DESIGN OF MACHINE ELEMENTS – I (2022)

1) a) FACTOR OF SAFETY (FOS): -

For Ductile Materials: -

The factor of safety for ductile material is defined as the ratio of ultimate stress or maximum stress to the
allowable stress or working stress. Eg: Steel, Gold.
For Brittle Materials: -
The factor of safety for brittle material is defined as the ratio of yield stress to the allowable stress or working
stress. Eg: Cast Iron, Glass.

Factors Affecting FOS: -

i. Effect of Failure: -
Sometimes the value of a machine element that involves Alita inconvenience or loss of time.
Example: - failure of the valve in pressure vessel.
ii. Material of Components: -
When the component is manufactured by the homogeneous ductile material like steel the yield strength is
important that time the factor of safety is usually small.
iii. Types of Loads: -
The factor of safety is minimum when the external force acting on the work piece is static.
The value of factor of safety is higher selected when the machine element is subjected to impact loading.
And due to the impact load factor usually having higher factor of safety.
iv. Degree of Accuracy in Forces: -
The force acting on the machine element are calculated at low factor of safety and a machine component
subjected to force whose magnitude and direction is uncertain and unpredictable that considering higher
factor of safety.
v. Reliability of Machine Elements: -
In certain applications like the continuous process equipments power station high reliability of component is
used for the factor of safety is high with increasing reliability.
vi. Cost of Elements: -
As the factor of safety increases the dimensions of the components and the requirement of the material is
increases due to that the cost of the component is increased with increasing factor of safety.
vii. Testing of Machine Elements: -
A low factor of safety that can choose when the machine components can be tested under actual condition.
The high factor of safety is necessary when it is not possible to testing a machine part where there is a
deviation between test condition and actual service conditions.

1.b) Considerations of manufacturing aspects in design: -

i. Reduce the total number of parts: The reduc on of the number of parts in a product is probably the best
opportunity for reducing manufacturing costs. Less parts implies less purchases, inventory, handling,
processing me, development me, equipment, engineering me, assembly difficulty, service inspec on,
tes ng, etc. In general, it reduces the level of intensity of all ac vi es related to the product during its en re
life.
ii. Develop a modular design: The use of modules in product design simplifies manufacturing ac vi es such as
inspec on, tes ng, assembly, purchasing, redesign, maintenance, service, and so on. One reason is that
modules add versa lity to product update in the redesign process, help run tests before the final assembly is
put together, and allow the use of standard components to minimize product varia ons.
iii. Use of standard components: Standard components are less expensive than custom-made items. The high
availability of these components reduces product lead mes. Also, their reliability factors are well ascertained.
iv. Design parts to be mul -func onal: Mul -func onal parts reduce the total number of parts in a design,
thus, obtaining the benefits inventory, handling, processing me, development me, equipment. Some
examples are a part to act as both an electric conductor and as a structural member.
v. Design parts for mul -use: In a manufacturing firm, different products can share parts that have been
designed for mul -use. These parts can have the same or different func ons when used in different products.
In order to do this, it is necessary to iden fy the parts that are suitable for mul -use.
vi. Design for ease of fabrica on: Select the op mum combina on between the material and fabrica on
process to minimize the overall manufacturing cost. In general, final opera ons such as pain ng, polishing,
finish machining, etc. should be avoided. Excessive tolerance, surface-finish requirement, are commonly found
problems that result in higher than necessary produc on cost.
vii. Avoid separate fasteners: The use of fasteners increases the cost of manufacturing a part due to the
handling and feeding opera ons that have to be performed. Besides the high cost of the equipment required
for them, these opera ons are not fully successful, so they contribute to reducing the overall manufacturing
efficiency.
viii. Minimize assembly direc ons: All parts should be assembled from one direc on. If possible, the best way
to add parts is from above, in a ver cal direc on, parallel to the gravita onal direc on (downward). In this way,
the effects of gravity help the assembly process, contrary to having to compensate for its effect when other
direc ons are chosen.
ix. Maximize compliance: Errors can occur during inser on opera ons due to varia ons in part dimensions or
on the accuracy of the posi oning device used. This faulty behaviour can cause damage to the part and/or to
the equipment. For this reason, it is necessary to include compliance in the part design and in the assembly
process.
x. Minimize handling: Handling consists of posi oning, orien ng, and fixing a part or component. To facilitate
orienta on, symmetrical parts should be used whenever possible. If it is not possible, then the asymmetry
must be exaggerated to avoid failures. Use external guiding features to help the orienta on of a part. The
subsequent opera ons should be designed so that the orienta on of the part is maintained.

1.d) Factors should be considered while selecting the material :

Availability of Material: The material should be readily available in the market, in large enough quantities to
meet the requirement. Cast iron and aluminium alloys are always available in abundance while shortage of
lead and copper alloys is a common experience.
Cost of Material: For every application, there is a limiting cost beyond which the designer cannot go. When
this limit is exceeded, the designer has to consider other alternative materials. In cost analysis, there are two
factors, namely, cost of material and the cost of processing the material into finished goods. It is likely that the
cost of material might be low, but the processing may involve costly manufacturing operations.
Mechanical Properties: Mechanical properties are the most important technical factor governing the selection
of material. They include strength under static and fluctuating loads, elasticity, plasticity, stiffness, resilience,
toughness, ductility, malleability and hardness. Depending upon the service conditions and the functional
requirement, different mechanical properties are considered and a suitable material is selected.
Manufacturing Considerations: Machinability of material is an important consideration in selection.
Sometimes, an expensive material is more economical than a low priced one, which is difficult to machine.
Free cutting steels have excellent machinability, which is an important factor in their selection for high
strength bolts, axles and shafts. In fabricated assemblies of plates and rods, weldability becomes the governing
factor. The manufacturing processes, such as casting, forging, extrusion, welding and machining govern the
selection of material.

Design Considerations:
1.Strength 2. Stiffness 3. Life 4. Efficiency 5. Ease of assembly 6. Manufacturing aspects 7. Ease of
servicing 8. Resistance against wear &tear 9. Working environment 10. Standardisation 11. Aesthetics
12. Material 13. Ergonomic 14. Environment friendliness (green) 15. Recycle 16. Upgradability 17. Safety
18. Economy
Strength: Resistance against failure of material
Stiffness: Resistance against deformation / deflection
Life: A) Failure to meet operational specification B) Material failure Modes: Elastic, Plastic collapse, Fracture,
Fatigue, Creep, Wear, Corrosion.

Assembling: Every machine or structure must be assembled as a unit before it can func on. Large units must
o en be assembled in the shop, tested and then taken to be transported to their place of service. The final
loca on of any machine is important and the design engineer must an cipate the exact loca on and the local
facili es for erec on.

Aesthe cs: Aesthe cs is defined as a set of principles of apprecia on of beauty. It deals with the
appearance of the product. Appearance is an outward expression of quality of the product and is the first
communica on of the product with the user.

Material and Surface Finish: The material and surface finish of the product contribute significantly to the
appearance. The material like, stainless steel gives better appearance than the cast irons, plain carbon steels
or low alloy steels. The products with better surface finish are always aesthetically pleasing.

Forms: The sculpture and stream forms are suitable for mobile products like vehicles, while step and shear
forms are suitable for stationary products.

Ergonomic Considerations: Ergonomics is defined as the scientific study of the man-machine-working

environment relationship and the application of anatomical, physiological and psychological principles to solve
the problems arising from this relationship. The final objective of the ergonomics is to make the machine fit for
user rather than make the user adapt himself or herself to the machine.

1.e) Hardness of Material: Hardness is the measure of a material’s resistance to localised permanent
deformation. Permanent deformation is also called plastic deformation. While elastic deformation means that a
material changes its shape only during the application of force, a resulting plastic deformation means that the material
will not return to its original shape. The three types of hardness are scratch, rebound, and indentation hardness.
Measuring each type of hardness requires a different set of tools.
Measurement of Hardness : The various types of hardness are measured using different
testing methods: -

i) Brinell Hardness Test: -

HB = where, D = Ball diameter, d = impression diameter, F = load , HB = Brinell result

2
πD 𝐷2 −𝑑

ii) Rockwell Hardness Test: -

HR = N - where , N – scale factor depending on the scale used , HR – Rockwell Result

s – scale factor depending on the scale used
d – depth of permanent indenta on compared to minor load, mm

iii) Vickers Hardness Test: -

HV = 0.1891 where, F – force(N) , d – indenta on diagonal(mm) , HV – Vickers Result

iv) Mohs Hardness Test: -

The Mohs Hardness Scale is a set of ten reference minerals (numbered 1 through 10) that are used to
determine the rela ve hardness of minerals and other objects. In this test the hardness of a mineral is defined
as its "resistance to being scratched".
2) COTTER JOINT
Tensile Proper es Varia on with Temperature and Percent of Carbon
Temperature:
At low temperatures: Generally, materials become more bri le and less duc le when exposed to low
temperatures. This is due to reduced atomic mobility and increased la ce rigidity, which hinders the
movement of disloca ons and promotes fracture.

At high temperatures: Materials tend to exhibit reduced strength and increased duc lity at elevated
temperatures. This behavior is a ributed to enhanced atomic diffusion, which facilitates disloca on
movement, grain boundary sliding, and deforma on mechanisms like creep. However, at extremely high
temperatures, the strength may decrease due to thermal so ening.

Percentage of carbon:
Carbon is an alloying element that can significantly impact the tensile proper es of materials.

Higher carbon content generally increases the strength and hardness of the material. This is because carbon
atoms form solid solu ons with the base metal, which can increase the la ce strain and hinder disloca on
mo on, leading to higher strength.

However, excessive carbon content can also make the material more bri le and reduce its duc lity. Excess
carbon can promote the forma on of bri le phases or carbides, which act as stress concentrators and promote
crack propaga on.

3) a. The design of machine parts subjected to combined load is done with the help of theories of failure which
help us to determine the safe dimensions of machine parts. The theory of failures is crucial in machine design
for several reasons: -

i) Safety and Reliability: The theory of failures helps engineers understand the poten al modes of failure that
can occur in machine components and systems.

ii) Performance Op miza on: Understanding failure modes allows engineers to iden fy weak points in machine
designs and make improvements.

iii) Cost Efficiency: Failure analysis can help engineers iden fy the root causes of failures and develop strategies
to mi gate them.
3. b) RANKINE’S THEORY OR MAXIMUM NORMAL STRESS THEORY: -

It is an element subjected to stresses, σx ac on along x-direc on (tensile or compressive), σy ac ng along y-direc on

⊥r to x (tensile or compressive) combined with shear stress, τxy .

𝛔 = [ 𝛔 +𝛔 + 𝛔 −𝛔 + 4𝜏 ]

VON MISES THEORY OF FAILURE : -

HAIGH’S THEORY OF FAILURE: -

3) c. One failure theory for bri le material : RANKINE’s THEORY: -

4) a. SIGNIFICANCE OF FRACTURE MECHAANICS: -

Fracture mechanics refers to the mechanics of solids containing planes of displacement discontinuities (cracks)
with special attention to their growth. Fracture mechanics is a failure theory that:

 Determines material failure by energy criteria, possibly in conjunction with strength (or yield) criteria
 Considers failure to be propagating throughout the structure rather than simultaneous throughout
the entire failure zone or surface.

4) b. FRACTURE TOUGHNESS: -

A material can resist applied stress intensity up to a certain cri cal value above which the crack will grow in an
unstable manner and failure will occur. This cri cal stress intensity is the fracture toughness of the material.
The fracture toughness of a material is dependent on many factors including environmental temperature,
environmental composi on, etc.

4) c. CREEP CURVE & IT’s SIGNIFICANCE: -

SIGNIFICANCE OF CREEP CURVE :-

i) Understanding material behavior: The creep curve provides valuable insights into the me-dependent
deforma on and failure characteris cs of materials under constant stress and elevated temperatures.

ii) Determining design life: Creep is a gradual deforma on process that occurs over an extended period. By
studying the creep curve, engineers can es mate the rate of deforma on and predict the lifespan or service life
of a component or structure.

iii) Selec on of appropriate materials: Different materials exhibit varying degrees of creep resistance. The
creep curve helps engineers assess the suitability of a material for a specific applica on based on its creep
behavior.

4) d. DESIGN OF SHAFT BASED ON STRENGTH AND RIGIDITY: -

5) a. S-N CURVE: The S-N curve, also known as the fa gue curve, is a graphical representa on of
the rela onship between the maximum stress that a material can withstand before it fails and the
number of cycles of loading that it can endure before it fails. It is a tool that is commonly used in
mechanics of materials to analyse and understand the behaviour of materials under cyclic or
repeated loading. The S-N curve is typically plo ed on a graph with the maximum stress on the y-axis
and the number of cycles on the x-axis. It is used to predict the fa gue life of a material, which is the
number of cycles of loading that it can endure before it fails.
Applica ons :-
1. High-cycle fa gue analysis: In many engineering applica ons, components and structures
experience cyclic loading with a non-zero mean stress level. The SN curve can be modified to
incorporate the effect of mean stress on fa gue life. This allows engineers to predict the
fa gue life of a component under complex loading condi ons.
2. Variable amplitude loading: In real-world applica ons, materials and structures are subjected
to variable amplitude loading with fluctua ng stress levels. The SN curve with non-zero
mean stress can be used to analyze and predict fa gue life under such condi ons. By
considering the mean stress level, the cumula ve damage and fa gue life can be es mated
more accurately.
3. Residual stress analysis: Residual stresses are o en induced during manufacturing processes
such as welding, machining, or heat treatment. These residual stresses can significantly
affect the fa gue life of a component. By accoun ng for the non-zero mean stress level in the
SN curve, engineers can assess the effect of residual stresses on the fa gue strength and
design accordingly.

Factors affec ng Endurance Limit: -

(i) Surface finish Factor: The surface of the rota ng beam specimen is polished to mirror finish. The final
polishing is carried out in the axial direc on to smooth out any circumferen al scratches. This makes the
specimen almost free from surface scratches and imperfec ons.
(ii) Size Factor: The rota ng beam specimen is small with 7.5 mm diameter. The larger the machine part, the
greater the probability that a flaw exists somewhere in the component. The chances of fa gue failure
origina ng at any one of these flaws are more. The endurance limit, therefore, reduces with increasing the size
of the component.
(iii) Reliability Factor: The laboratory values of endurance limit are usually mean values. There is of tests are
conducted even using the same material and same condi ons. The standard devia on of endurance limit tests
is 8% of the mean value. The reliability factor Kc depends upon the reliability that is used in the design of the
component. The greater the likelihood that a part will survive, the more is the reliability and lower is the
reliability factor.

6) a. Design Principles of Short Columns: -

1. Euler's Formula: Short columns fail due to excessive bending or buckling caused by compressive
forces. Euler's formula provides a theore cal basis for the design of short columns. It states that the
cri cal load (Pc) at which a short column buckles can be determined using the formula 𝑃 = ,where
E is the modulus of elas city, I is the moment of iner a of the column cross-sec on, and l is the
effec ve length of the column.
2. Slenderness Ra o: The slenderness ra o (λ) of a short column is defined as the ra o of its effec ve
length to the least radius of gyra on of its cross-sec on. For short columns, the slenderness ra o is
typically less than 50. To prevent buckling, the slenderness ra o should be kept below a certain limit
based on the material and column configura on.
3. Material Selec on: The material used for short columns should have high compressive strength to
withstand the applied loads without excessive deforma on. Common materials for short columns
include steel, cast iron, and reinforced concrete.
Design Principles of Long Columns: -
1. Johnson's Parabolic Formula: Long columns fail due to the combined effects of bending and direct
compressive stresses. Johnson's parabolic formula is commonly used for the design of long columns. It
considers the combined stress effect and provides a more accurate predic on of failure. The formula is
given as P = ,where P is the allowable compressive load, E is the modulus of elas city, I is the
[ ]

moment of iner a of the column cross-sec on, l is the effec ve length of the column, 𝜎 is the actual
compressive stress, and 𝜎 is the yield stress of the material.
2. Slenderness Ra o: The slenderness ra o for long columns is typically greater than 50. Buckling is a
cri cal considera on, and the slenderness ra o should be kept within acceptable limits to avoid
premature failure. Long columns may require addi onal structural supports or reinforcement to
mi gate buckling effects.
3. Material Selec on: Similar to short columns, the material for long columns should have high
compressive strength. However, it should also possess good duc lity to withstand the combined stress
effects and prevent bri le failure. Steel and reinforced concrete are commonly used materials for long
columns.
4. Lateral Support: Long columns require adequate lateral support to prevent buckling. Lateral bracing or
addi onal s ffeners may be employed to provide the necessary support and improve the overall
stability of the column.

6) b. Fa gue Stress Concentra on Factor: - When a machine member is subjected to cyclic or fa gue loading,
the value of fa gue stress concentra on factor shall be applied instead of theore cal stress concentra on
factor. Since the determina on of fa gue stress concentra on factor is not an easy task, therefore from
experimental tests it is defined as Fa gue stress concentra on factor
𝐾 =

Fa gue Stress Concentra on Factor(𝑲𝒇 ) es ma on from Theore cal Stress Concentra on Factor(𝑲𝒕): -

Notch sensi vity: The degree upto which theore cal effect of stress concentra on is actually reached is called
as notch sensi vity. It indicates sensi vity of the material. Notch Sensi vity = . From this equa on, we can
determine the theore cal stress concentra on factor from fa gue stress concentra on factor.