2023-02+RESF+412+study+guide Fin

RESF 412
RESEARCH IN EDUCATION
Faculty of Education
Study guide compiled by:

CP van der Vyver, Nozi Kgati (PC-D), Anja Visser (PC-C), Sipho Kwatubana (VTC) and
Celestin Mayombe (MC).
Copyright © 2023 edition. Review date: 2026.
North-West University
No part of this study guide may be reproduced in any form or in any way without the written permission of the publishers.
It all starts here
• Ranked in the top 5% of universities globally by the QS-rankings
• Contribute the second largest of number of graduates annually to the labour market
Dit begin alles hier

• As een van die top 5% universiteite wêreldwyd deur die QS-ranglys aangewys
• Lewer jaarliks die tweede-meeste graduandi aan die arbeidsmark
Gotlhe go simolola fano

• Re beilwe mo gare ga diyunibesiti tse 5% tse di kwa godimo go ya ka peo ya
maemo ya QS
• Ngwaga le ngwaga go abelwa palo ya bobedi ka bogolo ya badiri mo maketeng ya
badiri
MODULE CONTENTS
Module information ......................................................................................................................... iii
Outcomes ....................................................................................................................................... iii
Assessment .................................................................................................................................... iii
Study materials .............................................................................................................................. iv
How to study .................................................................................................................................. iv
Icons ............................................................................................................................................... v
Warning against plagiarism ............................................................................................................. v
Study unit 1 Education research ............................................................................................... 1
Study section 1.1 What is research? ....................................................................................... 1
1.1.1 Specific levels and worlds of research ....................................................................... 2
Study section 1.2 The cyclical process of research ................................................................. 5
Study section 1.3 Education research ..................................................................................... 7
Study section 1.4 The process of education research ............................................................. 8
Study unit 2 Finding literature and using it .............................................................................. 11
Study section 2.1 Finding literature and referencing.............................................................. 12
2.1.1 Finding literature ...................................................................................................... 12
2.1.2 Learning from other education research studies ...................................................... 13
2.1.3 Referencing ............................................................................................................. 14
2.1.4 The literature review ................................................................................................ 18
Study unit 3 Title, research question and research problem ................................................... 24
Study section 3.1 The research title ...................................................................................... 25
3.1.1 How to formulate a title ............................................................................................ 25
3.1.2 Factors that influence the selection of a suitable title ............................................... 26
3.1.3 Key variables in a title .............................................................................................. 26
Study section 3.2 The importance of research questions ...................................................... 27
3.2.1 Features of good research questions ....................................................................... 28
3.2.2 The categories of research questions ...................................................................... 28
3.2.3 Primary and secondary research questions ............................................................. 30
3.2.4 The difference between research questions and interview questions ....................... 30
Study section 3.3 Research aim and objectives .................................................................... 31
Study section 3.4 The research problem ............................................................................... 32
Study unit 4 An introduction to the qualitative research method ............................................. 36
Study section 4.1 Elements of a research design .................................................................. 36
Study section 4.2 Qualitative research .................................................................................. 37
Study section 4.3 Qualitative strategies ................................................................................ 38
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Study section 4.4 Qualitative sampling methods ................................................................... 40
Study section 4.5 Data collection .......................................................................................... 41
4.5.1 Methods of data collection in qualitative research .................................................... 41
4.5.2 Qualitative data recording procedures ..................................................................... 42
Study section 4.6 Data analysis and interpretation of qualitative research ............................ 44
Study section 4.7 Trustworthiness in qualitative research ..................................................... 44
Study section 4.8 Application of qualitative research designs in education research ............. 46
Study unit 5 An introduction to the quantitative research method ........................................... 51
Study section 5.1 Elements of a research design .................................................................. 52
Study section 5.2 Quantitative research ................................................................................ 52
Study section 5.3 Types of quantitative research designs ..................................................... 52
Study section 5.4 Quantitative sampling methods ................................................................. 53
Study section 5.5 Data collection .......................................................................................... 54
Study section 5.6 Validity and reliability in quantitative research ........................................... 56
5.6.1 Validity ..................................................................................................................... 56
5.6.2 Reliability ................................................................................................................. 56
Study section 5.7 Data analysis ............................................................................................ 57
Study section 5.8 Application of quantitative research designs in education research........... 58
Study section 5.9 Distinguishing between characteristics of qualitative and quantitative
approaches 62
Study unit 6 Research ethics .................................................................................................. 64
Study section 6.1 Research ethics ........................................................................................ 64
Study section 6.2 What is research ethics? ........................................................................... 68
Study section 6.3 Four common ethical principles................................................................. 68
6.3.1 Protection of research participants from harm .......................................................... 68
6.3.2 Respecting participants’ right to privacy ................................................................... 69
6.3.3 Informed consent ..................................................................................................... 69
6.3.4 Conducting and reporting research in an honest manner ......................................... 69
Study section 6.4 Other considerations regarding research ethics ........................................ 70
Study section 6.5 Matters to be considered to obtain the informed consent of research
participants 71
Study unit 7 The research proposal ........................................................................................ 75
Study section 7.1 Clarifying the concepts .............................................................................. 75
Study section 7.2 Writing a research proposal ...................................................................... 76
Study section 7.3 The structure of a research proposal ........................................................ 77
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Module information
Module code RESF 412
Module credits 8 Credits
Module name Research in Education
Outcomes
Module outcomes Assessment criteria
On successful completion of this module, Students have mastered the outcomes if they are
the student should be able to able to:
demonstrate:
• illustrate detailed knowledge of the principles
• systematic and comprehensive and elements of education research and how it
knowledge and understanding of the relates to social science research;
key concepts, principles, and theories • analyse and apply relevant literature in an
of education research in particular, academic and reflective manner in order to
within the broader context of social write a literature review;
science research in general; • apply knowledge and understanding to identify
• an application of contested research the suitability of specific aspects of the research
knowledge, and a critical evaluation of process in respect of the literature review and
the applicability of research in the field field of curriculum development, with specific
of education; emphasis on, the design and implementation of
• ability to identify, analyse and critically a research problem, question and title;
reflect on evidence-based solutions • analyse knowledge of and critically evaluate
and theory –driven arguments in the education research processes to significant
research process and apply this to a research themes, issues or topics to identify
specific research topic; and and engage with problems and/or introduce
• ability to take full responsibility in change in the field of education;
decision-making and use of resources • display the ability to independently validate and
to reflect on values, ethical conduct manage sources of information when designing
and justifiable decision making and implementing the research process within
appropriate to the research practices a curriculum based research topic; and
of curriculum and professional • be responsible and accountable throughout the
development. research process to act ethically and
professionally so as to justify decisions and
actions of ethical research conventions such
as, intellectual property and accurate
referencing methods underpinning curriculum
and professional development.
Assessment
• Requirements for successful completion of the module
Calculation of final mark
Participation mark: 50% of final mark
Examination mark: 50% of final mark
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= Total: 100%
Requirements for successful completion of the module:
• Participation mark: minimum 40% to obtain admission to examination
• Examination sub-minimum: 40%
You need a final module mark of at least 50% to pass the module
• Assessment plan:
A) Assessment that will count towards your participation mark (Formative assessment)
You can be expected to conduct the following forms of formative assessment: Essay-type
assignments, activities, research related tasks, tests, and any related research.
B) Examination (Summative assessment)
A two-hour, closed-book examination will be written.
C) Informal assessment that will support and give feedback on your learning
The e-Guide provides informal assessments that the student can complete for this own revision. This
will not form part of the formal formative assessment mark.
Study materials
Compulsory study material:
Visser, A., Van der Vyver, C.P. & Wolhuter, C.C. (eds). 2023. Introduction to research in education
for student teachers. Noordbrug: Keurkopié.
Maree, K. 2020. First steps in research. 3rd ed. Pretoria: Van Schaik.
Additional study material:
Leedy, P.D. & Ormrod, J.E. 2015. Practical research: planning and design. 11th ed. Boston:
Pearson. (Reserved in the library)
Any other additional study materials are uploaded on eFundi.
How to study
The following method is suggested:
1. First read through the material in your study guide or the prescribed material and indicate
the most important parts.
2. Systematise the work in accordance with the learning outcomes as set out in the study
guide and summarise the material in the light thereof.
3. The learning outcomes help you to identify the most important sections of the work. The
other information is not unimportant as it is relevant to the study outcomes. You only have to
have a cursory view thereof for exam purposes. Do not, however, ignore this material. You
should be able to place your knowledge in context.
4. Thereafter complete all the learning activities indicated in the study guide.
5. Always read through your own answers again before comparing them to the model answers
given.
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6. Participate in the group discussions and make use of the facilitator's expertise.
Icons
Time allocation Learning outcomes
Assessment /
Study material
Assignments
Individual exercise Group Activity
Example Reflection
Warning against plagiarism

ASSIGNMENTS ARE INDIVIDUAL TASKS AND NOT GROUP ACTIVITIES (UNLESS
EXPLICITLY INDICATED AS GROUP ACTIVITIES)
Copying of text from other learners or from other sources (for instance, the study guide, prescribed
material, or directly from the Internet) is not allowed – only brief quotations are allowed and then
only if indicated as such.
You should reformulate existing text and use your own words to explain what you have read. It is
not acceptable to retype existing text and just acknowledge the source in a footnote – you should be
able to relate the idea or concept without repeating the original author to the letter.
The aim of the assignments is not the reproduction of existing material, but to ascertain whether you
have the ability to integrate existing texts, add your own interpretation and/or critique the texts and
offer a creative solution to existing problems.
Be warned: students who submit copied text will obtain a mark of zero for the assignment
and disciplinary steps may be taken by the Faculty and/or University. It is also unacceptable
to do somebody else’s work, to lend your work to them, or to make your work available to
them to copy – be careful and do not make your work available to anyone!
For more information on plagiarism, follow the following link:
http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/25355
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Study unit 1
EDUCATION RESEARCH
Study hours
Recommended time to master the study unit outcomes: 10 hours
Learning outcomes
After engaging with the materials and activities in this study unit, you should
be able to:
• define and analyse the concept of research;
• distinguish between informal (non-scientific, everyday) and formal
(scientific) research;
• define and discuss education research;
• explain how research in education differs from other types of research;
and
• identify and describe the sequential components of the education research
cycle.
Study material
Chapter 1 and 2 in the prescribed textbook (Visser, A., Van der Vyver, C.P. &
Wolhuter, C.C. 2023. Introduction to research in education for student teachers.
Noordbrug: Keurkopié.)
Chapter 2 in prescribed textbook (Maree, K. 2020. First steps in research. 3rd ed.
Pretoria: Van Schaik.
Introduction
In this study unit, you will learn what research is to understand the cyclical process thereof, to know
what education research is, and to understand the process of education research. This study unit is
divided into four sections that will help you to master the outcomes of this study unit.
Study section 1.1

What is research?
Research is something that we do every day. Leedy and Ormrod (2015:20) define research as ‘a
systematic process of collecting, analyzing, and interpreting information – data – in order to increase
our understanding of a phenomenon about which we are interested or concerned’. Research can be
either formal (scientific) or informal. Formal research can be described as research that takes place
within a specific field of study (for example, education, or medicine). When conducting formal
research, we intentionally set out to enhance our understanding of a phenomenon and expect to
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communicate what we discover to the larger scientific community (Leedy & Ormrod, 2015:20). In
both informal and formal research, research involves searching for solutions to problems and
extending knowledge (Sesay, 2011:18).
1.1.1 Specific levels and worlds of research

Research can be understood on three specific levels (Lambert, 2012:12):
Level one:
• Research is a planned investigation, carried out in an organised and systematic way;
• it produces information (called ‘data’), which, when analysed, tell us things we did not know or
were unsure about before; and
• when applied to practice, this new understanding may influence what we do.
Level two:
• Asking questions at the start of the investigation; and
• collecting data, whereafter the data are used to answer the questions.
Level three:
• Connecting the investigation to what is already known about the topic;
• looking carefully and critically at how we collect information to determine if we can trust what it
tells us; and
• presenting what we find out in clear, precise and persuasive ways so that others can learn more
or gain a better understanding of the topic under investigation.
Mouton (2001:137) identified a three-worlds framework to understand the different levels of analysis
in scientific reasoning; to understand how research between of the world of scientific research and
everyday life connects; to distinguish between research problems and real-life problems; and to
know the links between meta-methodological issues, such as philosophical and ethical
considerations. Here is a summary of the three-worlds framework (Mouton, 2001:137-142):
World 1: The world of everyday life and lay knowledge
Most of our lives are spent here; it refers to the ordinary social and physical reality in which we exist
(Mouton, 2001:138). Here we refer to lay knowledge as ‘the stock of knowledge that we use in
everyday life that enables us to cope effectively with our daily tasks’ (Mouton, 2001:138). Different
words are used to refer to lay knowledge, such as ‘common sense, wisdom, experiential knowledge,
self-knowledge, insight, practical knowledge, and know-how’ (Mouton, 2001:138).
World 2: The world of science and scientific research
In this world, a researcher selects phenomena from World 1 (e.g. world of politics, business, social
interaction, living things, and so on) and ‘makes these into objects of inquiry’ (Mouton, 2001:138).
The researcher follows a systematic and rigorous enquiry in this world (Mouton, 2001:138).
According to Mouton (2001:138), ‘[t]he search for “truth” or “truthful knowledge” is the overriding goal
of science [research]’. The aim of research is to ‘generate truthful (valid and reliable) descriptions,
model and theories of the world’ (Mouton, 2001:138).
World 3: The world of metascience
Humans continuously reflect on their actions; this is true in World 1, where persons would wonder
why they decided to do something in a particular way, or to find reasons and justifications for certain
actions (Mouton, 2001:138). In the world of science, research reflections are even more prevalent
(Mouton, 2001:138). Over the years, various metadisciplines – e.g., philosophy, research ethics,
sociology, and so on – have developed due to a process of reflection (Mouton, 2001:139). These
metadisciplines are located in World 3 ‘because they all involve reflection on the nature of science
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and scientific research’ (Mouton, 2001:139). Figure 1.1 below (taken from Mouton, 2001:140)
distinguishes between research problems in the different worlds.
World 3: Metascience
Paradigms in philosophy of science, e.g., positivism, realism,
postmodernism, critical theory, phenomenology
Paradigms in research methodology, e.g., quantitative, qualitative and
participatory action research
World 2: Science
‘Body of knowledge’
• Theories, models, typologies

• Concepts and definitions
• Findings, data
• Instrumentation, scales, tests,
questionnaires
Research process
Problem statement – design – methodology – conclusions
World 1: World of everyday life

Social/practical problems (crime, unemployment, learning problems,
stress, violence, etc.)
Require intervention/action/programmes/therapy
Figure 1.1: The relationship between metascience, science, and everyday life knowledge (a
focus on research problems) (Mouton, 2011:140)
Read Chapter 1 (Introduction to research in education for student teachers) and Chapter 2 (First
steps in research) to gain a better understanding of what research is.
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Individual activity 1.1
After having studied the paragraphs above, as well as Chapter 1 (Introduction to
research in education for student teachers) and 2.1 (First steps in research) ,and
answer the questions below.
1. In your own words, how would you describe research?
2. Why do you think it is important for a teacher to learn about research?
3. What is the difference between formal and informal research?
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Study section 1.2
The cyclical process of research
Leedy and Ormrod (2015:20-25) explain that research is a systematic process. During this process,
information, also known as data, is collected, analysed and interpreted so as to increase the
understanding of a particular phenomenon of interest or concern (Leedy & Ormrod, 2015:20). In the
everyday lives of people, they often use a systematic approach to collect and interpret information
to solve problems in their daily lives – this is informal research (Leedy & Ormrod, 2015:20). However,
with formal research, researchers intentionally set out to enhance their understanding of a
phenomenon and then communicate what they have discovered to a larger scientific community
(Leedy & Ormrod, 2015:20). Figure 1.2 is a visual representation of research as a cyclical process.
7.
The researcher interprets 1.
the meaning of the data The research begins with
as they relate to the a problem an
problem and its unanswered question.
subproblems.
6. 2.
The researcher collects, The researcher clearly and
organises, and analyses data specifically articulates the
related to the problem and goal of the research
its subproblems. endeavor.
3.
5.
The researcher often
The researcher develops
divides the principal
a specific plan for
problem into more
addressing the problem
manageable
and its subproblems.
subproblems.
4.
The researcher identifies
hypotheses and
assumptions that
underlie the research
effort.
Figure 1.2: The research cycle (Leedy & Ormrod, 2015)
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The research cycle in Figure 1.2 is an iterative process (Leedy & Ormrod, 2015:24). Sometimes a
researcher will move back and forth between the steps along the way. Leedy and Ormrod (2015:24)
give the following example:
While developing a specific plan for a project (Step 5), a researcher might realize that
a genuine resolution of the research problem requires addressing a subproblem not
previously identified (Step 3). And while interpreting the collected data (Step 7), a
researcher may decide that additional data are needed to fully resolve the problem
(Step 6).
The research process is also cyclical. The final step (Figure 1.2) is not really a final step at all (Leedy
& Ormrod, 2015:25). It is rarely the case that a research project completely resolves a problem
(Leedy & Ormrod, 2015:25). Research typically involves a cycle, or rather a helix (spiral), where one
study leads to follow-up studies (Leedy & Ormrod, 2015:24).
Here follows brief descriptions of the different steps in the cyclical process as presented in Figure
1.2.
1. The researcher begins with a problem (an unanswered question) – Researchers are
constantly aware of their surroundings and ask questions about the occurrence of different
phenomena (Leedy & Ormrod, 2015:20). Asking questions strike a spark and ignites a chain reaction
leading to the research process (Leedy & Ormrod, 2015:20).
2. The researcher clearly and specifically articulates the goal of the research endeavour – A
researcher should identify a research problem and formulate it as a clear, unambiguous statement
(Leedy & Ormrod, 2015:21). Leedy and Ormrod (2015:21) argue that ‘[t]he ultimate goal of the
research must be set forth in a grammatically complete sentence that specifically and precisely
answers the question, “What problem do you intend to solve?”’
3. The researcher often divides the principal problem into more manageable subproblems –
The main problem is divided into several subproblems that can aid in resolving the main problem
(Leedy & Ormrod, 2015:21). A research problem can be formulated into a research question and
divided into smaller questions that must be addressed before the main research question can be
resolved (Leedy & Ormrod, 2015:22).
4. The researcher identifies hypotheses and assumptions that underlie the research effort –
In quantitative research, a researcher often formulates one or more hypotheses. Leedy and Ormrod
(2015:22) define a hypothesis as ‘a logical supposition, a reasonable guess, and an educated
conjecture. It provides a tentative explanation for a phenomenon under investigation. It may direct
your thinking to possible sources of information that will aid in resolving one or more subproblems
and, as a result, may also help you resolve the principal research problem.’ Moreover, Leedy and
Ormrod (2015:23) define an assumption as ‘a condition that is taken for granted, without which the
research project would be pointless’. Researchers in an academic environment write a statement of
their assumptions as the foundation on which their studies rest (Leedy & Ormrod, 2015:23). Leedy
and Ormrod (2015:23) give the following example:
Imagine that your problem is to investigate whether students learn the unique
grammatical structures of a language more quickly by studying only one foreign
language at a time or by studying two foreign languages concurrently. What
assumptions would underlie such a problem? At a minimum, you must assume that:
• The teachers used in the study are competent to teach the language or
languages in question and have mastered the grammatical structures of the
language(s) they are teaching.
• The students taking part in the research are capable of mastering the unique
grammatical structures of any language(s) they are studying.
• The languages selected for the study have sufficiently different grammatical
structures that students might reasonably learn to distinguish between them.
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5. The researcher develops a specific plan for addressing the problem and its subproblems
– Research is a carefully planned process to find data to respond to the research problem.
Researchers carefully plan the overall research design in a purposeful way to acquire data relevant
to their research problem and subproblems (Leedy & Ormrod, 2015:23). The research problem or
question determines the research design the researcher uses (Leedy & Ormrod, 2015:23).
6. The researcher collects, organises and analyses data related to the problem and
subproblems – After the researcher has worked through steps one to five above, he/she collects
the data. There are two forms of data, namely quantitative and qualitative data. According to Leedy
and Ormrod (2015:23), ‘quantitative research involves looking at amounts, or quantities, of one or
more variable of interest. A quantitative researcher typically tries to measure variables in some
numerical way, perhaps by using commonly accepted measures of the physical world (e.g., rulers,
thermometers, oscilloscopes) or carefully designed measures of psychological characteristics or
behaviors (e.g., tests, questionnaires, rating scales).’ Leedy and Ormrod (2015:24) further define
qualitative research as ‘[research involving] looking at characteristics, or qualities, that cannot be
entirely reduced to numerical values. A qualitative researcher typically aims to examine the many
nuances and complexities of a particular phenomenon.’ These two forms of research often require
of the researcher to use distinctly different data-analysis strategies (Leedy & Ormrod, 2015:24).
7. The researcher interprets the meaning of the data as they relate to the problem and
subproblems – Data are nothing more than data; data only gain significance once researchers
extract meaning therefrom (Leedy & Ormrod, 2015:24); put differently, if data are not interpreted, the
data are worthless and cannot help in answering the posed questions (Leedy & Ormrod, 2015:24).
Leedy and Ormrod (2015:24) argue that ‘[d]ata demand interpretation. But no rule, formula, or
algorithm can lead the researcher unerringly to a correct interpretation. Interpretation is inevitably a
somewhat subjective process that depends on the researcher’s hypotheses, assumptions, and
logical reasoning processes.’
Study section 1.3

Education research
Research and education research are connected and in some respects even rely on each other.
Education research is a critical enquiry aimed at informing educational judgements and decisions to
improve educational action. This is the kind of value-laden research that should have immediate
relevance to teachers and policymakers and is in itself educational because of its stated intention to
‘inform’. It is the kind of research in education that is carried out by educationists. It helps educators
to understand problems or issues through the accumulation of knowledge. It can assist educators in
improving practice, and it focuses attention on important policy issues being discussed and debated
by decision-makers. Also, engaging in research provides valuable conceptual writing and presenting
skills for students.
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Do the following activities.
1. Study Chapter 1 in Introduction to research in education for student teachers, in your own words,
write how you would describe education research.
2. Study Chapter 1 in Introduction to research in education for student teachers and explain the use
of reasoning during research.
Study section 1.4

The process of education research
As a formal (scientific) approach to research, education research is a systematic, non-linear process.
Education research is non-linear because the different processes can be repeated, revisited, or even
approached in different ways. In education research, researchers often make use of the same
processes than are used in humanities and social sciences. Education research is often conducted
in three phases. In the first phase, the researcher must plan the research by writing a research
proposal. The research proposal must be accepted by the institution’s scientific committee. After a
research proposal has been accepted, the second phase begins. The second phase of the research
starts with ethical clearance and then continues to the employing of the research (empirical or non-
empirical approaches). The final phase is to write up the research project in the form of a report. A
research report could be in the form of a mini dissertation, dissertation, thesis, article, book, or
chapter in a book, to name but a few.
To plan, conduct and write up the research project, a researcher should consider specific elements.
These elements might differ from supervisor to supervisor, subject group to subject group, faculty to
faculty, and institution to institution. There are, however, general elements that would almost always
feature in every study. It might be that these elements feature in a different order or are phrased
slightly differently in different projects. Figure 1.3 below illustrates the different elements that you
would most probably find in almost all education research studies.
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Figure 1.3: The education research process
As indicated in Figure 1.3 above, the researcher first has to identify a topic by reading literature and
being aware of what is going on in, for example, the education system, schools and tertiary
environments. This awareness is needed to identify a research problem. The research problem is
then phrased as a research question (more information on this process is provided in Study Unit 3).
A researcher must conduct a literature review that forms the basis of a research project. A literature
review helps researchers to establish what is already known about the topic and on what theories
they want to build the research. Some scholars prefer not to use the phrase ‘literature review’ but
would rather use phrases such as theoretical framework, conceptual framework, body of scholarship,
and so on. When you further your studies, it would be more crucial to know the difference between
these phrases. To learn more about a literature review, you can go to Study Unit 2.
After a research question has been formulated, a researcher needs to decide what research design
to employ to help with responding to the research question. To learn more about the different
research designs, go to Study Units 4 and 5. The elements select topic idea, research problem,
research question, literature review and research design all form part of the research proposal. To
learn more about a research proposal, go to Study Unit 7.
After a research proposal has been accepted, a researcher must apply for ethical clearance. No
researcher may do any empirical research without ethical clearance. To learn more about ethical
clearance, go to Study Unit 6. After ethical clearance has been obtained, a researcher can start with
the research by first obtaining permission and informed consent from relevant stakeholders. After
permission and informed consent have been obtained, the researcher can start with collecting,
processing, analysing and interpreting the data. The final product of a research project is then written
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up in a report form. Often, as researchers are busy conducting research, they write up the project in
various formats.
In RESF 412 and RESF 422, you will only be expected to write a research proposal by the end of
the year. Your lecturer will guide you through the process. You will not complete the research project
and will only stop with phase one of the research process.
References
Lambert, M. 2012. A beginner’s guide to doing your education research project. London: Sage.
Pearson.
Mouton, J. 2001. How to succeed in your master’s and doctoral studies: a South African guide and
resource book. Pretoria: Van Schaik.
Sessay, A. 2011. Education research: a beginner’s guide. Xlibris Corporation: s.l.
Reflection
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Study unit 2
FINDING LITERATURE AND USING IT
Study hours
Learning outcomes
be able to:
• find academic sources;
• identify and explain different types of sources;
• know what plagiarism is and why it is important to reference;
• apply referencing and quoting from sources in a technically-appropriate
manner by making use of the NWU Harvard referencing style;
• compile a technically-correct reference list/bibliography;
• explain the reasons for conducting a literature review;
• discuss the steps of conducting a literature review in a logically-organised
manner;
• understand and explain the structure of a literature review;
• identify important skills needed when doing a literature review; and
• analyse and apply relevant literature in an academic and reflective manner
in order to write a literature review.
Study material
Chapter 4 in the prescribed textbook (Visser, A., Van der Vyver, C.P. & Wolhuter,
C.C. 2023. Introduction to research in education for student teachers. Noordbrug:
Keurkopié.)
Additional reading
Chapter 4 in McMillan and Schumacher (2010). Research in education: evidence-
based inquiry.
Introduction
In this study unit, you will learn how to find literature, how to reference these literature sources and
finally, how to analyse and apply relevant literature in an academic and reflective manner in order to
write a literature review. This study unit is divided into three sections that will help you to master the
outcomes of this study unit.
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Study section 2.1
Finding literature and referencing
2.1.1 Finding literature

Before you can search for articles and books, or cite these sources, you need to first familiarise
yourself with the library. Know where your closest library is and learn how the library website works.
Without this knowledge, you will not be able to find sources.

Write down the steps you will take to find:
A book:
A chapter in a book:
An article:
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2.1.2 Learning from other education research studies
Do the activity belowIndividual activity 2.2
Do the following activity. Download an article and use the following questions to make
a summary of the article (*Note: you can use this table to summarise all the articles
you will use for your literature-review assignment).
Details of the article

Who is the author(s)?
What year was the article published?
What is the title of the article?
What is the name of the journal?
What are the volume and issue numbers?
What are the page numbers?
Give a reference to this article using the NWU
Harvard referencing style
About the content of the article
What is the main topic of the research? Why
was the topic worth investigating?
What specific questions did the researcher try
to answer?
What published material (‘literature’) has been
used to provide the background of or context
to the researched topic?
What methods were used to collect data? Who
were involved as participants?
What does this research report say about
validity, reliability, trustworthiness, and ethics?
How were data analysed? What findings were
produced?
How might the findings inform the development
of educational provision, teaching, and
students’ learning?
What is my/our opinion of this research? What
are the strengths and weaknesses of the
research? What criticism do I/we have of the
investigation? How could have it been
improved?
13
2.1.3 Referencing
In this section, we will learn about plagiarism, types of sources, and how sources should be
referenced in texts.
2.1.3.1 Plagiarism
When should one reference?
• When referring to a specific person’s viewpoint;
• If there is a measure of doubt linked to a specific issue;
• When information is used that was not ‘tested’ by the writer him/herself – for example, statistics,
or empirical data.
Referencing is part of academic writing and makes the research formal and scientific. It involves
referencing within your text and by way of a reference list. Not being meticulous in applying in-text
references and compiling a reference list lead to plagiarism.
Plagiarism (according to the NWU, 2012:5):
• is the reproduction of somebody else’s work or ideas and representing it as your own words or
ideas without giving recognition to the author;
• is academic or intellectual theft;
• occurs when you write a sentence or paragraph or quote it verbatim without including a reference,
therefore implying that it is your own work.
1. In your own words, explain what plagiarism is.
2. What is your plan of action to avoid plagiarism?
14
2.1.3.2 Different types of sources and how to reference them
Primary sources:
• Sources that provide original information about a topic.
• They should be referenced in the text as follows: At the beginning of a sentence: Simmonds
(2009:25-56); OR at the end of a sentence: (Simmonds, 2009:25-56).
Secondary sources:
• Provide second-hand information. Keep to a minimum.
• They should be referenced in the text as follows: At the beginning of a sentence: According
to Freud (cited by Williams, 1996:10); OR at the end of a sentence (Freud cited by Williams,
1996:10).
The NWU has three referencing styles: Harvard; Law; and APA. This module uses the Harvard
referencing style as specified by the NWU Referencing Guide (2020).
Study Tabane (2015) as well to see different types of sources.
2.1.3.3 Using the NWU Harvard referencing style

Book
In the text:
Andrews, Squire and Tamboukou (2008:55) OR (Andrews, Squire & Tamboukou, 2008:55)
In the reference list:
Andrews, M., Squire, C. & Tamboukou, M. 2008. Doing narrative research. London: Sage.
Chapter in a collected work

In the text:
Alston (1998:46) OR (Alston, 1998:46)
Alston, W.P. 1998. Internalism and externalism in epistemology. In: Alcoff, L., ed. Epistemology:
the big questions. Malden, MA: Blackwell. pp. 45-79.
Journal article
In the text:
Boote and Beile (2005:4) OR (Boote & Beile, 2005:4)
Boote, D.N. & Beile, P. 2005. Scholars before researchers: on the centrality of the dissertation
literature review in research preparation. Educational Researcher, 34(6):3-15.
15
Write down all the specific rules for the referencing of:
a book,
a chapter in a book, and
a journal article.
How does citing sources and keeping a reference list help you from committing plagiarism?
16
Compile a reference list. Your reference list must be according to the NWU
Referencing Guide (2020) Harvard style. Your reference list must consist of 10
sources, which could be:
✓ Books
✓ Book chapters
✓ Journal articles
Apply what you have learnt about how to find sources and how to reference sources to complete this
activity.
17
2.1.4 The literature review
2.1.4.1 Background to a literature review

A literature review gives an overview of published literature in a particular field or about a specific
topic (Hammond & Wellington, 2013:99). It covers what has been published, who published it, and
expounds prevailing theories and methodologies (Hammond & Wellington, 2013:99).
Note this important remark that Haywood and Wragg (cited by Hammond & Wellington, 2013:99)
make about what a literature review resembles:
a furniture sales catalogue in which everything merits a one paragraph entry no matter how
skilfully it has been conducted: Bloggs (1975) found this, Smith (1976) found that, Jones
(1997) found the other, Bloggs, Smith and Jones (1978) found happiness in heaven.
2.1.4.2 Reasons for conducting a literature review

There are various reasons why a literature review is imperative as an integral part of the process of
conducting research. While the form of a literature review may vary with different types of studies,
the basic purposes remain the same. In general, a literature review should:
• provide a context for the research;
• justify the research;
• ensure the research has not been done before (or if it is repeated, that it is indicated as a
replication study);
• show where the research fits into the existing body of knowledge;
• enable the researcher to learn from previous theory on the subject;
• illustrate how the subject has been studied before;
• highlight flaws in previous research;
• outline gaps in previous research;
• show that the work would add to the understanding and knowledge of the field of study;
• help refine, refocus, or even change the topic; and
• form the foundation from which the rationale for the study, the problem statement, hypotheses
or research questions, and design of the research emerge.

Study Chapter 4 in Introduction to research in education for student teachers and
Chapter 4 McMillan and Schumacher (2010) and write comments below on the
question: ‘Why is it important to do a literature review?’
18
2.1.4.3 How to do a literature review
Punch and Oancea (2014:104) state that a literature review should be critical; it should not simply
be descriptive. To be critical means to not just accept what is written at face value, but to analyse
and evaluate the information (Punch & Oancea, 2014:104). The following questions can help for a
critical orientation while reading and reviewing literature (Punch & Oancea, 2014:104):
• Has the author identified a topic or formulated a problem or an issue, with research questions
that follow from it to guide the investigation?
• Is it clearly defined? Is its significance clearly established?
• What is the author's research orientation or perspective? Could the problem have been more
effectively approached from another perspective?
• What is the author's theoretical framework? Are the main concepts clearly defined and
consistently used?
• Has the author evaluated the literature relevant to the problem? Has the literature been dealt
with thoroughly and even-handedly?
• If it is an empirical study, how good are the basic components – the design, the sampling, the
quality of the data collected, and the data analysis? Are the conclusions justified by the data?
• How does the author structure the argument behind the research? Can you ‘unpack’ the flow of
argument to see if it holds together logically?
• Is the paper appropriately written?
• In what ways does this paper contribute to our understanding of the problem? In what ways is it
useful for practice? What are the strengths and the limitations?
• How does this paper relate to the research I am developing and proposing?
19
Chapter 4 in McMillan and Schumacher (2010) and write comments how you would
ensure that your literature review is a critical synthesis of the literature.
To be able to write a literature review, one must first find literature, summarise it, and only then can
one write a literature review. Figure 2.1 illustrates the process to follow when doing a literature
review.
Figure 2.1: How to do a literature review
As illustrated in Figure 2.1, the following is a general outline for conducting a literature review:
1. Broad scan
As regards the research topic or question:
20
• gather different sources (e.g. books, chapters in books and articles)
• be aware of the scope of the literature (what is your topic?)
• evaluate the research (make use of the questions posed by Punch and Oancea, 2014:104)
Sort and prioritise the literature (find a strategy that would work for you).
2. Inquiry
Conduct:
• analytical reading
• evaluative reading
3. Comprehensive critique
Do a comparison across the literature
4. Writing
• organise the content
• write the literature review
2.1.4.4 Structure of a literature review

The literature review should be structured so that it reads logically. It consists of three main sections:
INTRODUCTION
• Provide scale and structure of review
• Map
BODY
• Depends on how key aspects are structured
• Evaluate; do not merely describe
CONCLUSION
• Summarise main findings
• Relate to main aims/questions

Chapter 4 in McMillan and Schumacher (2010) and write comments below. How
would you structure your literature review? How would you indicate the gaps in the
research in your literature review?
21
2.1.4.5 Important tips for doing a literature review
A literature review synthesises several different kinds of materials into an ongoing, cumulative
argument that leads to a conclusion (for example, what needs to be researched in the present
research, how and why) (Cohen, Manion & Morrison, 2011:121). It can be like an extended essay
that sets out clearly (Cohen et al., 2011:121):
• the argument(s) that the literature review will advance;
• points in favour of the argument(s) or thesis to be advanced/supported;
• points against the argument(s) or thesis to be advanced/supported; and
• a conclusion based on the points raised and evidence presented in the literature review.
Several points must be considered when researching and writing a literature review. A literature
review (Cohen et al., 2011:121):
• establishes and justifies the need for the research to be conducted;
• establishes and justifies the focus of the research;
• is not just a descriptive summary but an organised and developed argument, usually with
subtitles;
• presents arguments and counter-arguments, evidence and counter-evidence about an issue;
• presents, contextualises, analyses, interprets, criticises and evaluates sources and issues,
and does not merely accept what is said;
• reveals similarities and differences between authors about the same issue;
• must be focused yet comprehensive in its coverage of relevant issues;
• must present both sides of an issue or argument, and
• must include and utilise many sources of literature and not only one article or book.
(Cohen, Manion, & Morrison, 2011:121).
22
2.1.4.6 Academic writing
When people talk to their friends, they would make use of informal language. However, to write
academically is a form of art and it takes years to master. Your lecturer will expect of you to make
use of academic writing for completing assignments in RESF 412. Carefully study Chapter 4 Section
4.4.3 in Introduction to research in education for student teachers and Chapter 4 in McMillan and
Schumacher (2010)on writing up the literature review.
References
Cohen, L., Manion, L. & Morrison, K. 2011. Research methods in education. 7th ed. Abingdon:
Routledge.
Hammond, M. & Wellington, J. 2013. Research methods: the key concepts. London: Routledge.
McMillan JH & Schumacher, S. 2010. Research in Education: evidence-based inquiry. Pearson
Education Inc
NWU (North-West University). 2020. NWU referencing guide.
http://library.nwu.ac.za/sites/library.nwu.ac.za/files/files/documents/quoting-sources.pdf Date of
access: 4 Oct. 2019.
Punch, K.F. & Oancea, A. 2014. Introduction to research methods in education. 2nd ed. s.l.: Sage.
Reflection
23
Study unit 3
TITLE, RESEARCH QUESTION AND
RESEARCH PROBLEM
Study hours
Learning outcomes
be able to:
• identify the background to the research problem;
• make a clear distinction between the research question and the research
problem;
• determine the features of good research questions;
• know the importance of research questions;
• understand the different types of research questions;
• identify good and bad research questions;
• formulate primary and secondary research questions based on the
research problem;
• gain an understanding of how research titles are formulated;
• consider different factors that may influence the formulation of the most
suitable research title;
• formulate a researchable title;
• identify variables in a title; and
• discuss reasons why a researchable title is formulated from a research
problem.
Study material
Keurkopié.)
Chapter 1 in prescribed textbook (Maree, K. 2020. First steps in research. 3rd ed.
Pretoria: Van Schaik.
Introduction
In this study unit, you will learn what a title is so as to be able to formulate research questions and
identify a research problem. This study unit is divided into four sections that will help you to master
the outcomes of this study unit.
24
Study section 3.1
The research title
Research does not start with finding the title of the research but with identifying a research problem
– in other words, what you want to research: precisely, a specific issue, difficulty, problem, or gap in
knowledge that you want to address. These are practical problems aimed at contributing to change.
The research title is the broad subject matter that is addressed by the study (Creswell, 2012). The
title gives the researcher and the readers a clear picture of the direction of the study – it predicts the
content. The title is about what the researcher wants to know – the need for the study. It is a
statement of what exactly the researcher wants to find out or achieve by undertaking the research.
The title must be refined for it to be researchable; thus, it needs to be narrowed down to specific
issues for which empirical data can be gathered. It is important not to rush this phase of the research
as it can become frustrating and time consuming. This is because the title must be selected, defined
and refined to ensure a smooth implementation and scientific rigour. The statement of a research
topic is a signpost and a boundary-maker that sets the investigator on a clear path and a territory to
be explored.
The selection of a research title can be done at the beginning, during and after the research project
has been finalised. Some researchers claim that a title is formulated after the research problem has
been identified, and some formulate the titles for their projects at the end of the proposal-writing
process. The latter do this so that they can be as precise as possible in their wording and sentence
structure to best represent their investigation. Some prefer to work with a ‘working title’, which can
be revised as the project develops.
A title must be well formulated. A poorly formulated title can mislead readers into thinking the study
is about something it is not, confusing them from the start.
3.1.1 How to formulate a title

The title must highlight the purpose of the study, which can often include its context, outcomes and
important aspects of the adopted research strategy. A title must be brief and simple, yet complete,
and it should provide the focus of the investigation, describing what the research is about. The title
should not be too broad or too narrow. Try to condense the title to about 10–15 words or less.
The title should express what the research is about, giving the reader a glimpse of the nature of the
proposed investigation. It should include the most important words and key ideas. Choice of words
and syntax are crucial. One can make use of active verbs instead of complex noun-based phrases
and should avoid unnecessary details.
Example:
Better: Visual acuity in infants
Avoid: Studies on the development of objective techniques for monitoring the development of visual
acuity in infants
Avoid using fillers and non-communicative devices, such as: A study of...; An exploratory study to
determine...; An examination of...; A method to explore...
25
Rather formulate a title like the following examples:
• The influence of leadership on work performance motivation
• Effective management of healthy school environments
• Suicide prevention among learners in Northern Free State schools
3.1.2 Factors that influence the selection of a suitable title

There are few factors – which are indicated in the literature – that influence the selection of a suitable
topic. These include:
• relevance of the research to existing knowledge. Research must enhance existing knowledge
about the topic;
• relevance of the research to a practical need – i.e., if the research will be of interest to others or
address specific needs related to practice or policy;
• relevance in terms of timeliness – thus, if the research will be well-received in respect of current
issues;
• relevance to the researcher – corresponding with the personal agenda of the researcher;
• not being knowledgeable about the chosen topic.
All the above factors have a bearing on the choice of a research topic. Selecting a research topic
and considering and planning the initial stages of the research are the most difficult aspects of such
an undertaking.
After formulating a topic, the next step is to identify the key variables of interest. Research projects
are based on variables.
3.1.3 Key variables in a title

Research projects are based on variables. A variable is the characteristic or attribute of an individual,
group, educational system, or the environment that is of interest in a study. A variable is either a
result of some force or is itself the force that causes a change in another variable. It has a quantity
or quality that varies. Variables differ in that they can be straightforward and easy to measure or
more complex. Examples of variables that are easy to measure include gender, age, or course of
study, whereas socio-economic status, academic achievement, or attitude toward school can be
complex. Variables may also include an aspect of the education system, such as a specific teaching
method or counselling programme. Other examples of variables may include the amount of school
funding or availability of computers. Variables are not always quantitative as they can be related to
a phenomenon in a qualitative study.
Another important difference of variables is the distinction between an independent and dependent
variable. A dependent variable is the variable in which a researcher is interested. Changes to the
dependent variable are what the researcher is trying to measure using research techniques. The
dependent variable is affected by the independent variable. The researcher manipulates the
independent variable to determine if it causes change in the dependent variable; for example,
through a treatment or programme or cause. The independent variable is the thing over which the
researcher has control and is manipulating. It is important for the researcher to identify the key
variables in his/her study as they provide focus.
This distinction between variables is particularly relevant when one is investigating cause-effect
relationships.
Example, in a topic: The effects of CAPS on student achievement. CAPS is an independent variable
and measures of achievement are the dependent ones.
26
After having studied the above sections, do the following:
1. State a problem you would like to investigate.
2. Formulate a title with two variables for this problem.
3. Distinguish between the dependent and independent variables in your title and elaborate on the
reasons for the differences.
Study section 3.2

The importance of research questions
A research question specifies what is being studied. It serves as a guide to appropriate research
literature and other sources. It provides one with a focus for data collection. According to Creswell
(2012), research questions narrow down the purpose of the research to specific questions that the
researcher would like answered or addressed in the study.
Study section 3.9 in Introduction to research in education for student teachers and Chapter 1 (First
Steps in research) of the prescribed textbooks to gain an understanding of the importance of
research questions.
27
3.2.1 Features of good research questions
The focus of research questions in qualitative and quantitative research differs. In quantitative
research, the research question is more explicit, taking into consideration the concepts and variables
in the title. Researchers formulate primary and secondary questions for their research. A research
question is the question around which you centre your research.
The following are characteristics of good research questions:
• clearly formulated and unambiguous
• concise
• operationalisable, as they can be executed or implemented in practice
• open-ended, posed in a manner that does not suggest an obvious answer
• theoretically rich, raising and generating other research questions
• self-explanatory and do not need further elaboration
• grammatically correct, posed by a researcher with an eye on detail and meticulous on the use of
words.
Research questions can be focused or unfocused; the former helps researchers to stick to what is
to be studied.
Steps in research) of the prescribed textbooks to gain an understanding of what the qualities of good
research questions are.
3.2.2 The categories of research questions

There are three categories of research questions: descriptive, explanatory, and exploratory.
Descriptive questions answer ‘how’ and ‘what’ questions. Explanatory research answers ‘why’
questions. These questions invite theory and theoretical explanation. Exploratory questions are used
under specific conditions. Exploratory research is used to explore the dimensions of a complex
problem about which there is not much information. It is not unusual to have all three types of
questions in a research project.
Examples:
• Descriptive – Do teachers still practise corporal punishment?
• Explanatory – Why do schools persist in administering corporal punishment even though such
practices are illegal?
• Exploratory – To what extent, if any, are students on former white campuses living socially
segregated lives?
Steps in research) in the prescribed textbooks to gain a better understanding of formulating research
questions.
28
After having studied the above section, answer the following:
Indicate whether the research questions below are good or bad and give a reason for
your answers.
1. Since smoking causes cancer, what can be done to eliminate smoking in high schools?
2. What training do teachers need to design appropriate examination questions?
3. To what extent, if any, are students on former white campuses living socially segregated lives?
4. How many children are there in your class?
5. What are the online behaviours of students doing their first degree through e-learning?
6. Formulate a good research question, then indicate whether it is a descriptive, explanatory, or

exploratory type of question. Give reasons for your answer.
7. Why do you see your research question as a good research question?
29
3.2.3 Primary and secondary research questions
There are two types of research questions: the main or primary, and secondary. The secondary
questions are more specific and give added focus to the main research question. Each secondary
question must relate directly to the main question.
Example:
Primary research question
• Are healthy school environments in the Gert Sibande District effectively managed?
Secondary research questions
• What constitutes a healthy school environment?
• What legislative principles and policies guide the management of healthy environments in
schools?
• Why are healthy school environments important in schools?
• To what extent, if any, are school managers effectively managing healthy school environments?
Secondary questions can be formulated to be addressed in literature (literature questions) or in
empirical studies (empirical questions). Both these types of questions guide the literature and
empirical investigation.
Study section 2.3.1.3in Introduction to research in education for student teachers and 1.8 in First
Steps in research to understand primary and secondary questions.
3.2.4 The difference between research questions and

interview questions
Novice researchers are often ignorant about the difference between research questions and
interview questions. Interview questions are used to collect data during the empirical investigation,
while research questions are posed at the beginning of the research to focus on a problem of interest.

After having studied the above sections, answer the following:
Formulate secondary questions from the following primary questions. After each
question, indicate whether the question is an empirical or literature question.
1. How do Grade 12 learners experience whiteboard lessons?
30
2. How do South African teachers use learning materials in CAPS?
3. Distinguish between interview questions and research questions. Give examples.
Study section 3.3

Research aim and objectives
The research aim is what you hope to achieve by the end of your research project. It should be a
clear and concise statement but expressed in general terms. The research aim and objectives
determine the scope, depth and the overall direction of the research. The objectives are about how
you intend to achieve the aim. The objectives divide the aim into several parts and address each
part separately. They include the specific means of answering the research question that you have
posed as well as the details of the key issues involved.
Example
Title: An investigation into students’ use of e-books at the North-West University
Aim: Many academic libraries have expanded their library provision by the acquisition of e-books.
Despite this strategic direction, the literature reveals that relatively little is known about student
perceptions of and attitudes towards e-books. Therefore, the aim of this study is to conduct empirical
research into student perceptions of e-books and their frequency of use. The results will be used to
make recommendations to library management to improve the quality of service provision of e-
books.
Research objectives:
The above aim will be accomplished by fulfilling the following research objectives:
31
• Review the literature on student uptake and experience of e-books in academic libraries.
• Investigate perceptions of students on the usage of e-books at the North-West University.
• Compare usage statistics between various user-groups, e.g. full-time, part-time, course type, etc.
• Determine if any improvements or alterations are required so as to facilitate high service-quality
provision regarding e-books at the North-West University library.
Study section 3.4

The research problem
According to Gall, Gall and Borg (2006), a research problem, or phenomenon, is the topic one would
like to address, investigate, or study, whether descriptively or experimentally. A research problem is
often called a phenomenon in qualitative research. The research problem is a general statement of
an issue meriting research (Walliman, 2006). Creswell (2012) also indicates that a research problem
is a general educational issue, concern or controversy addressed in research that narrows down the
topic.
As Leedy and Ormrod (2013) state, ‘at the heart of any research project is a problem’. This means
that, if there is no problem, there is no research. A research problem is a statement about an area
of concern, a condition to be improved upon, a difficulty to be eliminated, or a troubling question that
exists in scholarly literature, theory, or practice that point to the need for meaningful understanding
and deliberate investigation (Bryman, 2007).
The research problem must reveal the relevance of why one embarks on the investigation. It must
elucidate the significance of why one is doing research. A research problem that does not offer an
intellectual pathway towards adding new knowledge or clarifying prior knowledge, fails the ‘so what’
test.
Example of a bad research problem:

‘The problem in this school is lack of effective management.’
This only leads to a research problem where:
• the need is for effective management;
• the objective is to have effective managers;
• the method is to plan for the training of managers; and
• the evaluation is to measure if there is effective management or not.
Example of a good research problem:
The escalating violence in schools due to students possessing weapons.
32
Study chapter 3 in Introduction to research in education for student teachers and for
additional reading Chapter 3 in McMillan and Schumacher (2010) and answer the
following questions.
1. How would you identify a research topic?
2. How would you justify your choice?
3. How would you narrow down your topic to help you select a particular research problem?

After having studied this study unit, do the following:
1. Clearly distinguish between a research question and a research problem.
33
2. Formulate a research problem.
3. From the research problem, formulate a primary research question and a research aim.
4. Formulate a title based on the research question and aim.
5. Develop three secondary questions related to the primary research question and title.
6. Develop three objectives related to the secondary research questions.
34
References
Bryman, A. 2007. The research question in social research: what is its role? International Journal of
Social Research Methodology, 10(2007):5-20.
Creswell, J.W. 2012. Educational research: planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative and
qualitative research. Boston: Pearson.
Gall, M.D., Gall, J.P. & Borg, W.R. 2006. Educational research: an introduction. 8th ed. Boston: Allyn
& Bacon.
Pearson.
MacMillam JH & Schumacher, S. 2010. Research in Education: evidence-based inquiry. Pearson
Education Inc
Walliman, N. 2006. Social research methods. London: Sage.
Reflection
35
Study unit 4
AN INTRODUCTION TO THE QUALITATIVE
RESEARCH METHOD
Study hours
Learning outcomes
be able to:
• demonstrate an understanding of what a qualitative research method
entails;
• discuss qualitative research designs, namely phenomenology, narrative
inquiry, ethnography, case studies, and grounded theory;
• distinguish between different qualitative research designs;
• define and describe qualitative sampling methods;
• define and describe qualitative data collection methods;
• define and describe qualitative data analysis methods;
• explain how trustworthiness is ensured in qualitative research; and
• critically evaluate the applicability of qualitative research designs in
education research studies.
Study material
Chapter 5 in Introduction to research in education for student teachers. Noordbrug:
Keurkopié.)
Chapters 4–6 in the prescribed textbook (Maree, K. 2020. First steps in research.
3rd ed. Pretoria: Van Schaik.
Introduction
In this study unit, you will learn what a research design is, what qualitative research entails, how to
ensure trustworthiness in a qualitative study and how to critically evaluate the applicability of
qualitative research designs in an education research study. This study unit is divided into eight
sections that will help you to master the outcomes of this study unit.
Study section 4.1

Elements of a research design
Research designs are plans, strategies and procedures for research comprising decisions, from the
underlying worldviews to the detailed methods of data collection.
36
A research design describes:
• how the study will be (was) conducted;
• it summarises the procedures for conducting the study, including when, from whom, and under
what conditions the data will be (were) obtained.
In other words, the research design indicates:
• the general plan how the research is set up;
• what happens to the respondents/participants;
• what methods of data collection are used.
Research designs can be divided into two main groupings, namely empirical research designs and
non-empirical research designs.
Under non-empirical research, we identify historical, discursive, meta-analytical and theoretical
research.
Our focus is on empirical research designs.
Qualitative
research
Research
designs
Quantitative
research
Figure 4.1: Two research designs

This study unit focuses only on qualitative research, and the following Study unit 5 focuses on
quantitative research.
Creswell suggests that qualitative and quantitative research designs should not be viewed as
opposite poles but as the different ends of a continuum. ‘A study tends to be more quantitative than
qualitative or vice versa’ (Creswell, 2009:3).
The distinction between qualitative and quantitative research is often proclaimed as:
• using words (qualitative) rather than numbers (quantitative);
• using close-ended questions (quantitative) rather than open-ended questions (qualitative).
Qualitative research is collecting, analysing, and interpreting data by observing what people do and
say. In contrast, quantitative research refers to counts and measures of things. Qualitative research
refers to the meaning, concepts, definitions, characteristics, metaphors, symbols, and descriptions
of things.
Study section 4.2

Qualitative research
Qualitative research can be defined as ‘a means for exploring and understanding the meaning
individuals or groups ascribe to a social or human problem’ (Creswell, 2009:4). The process of
qualitative research involves:
• emergence of questions and procedures;
• data collected in the participants’ setting;
• inductive data analysis, building from particular to general themes;
37
• focus on individual meaning; and
• a description of the complexity of the situation (Creswell, 2009:4).
In general,
• qualitative research is collecting, analysing and interpreting data by observing what people do
and say;
• qualitative research refers to the meanings, concepts, definitions, characteristics, metaphors,
symbols, and descriptions of things;
• using words through open-ended questions.

Using the knowledge you have acquired by reading section 4.3 in First steps in
research and Chapter 5 in Introduction to research in education for student teachers,
write a paragraph of 100 to 150 words, summarising your understanding of what
qualitative research entails.
Study section 4.3

Qualitative strategies
Although approaches such as participatory action research, discourse analysis, and others not
mentioned, are also feasible to conduct qualitative research, the focus in this module is on
ethnography, grounded theory, case studies, phenomenological research, and narrative research.
38
Ethnography
Grounded theory
Qualitative Case studies
Phenomenological
research
Narrative research
Read Section 5.4 in Introduction to research in education for student teachers and 5.2 in First Steps
in Research to gain an understanding of five qualitative strategies (approaches).
Ethnography: ‘a strategy of inquiry in which the researcher studies an intact cultural group in a
natural setting over a prolonged period of time by collecting, primarily, observational and interview
data’ (Creswell, 2009:13).
Grounded theory: ‘a strategy of inquiry in which the researcher derives a general, abstract theory
of a process, action, or interaction grounded in the views of participants’ (Creswell, 2009:13).
Case studies: a strategy of inquiry in which the researcher explores in depth a program, event,
activity, process, or one or more individuals. Cases are bounded by time and activity, and
researchers collect detailed information using a variety of data collection procedures over a
sustained period of time (Stake, 2000).
Phenomenological research: ‘a strategy of inquiry in which the researcher identifies the essence
of human experiences about a phenomenon as described by the participants’ (Creswell, 2009:13).
Narrative research- ‘a strategy of inquiry in which the researcher studies the lives of individuals and
asks one or more individuals to provide stories about their lives’ (Creswell, 2009). The researcher
retells this information in the form of a narrative chronology. The narrative combines views from both
the participant’s life and that of the researcher in a collaborative narrative (Creswell, 2009).

Discuss the different qualitative strategies of inquiry and give examples of how these
strategies are employed in education research.
39
Study section 4.4
Qualitative sampling methods
A crucial step in research is the selection of the participants or individuals who will participate in the
research (being interviewed, observed, to fill in questionnaires, etc.). When you want to know
something about a certain group of people (i.e. the population), you must find a few members of this
group and study them. Sampling is the process of selecting these individuals from the population.
Study section 5.5.1 in Introduction to research in education for student teachers and 5.3.2 in First
steps in research to familiarise yourself with types of sampling methods.
Purposive sampling is generally used in qualitative research. The following are criteria for sampling:
• the sampling strategy should be relevant to the conceptual framework and research questions;
• the sample should generate rich information on the phenomenon;
• the sample should enhance transferability of the findings;
• the sample should produce credible explanations;
• the sample should take ethical preconditions into consideration;
• the sampling should be feasible in terms of money and time.
40
There are four main types of non-probability sampling methods:
• convenience sampling
• quota sampling
• snowball sampling
• purposive sampling

After having studied section 5.5.1 in Introduction to research in education for student
teachers and 10.2 in First steps in research, do the following:
Distinguish between four types of non-probability sampling.
Study section 4.5

Data collection
4.5.1 Methods of data collection in qualitative research

The aim of this section is to familiarise you with some of the data collection techniques used in
qualitative research. We will not go into details of these data collection methods. To be able to
distinguish between the different data collection methods in qualitative research, read the following:
Multiple forms of data are used by qualitative researchers:
41
Observations:
• the researcher may be an outsider or a participant observer
• intentionally unstructured and free flowing
• can be problematic and lack objectivity
Interviews:
• can yield a great deal of information
• tend to be unstructured and open-ended
• occasional use of focus groups
Qualitative documents:
• public documents, such as newspapers, minutes of meetings, official reports
• private documents, such as personal journals and diaries, letters, and e-mails
Qualitative audio- and visual materials:
• photographs, art objects, videotapes, or any forms of sound.
*(Adapted from Creswell, 2009:178-181).
4.5.2 Qualitative data recording procedures

Plan data recording procedures before entering the field and identify in the proposal what data will
be recorded, as well as the procedures for recording the data.
Use an observation protocol for recording information while observing, consisting of:
• descriptive notes – portraits of the participants, a reconstruction of dialogue, a description of the
physical setting, accounts of particular events or activities;
• reflective notes – the researcher’s thoughts, such as speculation, feelings, problems, ideas,
hunches, impressions and prejudices;
• demographic information – time, place and date.
Use an interview protocol for asking questions and recording answers during an interview,
consisting of:
A heading – date, place, interviewer, interviewee.
Instructions for the interviewer to use standard procedures from one interview to another.
The questions – an ice-breaker question followed by 4 to 5 questions.
Probes for the questions – to follow up and ask an individual to explain in greater detail or to elaborate
on a statement.
Space between questions to record the answers.
A final thank-you statement to acknowledge the time the interviewee/participant spent during the
interview.
Information can be recorded by means of:
Handwritten notes
Audio recording – plan for transcription of the tape
Video recording
42
After having studied the above sections, answer the following questions:
1. What does observation as method of data collection entail?
2. What are the differences between individual interviews and focus group interviews?
3. What are the different types of interviews?
43
4. What are the limitations of focus group interviews?
Study section 4.6

Data analysis and interpretation of qualitative research
By now you would have realised that words are used in qualitative research designs. Data analysis
in qualitative research usually entails working with textual data (in words).
Read sections 6.2.1 – 6.2.5 & 6.3.2 (First steps in research) and 5.7 in Introduction to research in
education for student teachers on the approaches to and process of qualitative data analysis.
Creswell recommends the following steps:
1. Organise and prepare the data for analysis.
2. Read through the data to obtain a general sense of the information and to reflect on the overall
meaning.
3. Start with the coding of the data.
4. Identify general categories or themes (and possible subthemes) and classify the data
accordingly.
5. Integrate and summarise the data.
6. Develop an interpretation or meaning of the data.
Study section 4.7

Trustworthiness in qualitative research
Trustworthiness is of the utmost importance in qualitative research. Assessing trustworthiness is
the acid test of your data analysis, findings and conclusions (Nieuwenhuis, 2019:143).
‘Trustworthiness refers to the way in which data are collected, sorted and classified, especially if
they are verbal and textual’ (Di Fabio & Maree, 2012:140). In qualitative research, the use of multiple
data collection methods (e.g., observations and interviews) could enhance the trustworthiness of the
research.
44
Four criteria that should be considered by qualitative researchers in pursuit of a trustworthy study
are:
• Credibility – questions that are often asked to deal with credibility are “How congruent are the
findings with reality? How do I ensure that the reader will believe my findings” (Nieuwenhuis,
2020:145). There are various strategies that can be employed to ensure credibility, one
example is to have a research design that is aligned with the research question(s)
(Nieuwenhuis, 2020:144).
• Transferability – invites readers to connect a research study with their own experience or
research (Nieuwenhuis, 2020:144). For transferability to be possible, the researcher must
provide a thick description (detailed descriptions of context, participants, and research design)
and make use of purposive sampling (Nieuwenhuis, 2020:145)
• Dependability – closely related to credibility (Nieuwenhuis, 2020:145). According to
Nieuwenhuis (2020:146) “Dependability is demonstrated through the research design and its
implementation; the operational detail of data-gathering; and the reflective appraisal of the
project”.
• Confirmability – is the “degree of neutrality or the extent to which the findings of a study are
shaped by the participants and not by researcher bias, motivation, or interest” (Nieuwenhuis,
2020:145)
Read section 5.8in Introduction to research in education for student teachers and 6.7 in First steps
in research on trustworthiness in qualitative research.

After having studied the above sections, answer the following questions:
1. What is trustworthiness?
2. What are the four criteria for trustworthiness that should be considered by qualitative researchers?
Discuss these criteria.
45
Study section 4.8
Application of qualitative research designs in education
research
Do the following two individual activities:

Read the scenario below and then answer the questions that follow.
The implementation of formative assessment practices at a former model-C secondary school in

Gauteng
This research reports on a case study about ex-model C secondary school teachers’ interpretations
of how they implement formative assessment in their Physical Science classrooms. The key purpose
of the study was to elicit data on how ex-model C secondary school Physical Science teachers
understand and incorporate notable aspects of formative assessment into their teaching practices.
Individual, semi-structured interviews were conducted, enabling participants to reflect upon their
personal experiences and practices. Ten interviewees were chosen based on their relative
experience as secondary Physical Science teachers. In addition, the classroom practices of all the
interviewees were directly observed during predetermined periods without influencing the classroom
dynamics. The conclusion was that the 10 participants would be sufficient to reach data saturation.
1. Formulate the primary research question that directs this study.
2. Identify three phrases from the excerpt that could guide the literature review for this study.
46
3. Ten research participants were selected as the sample for the study. List three possible criteria
applied by the researcher for selecting these participants.
4. What sampling technique was used by the researcher?
5. What is the meaning of the term ‘data saturation’?
6. What measures could the researcher put in place to ensure that the raw data that were collected
through semi-structured interviews and direct observations are trustworthy?

Read the scenario below and answer the questions that follow.
47
A grade 12 Mathematics educator started to use interactive whiteboard lessons. She decided to
determine how the Grade 12 learners experience the interactive whiteboard lessons. She compiled
an open-ended questionnaire and approached the Department of Education and her principal for
permission to conduct this study at her high school. Thereafter, she wrote a letter to the learners and
to their parents in which she explained the project in detail. In addition to the letter, she verbally
explained the project to the learners. She also stressed that participation was voluntary, that learners’
identities would not be revealed when she writes up the findings of her study, and that learners could
withdraw from the project at any time. She asked the learners to assent to participation and she
asked their parents to give consent. Both learners and parents signed assent/consent forms.
Eighty of the learners agreed to participate and returned the necessary forms. The researcher met
with these learners at a prearranged time after school and asked them to complete the questionnaire.
1. Identify and discuss the research design used in the scenario. Use evidence from the scenario to
substantiate your answer.
2. What strategy of inquiry is used in this study?
3. What method of data collection is used in this study?
4. Formulate an aim for the research in the scenario.
5. Formulate a research question for the research in the scenario.
48
6. Discuss four ethical principles that the researcher adhered to.
7. Differentiate between probability and non-probability sampling and give two examples of each
type.
References
Creswell, J.W. 2009. Research design: qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches.
3rd ed. Los Angeles: Sage.
Di Fabio, A. & Maree, J.G.K. 2012. Ensuring quality in scholarly writing. In: Maree, J.G.K., ed.
Complete your thesis or dissertation successfully: practical guidelines. Cape Town: Juta. pp. 136-
144.
Nieuwenhuis, J. 2020. Analysing qualitative data. In: Maree K., ed. First steps in research. Pretoria:
Van Schaik. 3rd ed. pp. 118-155.
Stake, R. E. 2000. Case studies. In: Denzin, N.K. & Lincoln, Y.S., eds. Handbook of qualitative
research. 2nd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. pp. 236-247.
49
Reflection
50
Study unit 5
AN INTRODUCTION TO THE QUANTITATIVE
RESEARCH METHOD
Study hours
Learning outcomes
be able to:
• demonstrate an understanding of what a quantitative research method
entails;
• discuss quantitative research designs, namely experimental and non-
experimental designs;
• distinguish between quantitative research designs;
• define and describe quantitative sampling methods;
• define and describe quantitative data collection methods;
• define and describe quantitative data analysis methods;
• explain how reliability and validity is ensured in quantitative research; and
• critically evaluate the applicability of quantitative research designs in
educational research studies.
Study material
Keurkopié.)
Chapters 5, 8–13 in prescribed textbook (Maree, K. 2020. First steps in research.
3rd ed. Pretoria: Van Schaik.)
Introduction
In this study unit, you will learn what quantitative research entails, how to ensure reliability and
validity in a quantitative study, and how to critically evaluate the applicability of quantitative research
designs in an education research study. This study unit is divided into nine sections that will help
you to master the outcomes of this study unit.
51
Study section 5.1
Elements of a research design
Review Study Unit 4.1 to remind yourself about what a research design is and what the different
elements of a research design are.
Below is a repetition of the figure in Study Unit 4 to remind you of the research designs.
Qualitative
research
Research
designs
Quantitative
research
Figure 5.1: Research designs
Study section 5.2

Quantitative research
Quantitative research can be defined as ‘a means for testing objective theories by examining the
relationship among variables’ (Creswell, 2009:4). These variables can be measured using
instruments, and the numbered data can be analysed by the use of statistical instruments.
Quantitative research involves:
• assumptions about testing theories deductively;
• the building of protection against bias; and
• generalisation and replication of findings (Creswell, 2009:4).
Study section 5.3

Types of quantitative research designs
Creswell (2009:11) describes strategies of inquiry as ‘types of qualitative and quantitative methods,
designs or models that provide specific direction for procedures in a research design’. The figure
below provides an overview of the strategies of inquiry in quantitative research designs discussed in
this module.
Survey research
Quantitative
strategies of inquiry
Experimental research
Figure 5.2: Quantitative strategies of inquiry
52
Read the following sections in your prescribed textbook to familiarise yourself with what some these
research strategies entail.
Quantitative strategies
Survey research
Experimental research
Defining surveys and experiments
Survey design: Provides a quantitative or numeric description of trends, attitudes, or opinions of a
population by studying a sample of that population. The researcher generalises to and makes
assumptions about the population (Creswell, 2009:145).
Experimental design: The aim of an experimental design is to test the impact of an intervention or
treatment, controlling other factors that might influence the outcome. Researchers randomly assign
individuals to groups as a form of control. One group receives the treatment and the control group
does not (Creswell, 2009:146).

After having studied the above sections, answer the following question:
What are the differences between non-experimental and experimental research?
Study section 5.4

Quantitative sampling methods
An important step in research is the selection of the participants or individuals who will participate in
the research (being interviewed, observed, to fill in questionnaires, etc.). When you want to know
something about a certain group of people (i.e. the population), you must find a few members of this
group and study them. Sampling is the process of selecting these individuals from the population.
Population: A research population is usually a large collection of people that is the main focus of a
research inquiry. For example, all the primary school teachers in a province.
A sample: A sample is a smaller group of people that are taken from the research population. In
quantitative research, the sample should usually be representative of the population. If the sample
is representative of the population, the research findings regarding the sample can be generalised
to the whole population.
53
After having studied sections 5.5 and 6.6 Introduction to research in education for
student teachers and 10.2.1 in First steps in research , do the following:
1. Distinguish between probability and non-probability sampling.
2. What is the difference between stratified sampling and cluster sampling?
Study section 5.5

Data collection
Methods of data collection in quantitative research
The aim of this section is to familiarise you with some of the data collection techniques used in
quantitative research. By now you already know that there are two different research designs in
quantitative research, namely experimental and survey research. Each one of these designs require
different methods of data collection.
In experimental research, the participants are usually divided into two groups, namely an
experimental group and control group, and different types of tests could be used to collect data.
Usually, a pre-test will be given to participants in both groups, then the experimental group will
undergo some sort of intervention or treatment, but not the control group. After the intervention, both
groups will be given a test again, namely a post-test.
In survey research, Likert-type questionnaires are usually used as method of data collection.
54
Example of a Likert-type questionnaire:
Read each statement as if it commences with:
As far as my psychological welfare is concerned, my
Some extent
Large extent
Small extent
school principal..........................
Not at all
1 can control his/her emotions 1 2 3 4
2 understands my feelings 1 2 3 4
3 demonstrates sympathy with my circumstances 1 2 3 4
4 can imagine him/her in my situation 1 2 3 4
5 can understand my point of view 1 2 3 4

1. Identify four types of survey methods of quantitative data collection
2. How would you design the data collection if you plan to make use of quantitative research?
55
Study section 5.6
Validity and reliability in quantitative research
The data collected by means of instruments (tests and questionnaires) used in quantitative research
should be valid and reliable.
5.6.1 Validity
Validity is the extent to which a concept is accurately measured by the instrument; in other words,
does the instrument measure what it is supposed to measure?

Define the term validity and then differentiate between four types of validity.
5.6.2 Reliability
Reliability is the consistency with which the instrument measures; in other words, the degree to which
the instrument measures the same way each time it is used – also referred to as the repeatability of
the instrument.
56
Study section 5.7
Data analysis
By now you would have realised that each specific research design has its own methodology in
terms of data collection and sampling. This also applies to data analysis. The analysis processes in
qualitative and quantitative methodology also differ. The main differences are that qualitative data
are usually textual data (words), whereas quantitative data are usually numerical data (numbers in
the form of statistics).
Read sections 6.8 in Introduction to research in education for student teachers and 11.1 and 12.1 in
First steps in research for an overview on quantitative data analysis.
Data analysis and interpretation in survey research (Quantitative)
Creswell (2009:151) suggests the following steps involved in analysing data:
• Report information about the number of members from the sample who return the survey.
• Discuss the method by which response bias will be determined.
Response bias – the effect of non-responses on the estimate of the survey. Bias suggests that,
should the non-respondents have responded, the responses would have changed the results in
general.
• Discuss how a descriptive analysis will be provided for all the dependent and independent
variables in the study. This analysis should specify the means, standard deviations, and range
of scores for the variables.
• If the proposal contains an instrument with scales, identify the statistical procedure (e.g., factor
analysis) that will be used.
• Name the statistics and statistical program that will be used to test the research questions or
hypotheses in the proposed study.
• Present the results in tables and figures and interpret the results from the statistical test.
*(Adapted from Creswell, 2009:151-153)
Data analysis of an experimental method plan
• Discuss the types of statistical analysis that will be used in the experiment.
• Report the descriptive statistics calculated for observations and measures at the pre-test and
post-test stages of experimental designs.
• Means
• Standard deviations
• Ranges
• Indicate the inferential statistical tests used to examine the hypotheses in the study.
*(Adapted from Creswell, 2009:166)
57
Distinguish between descriptive and inferential data analysis.
Study section 5.8

Application of quantitative research designs in
education research
It is important for you as student to be able to read academic articles and other publications,
identifying and understanding the research design and methodology used in the particular research.
Whilst reading research papers, you should be able to identify the specific design by looking at the
characteristics of qualitative and quantitative research. The following are examples of quantitative
research designs. Please read the scenarios presented and discussions that follow.
Research scenario 1
Researchers want to determine the effects of incorporating practical apparatus in Physical Science
teaching on Grade 9 learners’ academic achievement. The population will be all Grade 9 learners
in Windhoek. The sample will include at least 10 classrooms. The researchers obtain permission
from the Namibian Department of Education to do the research. Letters of informed consent are
also given to the parents of all the learners in the sample. All the learners will write a test in Physical
Science. After the test, five classrooms will receive instructions for the use of practical apparatus,
whereas the other five classrooms will receive the normal instruction without the use of practical
apparatus. At the end of 10 weeks of instruction, all the learners will again write a test in Physical
Science. The two test scores will then be compared.
58
• The research question in the above scenario can be deduced by looking at the part that tells
you exactly what the research is about. The research question probably is: What are the effects
of incorporating practical apparatus in Physical Science teaching on grade 9 learners’ academic
achievement?
• The purpose of any research is to find answers to the research question; in this instance, the
research purpose is: to determine the effects of incorporating practical apparatus in Physical
Science teaching on Grade 9 learners’ academic achievement.
• The research design in the above scenario is clearly a quantitative research design. Why?
Firstly, looking at the scenario, it is stated that the sample will include 10 classrooms. This is
quite a big sample – it could be up to 400 learners. Large samples are usually used in quantitative
research.
Secondly, the method of data collection is a quantitative method, namely tests.
• The specific quantitative research strategy (strategy of inquiry) is an experiment (experimental
research). Why?
The sample will be divided into two groups (five classrooms each); in other words, one group will
be the experimental group and the other the control group. A pre-test will be written by both
groups. The experimental group will receive an intervention or treatment (i.e. instruction with the
use of practical apparatus) and not the control group. After the treatment, both groups will write
a test again, called a post-test.
• The method of sampling is not directly indicated in the scenario; however, we know that, in
quantitative research, the method of sampling would be some sort of probability (random)
sampling.
• The method of data collection is clearly indicated in the scenario as a test (pre-test and post-
test).
• Ethical aspects that are addressed in the scenario include:
o permission from the Namibian Department of Education to do the research;
o letters of informed consent are given to the parents of all the learners.
Research scenario 2
A researcher conducted research in order to determine to what extent 500 randomly selected female
teachers understand what the task of a "mediator of learning" entails. Information was collected from
the 500 practising teachers by means of a self-constructed questionnaire. The questionnaire
collected biographical information of the teachers (age, ethnic group, experience, qualification level)
and questionnaire statements probed teachers' understanding of the concept of mediation. The
respondents could choose from four options in each question. Before administering the
questionnaire, the researcher obtained permission from the Department of Basic Education to
conduct the research as well as written consent from the teachers who participated in the research.
The construction of the questionnaire was done after a thorough literature study of what mediation
entails.
• The research question in the above scenario can be deduced by looking at the part that tells
you exactly what the research is about. The research question probably was: To what extent do
female teachers understand what the task of a ‘mediator of learning’ entails?
• The purpose of any research is to find answers to the research question; in this instance, the
research purpose was: to determine the extent to which female teachers understand what the
task of a ‘mediator of learning’ entails.
• The research design in the above scenario is clearly a quantitative research design. Why?
Firstly, looking at the scenario, it is stated that the sample included 500 teachers. Large samples
are usually used in quantitative research.
59
Secondly, the method of sampling is random sampling.
Thirdly, the data collection method was a quantitative method, namely a Likert-scale
questionnaire.
• The specific quantitative research strategy (strategy of inquiry) was a survey (survey research).
Why?
Data were collected by means of a structured questionnaire with four options. The research
provides a numeric description of the understanding of a population (i.e. what the task of a
‘mediator of learning’ entails) by studying a sample of that population.
• The method of sampling was random (probability) sampling. A random sample is representative
of the population and therefore the findings of the research can be generalised to the whole
population.
• Ethical aspects that were addressed in the scenario include:
o permission from the Department of Basic Education;
o written consent from the teachers who participated in the research.

Early intervention for children with specific language impairment by teachers with experience in
supporting their needs is critical to language acquisition. In Western Australia (WA), these children
are catered for in designated settings with specialised teachers. The length of time that these
children can access intensive instruction may be shortening, and therefore the potential effect on
their learning is crucial. The research focused on the perceived ability of mainstream teachers to
provide appropriate support for children with specific language impairments in the early years.
Teachers, education assistants, speech therapists and other professionals working at all Language
Development Centres (LDC) in WA were selected. Questionnaires were distributed to the 295
employees across the five LDCs. Permission was sought from the relevant ethics committees and
consent was obtained from the principals. A two-part questionnaire was employed. Part 1 requested
general demographic information on the participants. Part 2 was a specifically-developed scale,
focusing on the perceptions of LDC staff about the practices, policies and proposed transition to a
two-year intervention model.
Teachers from five LDCs were asked to respond to a range of issues associated with these children's
ability to cope with the proposed early re-entry into the mainstream classroom. A total of 120
responses were received from teachers, speech therapists and educational assistants that
highlighted the specialist skill set required to teach children with specific language impairments.
1. Identify the specific research design (research approach) used. Motivate your answer with
examples from the scenario.
60
2. Identify the specific strategy of inquiry (research strategy used). Motivate your answer.
3. Formulate the research question.
4. Formulate the purpose of the research.
5. What sampling method was used?
6. What data collection method was used?
61
Study section 5.9
Distinguishing between characteristics of qualitative
and quantitative approaches
Table 5.1: Distinguishing characteristics of qualitative and quantitative approaches
Qualitative research Quantitative research
To describe and explain To explain and predict
Purpose of the To understand To confirm and validate

research To explore and interpret To test theory
To build theory To measure
Holistic Focused
Unknown variables Known variables
Nature of the Flexible guidelines Established guidelines

research process Emergent methods Predetermined methods
Context-bound Somewhat context-free
Personal view Detached view
Informative, small sample Representative, large sample
Convenience sampling Probability sampling:
Purposive sampling Random sampling
Sampling
Snowball sampling Systematic sampling
Stratified sampling
Cluster sampling
Textual data Numeric data
Loosely structured or non- Standardised instruments
Data and data
standardised observations and
collection Likert-scale questionnaires
interviews
Open-ended questions Tests
Search for themes, patterns, Statistical analysis:

features and categories
Inferential and descriptive statistics
Data analysis Acknowledgement that analysis is
subjective and potentially biased Emphasis on objectivity
Inductive reasoning Deductive reasoning
Words Numbers
Communication
of research Narratives, individual quotes Statistics, aggregated data
findings
Personal voice, literary style Formal voice, scientific style
62
References
Creswell, J.W. 2009. Research design: qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches.
3rd ed. Los Angeles: Sage.
Reflection
63
Study unit 6
RESEARCH ETHICS
Study hours
Learning outcomes
be able to:
• define the concept of research ethics;
• discuss four common ethical principles;
• list some additional considerations regarding research ethics; and
• draw up a letter of consent.
Study material
Keurkopié.)
Introduction
In this study unit, you will learn what research ethics is to understand common ethical principles and
know how to draw up a letter of consent. This study unit is divided into five sections that will help you
to master the outcomes of this study unit.
Study section 6.1

Research ethics
Scientific research has not always been conducted in an ethical manner. After the Second World
War, the public’s attention was drawn to the abusive nature of the biomedical experiments conducted
on human subjects. The Nuremberg Code was drafted during the Nuremberg War Crime Trials in
1947. This Code was created as a set of standards for judging physicians and scientists who had
conducted biomedical experiments on concentration-camp prisoners. It has not been officially
accepted as law by any nation or as official ethical guidelines by any association; however, it is
considered to be the most important document in the history of clinical research ethics, which has
had a massive influence on global human rights. The Code has been used as a prototype for many
codes to ensure that research with human subjects are conducted in an ethical manner.
In 1979, the Belmont Report was released. This report attempted to summarise the basic ethical
principles and guidelines that should be used to assist in solving ethical problems experienced when
conducting research with human subjects, as highlighted by the National Commission for the
Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research, which was established in
64
1974. The Commission identified three basic principles that one must follow when conducting
research with human subjects:
1. Respect of persons
2. Beneficence
3. Justice
These three principles advocate for participants’ protection from harm, ensuring their well-being and
fair and just treatment of the participant(s) (benefits and burdens experienced by participant as a
result of the research). The application of the principles to conduct research led to the consideration
of the following requirements: informed consent; benefit-cost assessment; and the selection of the
subjects of research. The Singapore Statement on Research Integrity (2010) further highlights
principles and professional responsibilities that researchers should illustrate in research (see next
page). (For access to the document, follow the link: https://wcrif.org/documents/327-singapore-
statement-a4size/file).
65
66
The four principles and 14 responsibilities highlighted in this statement have been adopted by the
67
North-West University (NWU) in the Code of Conduct for Researchers that is signed by all
researchers conducting research at the NWU (For access, follow the link:
http://www.nwu.ac.za/content/policy_rules).
For examples on unethical social/education research, see the following links:

• https://www.onlinepsychologydegree.info/unethical-experiements-psychology/
• https://www.iflscience.com/brain/some-most-disturbing-psychological-experiments-human-
history/all/
• https://www.sociologylens.net/topics/crime-and-deviance/laud-humphreys-tearoom-trade-the-
best-and-worst-of-sociology/11418
Study section 6.2

What is research ethics?
According to Govil (2013:17), ethics ‘refers to moral principles of guiding conduct, which are held by
a group or even by a professional’. Within the field of education research, ethics has lost its credibility
due to the malpractice of education researchers (Govil, 2013:17). Govil (2013:17) argues that there
is a need for a well-defined code of conduct for education researchers so as to improve the quality
of education. Therefore, research ethics can be defined as those moral principles that guide you as
a researcher to not cause harm but rather to improve the field of practice, i.e. education.
For more information on research ethics in education research, consult Govil (2013).
Study section 6.3

Four common ethical principles
For the purpose of this unit, four common ethical principles have been identified: protection of
research participants from harm; respecting participants’ right to privacy; informed consent; and
conducting and reporting research in an honest manner.
6.3.1 Protection of research participants from harm

A good benchmark for conducting ethical sound research without exposing research participants to
unnecessary harm, is to ask the question: Is the participants’ exposure to any risk factors contained
in the research more or less equal to the same risk factors they would be exposed to in their everyday
lives? In other words, will risk factors such as stress or discomfort be the same? A risk analysis
should be carried out in every project and, where significant risks are identified, should specify a
risk-management and harm-alleviation strategy in the protocol. This can also be interpreted as the
benefit-cost ratio.
Benefit-cost ratio is a fundamental concept to the protection of participants from harm (Cohen,
Manion & Morrison, 2011:75). When conducting research, it is crucial for researchers to consider
the possible social benefits of their endeavours against the person costs of the participant.
68
6.3.2 Respecting participants’ right to privacy
The researcher should keep the nature and quality of all research participants’ performances
confidential, and performances should only be used for the purpose of the research. All responses
or behaviour of the participants should therefore be reported under pseudonyms or anonymously.
Cohen et al. (2011:90) emphasise that this extends beyond simply changing the name, because in
some settings, identities can still be recognised due to roles played by participants, when certain
events occurred, or other contextual issues arise.
6.3.3 Informed consent

It is important that research participants participate willingly and voluntary in the intended research.
Sometimes participants are approached as being people who ‘owe’ the researcher the information
that he/she is looking for. Research participants should not be ‘bullied’ to participate in any research.
‘Voluntary informed consent means that participants must have the prior knowledge of the work,
expected of them. Besides, they must also know why their participation is necessary, what the
benefits of it are and how that is affected with it’ (Govil, 2013:18). They can only decide to participate
if they are informed about two things: the nature of the research; and their participative role in the
research. Concerning the nature of the research, certain information needs to be shared with the
participants. In this regard, the researcher should provide a general idea of what the research
entails. To share too much detail may not only confuse the participants, but could also defeat the
purpose of the study as participants could start behaving in unnatural ways. Participants should also
be informed about their specific involvement (such as activities and duration of these activities) in
the research so that they can make informed decisions regarding whether they want to participate
or not. According to Govil (2013:19), obtaining written consent from participants does not imply that
they are bound to participant throughout the research process; participants have the right to withdraw
at any stage after intimating the researcher. If changes occur in the research process, participants
must be informed accordingly (Govil, 2013:19). Specifically referring to conducting research with
one’s own learners, Cohen et al. (2011:79) highlight that students must be provided adequate
opportunities to refuse participation in research, with a clear written undertaking that their refusal will
not in any way jeopardise their academic or personal standing. Furthermore, when conducting
research with individuals younger than 18 years, they may give assent, but consent from legal
guardians or parents is needed to conduct the research (Cohen et al., 2011:79).
6.3.4 Conducting and reporting research in an honest

manner
It was mentioned in a previous study unit that plagiarism and copying are unacceptable in scientific
research. In addition to acknowledging sources and giving credit where it is due, some other factors
should also be considered to ensure the trustworthiness of the research. Other serious offences
impacting on the trustworthiness of scientific research are the misrepresentation and fabrication of
data. When such actions are intentional, it does not only mislead others but also constitute highly
unethical behaviour. Sometimes researchers are caught up in their own thinking when the results
of the research are anticipated. When data analysis points to different findings than anticipated, the
researcher, for example, uses manipulation techniques to ensure that results correlate with those
anticipations. By so doing, the ‘real’ results are hidden and the research not only becomes unreliable
but also worthless.
69
An education researcher conducts semi-structured one-on-one interviews with 20
Grade 8 learners at a school in the North West province. Assent from the learners
and consent from their parents or legal guardians were obtained. Learners were told
that they would receive R100 if they participate in the research. During the interviews,
several of the learners opened up about problems and other challenges they
encountered with some of the teachers in the school. After the interviews, the
researcher approached the teachers and disclosed the learners’ experiences to them.
The researcher also never gave the learners the R100 remuneration.
1. Identify what common ethical principles the researcher in the above case study complied with.
And explain how these where complied with.
2. What common ethical principle(s) did the researcher NOT adhere to? What would you as the
researcher change in the research process to adhere to these principles?
Study section 6.4

Other considerations regarding research ethics
In addition to the four ethical principles mentioned in study section 6.3 (namely, protection of
research participants from harm; respecting participants’ right to privacy; informed consent; and
conducting and reporting research in an honest manner), there are also other principles that a
researcher should be mindful of during the researcher process.
70
Refer to section 3.3.16 in your prescribed textbook. Draw a table wherein you identify
and define the other ethical considerations mentioned by Kobus Maree.
For example:
Ethical consideration Definition of ethical consideration
Get permission from authorities All relevant authorities, such as the
(gatekeepers) to gain access to Department of Education, institutional
participants registrars, school governing bodies, etc.,
should be consulted, and permission to
conduct research should be granted
before participants are contacted.
Study section 6.5

Matters to be considered to obtain the informed
consent of research participants
Informed consent is a formal activity and serves as the participant(s) consenting to knowing what
the research is about, how the they will be involved, and what benefits participation holds for them.
According to Cohen et al. (2011:80), an explanation and description of the following factors should
be evident in the informed consent letter:
• the purposes, content, and procedures of the research;
• any foreseeable risks and negative outcomes, discomfort, or consequences and how they will
be managed;
• benefits that might derive from the research;
• incentives to participate, and rewards for participating;
• right to voluntary non-participation, withdrawal, and re-joining the project;
• right to and obligations for confidentiality and non-disclosure of the research, participants and
outcomes;
• disclosure of any alternative procedures that may be advantageous;
• opportunities for participants to ask questions about any aspect of the research; and
• signed contracts for participation.
71
Below is a template of an informed consent letter (Bless et al., 2013:39-40). Work
through the contents of the letter to identify which of the above-mentioned factors
(listed in study section 6.5) have been included.
(Name of institution)
(Name of principal investigator)
(name of department) (Day telephone number) (Email address)
CONSENT FORM
(TITLE OF RESEARCH PROJECT)
INVITATION TO PARTICIPATE
You are being asked to participate in this research study because (state PURPOSE)
PROCEDURES
As a participant, you will be enrolled in the study and … (State what the procedures are and what is
expected of the participant).
RISKS
Some of the questions in the questionnaire you will be completing may touch on sensitive areas.
However, every effort will be made by the researchers to minimise your discomfort. You are
encouraged to discuss with the research staff and/or coordinator any negative or difficult feelings or
experiences you have because of participating in this research project. If, at any time, you feel you
would like to stop your participation in the study, you would be free to do so.
COSTS AND FINANCIAL RISKS
There are no financial costs directly associated with participation in this project. Services from
support staff are provided at no cost to you.
BENEFITS
There is no guarantee that you will benefit directly from the study. However, the investigators believe
that it is likely that participants may benefit from attending the group interventions.
COMPENSATION
You will not receive any compensation for participating in this study.
ALTERNATIVES
Participation in this research project is entirely voluntary and you may choose not to participate.
72
CONFIDENTIALITY
Every attempt will be made by the investigators to keep all information collected in this study strictly
confidential, except as may be required by court order or by law. If any publication results from this
research, you will not be identified by name.
ADDITIONAL INFORMATION
Your participation in this study is entirely voluntary, and you are free to refuse participation. You may
discontinue your participation at any time without prejudice or without jeopardising the future care of
either yourself or your family members. If you discontinue participation in this project, you may
request that we not use the information already given to us. You are encouraged to ask questions
concerning the study at any time as they occur to you during the programme. Any significant new
findings developed during the study that may relate to your willingness to continue participation will
be provided to you.
DISCLAIMER/WITHDRAWAL
You agree that your participation in this study is completely voluntary and that you may withdraw at
any time without prejudicing your standing within (name of institution).
PARTICIPANT RIGHTS
If you have any questions pertaining to your participation in this study, you may contact the principal
investigator (name of principal investigator) by telephone (xxxx).
CONCLUSION
By signing below, you are indicating that you have read and understood the consent form and that
you agree to participate in this research study.
Participant’s signature Date
Researcher’s signature Date

Which of the factors listed in study section 6.5 have been included in the letter above?
73
References
Bless, C., Higson-Smith, C. & Sithole L.S. 2013. Fundamentals of social research methods: an
African perspective. 5th ed. Cape Town: Juta.
Cohen, L., Manion, L. & Morrison, K. 2011. Research methods in education. 7th ed. New York,
NY: Routledge.
Govil, P. 2013. Ethical considerations in educational research. International Journal of
Advancement in Education and Social Sciences, 1(2):17-22.
North-West University. 2019. Policy and rules for research ethics.
http://services.nwu.ac.za/sites/services.nwu.ac.za/files/files/research-support/documents/9P-
9.1.5_Policy%20of%20research%20ethics_eng1.pdf Date of access: 30 Sept. 2019
Singapore. 2010. Singapore Statement on Research Integrity. 2nd World Conference on
Research Integrity, Singapore, 21-24 July 2010. https://wcrif.org/documents/327-singapore-
statement-a4size/file Date of access: 26 Sept. 2019.
Reflection
74
Study unit 7
THE RESEARCH PROPOSAL
Study hours
Learning outcomes
be able to:
• explain the concept of a research proposal in your own words;
• differentiate between a research proposal and a research project;
• conduct and justify an assessment of a research proposal;
• identify different sections needed in a research proposal; and
• plan and draft the first sections of a research proposal.
Study material
Keurkopié.)
Chapter 3 in the prescribed textbook (Maree, K. 2020. First steps in research. 3rd
ed. Pretoria: Van Schaik.)
Introduction
In this study unit, you will learn what a research proposal is so as to identify the different sections of
a research proposal and know how to draft the first sections of a research proposal. This study unit
is divided into three sections that will help you to master the outcomes of this study unit.
Study section 7.1

Clarifying the concepts
A research proposal is the first step to getting your research ideas on paper and planning for the
research journey ahead. A research proposal is a planning document that guides one to find an
answer to the primary research question by illustrating the what, why and how – what you plan to
do, how you plan to do it, and why in this manner (Mouton, 2001:45; Maree, 2016:26). A well-
developed, organised, and logical research proposal provides clear proof of how much thought the
researcher has invested in the research problem (Mouton, 2001:45).
Writing a research proposal is a helpful way to set realistic objectives and procedures for initiating a
research project. It serves as a persuasive document, indicating that the research project is worth
pursuing and that it will be done in a rigorous, scientific manner. A good research proposal is always
written in clear, concise language and is logically structured.
75
1. Capture your understanding of the concept of a research proposal in not more than five sentences.
2. After having read this section, differentiate between a research paper, a research proposal, and
a research project.
Study section 7.2

Writing a research proposal
Based on the suggestions provided by Mouton (2001:58-59) and Leedy and Ormrod (2005:32-35),
a list of guidelines for writing a successful research proposal could include the following:
1) Choose your words carefully and use exact, straightforward vocabulary.
2) Use technical terms modestly and give brief explanations to clarify meanings.
3) Keep sentences simple and short to allow for a logical flow of ideas.
4) Avoid ambiguous words, phrases, and sentences.
5) Avoid monotonous words, phrases, and sentences.
6) Check carefully for errors in grammar, punctuation, and spelling.
7) Check that paragraphs are congruent with what a specific heading intends to discuss.
76
8) Ensure that all required sections of the proposal are addressed adequately and that each
section is proportionally positioned in relation to the other sections.
9) Use the active voice in your writing.
10) Keep the purpose of the proposal in mind.
11) Treat the proposal as a scientific piece of work.
12) Avoid emotional writing.
13) Do not include too many quotations.
14) Demonstrate your insight into the topic throughout by indicating that you have consulted an
array of existing sources.
15) Communicate your thought in an accessible way.
Study section 7.3

The structure of a research proposal
Although all research proposals usually reflect uniform core information, their structures may differ.
See Chapter 9 in Introduction to research in education for student teachers for a detailed discussion
on each section. The enclosed proposal checklist, compiled by Lombard (2013) and adapted by
Visser (2022), suggests the structure and sections required for compiling your research proposal.
Table 7.1: Proposal checklist
Title (See SU 3)
To be included: Yes/No
Is it clear, specific, brief and to the point?
Does it give a clear description of the research?
Does it indicate variables?
Does it indicate the population?
Introduction, orientation, background (See SU 3)
Does it provide/explain the broader background to the problem?
Does it contextualise the intended research?
Is it narrowed down to relate to the problem?
Is reference made to specific and relevant sources?
Problem (See SU 3)
To be included:
Is the problem stated in clear, unambiguous terms?
Is the problem stated in question form?
Is the problem significant and researchable?
Is there a clear correlation between the title and the problem?
Does the problem capture the essence of the intended research?
Aim/Purpose (See SU 3)
To be included Yes/No
Is the aim stated in clear, unambiguous terms?
Is the research problem rephrased into the aim?
Is there a clear correlation between the title, problem and aim?
Does the aim capture the essence of the intended research?
77
Research questions (See SU 3)
Is the problem stated in clearly focused and manageable research questions?
Is each research question related and relevant to the problem?
Research objectives (See SU 3)
Is the purpose stated in clearly focused and manageable research objectives?
Is each research objective related and relevant to the purpose of the research?
Keywords/phrases (See SU 2)
Are keywords related to the title/problem/aim?
Will these keywords assist the researcher to easily find relevant literature?
Strategies to search for relevant literature (See SU 2)
Are databases that are used to gather information listed?
Is a distinction made between different forms of possible sources on the intended research?
Conceptual framework (See SU 2)
Is evidence provided of information gathered from literature related to the title/problem/aim?
Does the conceptual framework place the intended research in context of recent research findings?
Does the conceptual framework provide for a sound theoretical basis and leading theoretical
arguments?
Research methodology (See SUs 4 & 5)
Does this section make provision for the following subsections? Yes/No
Research paradigm (although this is part of a research methodology, you will learn more about this if
you further your studies in Education)
Research design (qualitative/quantitative)
Strategy of inquiry (case study, experimental research, etc.)
Population and sample (including sampling procedure)
Data collection methods (intended measuring instruments)
Data collection process
Role of the researcher
Data analysis (e.g. intended computer programs/techniques to be used)
Quality criteria (e.g. reliability, validity, trustworthiness, etc.)
Ethical considerations (See SU 6)
Is a brief description provided on how ethics will be managed during the research?
Significance and possible contribution of the intended research
Is the research motivated by indicating its significance and contribution to the field of knowledge?
Possible challenges of the study
Are possible challenges that may affect the study mentioned?
Preliminary chapter division
Is a logical structured chapter division provided?
78
In-text references and reference list (See SU 2)
Have references to sources (in-text references) been done according to the required referencing
style?
Are all references reflected in the reference list?
Is the reference list compiled according to the required techniques (NWU Harvard referencing
style)?
Are at least TEN sources listed?
Language and Technical care
Is the use of scientific language appropriate?
Are the grammar and syntax acceptable?
Are ideas presented in an orderly fashion to provide for a logical flow of arguments?
Is the proposal structured according to the outline provided in this checklist?
Has the proposal been typed in 11-point Arial/Times New Roman font, 1.5 line spacing?
Does the proposal NOT exceed 5 to 8 pages (excluding reference list)?
Is a separate cover page with all student particulars provided?
Is the FULL proposal attached?
Is the marking scheme attached?
Appendices
Is a data collection instrument included?
Is the data collection instrument aligned with the rest of the proposal?
Does the data collection instrument satisfy the criteria of a ‘good’ instrument?
Is a participant consent form included?
Is the participant consent form aligned with the rest of the proposal?
Does the participant consent form satisfy the criteria of a ‘good’ consent form?
In this unit, you were introduced to the concept of a research proposal. By considering the definition
and purpose of a research proposal and adhering to the writing guidelines, the suggested structure
of a proposal and your lecturer’s instructions, you should now be able to compile your own research
proposal.
References
Pearson.
Mouton, J. 2001. How to succeed in your master’s and doctoral studies: a South African guide and
resource book. Pretoria: Van Schaik.
Reflection
79
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RESF 412

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Dit begin alles hier

Gotlhe go simolola fano

Module credits 8 Credits

Module name Research in Education

Time allocation Learning outcomes

Individual exercise Group Activity

Warning against plagiarism

Study section 1.1

1.1.1 Specific levels and worlds of research

• Theories, models, typologies

Problem statement – design – methodology – conclusions

World 1: World of everyday life

1. In your own words, how would you describe research?

2. Why do you think it is important for a teacher to learn about research?

3. What is the difference between formal and informal research?

Figure 1.2: The research cycle (Leedy & Ormrod, 2015)

Study section 1.3

Study section 1.4

2.1.1 Finding literature

Individual activity 2.1

Details of the article

Individual activity 2.3

1. In your own words, explain what plagiarism is.

2. What is your plan of action to avoid plagiarism?

2.1.3.3 Using the NWU Harvard referencing style

Chapter in a collected work

a chapter in a book, and

2.1.4.1 Background to a literature review

2.1.4.2 Reasons for conducting a literature review

Individual activity 2.6

Figure 2.1: How to do a literature review

2.1.4.4 Structure of a literature review

Individual activity 2.8

3.1.1 How to formulate a title

3.1.2 Factors that influence the selection of a suitable title

3.1.3 Key variables in a title

1. State a problem you would like to investigate.

2. Formulate a title with two variables for this problem.

Study section 3.2

3.2.2 The categories of research questions

2. What training do teachers need to design appropriate examination questions?

4. How many children are there in your class?

6. Formulate a good research question, then indicate whether it is a descriptive, explanatory, or

7. Why do you see your research question as a good research question?

3.2.4 The difference between research questions and

Individual activity 3.3

3. Distinguish between interview questions and research questions. Give examples.

Study section 3.3

Study section 3.4

Example of a bad research problem:

1. How would you identify a research topic?

2. How would you justify your choice?

Individual activity 3.5

1. Clearly distinguish between a research question and a research problem.

4. Formulate a title based on the research question and aim.

6. Develop three objectives related to the secondary research questions.

Study section 4.1