PLANT ANATOMY CPE 213

LECTURE ONE

The Primary Plant Body

Introduction
This lecture deals with the development of primary plant body. The various cell types and tissues
are then discussed in sufficient details which allow the understanding of subsequent lectures.

Objectives
At the end of this lecture, you should be able to:
1. discuss the development of the primary plant body; and
2. describe the internal organization of the primary plant body.

Pre-Test
1. The shoot apex gives rise to a.
2. Ground tissue gives rise to b. and c .
3. Xylem is a d tissue.
4. The conducting units of angiosperns are e.

CONTENT
Development of Primary Plant Body
Vascular plants begin life as a simple unicellular structure known as zygote which is usually
derived from the fusion of female and male gametes. By the process of cell division or growth,
development and differentiation the zygote forms the embryo and later a young plant or
sporophyte. This growth development and differentiation leads to the formation of polarity -
Root apex and Shoot apex.
The shoot apex gives rise to the shoot which consists of primary stem, leaves and flowers while
the root apex gives rise to the root. The apices are the growing points and they are separated by
an intermediate structure known as hypocotyl or transition zone because it combines the
characteristics of shoot and root. At the growing point is the meristem which is the region of cell
production and development or region of the cell and tissue initiation. It includes the vascular
cambium and the cork cambium.
The two apical meristems are the source of the primary plant body. The production of stem and
leaves is called vegetative growth and this type of growth is periodic. There is a sequence in the
development of primary plant body. At the very tip are groups of cells which constitute the
promeristem - produce new cells which show no sign of differentiation i.e.cells similar in
structure. They have large nuclei and small vacuoles and production of cells in this region

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involves increase in volume or growth.

Development and differentiation result in three main types of cells or tissues.

1. Protoderm which gives rise to epidermal system
2. Procambium which will be the initial vascular system. The procambial strand are known
to appear at certain points, hence they are discrete.
3. Ground meristem which will give rise to cortex and pith.
Once each of these units (protoderm, procambium and ground tissue) is formed, a process of
development and differentiation begins. The cells of the protoderm changes to form cells found
in epidermal system. Cells in the ground tissue undergo changes leading to formation of cells
found in the cortex and pith. The procambial strands undergo differentiation to form cells of
primary xylem and primary phloem.
The plant body produced entirely by the apical meristem is described as primary. In plants where
the procambial strands persist to form the vascular cambium, the body derived from the
cambition is secondary. The cells formed by the promeristem can change morphologically and
physiologically and can form different structures that can perform different functions - In this
process we have what is referred to as growth development differentiation.
Differentiation may be described as process of change by which cells become recognizably
different both from the cells which have given rise to them and from neighbouring cells having
the same origin as themselves. Differentiation involves complex biochemical and biophysical
process. It is relatively easy to describe the visible manifestation of differentiation but it is much
more difficult to explain the formation. The "invisible" biochemical changes always precede the
"visible" morphological changes. Complex biochemical changes which ultimately results in cell
wall thickening occur much earlier than thickening of the wall itself. The biochemical changes
are sometimes summed up as physiological changes and the physiological changes result in the
formation of visible anatomical changes. Differentiation of organs and tissues in plants is not
random but an orderly process which goes on according to species. The whole process in
controlled.

Internal Organisation of Primary Plant Body

The cells of vascular plants are of several different kinds. They are combined into tissues in a
way that different parts of the same organ may vary greatly from one another. Cells and tissues
are arranged in definite pattern and not randomly.
A tissue is a group of cells of the same type or of mixed type, with a common origin, performing
an identical function.

Epidermal Tissue
It is the outermost layer of the plant body. It is therefore in direct contact with the environment.
The epidermis of the stem leaves and floral parts originate from the dermatogen that is the
surface layer of the apical meristem. However, the epidermises of the roots originate from the
root apical meristem which is covered by the root cap.
Epidermis usually consists of a single layer of cells but sometimes as in the case of Indian rubber
plant; Oleander, e.t.c. it may be a few layers and it is referred to as multiple epidemis. Epidermal

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cells are usually parenchymatous in nature with some cytoplasm lining the cell wall and a large
vacuole filled with colourless cell sap.

The inner and the radial walls of epidermal cell are thin, while the outer wall is thick and usually
become impregnated with cutin and/or suberin. Cutinisation and suberisation may extend to the
radial walls. The cutinized layer (cuticle) acts as hard coating which protects the inner cells from
loss of water and injury.

The functions of the epidermis are:

1. protection of internal tissues against mechanical injury, excessive heat or cold;
temperature fluctuation, attack of parasitic fungi and bacteria;
2. prevention of excessive evaporation of water from the internal tissues;
3. protection against intense illumination and excessive radiation;
4. protection against herbivorous animals;
5. can act as storehouse of water as in desert plants; and
6. it is involved in photosynthesis and secretion.

The structure that can be found on the epidermis are:

i. root hairs;
ii. stomata; and
iii. hair (trichomes).

Parenchyma Tissue
This is an example of a simple tissue because it is composed of one type of cells only and all
perfor identical functions. Parenchymatous tissue consists of thin wall vacuolated cells with
living protoplast. The cells are often isodiametric (expanded equally on all sides). Typical
parenchymatous cells are oval, spherical or polygonal. The thin cell wall is made of cellulose
(Fig 1.1).
Parenchyma tissues are of universal occurrence in all soft parts of the plant. They form the
ground tissue and occur in piths and cortex of stem and root. They are also found in the
mesophylls of leaves and endosperm of seeds; flesh of fruit and in medullary ray. Their origin
depends on their position in the plant body. They may originate from the apical meristem,
marginal meristem of leaves, vascular cambium and from phellogen in more matured organ
where there is secondary growth.
Functions of parenchyma tissue depend on their position in plant bodies. They may be involved
in photosynthesis in leaves where they contain chloroplast and called chlorenchyma.
Chlorenchyma is also found in the peripheral region of young stems. In some aquatic plants they
store air (aerenchyma) for buoyancy. Major function of parenchyma is food storage.

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 Fig. 1.1: Parenchyma cells in Transverse section (T.S.)

Collenchyma Tissue
Collenchyma is similar to parenchyma because it is made up of living cells, but it is modified to
give support and mechanical rigidity.
Collenchyma tissue is an elongated parenchymatous cell with obligue, slightly rounded or
tapering ends. The cells are thickened at the corners against intercellular spaces. In transverse
section of stem, collenchyma cells appear circular, oval or polygonal in shape (fig 1.2) the
angular thickening (fig1.3) is due to a deposit of cellulose, hemicellulose and protopectin but the
the cells are never lignified. They have simple pits scattered in their walls. The thickened walls
have high refractive index; this makes the tissue to be very conspicuous in section under the
miscroscope.
Collenchyma tissues occur in stem, peduncle, pedicels and in leaf midribs. They are absent in
roots and monocotyledonous stems except under special cases. For example, they can be present
in roots exposed to sunlight.
Collenchyma may originate from procambium or pro-meristems, but often it is difficult to
ascertain their origin. Collenchyma is a mechanical tissue. It provides support for organs in
which it is found. It is a strengthening tissue supplementing the effects of turgid parenchyma. It
is flexible in nature, having a considerable degree of plasticity; it therefore provides support and
strength to the growing organ.

Fig 1.2: Transverse section of collenchyma showing polygonal outline

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 Fig. 1.3: Longitudinal section (L.S.) of Collenchyma Cells showing angular thickening

It is the first of the strengthening tissue to develop in the primary plant body and, because it is
living, can grow and stretch without imposing limitation on the growth of other cells around it.
It is often found just below the epidermis in the outer region of the cortex and gradually merges
into parenchyma toward the inside, forming a hollow cylinder in three dimensions.

Sclerenchyma Tissue
Sclerenchyma is made up of very long, narrow, thick and lignified cells, usually pointed at both
ends. They look like fibres in appearance. Their walls are heavily thickened that their cells
cavities are nearly obliterated. They have simple, usually oblique, pits in their walls (Fig1.4)
Sclerenchyma has conspicuous middle lamella. The primary cell wall is heavily thickened with
deposit of lignin. The deposition of lignin takes place in and on the primary cellulose cell wall
and, as the walls thicken, the living contents of the cells are lost with the result that the mature
cells are dead.

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 Fig 1.4: T.S. of Sclerenchyma

There are two types of sclerenchyma cells - (1) Fibres, which are elongated cells (Fig 1.5) and
(2) sclereids or stone cells, which are roughly spherical (Fig 1.6).

Fig. 1.5 : Fibre Fig. 1.6 : Sclereid

Functions and Distribution of Fibres

Sclerenchyma fibres are strong because of their lignified walls. Collectively their strength is
enhanced by their arrangement into strands or sheets of tissue that extend for considerable
distances in a longitudinal direction. Also, the ends of the cells interlock with one another,
increasing their combined strength.
Fibres are found in the pericycle of stem, forming a solid rod of tissue "capping" the vascular
bundles of dicotyledons. Fibres usually form a layer in the cortex below the epidermis of stems
or roots, in the same way as collenchyma, producing a hollow cylinder that contains the rest of
the cortex and vascular tissues. Fibres also occur in both xylem and phloem.

Function and Distribution of Sclereids

Sclereids are generally scattered singly or in groups almost anywhere in the plant body. They are
most common in the cortex, pith, phloem and in fruits and seeds. Sclereids provide firmness,
rigidity on those structures where they occur depending on their number and position. They
occur in small group in the flesh of pear iruits and are responsible for the "grittiness" of these
fruits when eaten. In some cases they form very resilient, solid layer, as in the shells of nut and
the stone (endocarp) of stone fruits. In seeds they commonly toughen the testa (seed coat).

Xylem Tissue
Xylem is a complex tissue. During the primary growth of the plant, xylem differentiates from the
procambial which is situated immediately below the growing apex of the root or shoot, Xylem
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when fully developed consists of different kinds of elements. The first elements of the primary
xylem to differentiate and mature are the protoxylem and those which mature later are the
metaxylem. According to the structure of the xylem elements they are classified as follows:
1. tracheids;
2. vessels;
3. wood parenchyma (xylem parenchyma); and
4. wood fibre (xylem fibre).

1. Tracheid
The fundamental cell type in the xylem is the tracheid. Tracheids are elongated tube-like cells
with hard, thick and lignified walls. They have large cell cavity. Their ends are tapering, either
rounded or chisel-like, less frequently pointed. The cells are dead and empty; their walls have
one or more rows of bordered pits (fig. 1.7) Tracheids may also be annular, spiral, scalariform or
pitted (with single pits). In transverse section they are mostly angular, either polygonal or
rectangular (Fig. 1.8). They occur in association with vessels in wood of angiosperm. As a result
of lignified and hard walls they give strength to the plant body although their main function is
conduction of water from the root to the leaf.
Tracheids and vessel differ from each other in that the tracheids are imperforate cells having only
pit-pairs on their common walls, whereas vessel member are perforated in certain area of union
with other vessel members.

Fig. 1.7 Fig. 1.8 Tracheid

3. Vessels
Vesse1s are the conducting units of angiosperm xylem. They are very long, tubular structures
formed by the fusion of several cells pla.ced end to end in a row. Each of the cells forming a
xylem vessel is equivalent to a tracheid and is called a vessel element. However, vessel elements
are shorter and wider than tracheids. The first xylem to appear in the growing plant is called
primary xylem and develops in the root and shoot apices. Differentiated xylem element appears

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in rows at the edges of the procambial strands. A vessel is formed when the neighbouring vessel
elements of a given row fuse as a result of their end walls breaking down. A series of rims' is left
around the inner side of the vessel marking the remains of the end walls fig. 1.9.

Fig. 1.9: Xylem vessel

3. Wood Parenchyma
Parenchyma cells are common in xylem of many plants, these parenchyma are called wood
parenchyma. They serve as food storage and are thought to be associated with conduction
directly or indirectly.

4. Wood Fibres
These are sclcrcnchyma cells associated with wood (xylem). They usually occur in woody dicot
and provide mechanical strength to the plant body.

Phloem Tissue
As in the case of xylem, the primary phloem is differentiated from the procambium while the
secondary phloem is from the vascular cambium. The phloem is also a complex tissue. The
phloem as a whole carries the prepared food materials from the leaves to the storage organ and
the growing parts of the plant.
Phloem is also known as bast and is made up of the following elements:
1. sieve elements;
2. companion cells;
3. phloem parenchyma and;
4. bast fibres

1. Sieve Elements
The sieve elements are of two types -sieve cells and sieve tube.
Sieve cells and sieve tubes are alike in fundamental structure and function. They are elongated
living cells with thin cellulose wall. Sieve cells occur in pteridophytes and gymnosperms,
whereas sieve tubes occur in angiosperm. We are primarily concerned with angiosperm and will
therefore discuss only sieve tube, Sieve-tubes are slcnder, tube-like structures, and are composed
of elongated cells, placed end to end. Their walls are thin and made of cellulose. The transverse
separtition walls perforated by a number of pores. The transverse wall looks like a sieve, and it is
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called a sieve plate (Fig 1.10 and 1.11).

Fig. 1.10 L.S. Sieve tube Fig. 1.11. T.S.Sieve tube

The sieve plate may sometimes occur in the side or longitudinal wall. At the end of the growing
season, the sieve plate is covered by a deposit of a colourless, shining substance in the form of a
pad, called callus or callus pad. This consists of carbohydrate called callose. The callus
completely clogs the pores, but when active season begins, it gets dissolved.
The sieve tube contains no nucleus, but a lining layer of cytoplasm which is continuous through
the pores. Sieve-tubes are used for the longitudinal transport of prepared food materials (protein
and carbohydrate), from the leaves to the storage organs in the downward direction, and later
from the storage organs to the growing regions in the upward direction.

2. Companion Cells
They are specialised parenchyma cells closely associated with sieve tube elements. They occur
only in angiosperm. They are living with dense cytoplasm and elongated nucleus. They do not
contain starch at anytime. Sieve element and companion cells are formed from the same mother
cell apparently by unequal division. Companion cells also function in food transportation.

3. Phloem Parenchyma
They are parenchyma cells in the phloem other than companion cells. They are absent in most
monocot. They store food materials and help in its conduction. They may contain substances like
crystals, tanniferous substances, mucilage, latex, etc. they are filled with starch and oil during the
dormant period.

4. Bast Fibres
Sclerenchyma cells present in the phloem or bast are known as bast fibres. There is no bast fibre
in primary phloem.

Summary
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 The primary plant body is the structure of plant body before secondary growth takes
place. The internal organisation consists of the epidermal tissue as a covering and several
other tissues within. These include the simple tissues (parenchyma, collenchyma and
sclerenchyma) and the complex tissues (Xylem and Phloem). These various tissues are
made up of different components which have been adequately discussed in the chapter.

Post-Test
1. The epidermis is derived from the…………..
2. ____________ gives rise to the cortex and pith
3. Structures that can be found on the epidermis are a , b and c
4. This examples of simple plant tissues are a , b and c .
5. What type of tissue is the Xylem?
6. Phloem consists of a , b c and d .

Answers to Post-Test
1. protoderm
2. Ground tissue
3. a. root hairs
b. stomata
c. hairs (trichomes)
4. a. parenchyma
b. collenchyma
c. sclerenchyma
5. Complex tissue
6. a. sieve elements
b. companion cells
c. phloem parenchyma
d. bast fibre

Reference
Dutta, A.C. (1982). Botany for Degree Students. Oxford University Press. pp 203-211
Esau, K. (1965). Plant Anatomy New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. pp 151 307
Kimball, J.W. (1965). Biology Philippines: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company Inc.
Pp. 246-263
Robert, M.B.V. (1973). Biology: A Functional Approach. London: Thomas Nelson and
Son Ltd. pp 187-197.
Taylor, D.J., Green, N.P.O. and Stout, G. W (1999). Biological Science (ed. R. Soper).
Cambridge: Cambridge Univesity Press pp. 167-182.

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