Chapter 2

Modeling the
Process and Life
Cycle

ISBN 0-13-146913-4
Prentice-Hall, 2006

Copyright 2006 Pearson/Prentice Hall. All rights reserved.

Contents

2.1 The Meaning of Process

2.2 Software Process Models
2.3 Tools and Techniques for Process Modeling
2.4 Practical Process Modeling
2.5 Information System Example
2.6 Real Time Example
2.7 What this Chapter Means for You

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Chapter 2 Objectives

• What we mean by a “process”

• Software development products, processes,
and resources
• Several models of the software development
process
• Tools and techniques for process modeling

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2.1 The Meaning of Process

• A process: a series of steps involving

activities, constrains, and resources that
produce an intended ouput of some kind
• A process involves a set of tools and
techniques

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 2.1 The Meaning of Process
Process Characteristics
• Prescribes all major process activities
• Uses resources, subject to set of constraints (such as
schedule)
• Produces intermediate and final products
• May be composed of subprocesses with hierarchy or
links
• Each process activity has entry and exit criteria
• Activities are organized in sequence, so timing is clear
• Each process has guiding principles, including goals of
each activity
• Constraints may apply to an activity, resource or
product

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 2.1 The Meaning of Process
The Importance of Processes

• Impose consistency and structure on a set of

activities
• Guide us to understand, control, examine, and
improve the activities
• Enable us to capture our experiences and pass
them along

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2.1 The Meaning of Process
Stages in Software Development

• When a process involves building a software,

the process may be referred to as software
life cycle
– Requirements analysis and definition
– System (architecture) design
– Program (detailed/procedural) design
– Writing programs (coding/implementation)
– Testing: unit, integration, system
– System delivery (deployment)
– Maintenance

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2.2 Software Process Models
Reasons for Modeling a Process

• To form a common understanding

• To find inconsistencies, redundancies,
omissions
• To find and evaluate appropriate activities
for reaching process goals
• To tailor a general process for a particular
situation in which it will be used

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2.2 Software Process Models
Software Development Process Models

• Waterfall model
• V model
• Prototyping model
• Operational specification
• Transformational model
• Phased development: increments and
iterations
• Spiral model
• Agile methods
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2.2 Software Process Models
Waterfall Model

• One of the first process development models

proposed
• Works for well understood problems with
minimal or no changes in the requirements
• Simple and easy to explain to customers
• It presents
– a very high-level view of the development process
– sequence of process activities
• Each major phase is marked by milestones
and deliverables (artifacts)
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2.2 Software Process Models
Waterfall Model (continued)

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2.2 Software Process Models
Waterfall Model (continued)

• There is no iteration in waterfall model

• Most software developments apply a great
many iterations

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2.2 Software Process Models
Sidebar 2.1 Drawbacks of The Waterfall Model

• Provides no guidance how to handle changes

to products and activities during
development (assumes requirements can be
frozen)
• Views software development as
manufacturing process rather than as
creative process
• There is no iterative activities that lead to
creating a final product
• Long wait before a final product
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2.2 Software Process Models
Waterfall Model with Prototype

• A prototype is a partially developed product

• Prototyping helps
– developers assess alternative design strategies
(design prototype)
– users understand what the system will be like
(user interface prototype)
• Protopyping is useful for verification and
validation

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2.2 Software Process Models
Waterfall Model with Prototype (continued)

• Waterfall model with prototyping

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2.2 Software Process Models
V Model

• A variation of the waterfall model

• Uses unit testing to verify procedural design
• Uses integration testing to verify
architectural (system) design
• Uses acceptance testing to validate the
requirements
• If problems are found during verification and
validation, the left side of the V can be re-
executed before testing on the right side is
re-enacted
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2.2 Software Process Models
V Model (continued)

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2.2 Software Process Models
Prototyping Model

• Allows repeated investigation of the

requirements or design
• Reduces risk and uncertainty in the
development

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2.2 Software Process Models
Operational Specificiation Model

• Requirements are executed (examined) and

their implication evaluated early in the
development process
• Functionality and the design are allowed to
be merged

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2.2 Software Process Models
Transformational Model

• Fewer major development steps

• Applies a series of transformations to change
a specification into a deliverable system
– Change data representation
– Select algorithms
– Optimize
– Compile
• Relies on formalism
• Requires formal specification (to allow
transformations)
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2.2 Software Process Models
Transformational Model (continued)

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2.2 Software Process Models
Phased Development: Increments and Iterations

• Shorter cycle time

• System delivered in pieces
– enables customers to have some functionality
while the rest is being developed
• Allows two systems functioning in parallel
– the production system (release n): currently being
used
– the development system (release n+1): the next
version

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2.2 Software Process Models
Phased Development: Increments and Iterations
(continued)

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2.2 Software Process Models
Phased Development: Increments and Iterations
(continued)
• Incremental development: starts with small functional
subsystem and adds functionality with each new release
• Iterative development: starts with full system, then
changes functionality of each subsystem with each new
release

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2.2 Software Process Models
Phased Development: Increments and Iterations
(continued)
• Phased development is desirable for several
reasons
– Training can begin early, even though some
functions are missing
– Markets can be created early for functionality that
has never before been offered
– Frequent releases allow developers to fix
unanticipated problems globaly and quickly
– The development team can focus on different areas
of expertise with different releases

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2.2 Software Process Models
Spiral Model

• Suggested by Boehm (1988)

• Combines development activities with risk
management to minimize and control risks
• The model is presented as a spiral in which
each iteration is represented by a circuit
around four major activities
– Plan
– Determine goals, alternatives, and constraints
– Evaluate alternatives and risks
– Develop and test

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2.2 Software Process Models
Spiral Model (continued)

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2.2 Software Process Models
Agile Methods
• Emphasis on flexibility in producing software
quickly and capably
• Agile manifesto
– Value individuals and interactions over process and
tools
– Prefer to invest time in producing working software
rather than in producing comprehensive
documentation
– Focus on customer collaboration rather than
contract negotiation
– Concentrate on responding to change rather than on
creating a plan and then following it

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2.2 Software Process Models
Agile Methods: Examples of Agile Process

• Extreme programming (XP)

• Crystal: a collection of approaches based on
the notion that every project needs a unique
set of policies and conventions
• Scrum: 30-day iterations; multiple self-
organizing teams; daily “scrum” coordination
• Adaptive software development (ASD)

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2.2 Software Process Models
Agile Methods: Extreme Programming

• Emphasis on four characteristics of agility

– Communication: involves the continual
interchange between customers and developers
– Simplicity: encourages developers to select the
simplest design or implementation
– Courage: described as commitment to delivering
functionality early and often
– Feedback: loops built into the various activitities
during the development process

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2.2 Software Process Models
Agile Methods: Twelve Facets of XP

• The planning game • Pair programming

(customer defines value) • Collective ownership
• Small releases • Continuous integration
• Metaphor (common (small increments)
vision, common names) • Sustainable pace (40
• Simple design hours/week)

• Writing tests first • On-site customer

• Refactoring • Coding standards

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2.2 Software Process Models
Sidebar 2.2 When is Extreme Too Extreme?

• Extreme programming's practices are

interdependent
– A vulnerability if one of them is modified
• Requirements expressed as a set of test
cases must be passed by the software
– System passes the tests but is not what the
customer is paying for
• Refactoring issue
– Difficult to rework a system without degrading its
architecture

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2.2 Software Process Models
Sidebar 2.3 Collections of Process Models
• Development process is a problem-solving
activity
• Curtis, Krasner, and Iscoe (1988) performed a
field study to determine which problem-solving
factors to captured in process model
• The results suggest a layered behavioral model
as supplement to the traditional model
• Process model should not only describe series
of tasks, but also should detail factors that
contribute to a project's inherent uncertainty
and risk

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2.3 Tools and Techniques for Process
Modeling

• Notation depends on what we want to

capture in the model
• The two major notation categories
– Static model: depicts the process
– Dynamic model: enacts the process

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2.3 Tools and Techniques for Process Modeling
Static Modeling: Lai Notation

• Elements of a process are viewed in terms of

seven types
– Activity
– Sequence
– Process model
– Resource
– Control
– Policy
– Organization
• Several templates, such as an Artifact
Definition Template

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2.3 Tools and Techniques for Process Modeling
Static Modeling: Lai Notation
Name Car
Synopsis This is the artifact that represents a class of cars.
Complexity type Composite
Data type (car_c, user-defined)
Artifact-state list
parked ((state_of(car.engine) = off) Car is not moving, and
(state_of(car.gear) = park) engine is not running.
(state_of(car.speed) =
stand))
initiated ((state_of(car.engine) = on) Car is not moving, but the
(state_of(car.key_hole) = engine is running
has-key)
(state_of(car-driver(car.))
= in-car)
(state_of(car.gear) = drive)
(state_of(car.speed) =
stand))
moving ((state_of(car.engine) = on) Car is moving forward or
(state_of(car.keyhole) = backward.
has-key)
(state_of(car-driver(car.))
= driving)
((state_of(car.gear) =
drive) or (state_of(car.gear)
= reverse))
((state_of(car.speed) =
stand) or
(state_of(car.speed) = slow)
or (state_of(car.speed) =
medium) or
(state_of(car.speed) =
high))
Sub-artifact list
doors The four doors of a car.
engine The engine of a car.
keyhole The ignition keyhole of a
car.
gear The gear of a car.
speed The speed of a car.
Relations list
car-key This is the relation between a car and a key.
car-driver This is the relation between a car and a driver.

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2.3 Tools and Techniques for Process Modeling
Static Modeling: Lai Notation (continued)

• The process of starting a car

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2.3 Tools and Techniques for Process Modeling
Static Modeling: Lai Notation (continued)

• Transition diagram illustrates the transition

for a car

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2.3 Tools and Techniques for Process Modeling
Dynamic Modeling

• Enables enaction of process to see what

happens to resources and artifacts as
activities occur
• Simulate alternatives and make changes to
improve the process
• Example: systems dynamics model

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2.3 Tools and Techniques for Process Modeling
Dynamic Modeling: System Dynamics

• Introduced by Forrester in the 1950's

• Abdel-Hamid and Madnick applied it to
software development
• One way to understand system dynamics is
by exploring how software development
process affects productivity

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2.3 Tools and Techniques for Process Modeling
Dynamic Modeling: System Dynamics (continued)

• Pictorial presentation of factors affecting productivity

• Arrows indicate how changes in one factor change
another

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 2.3 Tools and Techniques for Process Modeling
Dynamic Modeling: System Dynamics (continued)

• A system
dynamic
model
containing
four major
areas
affecting
productivity

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2.3 Tools and Techniques for Process Modeling
Sidebar 2.4 Process Programming

• A program to describe and enact the process

– Eliminate uncertainty
– Basis of an automated environment to produce
software
• Does not capture inherent variability of
underlying development process
– Implementation environment, skill, experience,
understanding the customer needs
• Provides only sequence of tasks
• Gives no warning of impending problems

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2.4 Practical Process Modeling
Marvel Case Studies

• Uses Marvel process language (MPL)

• Three constructs: classes, rules, tool
envelopes
• Three-part process description
– rule-based specification of process behavior
– object-oriented definition of model’s information
process
– set of envelopes to interface between Marvel and
external software tools

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2.4 Practical Process Modeling
Marvel Case Studies (continued)

• Involved two AT&T networks

– network carried phone calls
– signaling network responsible for routing calls
and balancing the network load
• Marvel was used to describe the signaling
fault resolution

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2.4 Practical Process Modeling
Marvel Case Studies (continued)

• Signaling Fault Resolution Process

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2.4 Practical Process Modeling
Example of Marvel Commands
TICKET:: superclass ENTITY
status : (initial, open, referred_out, referral_done,
closed, fixed) = initial; C lass
diagnostics : (terminal, non_terminal, none) = none; definition
level : integer; for trouble
description : text; tickets
referred_to : link WORKCENTER;
referrals : set_of link TICKET;
process : link PROC_INST;
end

diagnose [?t: TICKET]:

(exists PROC_INST ?p suchthat (linkto [?t.process ?p]))
:
(and (?t.status = open}(?t.diagnostics = none)) Rulefor
{TICKET_UTIL diagnose ?t.Name} diagnosing
(and (?t.diagnostics = terminal) ticket
(?p.last_task = diagnose)
(?p.next_task = refer_to_WC3));
(and (?t.diagnostics = non_terminal)
(?p.last_task = diagnose)
(?p.next_task = refer_to_WC2));

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2.4 Practical Process Modeling
Desirable Properties of Process Modeling Tools and
Techniques

• Facilitates human understanding and

communication
• Supports process improvement
• Supports process management
• Provides automated guidance in performing
the process
• Supports automated process execution

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2.5 Information System Example
Piccadilly Television Advertising System

• Needs a system that is easily maintained and

changed
• Requirements may change
– Waterfall model is not applicable
• User interface prototyping is an advantage
• There is uncertainty in regulation and
business constraints
– Need to manage risks
• Spiral model is the most appropriate

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2.5 Information System Example
Piccadilly System (continued)

• Risk can be viewed in terms of two facets

– Probability: the likelyhood a particular problem
may occur
– Severity: the impact it will have on the system
• To manage risk, it needs to include
characterization of risks in the process
model
– Risk is an artifact that needs to be described

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2.5 Information System Example
Lai Artifact Table for Piccadilly System
Name Risk (problemX)
Synopsis This is the artifact that represents the risk that problem X
will occur and have a negative affect on some aspect of the
development process.
Complexity type Composite
Data type (risk_s, user_defined)
Artifact-state list
low ((state_of(probability.x) = low) Probability of problem is
(state_of(severity.x) = small)) low, severity problem
impact is small.
high-medium ((state_of(probability.x) = low) Probability of problem is
(state_of(severity.x) = large)) low, severity problem
impact is large.
low-medium ((state_of(probability.x) = high) Probability of problem is
(state_of(severity.x) = small)) high, severity problem
impact is small.
high ((state_of(probability.x) = high) Probability of problem is
(state_of(severity.x) = large)) high, severity problem
impact is large.
Sub-artifact list
probability.x The probability that
problem X will occur.
severity.x The severity of the
impact should problem
X occur on the project.

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2.6 Real Time Example
Ariane-5 Software
• Involved reuse of software from Ariane-4
• The reuse process model
– Identify resuable subprocesses, describe them
and place them in a library
– Examine the requirements for the new software
and the reusable components from library and
produce revised set of requirements
– Use the revised requirements to design the
software
– Evaluate all reused design components to certify
the correctness and consistency
– Build or change the software

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2.6 Real Time Example
Ariane-5 Software (continued)

• Reuse process model presentation

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2.7 What this Chapter Means for You

• Process development involves activities,

resources, and product
• Process model includes organizational,
functional, behavioral, and other
perspectives
• A process model is useful for guiding team
behavior, coordination, and collaboration

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