systems" (https://doi.org/10.1038%2Flsa.2
012.34) . Light: Science & Applications. 1
(10): e34. Bibcode:2012LSA.....1E..34T (htt
ps://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2012LS
A.....1E..34T) . doi:10.1038/lsa.2012.34 (htt
ps://doi.org/10.1038%2Flsa.2012.34) .

29. Woody, Todd. "Secret Ingredient To Making

Solar Energy Work: Salt" (https://www.forb
es.com/sites/toddwoody/2012/04/05/sec
ret-ingredient-to-making-solar-energy-work
-salt/) . Forbes magazine. Retrieved
13 March 2013.
30. Boerema (2012). "Liquid sodium versus
Hitec as a heat transfer fluid in solar
thermal central receiver systems". Solar
Energy. 86 (9): 2293–2305.
Bibcode:2012SoEn...86.2293B (https://ui.a
dsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2012SoEn...86.229
3B) . doi:10.1016/j.solener.2012.05.001 (ht
tps://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.solener.2012.0
5.001) .

31. Duffie, John A.; Beckman, William A.

(2013). Solar Engineering of Thermal
Processes. Wiley. p. 236. ISBN 978-1-118-
41280-0.

32. Kalogirou, Soteris A. (2004). Solar Energy

Engineering: Processes and Systems.
Academic Press. p. 240. ISBN 978-0-12-
397270-5.
33. Müller-Steinhagen, Hans; Trieb, Frank
(2004). Concentrating Solar Power and
Desalination Plants. Elsevier. ISBN 978-0-
08-044495-6.

34. Kalogirou, Soteris A. (2004). Solar Energy

Engineering: Processes and Systems.
Academic Press. p. 270. ISBN 978-0-12-
397270-5.

35. "Sửa chữa máy nước nóng năng lượng mặt

trời" (https://hoanggiangsolar.com/sua-ma
y-nuoc-nong-nang-luong-mat-troi/) .
hoanggiangsolar.com. Retrieved 27 June
2023.

36. Duffie, John A.; Beckman, William A.

(2013). Solar Engineering of Thermal
Processes. Wiley. p. 478. ISBN 978-1-118-
41280-0.
37. "ISO 9806-1:1994 - Test methods for solar
collectors -- Part 1: Thermal performance
of glazed liquid heating collectors
including pressure drop" (http://www.iso.or
g/iso/catalogue_detail.htm?csnumber=17
678) . iso.org. 2012. Retrieved
September 17, 2012.

38. "The Solar Keymark, The main quality label

for solar thermal" (http://www.estif.org/sol
arkeymarknew/) . estif.org. 2012.
Retrieved September 17, 2012.
39. "SRCC is the principal certification
program within the United States" (https://
web.archive.org/web/20180401004800/ht
tp://www.solar-rating.org/standards/index.
html) . solar-rating.org. 2018. Archived
from the original (http://www.solar-rating.o
rg/standards/index.html) on April 1, 2018.
Retrieved March 31, 2018.

External links

Canadian government ratings of solar

collectors (https://web.archive.org/web/
20100417060031/http://www.ecoaction.
gc.ca/ECOENERGY-ECOENERGIE/heat-c
hauffage/v2008/collectors-capteurs-en
g.cfm)
 Crosbyton Inventory of Records (http://w
ww.lib.utexas.edu/taro/ttuua/00124/tua-
00124.html)

Feasibility of photovoltaic Cells on a

Fixed Mirror Distributed Focus Solar
Bowl (https://web.archive.org/web/2011
0815204550/http://etd.lib.ttu.edu/these
s/available/etd-05222009-31295004985
270/unrestricted/31295004985270.pdf)

Retrieved from
"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
title=Solar_thermal_collector&oldid=1221766381"
This page was last edited on 1 May 2024, at
21:35 (UTC). •
Content is available under CC BY-SA 4.0 unless
otherwise noted.