Munication

Strategic
Communication
Strategic
Communication
Public relations at work
Jane Johnston and Leanne Glenny

First published 2021
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Contents
Overview vii
Part 1: Foundations and the working environment 1

1. Introducing strategic communication and public relations 3
2. Communication at work 25
3. Issues, risk, crises and corporate social responsibility 56
4. Ethical and legal practice 88
5. Working in a media-dominated world 117
Part 2: Process, planning and implementation 149

6. Research, measurement and evaluation 151
7. Working strategically 180
8. Planning and campaign development 208
9. Tactic selection and content creation 239
Part 3: Theory 269

10. Theory: Where learning starts 271
Index 315
Overview
Working through this book

This book comprises ten chapters. It is delivered in three parts. Part 1:
Foundations and the working environment is intended to provide a clear context
for strategic communication and public relations; Part 2: Process, planning
and implementation presents the procedural approach for making things
happen; and Part 3: Theory presents a summary of a diverse range of more
than 30 theories, complete with examples and cross-referenced throughout
the book.
Part 1: Foundations and the working

environment
Chapter 1: Introducing strategic communication and
public relations
What is strategic communication? What is public relations? This chapter
responds to these questions by providing clear definitions plus an overview of
these dynamic and changing fields and the nine chapters that follow. It intro-
duces you to the tools used to navigate the book—‘sticky notes’, ‘fact checks’
and ‘quick tips’—used as sign posts throughout. It presents brief descriptions
of taken-for-granted words and concepts (e.g. publics and communication)
and provides a succinct table of the roles in strategic communication and
PR—from brand management to storytelling. The chapter provides a brief
vii
viii Strategic Communication
overview of the growing field as it developed in Australia and New Zealand

in industry and education. Finally, it presents a list of the ‘core capabilities’ of
the growing profession developed by the Global Alliance for Public Relations
and Communication Management.
Chapter 2: Communication at work

This chapter provides an overview of the main contexts for communication
and PR practice, covering three broad sectors: government (public sector),
corporations (private sector) and charities (not-for-profit or NFP sector).
These three sectors represent just about every field you might find yourself
working in across politics, government, corporate and finance, community
work, activism, financial relations, consumer advocacy, industrial lobbying
and corporate partnerships. The chapter introduces you to a range of terms
that are relevant to these sectors: non-government organisations or NGOs,
community action groups or CAGs, not-for-profits and others. It over-
views the communication and PR role as centrally located in all of these,
illustrating the breadth and scope that these fields cover. Finally, it sets the
foundation for the following chapters, which, in turn, examine and explore
the fundamental elements of strategic communication and PR.
Chapter 3: Issues, risk, crises and corporate social

responsibility
This chapter overviews the four equally important and connected fields of
issues, risk and crisis communication and corporate social responsibility
(CSR). First, it explores the issues management role in the routine moni-
toring of issues affecting the day-to-day operations of an organisation and
how it provides the warning signs of low-level problems. Issues management
includes scanning the environment, identifying hazards, problem-solving and
understanding what your stakeholders want and what you can deliver. Risk
and crisis communication are also associated with issues management, and
the chapter explores how the three concepts are both connected and distinct.
It explains how to identify and manage risks and crises and discusses crisis
recovery. Finally, the chapter links these areas to the important field of CSR
and how corporations need to consider their impact on society, the environ-
ment and their investors.
Overview ix
Chapter 4: Ethical and legal practice

Following on from CSR, this chapter begins by looking at the related issue
of ethics, before considering the regulatory and legal environment. It explains
the philosophical issues behind common ethical challenges faced by the
communication professions, such as duty and loyalty, persuasion, truth and
authenticity, recognising that these foundations apply equally in the contem-
porary online environment. This is followed by a more focused examination
of codes of ethics/conduct and includes some ethics-based tools such as ‘the
Potter Box’, the decision-making guide promoted by the Global Alliance for
PR and Communication Management, and other resources. Common legal
issues for communication practitioners working in the on- and offline space
are discussed, including copyright, defamation, contracts and consumer law.
Chapter 5: Working in a media-dominated world

We live in a media-dominated world. This chapter looks at the digital media
environment and the massive role it plays in strategic communication and PR,
and society more broadly. It uses theory and practical examples to examine
industries, media platforms and multi- and trans-media use in professional
communication. The chapter unpacks the role of the popular media model
PESO (paid, earned, shared and owned) and how it exemplifies the converged
world of media. It includes a look at that amazing modern invention the
smartphone, and how it has been a game-changer in life as well as industry.
The chapter explores the importance of media literacy, the role of journalists
and influencers and includes an overview of three basic media tools: media
releases, press conferences and social media content planners. The chapter
concludes with a look at some of the ‘power’ issues that emerge in the perva-
sive media environment including news aggregation, data breaches and the
loss of privacy.
Part 2: Process, planning and implementation

Chapter 6: Research, measurement and evaluation
This chapter introduces the role research, measurement and evaluation play
in strategic communication and PR. It presents an Integrated Planning and
Research Cycle that takes you from the start of the research process through
x Strategic Communication
to the assessment and evaluation of a plan’s success. The chapter introduces

the reader to key terms such as inputs, outputs, outcomes and impacts;
primary and secondary research; and formal and informal techniques. The
chapter incorporates the role played by metrics and analytics in research and
evaluation, including big data and AI, to provide scientifically based informa-
tion that can inform, predict and drive audience behaviours. It includes the
role played by the PRIA’s measurement and evaluation framework and the
Barcelona Principles and explores their importance to the field.
Chapter 7: Working strategically

Strategy sits at the heart of all public relations and professional communication
practice. The chapter explores how the concept of the ‘grand strategy’ must
flow from the top of an organisation right down to the tactics it delivers. It
explains how strategy is a central component of communication practice and
where it fits into the planning process. It examines how strategy sits alongside
the development of goals, aims, objectives and tactics, plus how strategy should
line up with other key concepts—vision, mission, values—of an organisation.
The chapter presents illustrations of strategy as part of big-picture planning,
using case studies from Australia, New Zealand and internationally. Finally, it
explores why communication is such a central component of an organisation’s
overall strategy mix.
Chapter 8: Planning and campaign development

Strategic communication doesn’t happen by chance. It requires considerable
thought, development, forecasting and organising, so this chapter explores
the purpose and activity of communication planning. Starting with a discus-
sion of the relationship between planning at the strategic, operational and
tactical levels, it outlines the variety of communication plans, such as those for
campaigns, change management, issues management, and social media. It re-
introduces the new Integrated Planning and Research Cycle (first presented in
Chapter 6), highlighting the essential and continuous relationship between the
two functions. The chapter details the processes used in most planning scenar-
ios, explaining techniques and theories that can assist at each step, providing
a useful six-step framework that can be used in practice.
Overview xi
Chapter 9: Tactic selection and content creation

Here, we present perhaps the longest list of tactics ever—our Top-100 tactics
and tools, listed in a table from A to Z. This table of tactics begins with ambassa-
dor and ends with wiki, with 98 other tactics in between. The chapter begins by
explaining the difference between controlled and uncontrolled tactics, and how
these two categories have altered over time. It focuses on the role of content
as a major part of tactical development, presenting the 4-C content model
comprising creating, curating, crowdsourcing and composing content. You can
go to this chapter as a reference for the many tactics we discuss throughout the
book or that you encounter elsewhere.
Part 3: Theory
Chapter 10: Theory: Where learning starts
It all starts with theory—which is why we think we should end with it! This
chapter explains the value of theory in better understanding strategic commu-
nication and PR. It uses a novel approach to introduce the reader to theory
by presenting a selection of more than 30 theories, many illustrated, explain-
ing how they’re used, where to find them throughout the book and the key
theorists behind the theory. Here’s where you look up answers to the ‘sticky
notes’ that are stuck around the book, marked with the following icon .
Theories in this chapter are explained briefly and without fuss, so they’re
easily understood, intended to be used as a ‘theory-pedia’ (like Wikipedia)
where you ‘drop in’ whenever you need to understand a particular theory.
We think you’ll find this expanded glossary-style chapter useful as an ongoing
reference in future study.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to acknowledge and thank Dr Raveena Singh for her
work in previous iterations of Chapter 6: Research, measurement and evalu-
ation, Sarah Mason, from HSPR, for her contribution to Chapter 9: Tactic
selection and content creation, and Clara Zawawi’s contribution to an earlier
version of Chapter 1.
Our thanks are also extended to the anonymous reviewers for their insights
and advice which have strengthened the final text.
xii Strategic Communication
We acknowledge the support we have received from our institutions: The

University of Queensland (School of Communication and Arts) and the Univer-
sity of South Australia (UniSA Creative). Finally, we thank Allen & Unwin for
their confidence in us in undertaking this book.
Part 1
Foundations and the

working environment
Chapter 1
introducing strategic
communication and public
relations
This book introduces you to the professional world of strategic communica-

tion and public relations (PR). It is an exciting and dynamic world because
communication and relationships sit at the centre of our hyper-connected lives.
The book explains how strategic communication and PR plug into the social,
economic and political world, illustrating the importance of effective commu-
nication between organisations, institutions, groups and individuals across
a wide range of activities and fields. From building partnerships to gaining a
following, sharing information to motivating activity or persuading a change of
mind, strategic communication and public relations are pivotal to how corpo-
rations, governments and not-for-profits connect with the people who matter
to them and achieve their aims and objectives.
If you’ve chosen to study or practise in the field of strategic communica-
tion and PR, you’ve made a good decision. You have chosen an industry that is
growing and expanding—and one that’s in demand. The communication and
PR industry is surging ahead so quickly that it’s moving faster than the econo-
mies of some countries (Morris & Goldsworthy 2008). Australian Government
predictions are positive for public relations professionals and managers. These
job outlook figures show that growth is stable overall and strong for managers.
Importantly, they also show high employment certainty (or low unemploy-
ment) for the future (Australian Government Job Outlook 2019a; 2019b). The
3
4 Foundations and the working environment
full predictions—which cover a range of variables, from pay scales to gender

share—are illustrated in Figure 1.1. In their examination of public relations,
Morris and Goldsworthy (2008) ask the question: Why does public relations
exert such a fascination for people? This is a question on which we hope to shed
light throughout this book.
This chapter will introduce you to the breadth of strategic communication
and PR, including how it fits in to organisations and society more broadly. It
Figure 1.1 Infographic from Australian Government Job Outlook, Department of

Employment, Skills, Small and Family Business. Source: joboutlook.gov.au
Introducing strategic communication and public relations 5
will examine the changing nature of the discipline, the people who carry out
public relations and strategic communication roles, its widespread adoption
across many industries, and growth in the field within the tertiary sector and as
a profession. First, however, we’ll provide some simple explanations that will
help you navigate this book. We’ll explain some of the commonly used terms
and provide some definitions.
Definitions and language at work

Before we proceed with exploring strategic communication and PR more
generally, we begin by explaining our terminologies and some of the key words
and expressions in the book and the field. We have developed some navigational
short-forms as tools to help you through the book; these are also intended to
guide further exploration by the reader (and might help with research).
Sticky notes are used to identify an important theory that is

theory
explained in Chapter 10
Fact check is used to get you investigating—you become the fact

checker!
Quick tips are used to provide you with extra readings or online
places to check out.
Next, we explain some of the words and phrases in the book that are
widely used in the profession. The language in this book is kept pretty
simple, but we need to make sure we’re all ‘on the same page’ in clarifying
everyday words—like society, public, communication, audience, stakeholder
and strategy. Simple words? Yes, but, believe it or not, their meanings are
often confused or disputed. Journalist and military strategy expert Richard
Halloran (2007) says if five government people were put in a room and asked
to come up with a definition for ‘strategic communication’, eight different
answers would be given! And these, he argues, would be ‘mostly bureaucratic
gibberish’ (2007, p. 5). For definitions to be useful they need to be clear and
Table 1.1 Key words in strategic communication and PR
Word Definition
Strategy The determination of the basic long-term goals of an
enterprise, and the adoption of courses of actions and the
allocation of resources necessary to carry out these goals
(Chandler, in Nickols 2015).
Communication A reciprocal process of exchanging signals to inform,
persuade or instruct, based on shared meanings and
conditioned by the communicator’s relationship and the
social context (Cutlip & Center 2009).
Public A group of people linked through a shared interest in an
issue, whose motivation to act varies depending on their
awareness of the issue, the level of concern held and the
constraints that limit action.
Stakeholder Any group or individual that can affect or be affected by the
realisation of an organisation’s purpose (Freeman 1984).
Audience A number (large or small) of people who are united by their
participation in media use (adapted from Hartley 2002).
Society A group of people whose members interact, live in a
definable area and share a range of cultural norms,
practices, values and matters of kinship (Little 2016).
Community A group of people who interact with one another, within
a bounded geographic territory [or in an online virtual
space], whose members often share common values, beliefs,
or behaviours (Neal 2014).
Organisational The effective management of mutually beneficial exchanges
Relationships in which organisations and publics strive for the same
shared goals (Lock 2019).
to the point. In Table 1.1 we present simple definitions for key words in this
field—there are many to choose from. Our selections are sometimes abridged
but all are close to the original or our own work.
But language is a rather plastic thing. Words change meaning over time, in
different cultures and across different disciplines. Reasons for the emergence
of the term ‘strategic communication’ over ‘public relations’ include that

some people think ‘public relations’ does not sufficiently sum up what is done
in this industry; or it is too US-specific; or it doesn’t translate clearly across
cultures (Zerfass, Verhoeven, Tench, Moreno, & Verc̆ic̆ 2018). One study of
43 European countries found preference for other terms: ‘corporate communi-
cation’ in business, ‘strategic communication’ in non-profits and government,
followed by ‘communication management’ and, lastly, ‘public relations’ (Zerfass,
Verhoeven, Tench, Moreno, & Verc̆ic̆, 2011).
In 2012, the Public Relations Society of America (PRSA) incorporated
strategic communication into its definition of public relations following a
national study of what people thought was the best way to sum it up. Its current
definition is:
Public relations is a strategic communication process that builds mutually

beneficial relationships between organizations and their publics. (PRSA 2012)
In the Australian and New Zealand professional associations the defi-

nition has continued to be tweaked over time, but only New Zealand has
incorporated communication into its definition. The Public Relations Insti-
tute of Australia (PRIA) defines public relations as
the deliberate, planned and sustained effort to establish mutual understanding

between an organisation and its publics.
And the Public Relations Institute of New Zealand’s (PRINZ) definition is:
Public relations practice is the deliberate, planned and sustained effort to

establish and maintain mutual understanding and excellent communications
between an organisation and its publics.
A popular definition of strategic communication, meantime, has most

recently been revised to:
Strategic communication encompasses all communication that is substan-

tial for the survival and sustained success of an entity. Specifically, strategic
communication is the purposeful use of communication by an organization
or other entity to engage in conversations of strategic significance to its goals.
(Zerfass et al. 2018, p. 493)
words change over time and with cultures

Think of the language that has evolved with the internet and social media:
words such as share, like, block, friend, unfriend, google, hashtag, tag, igers,
app, filter, follower, moment and instameet have emerged or been altered
in everyday meaning. Then there are the acronyms and abbreviations that
are used—like lOl in english, which translates to XaXa in russian, JaJaJa in
Spanish, kkkkk in korean, www in Japanese, 哈哈 or 呵呵 in mandarin, 55 555 in
Thai and hahaha, hehehe, or hihihi used in many languages (garber 2012). and,
of course, emoticons and emojis are also part of this new language .
Industries across the communication environment—from public rela-

tions, to advertising, to political and science communication—can now share
the broader name of strategic communication (Zerfass et al. 2018). This is in
part due to the breakdown of what were called ‘silos’ of activity where, for
example, one industry did one thing and then passed it to the next. This is
illustrated in the advertising–PR overlap, the traditional field of integrated
marketing communication (IMC) and the so-called convergence of communi-
cation industries. Paid advertising was once the sole domain of the advertising
industry. Now, public relations practitioners sometimes need to negotiate
with online advertising through the influencer market or social media boosts.
Likewise, other specialty areas such as science and environmental communi-
cation, which grew as independent fields, may also be captured by the title
‘strategic communication’ (Zerfass et al. 2018).
The approach we have taken in this book is to look broadly at these fields
because it is counterproductive to draw lines between them. In reality, some
graduates will likely work in a range of fields in their lifetime. This may come
from a dual focus at university—for example, through special knowledge
gained in a double degree or double majors in communication and science or
journalism and public relations—or through a long-standing special interest in
a field—sport, music or fashion, perhaps. Or it may come simply from the need
to learn on the job because you find yourself covering an area about which you
previously knew little or nothing at all.
In this book we will introduce a broad range of concepts that cover many
fields, because the reality is you may find yourself working in industries you
didn’t dream of—anything from local government, to craft beer brewing,
to water management, to the pharmaceutical industry, fast foods or food
security—all need professional communication. The versatility of communi-
cation graduates is one of their greatest assets. As we will see throughout this
book, the roles and tasks of the practitioner range from working on business
strategies, to writing and telling stories, to researching and delivering reports,
to developing campaigns that create change or start a trend.
While the organisational perspective of strategic communication and PR
is among the best-known pathways for the undergraduate to take, we also
point to the non-organisational route that helps with both understanding and
applying it. British public relations scholar Lee Edwards (2018, p. 2) points
out that ‘[i]nstitutions and individuals, from churches, emperors and kings
to scientists, politicians, army generals, merchants and slaves, have long used
public relations–style tactics, even if they were not formally labelled as such’.
Others—such as Australian academic Kristin Demetrious (2014)—have noted
how the rise of activism has provided an alternative pathway for public commu-
nication techniques to be practised; a pathway that is now well-integrated
into PR education in the Asia–Pacific region (Johnston & Zawawi 2004). So,
while we focus primarily on the organisational perspective in this book, we
need to be open-minded about the breadth of public relations and strategic
communication in all sectors, including advocacy and activism. We explore this
in much more detail in Chapter 2. Wherever you end up practising—a large
or small corporate, a local or national sporting team, a government depart-
ment, a community progress association or a small start-up—most of the same
principles will apply.
Communication and relationship development

As communication becomes increasingly mediated, which we examine in
Chapter 5, we need to take a step back to view the field of strategic commu-
nication and public relations as not only including communication with publics
but also as doing something beyond this—developing relationships. The term
‘communicative relationship’ is useful to describe how communication is the
central tenet of relationships (Lock 2019). Zaharna describes how ‘since rela-
tionships and communication are intricately interlinked, relationships are
most distinctively described as defining communication’ (cited in Lock 2019,
p. 3). Relationships are said to exist through ‘shared narratives of reciprocal
expectations’ (Winkler & Wehmeier 2018, p. 147). In other words, all parties
understand the communication because they share in its process and its meaning.
This is nicely put by the PRINZ in a video ‘What is Public Relations?’, which
states: ‘You can’t have a good relationship without good communication, good
behaviour and mutual understanding’ (PRINZ 2019).
One of the biggest challenges to this reciprocal relationship
is the fact that ‘reciprocal expectations’ between parties might
relationship not be very balanced. The theory of relationship management
management is useful in explaining the importance of partnerships that go
deeper than a transactional relationship or a simple communication
process.
Nowhere is this better illustrated than in the way people’s data are collected
by companies. Here, questions arise such as: what if communication is clear on
the surface, but information is used for another purpose? What if it is coopted
by an organisation into its data banks and used for predicting behaviour or
shared with another party? This is where the ‘reciprocal expectations’ might not
measure up. A study by the Annenberg School for Communication reported
in The New York Times found that organisations that are more transparent
about why they collect people’s details and how they use them find it easier to
maintain trust (Singer 2015). Where problems arise is in lack of transparency
and creeping practices that people feel they cannot control.
Data-mining is not new to public relations. Johnston and Zawawi discussed
it in 2000, in its early years (2000 p. 14). Twenty years later we point out
that, as then, the strategic communication and PR role needs to ensure that
relationship and reputational damage is not a casualty of using people’s infor-
mation without transparency. This is far more complex and difficult to manage
today, with the vastly expanded field now driven by artificial intelligence (AI)
and algorithmic practices an accepted part of business and social culture the
world over. We discuss this further as an issue in Chapter 3, an element of
privacy in Chapter 4, a cause for crisis in Chapter 5 and as a significant devel-
opment in research in Chapter 6.
Who’s who at the zoo (or, the various roles,

tasks and titles involved)
Strategic communication and PR work is generally undertaken as either a
consultant (external to the organisation) or an in-house (internally employed)
practitioner. In-house practitioners work solely for one organisation and may
be employed on a permanent, contract or casual basis. The major benefits of
this type of employment are the chance to get to know an organisation ‘from
the inside out’ and the ease of access to management, facilities and resources.
In larger organisations, another benefit can come from working as part of a
team—either with others in the communication field or alongside other
specialist areas such as human resources or IT. In addition, sometimes organ-
isations will ‘outsource’ to specialist or additional workers, especially at busy
times or if expertise is needed (e.g. big data research or crisis management).
This means an organisation (or communication unit) will contract work out
Figure 1.2 Taking a look at who’s who in the zoo. Who’s doing what in strategic
communication and PR. Photo by Andre Mouton, Unsplash.
for short or extended periods, depending on the need. In-house roles exist in
every sector—from government (e.g. health sector) to political advisors and
press secretaries, to large, medium and small businesses, not-for-profit organ-
isations and non-government organisations. Within organisations, many titles
may be used to cover the myriad roles and tasks in communication and media,
especially where a team is employed. For example, some in-house commu-
nication and media departments now have so-called ‘proactive’ and ‘reactive’
teams to work in different ways. A proactive story, for instance, might be about
a campaign launch; a reactive team might focus on a threat to the industry.
The consultant role means you will work for a variety of clients, typi-
cally off-site for much of the time. This role requires you to keep a close
account of time spent on each client, with billing and account-keeping usually
managed in fifteen-minute blocks. One obvious benefit of this approach is the
variety of work this allows in terms of job locations, the variety of people
worked with and development on different accounts and in fields of exper-
tise across the client-base. Consultancies will usually include a range of skill
sets among their employee-base—some more creative, others highly media-
skilled, or corporate- or consumer-focused. An example of a large global
consultancy is Hill+Knowlton, which has 80 offices worldwide. It describes
its 2000 employees as ‘strategists, content creators and master storytellers’
(Hill+Knowlton 2020). If we look at how this organisation positions itself in
the market, we see that many of the key terms and themes we have explored in
this chapter are applied—it’s all about publics, communication and strategy.
What’s also important is the power it ascribes to the public. Here’s a short
part of its pitch:
We believe that every corporate, every brand, every client has a public and
today’s public is more powerful than ever before. They have the power to topple
CEOs, reshape corporate and brand strategy, influence government policy, kill
products and create unicorns. Today’s public demands truth, transparency and
the highest behavioral standards. (Hill+Knowlton 2020)
Smaller agency The Red Republic, based in Brisbane but with a national
and international presence, positions itself as ‘communication, design and
digital specialists’, listing the following services in its repertoire:
• Public relations
• Social media management
• Influencer management
• Event management
• Brand activations
• Sponsorships and collaborations
• Graphic design and branding
• Creative and art direction
• Photography and videography
• Content creation
• Crisis and issues management
• Corporate communications. (The Red Republic 2019)
This is quite a list and reflects the diversity and breadth of services that
public relations and communication agencies increasingly offer in the modern
media and communication world. But the broad range of consultancies also
varies enormously and many specialise in specific types of work and clients.
This means if you are seeking an internship or a job in a consultancy it’s import-
ant to know where you would best fit and to ensure your interests and expertise
align with any agency you approach. You can gain a strong understanding of
what consultancies do by viewing their current clients and campaigns online.
You can learn a lot by lurking.
In either a consultant or an in-house capacity, the strategic communica-
tion or PR job is multi-faceted. Just as other fields, like medicine and law,
have generalists and specialists, so too with strategic communication and
PR. Doctors may be general practitioners, neurologists, cardiologists, obste-
tricians or many other named practice roles. Similarly, public relations and
strategic communication provides for the specialist and the generalist working
within all sectors, from corporate, government and politics to community
and not-for-profits. They may call themselves practitioners (or experts if that
applies) in crisis communication, event management, social media manage-
ment, political communication or public affairs/lobbying and so on. We’ve
listed key fields of practice (some overlapping) in Table 1.2.
This multi-skill base will require technical and management or problem-
solver skills. Most people in the industry will need to master the technical
before they are welcomed into management as a problem-solver. Remember

the job outlook infographic in Figure 1.1? The shift from ‘professional’ (entry)
to ‘manager’ (advanced) meant a pay rise! It also includes more responsibility
within an organisation. The reality is, the more critical thinking you bring to
any role in your career—whether you are planning social media, developing
campaigns, fundraising or managing events—the more likely you will transi-
tion to the management pathway. This calls for a certain ‘radar’ to be switched
on—to know when public opinion is turning; to understand why certain people
are responding as they are; to note trends and changes; and, ultimately, to have
all your senses tuned to what’s going on both inside and outside your organ-
isation or industry. The field of issues management lies at the centre of this.
You can liken it to keeping an organisation on course, like a ship or a plane—
if you don’t see the flock of birds, the bad weather, the iceberg or whale pod,
you might strike trouble. Market trends, public opinion and staff (dis)satisfac-
tion are among the issues to which you need to be attuned. We discuss this in
detail in Chapter 3.
In some smaller organisations and consultancies, all staff may be required
to perform both technician and problem-solver functions simultaneously, but
where organisations employ a team of practitioners the more junior staff will
tend to perform the technician’s role, and the more senior the problem-solver’s
role. In large organisations like local government there may be a dozen or more
people performing a range of public relations activities, with appointments
at junior, middle and senior levels. An organisation’s employment pattern
of managers or problem-solvers and technicians will depend on its size and
complexity, the number and range of its publics, the volume of work required,
the output levels of staff and available budgets.
Growth in public relations education and

professionalisation
The public relations industry in Australia and New Zealand saw rapid growth
in many sectors from the 1960s onward—across industry, education and
professionalisation. Sheehan (2014) notes that in 1961 Australian business was
spending more than £3 million on public relations (a figure that would arguably
have been much higher had internal consultants been taken into account). By the
Table 1.2 Many of the titles or fields of practice in public relations

and strategic communication
Job title/field/description Job title/field/description

Brand management: developing and Data analytics: analyses data drawn
maintaining how a brand is known from behavioural patterns and uses
through targeted and sustained these to predict future behaviour to
communication enhance organisational benefit
Brand journalism: using journalistic External relations: establishing and
techniques to tell an organisation’s maintaining relationships with the
story direct to the public publics external to an organisation
Cause or relationship marketing: Event management: preparing,
establishing and maintaining planning, coordinating and carrying
relationships to engender customer out significant events spanning a
loyalty and support limited timeframe
Communication: imparting or Financial and investor relations:
exchanging thoughts, opinions or dealing with and communicating
messages through visual, oral or information to shareholders, the
written means investment community, media and
relevant regulatory bodies
Community relations: establishing Fundraising: establishing and
and maintaining relationships between maintaining relationships on behalf of
organisations and community groups the not-for-profit sector to stimulate
affected by each other public donations and support
Content creation: developing Industrial relations: establishing and
multimedia content for distribution maintaining relationships with, or on
to journalists or via an organisation’s behalf of, companies within an industry
media channels group and unions
Corporate communication: Influencer marketing: using
management of the communication endorsements from people who
with a corporation, including a focus have expert knowledge and/or
on corporate identity, reputation and social influence in their field
brand image
Crisis management: dealing with a Intercultural communication:
crisis, disaster or unplanned negative communication between organisations
events, and maximising any positive and stakeholders from diverse cultural
outcomes these might have and social backgrounds
Table 1.2 Many of the titles or fields of practice in public relations

and strategic communication continued
Job title/field/description Job title/field/description

Integrated Marketing Promotions: activities designed to
Communication (IMC): using create and stimulate interest in a
public relations, marketing and person, product, organisation or cause
advertising functions to achieve a
uniform approach
Internal relations: establishing Public information officer: acting
and maintaining relationships with as liaison between government
the people involved in the same departments, the media and relevant
organisation (the internal publics) publics
Issues management: identification, Public affairs or lobbying: working
monitoring of and action on public on behalf of private organisations,
policy matters of concern to an dealing with politicians and public
organisation servants, who determine policy and
legislation, to either maintain the
status quo or effect change
Media relations: establishing and Public diplomacy: establishing and
maintaining relationships between the maintaining relationships to enhance
news media and an organisation trade, tourism and general goodwill
between nations
Philanthropy: giving and seeking Publicity: disseminating purposefully
donations to support an organisational planned and executed messages
cause through selected media, without
payment, to further the interests of
an organisation
Press agentry: generating ‘soft Social media networking: using
news’ stories—sometimes through social media to establish and maintain
stunts—usually associated with the relationships and networks
entertainment industry (historical
term)
Press secretary: acting as liaison Sponsorship: offering or receiving
between political representatives, the financial or in-kind support in return
media and the electorate for public exposure
Source: adapted from Johnston & Zawawi (2014).
mid-1980s, this had skyrocketed to $170 million nationally (Tymson & Sherman
1987). This growth paralleled the broad acceptance of public relations and the
value of its practice in the region, illustrated in the development of professional
associations and the emergence of public relations at the tertiary education level
(Sheehan 2014).
Professional associations—the Public Relations Institute of Australia (PRIA)
and the Public Relations Institute of New Zealand (PRINZ)—developed
during the 1950s. The (state-based) Australian Institute of Public Rela-
tions was founded in Sydney in late 1950 with 22 members, while the first
Victorian chapter was created soon after, in 1952, with 40 members drawn
from banks, insurers, airlines, the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial
Research Organisation (CSIRO), government departments, oil companies and
car manufacturers. These two chapters joined forces in 1960 to form a loose
federation (Sheehan 2014) and other state chapters soon joined. At around the
same time as developments were occurring in Australia, PRINZ was formed
in New Zealand in November 1953, with membership drawn primarily from
state and municipal bureaucracies.
It therefore comes as no surprise that public relations as an academic
field also emerged around this time. Ernest Sommerlad’s book Mightier than
the Sword: A Handbook on Journalism, Broadcasting, Propaganda, Public Rela-
tions and Advertising (1950) was among the earliest Australian literature in
the field, featuring a foreword by the Vice-Chancellor of Sydney University,
Stephen Roberts, who wrote: ‘This book opens an entirely new field because
no adequate handbook for the use of students, or those desiring to enter
the writing professions, has ever appeared in Australia’ (in Sommerlad 1950,
p. vii). While the book was a poor show of how public relations was under-
stood—with expressions such as ‘crooked publicity’, ‘bags of tricks’ and even
‘palpable malpractice’ used to describe its impact on journalism (Johnston
& Macnamara 2013, p. 3)—it nevertheless showed it was on the academic
radar. Other books dedicated to public relations followed. They included
The Australian Public Relations Handbook, edited by Thomas Dwyer (1961),
written as an industry handbook, followed more than a decade later by the
first Australian dedicated PR textbook, Public Relations Practice in Australia,
edited by PR scholar J.D.S. (David) Potts in 1976 (Johnston & Macnamara
2013). Potts was to later become the first professor of public relations in
Australia after completing postgraduate studies in the USA, bringing a very

‘US perspective’ to the field (Morath 2008). Potts later said in an interview
that Australia needed to ‘take some of that theory and that research and
reinvent it in Australia, in our environment, in our Australian workplace, in
an Australian context. Because we’re not the same as the United States’ (in
Morath 2008, p. 57). Within a decade of the publication of his textbook, there
is evidence that this trend began, as public relations, media relations and
communication literature began to take an Australian turn.
At the same time, public relations in Australian universities and the emer-
gence of communication degrees and diplomas also took off. The first of these
were introduced in Australia in the late 1960s and early 1970s at Mitchell
College of Advanced Education, Queensland Institute of Technology, New
South Wales Institute of Technology and Royal Melbourne Institute of
Technology (Johnston & Macnamara 2013). In New Zealand, the first course
in public relations was offered in 1962 at Wellington Polytechnic, with another
proposed for Victoria University of Wellington in the 1970s (Sheehan 2014).
Fast forward to the present and public relations and communication are
now taught at most universities and many tertiary colleges in Australia and
New Zealand. Degrees, diplomas and certificates are offered in a range of facul-
ties, departments or schools, across arts and humanities, social sciences and
business. Many students combine public relations and communication study
with other fields, undertaking double degrees, double majors or a mixture of
majors and minors.
In 2019, the Australian Commonwealth Government Course Seeker listed
2792 programs in universities that offered ‘Communication’. They included
degrees, diplomas and honours pathways (see these at www.courseseeker.edu.
au/courses). In the same year, the Good Universities Guide Australia listed 120
Bachelor of Communication degrees, fifteen Diplomas of Communication,
ten Certificates in Communication or Strategic Communication and sixteen
Master of Communication degrees. The same source listed 35 named degrees
in public relations (see www.gooduniversitiesguide.com.au). Public relations
majors are not included in this data (because majors are not listed) but it is
worth remembering that these can be found across a range of degrees—for
example, in communication, media, arts, marketing and business. Similar
information is available from New Zealand Education which in 2019 showed

21 Bachelor of Communication degrees, ten Diplomas of Communication,
three Certificates in Communication and two Master of Communication
degrees (www.studyinnewzealand.govt.nz).
In Australia, many universities accredit their PR majors through the
PRIA. This process ensures ongoing benchmarking against industry and
academic standards. PRIA points to three main advantages of accreditation:
commitment by education providers to an extensive and ongoing process of
ensuring courses align with current industry practice; educators and academ-
ics playing a vital role in progressing the profession; and equipping graduates
with best-practice skills and competencies (PRIA 2020). In 2018, PRIA
added an additional layer to its quality assurance by developing its first
Professional Framework, responding to the Australian Government’s ‘Austra-
lian Quality Framework’. This process aims to provide a checklist for both
employees and employers, set up to enable a thorough frame of reference
across five broad career stages:
1. Technician
2. Emerging Practitioner
3. Manager
4. Director
5. Executive Leader.
Each stage in the framework includes details about competency levels, a list
of potential job titles, knowledge and performance outcomes, a list of required
skills, salary band, and rewards and recognition benchmarks for both agency
and in-house roles (PRIA 2016, p. 5).
In 2018, the Global Alliance for Public Relations and Communication
Management—a not-for-profit organisation based in Switzerland—launched
the first Global Capability Framework, based on research led by British
academics and including input from Australia, Argentina, Canada, Singapore,
South Africa, Spain, Sweden, the UK and the USA. The framework is based on
research with practitioners, educators and employers about what public rela-
tions is capable of and how it can best fulfil its potential (Global Alliance 2018).
It is summarised below.
Core capabilities for public relations and

communication management
The Global Capabilities Framework (Australia) study was undertaken between
March 2017 and January 2018. The three-stage research project, which included
a Delphi study, an online survey and focus group discussions, involved public
relations and communication practitioners, employers and educators from
around the country.
The study resulted in a list of ten core capabilities for public relations and
communication management.
1. Strategic analysis: Scanning, assessing and critically analysing the social

and business environment to provide strategic insights.
2. Research and evaluation: Conducting and interpreting formative and
evaluative research to inform strategic decision-making.
3. Ethics and governance: Advocating and advising on ethical and legal
communication practices, including questioning current practices.
4. Stakeholder engagement: Analysing, identifying and negotiating with
appropriate internal and external stakeholders on their communication
needs.
5. Business and social responsibility: Demonstrating business acumen by
aligning business objectives with societal expectations, and vice versa.
6. Strategic and creative communication: Planning, solving problems and
advising on creative, effective and appropriate use of communication
messages and media platforms.
7. Reputation management: Identifying appropriate responses to enhance

organisational reputation and minimise risks.
8. Global and cultural communication: Communicating with understanding
and sensitivity to cultural values and beliefs in a connected world.
9. Risk and issues management: Identifying potential issues, risks and oppor-
tunities for the organisation.
10. Relationship management: Building and maintaining relationships through
nuanced interpersonal communication, collaboration and teamwork.
(PRIA 2020)
Conclusion
Morris and Goldsworthy describe public relations as a fragmented and diffuse
industry, scattered across all parts of the economy and society in thousands of
small cells (2008, p. xi). They say that, while it operates ‘under many aliases’
with ‘its border territories’ with other communication and marketing disci-
plines blurred or disputed, it has an incontrovertible allure (2008, p. xi). Why?
Perhaps it’s because, as they point out, ‘whatever is in the news or in vogue is
often closely associated with PR’ (2008, p. 8). Or perhaps it’s because there
remains some mystery about it. ‘PR is perhaps the ultimate postmodern
industry. No one knows what it really is but it sounds interesting!’ (2008, p 13).
As we will examine throughout this book, strategic communication and PR is
indeed a very interesting pursuit—it is also multi-faceted and complex. Commu-
nication relies heavily on research and planning—and this means planning for
the unexpected. It needs to be deliberate, organised and proactive, yet also
responsive and flexible. It also comes with a collective responsibility for those
entering the field because of the significant influence it wields within society.
Businesses, governments, lobby groups and community action groups seek to
motivate, persuade and influence others regarding their practice and their goals
and, as we will examine in the following chapters, this brings with it responsibil-
ities to those around us—to local communities, the enviornment, other citizens
and the democratic framework in which the field functions. It works in an envi-
ronment in which there are often developments and changes that present benefits
and challenges—such as the rise in data-mining, which can assist our friends in
marketing but challenge our ethics and relationships with our publics. Strategic
communication and PR need to navigate the world we live in and steer a course
that is ethical, transparent and strongly communicated. We are reminded how
‘A large and diverse PR industry may be the most realistic and effective way
of putting across the different views and representing the different interests of
society’ (Morris & Goldsworthy 2008, p. ix). We will keep this aim in mind as we
work through the next nine chapters.
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Chapter 2
Communication at work
Strategic communication and public relations activities surround us every day,

often going unnoticed. You wake up in the morning to an avocado and quinoa
breakfast salad, the same one that your favourite Instagram fitness guru is eating.
Mum is watching the TV news and you catch a glimpse of a media briefing by
the police about the latest emergency situation as you flick through Facebook
and see that your favourite footballer is in trouble, again! Dad mentions that he
heard petrol prices are on the rise, so you fill up the car on the way to university.
It’s Open Day at uni and you’re helping promote your degree to potential
new students. You need to divert from your normal route to the campus as a
climate change protest has closed a main street, but you make it in plenty of
time. Grabbing a coffee from the stand that is sponsored by a major corporate
employer, you purchase a coloured ribbon from a charity, participate in a quick
survey about your attitudes to campus services and go and start your day.
What you may have noticed in this vignette is the variety of organisations
reaching out to you. Behind all of this sit planned, researched and strategic
efforts by individuals and organisations who want to communicate with you.
In many cases, it is about you receiving information, but sometimes it is about
voicing your opinions on an issue. By limiting our thinking about strategic
communication and PR to a business function that transmits corporate messages
to benefit the organisation, we fail to realise the full power of communication.
Alternatively, if we think about communication as ‘a symbolic process whereby
reality is produced, maintained, repaired and transformed’ (Carey 2009, p. 19),
we start to see that the process is open to all in society, connecting diverse
individuals and organisations.
25
We talk a lot about ‘organisations’, so perhaps we need to look at what

such entities comprise. In most instances, people initially think of business
organisations—companies or corporations. But communication and PR practice
is not limited to those in business. In this book, when we talk about organisa-
tions we imagine the term in an all-encompassing sense—formal to informal,
large to small, long-standing to emerging, highly structured to free-form.
In many cases, we will also be referring to communication consultancies or
agencies that operate on behalf of these other organisations, as well as individ-
uals who use the same practices for commercial and/or social benefit.
So, what types of organisations are we thinking about when we examine the
working environments of strategic communication and public relations? To
help describe the breadth of the environment, we turn to a common division
of society as: the public, private and not-for-profit sectors. In a nutshell, the
public sector refers to entities controlled by the government; the private sector
includes organisations that contribute to the national economy while making
profits for individuals and companies; and the not-for-profit sector, also known
as the third sector, is so named as it includes everything not in the first two,
even if they receive government funding or charge for business services (Senate
Standing Committee on Economics 2008, p. 11).
This chapter will start with an overview of what types of organisations each
of these sectors comprise. Then, exploring each sector in turn, we consider the
way in which strategic communication and public relations help various parts
of society function and interact with each other and with individuals. In doing
so, we will set the scene for the chapters to come, providing an overall picture
of the diverse working environments and a gateway to key concepts and tech-
niques that will be explored in greater depth later in the book. Throughout this
chapter we also incorporate many of the ‘Top-100’ tactics that are explained in
Chapter 7 and link to theories that are explained in more depth in Chapter 10.
Classifications of organisations
Let’s start with a closer look at the sectors themselves and what types of
organisations, institutions, associations and groups (discussed generically as
‘organisations’ within this book) fit within each. On initial viewing, the three
sectors appear to be quite distinctive, but on closer examination we can see that
Communication at work 27
an organisation can have characteristics from multiple sectors. The clear delin-
eations of the past have gone. Not all public sector organisations are the same,
and nor are those in the private or public sectors. Consider Figure 2.1 and
note the wide variety of organisations arranged around the circular spectrum.
Some sit in the centre and fit the common description of their sector, such
as government departments (public sector), corporations (private sector) and
charities (not-for-profit or NFP sector). Others are closer to, or straddle, one
of the other sectors, such as communes (public/not-for-profit sectors), social
enterprises (not-for-profit/private sectors) and public–private partnerships.
Public sector organisations are government-owned organisations. The
most obvious of these are government departments, such as Health, Defence,
Treasury and Agriculture. However, governments also have autonomous state
agencies which generally administer and provide advice on specific functions,
such as the Australian Electoral Commission and the New Zealand Film
Commission. State-owned enterprises, such as Australia Post and KiwiRail,
Figure 2.1 Organisations in the three sectors. Source: adapted from Mintzberg
(2016). Photo by Louis Reed, Unsplash.
take on more of a corporate structure and undertake commercial activities, but

they are still owned by the government.
Corporations are the standard example of private sector organisations and
can be publicly owned businesses (i.e. open to investment from the public)
like the ANZ Bank or privately owned (i.e. owned by private investors, such
as founders or management) like IKEA. Smaller, family-based businesses and
for-profit entrepreneurial businesses, from the local fish-and-chip shop to
Kayla Istines’s fitness apps and business, are also part of this sector.
The NFP sector goes by many names; non-profit, non-government organ-
isations (NGOs), third or volunteer sector, or the broad term of ‘civil society’.
It has also been referred to as the ‘plural sector’ (Mintzberg 2016) due to the
broad spectrum of organisations that sit within this category. What is generally
agreed, however, is the fact that organisations in this sector return any surpluses
made to their community. The Australian Government refers to three broad
categories within the third sector: financial mutuals and trade associations;
social enterprises; and not-for-profit organisations (Senate Standing Commit-
tee on Economics 2008, pp. 11–16). We have added a fourth that also needs to
be considered in terms of communication: community action groups or CAGs.
Figure 2.2 describes each of these categories, providing some examples.
Figure 2.2 Organisations of the third sector.

Public (government) sector

Public sector communication informs citizens of what their government
is doing, involves them in debates about what should be done, and calls on
them to take action, whether it be through voting or following some form
of policy or regulation. Numerous actors are involved, with differing roles,
motivations and responsibilities—and at different levels of government,
i.e. federal, state and local. Often described as a single government sector,
there are two major groups of actors involved in engaging citizens. The first
group centres around the elected officials—the politicians and those seeking
election. Included in this group are those involved in the political apparatus,
such as ministerial staff and party officials. The second group comprises the
public service—those who have a responsibility to serve the government of
the day, regardless of the political leanings of that government. Often described
as ‘apolitical’, these public sector workers separate their political preferences to
become neutral participants within the government machine.
The distinction between political and apolitical communication can
often be difficult to achieve; nevertheless, it is important as it impacts on
the messages formed and signifies the position of the speaker, their possible
motivations and credibility. Some of the differences regarding those who
undertake political and apolitical communication, the goals behind it and the
style of messaging are displayed in Table 2.1. In this section, we will explore
the communication practices of both groups: the political and the apolitical
(or bureaucratic/public service).
The communication of politics

Political communication can be defined in very broad and simple terms as
‘purposeful communication about politics’, undertaken by a broad range of
actors, such as politicians, voters, activists and journalists (McNair 2018,
pp. 3-4). What is of specific interest to us is how strategic communication is
used by political operatives—politicians, political staff and political parties—
to communicate with citizens. Their primary aim is to inform and persuade
audiences about their views on issues important to governing the nation, the
state or their local community in order to win support for their policies and,
Table 2.1 Characteristics of political and apolitical communication
Political Apolitical
Undertaken Politicians Public sector communication
by Political party operatives staff
Political and media advisers Public servants/bureaucrats
Lobbyists
Goals Political ends Governance/administrative
ends
Messages Partisan Non-partisan/impartial
Persuasive Factual, transparent
Selective Persuasive (in terms of policy
Electioneering implementation)
Source: Glenny (2020, p. 88).
ultimately, get (re)elected at the ballot box. Citizens are a key stakeholder
group, but there is also a need to communicate with groups in the private and
not-for-profit sectors, other political actors, parliamentary committees and
the media.
At the heart of their communication lies the building of trusted and trusting
relationships based on openness, honesty and opportunities for all to partici-
pate. The idea of building relationships in political communication could be
argued as being too idealistic. Scholars critiquing the use of public relations in
politics often take a more cynical view, seeing it as a mechanism for one-way
communication that aims to use the media and well-crafted messages to gain
favourable publicity, avoid negative publicity, control the information to the
political actors’ advantage and manage a positive presentation of one’s image.
Although Strömbäck and Kiousis argue that this reflects a ‘narrow understand-
ing of public relations’ (2011, p. 9), it is from this perspective that the notion
of ‘spin’ emerges. The term is used to imply that a favourable bias has been
given to the information being disseminated. Used to describe the tactics of
political campaigning and of government media relations, Andrews argues
that the term spin ‘is now one of the most overused, and arguably least mean-
ingful, words in use in political communication’ (2006, p. 31). This is not to
say that information is never manipulated or biased, but accusations of spin
do remind communicators of the importance of clear, accurate and transparent

communication.
Elections and strategic communication

Communication contributes to political campaigning through ‘outlining one’s
own parties’ policies and leadership team and partly by damaging the credibil-
ity of the opponents’ policy platform and leadership aspirations’ (Baines 2011,
p. 116). It is strategic because it is planned and aims to benefit those seeking
election by shaping public opinion and, ultimately, by winning votes. While a
political party or politician can carefully craft the messages and select
the channels to use, the way that the media react to and reshape the
messages impacts significantly on the achievement of the strategic agenda
goals. Flexible and reactive communication strategies are part of the setting theory
sparring that accompanies electioneering and the political efforts to
influence the media agenda.
Lilleker outlines the key features of political campaigning that are relevant
to the use of strategic communication (2006, pp. 50–51).
• Campaigns are centrally orchestrated but fought locally. Politicians use local
media, community events and door-knocking to show their connec-
tion to the people and issues within their electorates, while aligning with
the broader policies of the party.
• Increased use of professional campaign units and consultants. In doing so, the
communication function is also becoming more professional.
• The use of market intelligence. The availability of and access to big data
provides political parties with valuable information on which to base
campaign planning and communication.
• Media management. Campaigns carefully manage both interactions with
news media and their ‘owned’ media, such as social media platforms and
websites, to transmit their messages.
• Narrowcasting. This involves the tailoring of messages to reach individuals
rather than mass audiences, informed by big data and using artificial intel-
ligence.
• The permanent campaign. The constant need to employ tactics tradition-
ally seen only in elections to ensure that political policies and leaders have
a visible and ongoing presence.
Media and mediatisation

The involvement of the news media in the political communication is
substantial and an important part of the democratic process as it maintains
an ‘informed citizenry’ (McNair 2018, p. 5). Media relations requires the
establishment and maintenance of relationships with trusted journalists and
a willingness to be accessible to the media. The news media’s ability to set
and control the agenda and influence the debate makes them important inter-
mediaries between the politician and the citizen. Despite suggestions that
they provide an objective watchdog role over what governments and politi-
cians are doing, ‘their accounts of political events (as of any other category of
“reality”) are laden with value judgments, subjectivities and biases’ (McNair
2018, p. 12), squarely placing the news media in the political process itself.
As politics has become increasingly mediated (i.e. enacted
through media), a process of mediatisation is also occurring. In
other words, the media shapes not only the message but society as
mediatisation
well. In effect, politicians and political parties often amend their
processes and their messages as a result of the media coverage that
has occurred.
News media coverage is still essential to the political debate; however,
technology has provided a mechanism for politicians to bypass the news
‘gatekeepers’ (i.e. those who decide if something is ‘in’ or ‘out of’ the news).
During and between elections, social media platforms provide the ability to
speak directly to interested citizens, avoiding re-interpretation of messages by
the news media. While the political voice is heard directly by those follow-
ing a politician or political party on social media, news media reporting of
politicians’ posts, accompanied by journalistic opinion pieces, amplify the
reach. So, while the narrative is initially set by the politician, it is typically
not the only voice being heard. Social media targets specific demographics
with tailored messages, creating a more individual approach. However, rather
than social media being just another broadcast medium, it can have more value
in motivating supporters, creating a buzz around an issue or a candidate and
mobilising people to volunteer, share messages and contribute to the campaign
in some form. And, as Lilleker points out above, it has a lot of potential as a
narrowcaster as well.
Ministerial staff
Standing beside, or sometimes between, the politician and the media and other
stakeholders are the electoral staff and the political and media advisers to the
ministers of parliaments in Australia, New Zealand, Canada, Britain and other
democratic parliamentary systems. Ministerial staff are political appointees
who provide support on policy, strategy and media, working with politicians,
other political staff and public servants. Exercising considerable influence over
the communication activities of politicians, the specialist advisers counsel on
media strategies and the construction of narratives, undertaking a variety of
activities, such as:
• briefing journalists
• writing media releases
• arranging interviews and media conferences
• monitoring the media
• researching
• management or oversight of website and social media platforms.
Communicating from the bureaucracy

Citizens have a right to know what their governments are doing on their behalf
and, to an extent, to be involved in the political process. Public service commu-
nicators facilitate this in the day-to-day work that they undertake in supporting
the policy agenda of the government. They bring a range of skills with them and
typically work under an array of titles such as public affairs officer, communica-
tions officer, media adviser or community engagement officer. Each department
or agency, at each level of government, will structure its functions differently
depending on the needs of its stakeholders, but there are some common func-
tions across all public service communication work. The South Australian
Government, for example, talks about the purpose of communication being
to inform, create dialogue with and influence citizens, so that trust, respect
and confidence are built; policy and service development is better informed;
outcomes are more consistently delivered; and a stronger society is built.
(South Australia Department of Premier and Cabinet 2019, p. 3)
The main communication and public relations functions undertaken by
communicators are summarised in Table 2.2.
Table 2.2 Communication and public relations functions in the

public sector
Strategic communication functions in the public sector

Strategic communication Research, planning and evaluation of
management communication strategies and programs.
Communication policy development.
Liaison with senior management and
ministerial staff.
Advertising TV, radio, print, outdoor, digital, cinema,
direct mail and social media for campaigns
and functional tasks such as public notices
and recruitment.
Media relations Media liaison, promotion of activities,
services and policies through news
media, media releases, media conferences
and announcements, coordination of
interviews, sourcing information for
journalists.
Campaign management Development, implementation and
evaluation of information and education
campaigns.
Social and digital Websites, social media strategy,
communication management and content development.
Stakeholder engagement Corporate and community engagement,
sponsorship, speechwriting.
Research Market and opinion research.
Publications production and Production and distribution of print, digital
content creation and video content, including newsletters,
brochures, booklets, reports.
Brand management Responsible for branding guidelines.
Ministerial support Preparing ministerial briefs and talking
points.
Risk and crisis communication Manage communication around the
health, safety, security and welfare of the
public.
Public service agencies are often large and complex organisations, requiring
substantial communication support. In 2019, some of the largest federal govern-
ment employers of communication and marketing staff were the Australian
Tax Office (493 staff) and the Department of Human Services (286 staff) (now
called Services Australia) (Australian National Audit Office 2020, pp. 14–15).
Annual reports to the New Zealand Parliament over the years 2013–2018
showed a 60 per cent rise in staffing numbers, with some attributing this to
increased demands for information and others claiming that it is about restrict-
ing information to the media (Pennington 2019). When you consider the
number of departments and agencies across federal and state governments,
and the thousands of local councils around Australia, you can see how s ignificant
the demand is for specialists in the public sector.
The growing use of social media to reach out to citizens, with all its benefits
and challenges, has warranted the implementation of policies throughout all
levels of government. Policies typically cover both the professional and personal
use of social media, listing protocols for approvals, standards of behaviour and the
processes for moderation. Guidance is also presented for public servants regard-
ing how to manage social media effectively and efficiently and how to establish
and evaluate valid objectives and outcomes. Social media is largely used to dis
seminate information. For example, the Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade
uses its Smart Traveller Facebook and Twitter accounts to provide information
for safe travel, including alerts regarding dangerous areas to avoid. Many of
the emergency service organisations use social media in times of crises to keep the
community up to date, pushing out the latest information as circumstances change.
Other government social media sites provide capacity for citizen engagement,
such as the sharing of missing children reports from police, reporting damaged
footpaths to councils and facilitating community views on policy reviews.
The relationship between political and public service communication can
be complex. The public service communicator works in a very political envi-
ronment and a clear distance needs to be kept between communication that
explains what the government is doing and communication that justifies what
the government is doing. For example, the public service communicator needs
to explain citizens’ responsibilities in terms of submitting their tax returns, but
he or she does not engage in justifying or defending why the government made
a controversial change to taxation laws.
Coronavirus communication
In January 2020, the outbreak of the Coronavirus COVID-19 in Wuhan, China,
received intense media coverage, reporting fears that the contagion would
spread throughout the world. Even at that early stage, constant updates in
media about how many were infected and where patients were located
flooded both mainstream and social media—not all of it accurate or from
reliable sources. As the virus spread, and countries started shutting their borders
and restricting citizen movements, government communication was central
to keeping the public updated with factual information, providing information
about preventative measures, and reassuring citizens that the government
was working on control measures. Communication efforts faced the difficult
balancing act of asking the public to radically change its behaviours while
preventing panic.
Initial government communication efforts included a website with informa-
tion and fact sheets targeting different audiences such as health professionals,
parents, schools and universities and for staff in industries such as airlines and
cruise ships. As the seriousness of the circumstances developed, govern
ment ministers and health authorities gave daily media conferences, the web
presence grew, advertising and social media campaigns were developed, and
the media became saturated with information. In the rapidly developing situa-
tion, some communication activities were more successful than others, showing
the importance of clear messaging and source credibility.
The private (corporate) sector

Common perceptions of communication and public relations practice place
it squarely in the realm of the private, or corporate and business, sector.
And often for good reason: this is where much of the industry effort is
concentrated. But which communication functions and roles are common in
this sector?
Corporations invest significant effort in creating and maintaining strong
reputations, as they are key to the success of the company. Without a strong repu-
tation, corporations may weaken or lose what is known as their ‘social licence
to operate’—the informal approval that stakeholders give to a

company based on whether they believe it is a credible and trust-
social
worthy organisation, operating legitimately in terms of its legal, licence to
social and cultural responsibilities (The Ethics Centre 2018). operate
Without it, the organisation may fail to attract consumers and
investors—two crucial stakeholders for financial success. Commu-
nity and government support for a corporation’s activities is also vital to survival.
The whole world is watching. One investment company chief executive put it
this way:
Society is demanding that companies . . . serve a social purpose . . . To prosper

over time, every company must not only deliver financial performance, but
also show how it makes a positive contribution to society. (Fink, cited in
Sorkin 2018)
Demonstrating both a worthwhile purpose and ethical operations,

through clear, honest and transparent communication, is essential in building
the relationships with all stakeholders to provide the longevity sought by
businesses.
Consumer relations
Much of the focus of the corporate communicator is on consumer groups,
where the aim is to seek positive attention for the organisation and its products,
share information with consumers and listen to their needs and concerns. In
this respect, the lines between strategic communication, public relations and
marketing communication overlap, requiring all specialist communicators to
work together in connecting with consumers. Consumers see all communica-
tion from the organisation as emanating from a single voice—they don’t see
the different PR and marketing messages, and neither should they. Internally,
however, the balance of responsibilities between the communication team and
the marketing team will depend on the structure and approach of the organi-
sation. Although there is no formally agreed delineation between the roles of
communication and marketing practitioners, historical differences have centred
around a focus on consumers and sales for marketing and all other stakeholders
for corporate communication. This is also reflected in integrated market-
ing communication (IMC), a concept largely driven by the advertising and
marketing disciplines that uses

consumer-focused communi-
cation activities to integrate
a brand’s messages across all
media touchpoints. Traditional
understandings of IMC say it
is used to provide synergy to
a campaign: ‘Synergy means
the sum of the whole is greater
than the parts’ (Galloway 2014,
p. 186). Galloway points out
that using different techniques
in IMC focuses on creating
an appropriate strategy-based
framework, bringing together Figure 2.3 The strategic communication
different disciplines, e.g. PR, funnel.
advertising, branding, market-
ing and promotions. The rise of content marketing and branded content—with
their dependence on social and online media—has put a different inflection
on this whole combination, which is why we put them all into a funnel to
become the broader concept of ‘strategic communication’. The concept is
shown simply in Figure 2.3. Chapters 1 and 9 take up this conversation.
While consumer relations include traditional activities, such as product
launches and announcements, publicity and advertising, newer techniques
have emerged over the last decade. In some cases, the basic techniques
may not be new, but they have expanded in their scope and form, largely
thanks to the impact of technological developments. For example, digital
media has created expectations of greater personalisation and interactivity
of information, as well as a thirst for authentic user-generated content rather
than higher-quality corporate productions (Mosley 2014, p. 188). Content
and content marketing have taken on a life of their own through the input
of the consumers (discussed in more detail in Chapter 5). The concept of
branding has expanded as brands become aligned with social media personali-
ties, corporations become synonymous with ‘The Brand’, and individuals and
previously unbranded items develop their own brands. There has even been a
trend to purposefully become ‘unbranded’, ironically becoming brands in the

process—e.g. The Unbranded Brand, Brandless, No-Frills (The Fashion Law
2018). Brand management strategies impact on the way the whole business
communicates and therefore feeds closely into any other strategic communi-
cation efforts.
Investor relations
The two major sources of income for a for-profit organisation are sales and
investment. Therefore, a stakeholder with equal importance to consumers
in the corporate sector is the shareholder, or investor. Financial relations (or
investor relations) is a specialised field of strategic communication, managed
in-house by the corporate communicator or outsourced to an agency with a
focus on the finance community. While the shareholders themselves sit at the
centre of this important group, the financial media and investment advisers
provide a crucial bridge between the organisation and the investors. The
central focus for the communicator in this field is the provision of information
regarding the financial standing of the organisation, which can often include
dealing with acquisitions and mergers. Two key channels through which this
is done are the Annual Financial Report and the Annual General Meeting.
While both activities require a collaborative effort across the organisation, the
communication practitioner may play a lead role in their coordination and
the framing of key messaging.
Public financial information is often organised through an ‘investor
relations’ page on the company website, with quarterly and annual reports,
share and dividend information, management announcements, disclosure
policies and resources for the media. Other communication activities could
include preparing presentations, engaging with analysts and arranging company
visits and webcasts. Communication staff need to have a good understanding of
corporate finance, accounting and law and to be across the legal requirements
for reporting to the stock exchange. Above all, there is a need for accurate,
open and timely information. The survival of the company is dependent on
its financial situation, so by reassuring investors and others that it is a stable
organisation, financial relations can help build and maintain the company’s
good reputation.
Public affairs and lobbying

Businesses also need good working relationships with government to ensure
they are able to ‘achieve preferred outcomes in the political arena and to forge
and maintain a socio-political environment favourable to it’ (Lerbinger 2006).
The public affairs function has strategic significance in an organisation as it
addresses complex issues, engages in high-level dialogue and attempts to influ-
ence important areas of government and society. While the term ‘public affairs’
can have a very broad remit, encompassing all ‘policy and political discussions
and interactions within a state or nation—and sometimes between nations—on
public issues’ (Macnamara 2012, p. 280), we are specifically interested here
in the work that corporate sector organisations do in relation to policy issues
being driven by government.
Consider, for example, the medical and social issues surrounding alcohol
abuse. Governments need to make and deliver policies that balance the protec-
tion and rights of citizens. Yet organisations in the hospitality industry will
have vested interests in any proposed changes to policy or legislation that will
impact their operations. Through their own issues management processes (see
Chapter 3), they will develop a position on the issue and attempt to become
involved in related public policy discussions. In both the research and the promo-
tion of any proposals, the communicators will need to consult with and lobby key
politicians, political staffers, senior public servants, other industry players and
the community. At the same time, news and social media will provide functional
channels for reaching out and gathering support for the organisation’s position,
but they also give voice to those who have an opposing or competing view.
These competing voices, and the ability for experts to contribute to deci-
sion-making can be seen as benefits of a more inclusive approach to public
policy—an approach that contributes to a ‘healthy democracy’ (Mulcahy 2015,
p. 6). Additionally, it could be argued that private sector organi-
sations’ involvement in public policy discussions stems from their
responsibility as corporate citizens contributing to public debate to corporate
achieve the best outcomes for society. However, from a more prag- citizenship
matic view, the main aim is to influence political decision-making
in terms that will be of benefit to their operations. This notion of
‘influence’ leads to concerns about the power of corporations and their impact
on governments, and hence democracy, with suggestions of ‘routinely low
ethical standards’ (Davidson 2015, p. 615).
Public affairs can sit within a corporate affairs or legal department in the
organisation but, due to its focus on communication, it is typically considered
to be a strategic communication function. A range of tactics are employed:
meetings with key political and public service contacts, speeches and presenta-
tions, publication of proposals, petitions, collaborations with other private and
third sector organisations, media interviews and pitches, and campaigns.
Lobbying is the specific tactic of reaching out to key government officials,
either political or bureaucratic, in order to influence policy and legislative
decision-making to the benefit of the organisation. The technique is used by
both private and not-for-profit sector organisations, often with opposing views
but also providing opportunities for collaboration where their interests align.
Lobbying is a growing industry in many democracies and needs to be under-
taken ethically and transparently, with absolutely no room for bribes, preferential
treatment, bias, nepotism or ‘special’ deals. Lobbyists are typically those indi-
viduals or organisations set up to represent a third party. Employees of private
sector organisations involved in lobbying activities are therefore not required to
register (see below) but should still maintain the highest ethical standards.
The Lobbying Code of Conduct was introduced by the Australian Govern-
ment in July 2008 to guide best practice and register lobbyists so government
representatives know when they are being approached by individuals with
vested interests. Individual states have also been establishing their own codes
and registers. Individuals and entities representing foreign governments and
political organisations and individuals are also required to register their
Table 2.3 Elements of effective lobbying regulation
Elements of effective lobbying regulation

Transparency Interactions between lobbyists and public officials are
transparent and open to public scrutiny
Integrity Clear and enforceable rules on ethical conduct for both
lobbyists and public officials are in place
Equality of Public decision-making is open to a plurality of voices,
access representative of a wide range of interests
Source: adapted from Mulcahy (2015).
lobbying activities under the Foreign Influence Transparency Scheme, intro-

duced in December 2018.
To be a lobbyist, a good understanding of the political system and key
players is essential. Government websites are useful sources of information, as
are the parliamentary libraries, federally and in each state. Corporate commu-
nicators need specific knowledge of the functions and structures of:
• each level of government

• parliamentary committees
• ministerial staff
• government departments and agencies
• political organisations that sit outside government
• the political media.
Corporate partnerships and sponsorships

One further communication activity within the corporate sector is that of
partnerships. Cousens and Bradish regard corporate partnerships as
enduring linkages between two or more organizations that involve higher

levels of continuity, loyalty, and mutual understanding than is typically found
in exchange-based relationships between organizations. (2018, p. 422)
Working together to pursue both common goals and individual goals, organ-
isations form strategic alliances through the sharing of skills and resources. The
partnerships can be with another business, with a government body or with a
not-for-profit organisation and are strategic as they are focused on fulfilling
the objectives of both organisations by either strengthening core business or

managing external threats. By uniting, each organisation can extend the reach
of its communication activities and potentially boost credibility and reputation.
While corporate partnerships can extend across multiple activities over
long periods of time, sponsorships are one of the most common tactical tools
used, particularly when the relationship is between a corporation and a charity.
Examples range from the sponsorship of a major cultural or sporting event by
multinational companies to the local supermarket supporting the school fete.
At the high end of the scale, serious planning and management needs to take
place, with due consideration given to the strategic communication, among
other factors. Expectations of both parties need to be clear from the beginning
regarding the contributions that each brings, the communication opportunities
that can be exploited and the metrics to be used to measure success. And there
can be significant risks due to poor organisation, failure to deliver, bankruptcy
or a scandal that taints the other’s performance or reputation. For example,
when rugby player Israel Folau publicised his contentious personal views on
homosexuality on social media, his actions created a problem for his employer,
Rugby Australia. One of their major sponsors, Qantas, had previously publi-
cised support for marriage equality and it was watching carefully to ensure that
Rugby Australia took action on this issue while considering its position in the
long-term corporate partnership (Mason 2019).
Not-for-profit (third) sector

Communication and public relations enable organisations and communities to
engage with each other and build relationships that contribute to the creation
of a stronger civil society—a space that sits outside the control of government
and corporations but unites people in ‘collective action around shared interests,
purposes and values’ (WHO 2020). Commonly known as the not-for-profit
sector, it is a collection of diverse groups and organisations that also need to
build legitimacy, representation and trust in order to be effective in driving the
issues that are important to them.
The 2020s present a challenging environment for the not-for-profit
sector, but one filled with opportunities and momentum. As trust in the first
two sectors wanes, and many countries contend with political and economic
uncertainty, citizens mobilise to fight for causes and changes in society. And
corporations are increasingly interested in aligning themselves with those
good causes. But troubling the not-for-profit sector are the competition to be
heard in an environment of information overload, reductions in funding and
increased ‘compassion fatigue’, whereby many individuals disconnect emotion-
ally as they become overwhelmed by stressful messages or feel that nothing is
being achieved. Others, however, remain impassioned and active in causes and
fights to build a healthier and more sustainable society. Technology positively
facilitates some of these connections by spreading information and healthy
debate to a much broader audience. But technology can also encourage lazy
activism that fails to achieve significant change (i.e. slacktivism), and it can
be a disruptive force that contributes to misinformation, gives prominence to
unrepresentative voices and creates disharmony within communities.
Technology use in the not-for-profit sector

The Good: The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) has an
app called My Life As a Refugee—a game that highlights the life-and-death
decisions that refugees have to make when fleeing war or persecution (United
Nations Commissioner for Refugees n.d.)
The Bad: A fake online fundraising campaign, set up one day after the death of
two men in the New South Wales bushfires on New Years’ Eve in 2019, acquired
almost $4000 before being shut down (Black 2020).
The Ugly: A campaign against cyberbullying, #TrollingIsUgly, digitally manipu-

lated the image of a social media influencer each time a troll made negative
comments about her appearance. The resulting distorted image, shared on
Instagram, was used to show the ugliness of trolling, and the campaign received
significant coverage on other social media platforms and the news media
(Campaigns of the World 2019).
At the centre of the not-for-profit sector is the community. So, in this

section we will explore what communities are, the concept of community
engagement and the communication issues facing organisations in this sector.
The diverse range of individuals and groups in the not-for-profit sector is

mirrored by their wide-ranging motivations, purposes and goals. We return
to the key communication characteristics of the categories explained earlier—
financial mutuals and associations, social enterprise, NGOs and CAGs. While
we explore each of these fields, it’s important to see them as overlapping in
many ways.
Community and community engagement

Communities form themselves and exist independently of the organisa-
tions with which they interact (Macnamara 2012, p. 286). They form when
people identify shared attitudes, interests and goals, and assemble not only
in physical proximity but also in virtual spaces through online forums,
chatrooms, websites and groups on social media platforms. Community
groups can be organised around social, cultural, religious, political or special
interests and vary in terms of their structures, level of formality and services
or benefits offered to their members. The opportunities and challenges for
these communities to use communication techniques to reach out and have
a louder voice in society is often overlooked in favour of how organisations
engage with these communities, largely to advance their own agendas and
operational success but ideally with a motivation to improve the world in
which they operate.
Community engagement is typically seen as the interaction of corporations
and the community, but it can also involve public sector organisations. There
are multiple approaches to defining community engagement, such as
a relational process that facilitates understanding and evaluation, involvement,

exchange of information and opinions, about a concept, issue or project, with
the aim to build social capital and enhance social outcomes through decision
making. (Johnston et al. 2018, p. 173)
The key aim expressed here is the building of valuable and useful
networks of social connections, in which trust and mutual benefit
result in improved circumstances for all involved, and potentially
social
for society. These networks are considered as an asset—a social
capital
capital—where the ‘social contacts affect the productivity of individ-
uals and groups’ (Putnam 2000, p. 19). There is a similarity here with
the concept of community capacity building in which the focus is

community on providing support that strengthens the ability of communities to
capacity solve their own problems and control their futures.
building In both concepts of social capital and capacity building, we can
see two types of outcomes; the social benefits achieved by individuals
through the interaction and involvement in the community, and the
organisational goals that are achieved through addressing community expecta-
tions (Johnston & Lane 2018, p. 634).
Engagement is often episodic, with organisations connecting with
communities to address one-off issues, gain feedback about the community’s
expectations, build support for organisational action and potentially involve
the community in some form of decision-making (Johnston & Lane 2018,
p. 637). However, a deeper form of engagement is relational—that is, it lasts
over a longer period of time, in an ongoing relationship, addressing multiple
issues as and when required.
Through communication, parties to the engagement do more than just
exchange information. The engagement with each other drives the co-cre-
ation of meaning, where language and dialogic interactions are constantly
constructed (and reconstructed) in a joint effort to come to a mutual under-
standing of an issue or phenomenon (Aggerholm 2018). For this to be achieved,
contemporary forms of strategic communication and PR that value
listening as much as speaking are essential. It is through ‘a holistic
organisational approach of ethical and enlightened communication’ that individ-
listening uals and groups are empowered to engage in political debates and
influence the outcomes (Demetrious 2014, p. 260).
Advocacy and activism

So, how do organisations in the not-for-profit sector involve themselves in the
public debate? Typically, through the two related activities of advocacy and
activism. The terms are often used interchangeably due to their similarities,
and we will discuss them together here. However, there is an important differ-
ence between them. Advocacy is generally about supporting and representing
a cause, person or group and working with others to advance that cause and to
effect political or social change. For example, an advocate may represent a cause
as a member of a government working group, contributing expert or specialist
knowledge, such as researchers at Cancer Council Australia. Activism, which

also aims to effect change, is generally done through direct action either in
support of or in opposition to a controversial issue. For example, an activist
may protest against the actions of a particular corporation or government,
such as climate change groups. In a sense, the difference is between working
within and outside ‘the system’. They often use similar tactics, although advo-
cates are known for more passive actions (e.g. presentations and negotiations),
whereas activists have a reputation for more assertive actions (e.g. protests or
civil disobedience).
Contemporary advocates and activists shape the not-for-profit sector and
take many forms. Financial mutuals and associations are largely advocating for
their members, representing them and supporting issues that impact on them.
At the other end of the scale are CAGs, which are typically grassroots organ-
isations that use activism to fight for change. In between, a broad variety of
NGOs use both advocacy and activism depending on the cause they represent,
the purpose of the organisation and the resources available.
In addition, individual activists, while not necessarily forming an organisa-
tion, represent social or political movements and encourage other individuals
and groups to join the cause, often suggesting actions to take to have their
voices heard. In 2020, the CEO of global public relations agency Ketchum,
Barri Rafferty, reflected on increasing youth activism and the shift in power,
suggesting that
the power to mobilize can be just as important as the power that wealth or
positions of authority can bring . . . Armed with their innate social media skills
and tremendous passion for the causes they believe in, these young activists are
showing the world just how much power they can wield, especially now that
they have the ear of the world’s decision-makers. (Sudhaman 2020)
At the time these comments were reported, Greta Thunberg, the

seventeen-year-old climate change activist, had just presented at the 2020
World Economic Forum in Davos, Switzerland. While her actions as a young
activist dominated the media, she was not alone in this respect. Other ‘teenage
change-makers’ participated at Davos, addressing issues of gun violence, the
health and wellbeing of young people, and disaster-affected communities, as
well as the environment (World Economic Forum 2020). Their achievements
reflect Demetrious’ observation that grassroots activists are ‘enhancing

community understandings of complex issues in deeper and creative ways that
are influencing empowerment and participation’ (2013, p. 2).
The prominence and activities of these teens and of activist organisations
demonstrate the important role of communication. Indeed, Heath argues that
activism not only uses strategic communication; it is strategic communication
(Heath 2018, p. 2). Activists use public relations to:
• change the actions of an organisation, public policy, regulation or social norms

• sustain the movement, building trust and credibility so the organisation can
continue to pursue its purpose. (Smith & Ferguson 2010, p. 397)
The work of NGOs and other third-sector associations uses communica-

tion and public relations for the same reason, whether it be through activism
or advocacy. In such a competitive environment, NGOs have adopted the
communication practices of the private sector in order to:
• advocate for issues that are important to their members

• create awareness for the services they offer
• build image and reputation
• raise support, particularly in terms of funds and resources
• recruit and sustain a volunteer workforce
• manage crises (originating in both the community and the organisation).
Typically operating with minimal resources, NGOs need to be creative in

their strategic and tactical approaches to communication. Ferguson (2018, p. 8)
suggests five categories of tactics used by NGOs to highlight and advance
their cause as listed in Table 2.4. To Ferguson’s list of activities, we add further
communication tactics, particularly those enabled by technology, and others
discussed by Gen and Wright (2013) to produce an expanded list of activi-
ties. These can be further understood by reading ‘situational theory’ of climate
strikes in Chapter 10.
Social enterprises
Sitting on the border of the not-for-profit sector and the private sector are the
social enterprises, which have an interesting mix of communication require-
ments aligned with both NGOs and corporations. A simple definition, which
Table 2.4 Tactics for advocacy and activism
Tactics for advocacy and activism

Informational Research
activities Interviews
Media statements
Publications
Website and social media content
Advertising
Position papers
Letters to the Editor
Educational and informational campaigns
Video documentaries for social media platforms
Blogs
Symbolic Boycotts
activities Politically themed images and videos on social media
Organising Distributing leaflets
activities Networking
Engaging policy-makers and legislators
Holding meetings
Mobilisation of supporters for action
Forming coalitions
Monitoring opponents and the environment
Crowdfunding
Legalistic Petitions
activities Lawsuits
Proposing and assistance in developing legislation
Submissions to, and testimony at, hearings
Lobbying regulatory and administrative agencies
Civil disobedience Sit-ins and protests
Blocking traffic
Trespassing
Source: adapted from Ferguson (2018, p. 8).
focuses on social enterprise as being a process rather than an entity, states that it is
‘established using a business model designed to deliver services for the purpose
of providing a social benefit, rather than to provide a profit’ (Productivity
Commission 2010, p. xix). Taking an organisational perspective, another descrip-

tion suggests that ‘[s]ocial enterprises are hybrid organisations that trade goods
and services to achieve social, environmental, economic, and cultural outcomes’
(Social Enterprise Auckland 2020).
An Australian study in 2016 found that social enterprises operated within
a wide variety of industries, including retail trade, health and social assis-
tance, accommodation, cafes and restaurants, education, and cultural and
recreational services (Barraket et al. 2016, p. 16). It also identified more
than twenty categories of beneficiaries who were being targeted by the social
enterprises that took part in the survey (p. 20). Of these, the highest-ranking
comprised:
• people with disabilities

• young people
• disadvantaged women
• unemployed people
• people with mental illness
• disadvantaged men.
Despite the recent growth of social enterprises, little research has been
conducted into their communication needs and activities. Research partici-
pants in the 2016 report into Australia’s social enterprise sector recognised
that a lack of knowledge and investment in marketing and communication
limited the development of their enterprises (Barraket et al. 2016, p. 49).
Nevertheless, strategic communication and PR are as relevant to this sector
as to all others and should address the marketplace (where most funding will
be obtained) but also all other stakeholders with an interest in the enterprise.
Partnerships and collaboration with other non-profit organisations, corpo-
rations and government bodies may also be productive in terms of resources
and funding. Networking—face to face and online—also creates opportuni-
ties for investment and other valuable assistance in business processes and
communication. Social enterprise intermediaries, such as Social Enterprise
Auckland, are organisations established to assist entrepreneurs by providing
resources, support, leadership, events and networking. Communication is
essential to all these connections, using tactics from both the private and
non-profit sectors.
Social enterprise in action

Blending the best of both civic duty and business principles, Thankyou is an
example of a successful social enterprise. It is run as a business and sets out to
make profits, but the difference is that, instead of its profits going
to an owner or shareholders, they are invested in addressing world
poverty. This represents an example of ‘enlightened self-interest’ as enlightened
explained in Chapter 10. self-interest
The ‘owner’ in this instance is a charity trust that partners with and
funds sustainable development projects.
Thankyou’s product range includes everyday items such as personal
and baby care items and water, with each range giving to related commu-
nity projects such as sanitation services and hygiene training, immunisation
programs and midwives, and rainwater harvesting systems. Each consumer can
track which project their purchase is supporting.
Communication efforts play a large part of the Thankyou story. Unable to get
space on the shelves of major Australian supermarkets for five years, the team
set up a social media campaign encouraging thousands of consumers to post
comments and videos on the Facebook pages of Coles and Woolworths, asking
that they stock the products. In addition to some celebrity endorsements, and
support from a morning TV news program, two helicopters were flown over the
head offices of the supermarket chains with signs thanking them for changing
the world if they said ‘yes’ to selling their products. It was a success.
The next campaign involved the launch of a book called Chapter One to
explain Thankyou’s story and crowdfund other product ranges and the expan-
sion of the company into New Zealand. Using a launch video as their main
communication tool, and taking a novel approach of asking people to pay
whatever price they wanted, the book raised over $1.9 million.
Communication and public relations efforts don’t stop there, however. The
company website has easy-to-read information on how the business works and
regular updates on what community outcomes have been achieved. Facebook,
Twitter, Instagram and LinkedIn are all active and there are newsletters, an ambas-
sador program, school outreach sessions, speaker presentations and publicity
efforts in the mainstream news media as well. (https://thankyou.co/)
Conclusion
This chapter has shown how strategic communication plays a role in so
many elements of society, from the large, multinational corporation to the
local council and the teen activists starting movements of their own. While
communication may not always be performed effectively, the benefit of well-
planned activities that help organisations achieve their missions cannot be
understated. Opportunities abound for those who understand the value of
communication that brings people and organisations together, that unites
more than it divides, and that achieves clarity of understanding in an ethical
and transparent manner.
We started the chapter by considering how organisations are gener-
ally grouped into three categories, the public, private and not-for-profit
sectors, while noting that there are some shared characteristics. Public sector
communication has unique challenges in communicating with a broad and
sometimes uninterested public, whether it is seeking support at an election
or implementing a policy designed to improve citizens’ lives. The private
sector organisation’s end goal of making profits for its owners or sharehold-
ers can be enhanced through purposeful communication with consumers,
investors, the community and other significant stakeholders. And the third
sector, with its diverse organisations and noble ambitions of serving their
members or the community, also depends on clear communication to achieve
its strategic intent.
For those looking to work in the field of strategic communication, special
interests and passions can be combined with communication skills and knowl-
edge to provide rewarding careers in the public, private and not-for-profit
sectors. You may be seeking a ‘cut and thrust’ career as a high-flying corporate
communication practitioner, have a passion for politics or specialist fields of
government, or want to make a difference in social or animal welfare. Strategic
communication is advantageous to all.
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Chapter 3
Issues, risk, crises and

corporate social responsibility
Organisations are complex institutions, existing in a complicated world char-

acterised by constant change and technological disruption, requiring flexibility
and adaptability. As collectives of individuals, organisations are structured
and operate through communication and their continuing relevance in
society is dependent on successful human interactions. In this environ-
ment, communication is central to management and needs to operate across
the boundaries between the organisation, its stakeholders and society. This
‘boundary-spanning’ role has been recognised as a key function of the strate-
gic communication practitioner, ‘linking the “inside” with the “outside” of an
organisation’ (Tench et al. 2017, p. xxvi). Understanding both the internal and
external environments arms the communication practitioner with the knowl-
edge required to advise management and participate in decision-making at the
highest levels.
Two key activities that facilitate the boundary-spanning function and
the capacity for communication to contribute to the organisation at a stra-
tegic level are discussed in this chapter: issues management (incorporating
risk and crisis management) and corporate social responsibility (CSR).
What links these activities is the motivation to work with society to ensure
organisational legitimacy and longevity. They both involve maintaining an
awareness of societal issues and intervening early to either prevent problems
or take advantage of opportunities that will improve the success of both the
organisation and society.
56
Issues, risk, crises and corporate social responsibility 57
The chapter explores key roles of strategic communication, beginning with

an explanation of issues and issues management, outlining some of the processes
used by organisations and communication practitioners to manage the complex
relationships that are involved. In doing so, it also addresses the closely related
strategic communication role of risk management and describes how issues can
develop into crises. The Issues Management Council describes issues manage-
ment as the ‘genuine and ethical long-term commitment by the organization to
a two-way, inclusive standard of corporate responsibility towards stakeholders’
(Issues Management Council n.d. (a)). This chapter therefore concludes with a
discussion of one of the major organisational responses in dealing with issues;
that is, through acknowledging corporate social responsibilities to society.
What is an issue?
We are surrounded by issues every day, often without consciously considering
them in any depth, or even clearly identifying them. Determining what an issue
is, and how it impacts an organisation’s business practice and reputation, is an
essential function. The communication practitioner is not just the mouth of
the organisation, but also its eyes and ears, constantly monitoring the external
environment for issues that may impact on its success. Threats to an organi-
sation’s reputation, adjustments in public policy, technological advancements,
and changes in societal behaviours and attitudes have the potential to disrupt
the regular operations of a business. This is theorised in systems theory, which
explains how an organisation receives and interacts with information from its
environment and, in return, impacts on that environment. Early intervention
in these issues, through action and communication, may prevent or reduce
outcomes that are detrimental to the business.
Heath’s definition, from over two decades ago, still provides a clear and
simple description of an issue as ‘a contestable point, a difference of opinion
regarding fact, value, or policy, the resolution of which has consequences for
the organization’s strategic plan’ (1997, p. 84). This definition remains useful
in a time when new technology has empowered all citizens, including NGOs and
activists, giving them an increased ability and a louder voice to openly express
and debate expectations around corporate behaviour (Jaques 2012, p. 38). For
example, online petitions and social media campaigns can pressure businesses
into making changes to operations. In Australia in 2018, food manufacturing

company Kellogg’s agreed to change the images used on packaging after an
online petition was started by eight-year-old Daliah Lee. Objecting to the lack
of girls being shown in images of surfing and skateboarding on packets of Nutri-
Grain breakfast cereal, she claimed that the lack of imagery was ‘offending
girls who can do amazing things too’ (Lee 2018). The willingness of Kellogg’s
to address the issue of gender equality was positive, reinforcing the need to
constantly monitor societal attitudes and expectations. In this way, oppositional
pressure can also be seen as a check-and-balance on what is acceptable within
the standards of society.
Technological changes have also enabled what has been described as
‘disruptive innovation’, a term which refers to a
process by which a product or service takes root initially in simple applications

at the bottom of a market and then relentlessly moves up market, eventually
displacing established competitors. (Christensen 2019)
While the introduction of the internet and mobile phones was disruptive,
a more recent example is the introduction of ride-sharing services such as
Uber, which have severely disrupted the taxi industry. The latest generation of
disruptive technologies are wide-ranging and include AI and machine learning,
robotics, 3D printing, and blockchain technology (Cag 2019). These innova-
tions have potential consequences for the strategic plans of many organisations
and need to be monitored and managed.
Jaques makes an important and useful distinction between a problem and

an issue, highlighting that ‘problems are day-to day challenges that functional or
departmental managers need to just get on and deal with’ (2016, p. 40; original
emphasis). In describing it this way, he emphasises the more complex nature of
issues that require attention from multiple functional areas in the organisation,
which also ‘involve external parties . . . have no black and white or “right”
answer . . . happen in public or in the news media’ and have the potential to
become crises if not managed well (2016, p. 40).
Many issues arise through a gap in expectations around political, economic,
social, technological, legal and environmental conditions, or PESTLE. Issues
often span more than one of these categories and can be categorised in differ-
ent ways; however, a PESTLE analysis, as illustrated below, is a useful tool
for examining the organisation’s external environment. The prominence of
issues will wax and wane over time and they may be initiated by businesses, by
governments or by activists. They may also be either driven by broader social
debates or emerge from more specific changes to public policy and legislation.
Some examples are provided in Table 3.1.
Table 3.1 Examples of issues using the PESTLE framework
Type of Issue Broader social issue Potential public policy issue

Political International trade relations Increases in import/export
tariffs
Economic Poverty and homelessness Proposals to raise the
minimum wage
Social Debates about abortion, Introduction of laws on
euthanasia and marriage assisted dying
equality
Technological Artificial intelligence, data Changes to the Privacy Act
security and privacy regarding the collection of data
Legal Occupational health and Tightening of work health
safety and safety regulations
Environmental Carbon emissions Regulations about single-use
plastics
FACT CHECK
Think about current public issues and debates that may have an impact
on universities. For example, has your university moved to a smoke-free
zone? Is it generating its own power?
Complex and diverse views typically accompany any issue, and organisa-
tions that take a carefully considered position in order to gain the support of
some stakeholders risk alienating others. As issues are contestable points
of difference, exposed through gaps between stakeholder expectations and
organisational performance (Issues Management Council n.d. (b)), organi-
sations need to closely manage key issues to protect their strategic interests
and reputation.
What is issues management?

Issues management has been defined variously as a focused form of corpo-
rate advocacy (Coombs & Holladay 2018, p. 81), a ‘management philosophy
and a multidisciplinary set of strategic functions’ (Heath 2013, p. 496) and
as a process (Public Affairs Council n.d.). Its purpose, according to Heath,
is to ‘reduce friction and increase harmony between organisations and their
stakeholders’ (2013, p. 496). Early views of issues management focused on
influencing government decision-making about public policy but perspectives
have now broadened to cover social issues, targeting business decision-makers
as well (Coombs & Holladay 2018, p. 81).
Issues management was traditionally viewed as largely reactive, with busi-
nesses responding to issues in order to address some form of threat to their
organisations. Contemporary best practice, however, increasingly views it
proactively—as opportunities for organisations to participate in society (Jaques
2012). Organisations can advocate for themselves, using their voices to influ-
ence debates that impact on their ability to operate, or they may
advocate on behalf of broader causes that align with their values.
relationship This view of issues management has been described as an ‘engage-
management ment approach’ that ‘seeks mutual benefit’ (Coombs, Holladay &
Tachkova 2019, p. 38). Underpinning this approach is a foundation
based on relationship management theory.
Jaques links issues management closely with ‘reputation management,
community relations, anticipatory management, corporate citizenship, risk
management, litigation communication, environmental issues management,
managing sustainability or the newly expanded conception of crisis manage-
ment’ (2012, pp. 40–41). Similarly, Heath discusses the links between issues
monitoring and communication, strategic management and CSR (2018, p. 390).

The communication manager, therefore, has a central and influential role.
As a process, different models present similar step-by-step procedures to
implement in issues management, based on the original model presented by
Jones and Chase (1979). The steps, described in Table 3.2 take a pragmatic and
tactical systems approach to dealing with issues but still reflect the strategic
functions identified by Jaques and Heath above.
Table 3.2 Issues management processes
Process step Explanation

Monitoring Constant monitoring of political, economic, social,
technological, legal and environmental (PESTLE) issues
external to the organisation.
Identifying Identification of the strategic importance of the issue to
the organisation, through recognising the impacts that
the issue is having, or could have, on the organisation
and identification of the stakeholders involved.
Issues that are identified as important do not need to
be directly related to the work of the organisation; the
business may wish to enter the public debate about a
broader social phenomenon that it feels is important
to society.
Prioritising Ranking each issue on the level of impact (positive
or negative) and urgency in terms of achieving the
organisation’s strategic aims.
Analysing Conducting in-depth analysis of the prioritised issue/s
to determine the positions of key stakeholders, the
impact that it has/could have on the organisation, the
organisation’s capacity to influence the issue and the need
for action.
Decision-making Making strategic management decisions regarding
positions and actions to be taken to manage the issue,
including communication strategies. This could include
the decision to take no action at that point in time, but to
continue monitoring.
Table 3.2 Issues management processes continued
Process step Explanation

Implementing Making decisions to implement actions from multiple
departments within an organisation. Depending on the
issue, the implementation of a communication plan
may be the lead action; however, in other situations
communication may play more of a supporting role to
operational actions.
Evaluating Reflecting on all actions taken, including communication,
to determine the influence the organisation had in any
changes to the issue. At this time, a determination should
be made regarding the need to take further action or
continue monitoring the issue.
Life cycle of issues management and

communication
While the steps are presented in the table above in a linear form, the process is
circular in that evaluation also contributes to a broader monitoring process
and potential identification of related or ongoing issues. At the same time, the
process can be interrupted at any time by developments in the issue/s and
the emergence of new issues. Issues are not static; their significance to the
organisation and the resulting communication needs will change over time.
Broader issues, such as climate change, are often ongoing and will encom-
pass a range of more specific issues that have higher or lower prominence at any
single time. For example, by 2018 the issue of single-use plastic bags had been
widely debated and legislated throughout Australia and New Zealand. One
year later, the public conversation moved to the use of any single-use plastics,
such as straws and cutlery, creating a momentum in public opinion and forcing
businesses to seek alternatives.
The life cycle of issues, as first identified by Crable and Vibbert (1985),
assists in the identification and analysis of issues, and can help direct commu-
nication activities at each of the five stages. At any point in time (and not
necessarily in a linear order) an issue may be:
• potential—some interest in the issue is starting to be shown by individuals

and/or groups in society
• imminent—issue is gathering strength with links forming between inter-
ested parties and growing recognition of the legitimacy of the issue
• current—the issue is being discussed regularly across a range of media
and opposing positions are being distinguished
• critical—individuals and/or groups are identifying their positions and
actively seeking resolution
• dormant—the issue has been resolved at this point in time; however, it may
be revived if new approaches are perceived or there are further developments
impacting on the issue.
At each stage, the actors involved in the issue have different understand-
ings, positions, motivations and preferred outcomes, and communication
priorities will therefore vary. In progressing an issue through the different
stages, four ‘communicative strategies’ have been identified by Coombs and
Holladay: definition, legitimisation, polarisation and identification (2018,
pp. 82–84; Coombs et al. 2019, p. 38). In the early stages there is a need to
define the issue, which is typically done in terms that favour the position and
outcome desired by the issue manager’s organisation. Once those terms have
been settled, there is a need to legitimise both the issue and the issue manager,
showing that the issue is authentic and valid, and that the issue manager has a
legitimate role to play. If the communication efforts to define and legitimise
the issue are not successful, the issue may return to a dormant stage rather
than becoming current or critical.
Moving an issue to a current or critical stage requires using media (paid,
earned, shared or owned) to create awareness of the issue and involve more
individuals and organisations. Communication efforts may be initially directed
towards attempts to polarise people into choosing one side or another in the
issue. More directed efforts will then be targeted at persuading others to

identify with, and act on, the issue manager’s chosen course of action. This may
involve providing those supporters with ‘mobilising information’, defined as
‘information which allows people to act on those attitudes which they might
already have’ (Lemert et al. 1977, p. 721). This information can assist them to
act on the issue through tactics such as social media posts, rallies and boycotts,
petitions and letters to decision-makers. At any of the stages, the issue manager
needs to be aware of emerging voices and positions, remaining ready to adapt
and engage with new communication challenges (Coombs & Holladay 2018,
p. 92). For example, the issue of preventing tourists from climbing Uluru
involved a gradual process of education by the Uluru–Kata Tjuta National
Park Board of Management. Understanding that there would be some resis-
tance to the closure of the climb, the board had used signage for many years
to explain its preference for tourists not to climb, and then set a closure date
two years in advance to allow people a final chance to do so. Leading up to the
Figure 3.1 The decision to close Uluru to climbers involved years of issues
management. Photo by Holger Link, Unsplash.
day of closure, 26 October 2019, there was considerable news and social media
coverage using spokespeople to explain the cultural and safety reasons for the
change and counter the arguments against their decision.
Risk management and communication

One of the key strategic issues for organisations to manage is that of risk.
This is often understood in terms of financial or technological risk; however,
organisations—and their products and services—also have the potential to place
individuals and communities at risk, threatening organisational reputation. For
the strategic communication manager, knowledge of risk communication, as an
extension of issues management, is essential.
Risk management concerns the assessment of potential risks and the
management of strategies to reduce that risk. The similarity with issues manage
ment processes can be seen in that they both require scanning and analysis of
the environment, choices to be made about which risks to address, and imple-
mentation of strategies or activities to address them, including communication.
Assessment of a risk is typically undertaken by examining two factors: likelihood
and consequence. Likelihood relates to the probability that something will
occur and consequence reflects the severity of the impact on stakeholders or
the organisation. The need for any action, including communication, can be
assessed using a matrix like the one in Figure 3.2.
The World Health Organization (WHO) describes risk communication as
the exchange of real-time information, advice and opinions between experts

and people facing threats to their health, economic or social well-being.
(WHO 2019)
It focuses on strengthening the two-way communication between those

creating the risk and those bearing the risk. By increasing the understanding of
the risks, those affected are able to prepare themselves and respond effectively
(Coombs et al. 2019).
For example, government warnings about increased risk of flu during winter
aim to inform the community about the dangers, increase citizens’ understand
ing about the likelihood of infection and provide options for both prevention
and recovery. The emergence of COVID-19 in 2020 created the need for
Figure 3.2 Risk management matrix.
governments around the world to manage a similar, but even more serious risk.
Due the large number of people affected by these risks, the communication is
predominantly one-way, although communication with healthcare providers
is encouraged.
Risk communication can serve a range of purposes:
• being transparent about the risks involved in business

• warning a community about a threat or risk that could impact on their welfare
• providing information about how to protect against risk
• improving understanding of risk to allow people to make informed personal
decisions relating to levels of risk and options for mitigation
• ‘increas[ing] concern when a risk is underestimated and . . . decreas[ing]
concern when a risk is overestimated’ (Coombs et al. 2019, p. 39)
• motivating people to change behaviours in response to a risk
• quashing rumours, misinformation and ill-informed outrage.
Risk has been identified as ‘a subjective judgement’ in that people will assess
the risk in different ways. As a result, ‘risk communication should be built
upon understanding the risk perceptions of stakeholders’ (Coombs et al. 2019,
p. 39). At the same time, organisations need to understand how the risk percep-
tions of stakeholders can be increased through media. The way the
news media and social media prioritise and potentially amplify issues
is explained in agenda-setting and framing theory. Problematic agenda
framing and messaging can pose significant threats to an organisa- setting and
tion’s operations and reputation, reinforcing the need for continual framing
monitoring and prepared response strategies.
Crisis management and communication

Both issues management and risk communication are undertaken to prevent,
or at least minimise, the possibility of crises. However, crises are not always
avoidable and so their management adds another element to the function of
strategic communication. Crises are disruptive, unpredictable and impact on
the relationship between the organisation and its stakeholders, thereby threat-
ening the reputation, operations and/or finances of the organisation or the
wellbeing of stakeholders (Coombs et al. 2019). Ultimately, the survival of
the organisation can depend on how well a crisis is managed. A study in 2015
found that 70 per cent of board members of organisations reported that it took
more than a year to recover their organisation’s reputation after a crisis, with
fairly similar statistics for recovering financial performance and operations
(Deloitte 2015, p. 3).
According to a 2018 survey on global crisis management by Deloitte,
‘80 per cent of organizations worldwide have had to mobilize their crisis
management teams at least once in the past two years, with cyber and safety
incidents topping the list of crises requiring management intervention’ (2019,
p. 3). Some crisis management experts who responded to the survey believed
that the crisis environment had changed over the last ten years, with increases in
both the number and size of crises and the influence of social media in intensi-
fying crises (pp. 3–4). In the past, awareness of a crisis may have been contained
to a relatively small group of stakeholders, but social media now spreads the
word wider and faster than ever before, potentially increasing the reputational
threat to organisations but also providing a useful channel to communicate

during a crisis. Social media has created a more challenging environment, and
increased urgency, for crisis managers.
The Deloitte survey, showing a significant number of organisations affected
by crises, was released just one year before the COVID-19 pandemic of 2020
that changed the crisis landscape significantly across the world. During that
time of rapid change, it was hard to imagine any organisation that was not
prompted to instigate crisis communication strategies in dealing with the
consequences and impacts on their stakeholders. Social media was central
in the spreading of messages on the statistics of the pandemic, rules about
shutdown procedures and preventative health measures. Businesses used it to
update consumers on availability of goods and services, governments used it
to warn citizens and maintain calm, while not-for-profit organisations used
it to reach out to communities for support.
Even in ‘normal’ times, crises can impact any type of organisation,
threatening reputations and the achievement of organisational goals. In a

business environment, the financial bottom line is ultimately most at risk, with
consumers and investors losing trust and abandoning the company. In 2019,
advertisers and sponsors removed their business from Australian radio station
2GB after radio ‘shock-jock’ Alan Jones suggested that the Australian prime
minister, Scott Morrison, should ‘shove a sock down the throat’ of the New
Zealand Prime Minister, Jacinda Ardern. One CEO of a marketing consultancy
suggested that ‘advertisers [were] pulling out after being bombarded by posts
on their social media pages’, and the station’s management publicly warned
Jones that he could be fired if there were any further scandals (Meade 2019).
Businesses were concerned that their reputations would be damaged by associ-
ation with the broadcaster.
From a government communication perspective, crises can damage the
reputations of both public service agencies and politicians, building mistrust
in the services provided and the individuals involved, ultimately impacting
on the chances of re-election. One major political crisis was the Hong Kong
pro-democracy protest movement of 2019/2020. The initial protests were
against proposed laws that would have allowed for Hong Kong citizens to be
extradited to mainland China. After weeks of protests, the Chief Executive of
Hong Kong, Carrie Lam, said that the proposed bill was ‘dead’, although it
was not technically withdrawn (Kuo & Yu 2019). By that stage, the protests
had broadened to include demands for direct elections, the resignation of Lam
and inquiries into police brutality (Bradsher 2019). The pressure of the crisis
on government was substantial but it also impacted significantly on businesses,
citizens and tourists as it continued.
For a not-for-profit organisation, loss of reputation in a crisis can also have a
financial impact on fundraising, with donors losing trust and withdrawing their
support. The ripple effect of poor crisis management can be seen in the Oxfam
GB case from the UK. In 2018, there were allegations of sexual misconduct
by Oxfam GB staff during the 2010 Haiti earthquake recovery effort (Charity
Commission 2019). Soon after these claims were made public, further claims of
misconduct, but also of management covering up the scandal, were made and
a government investigation was commissioned (Charity Commission 2019).
Following the publicity that ensued regarding both the scandals and the organ-
isation’s management of the crisis, an 85 per cent increase in whistleblower
reports within the charity sector was noted (Swerling 2019). The report into
the investigation was critical of Oxfam’s conduct, concluding, in part, that
‘focusing on avoiding negative or critical media coverage when incidents have
happened will not fulfil the trustees’ duty to protect a charity’s reputation, nor
serve the shared responsibility to uphold the reputation of charity as a whole’
(Charity Commission 2019, p. 33).
As can be seen in these examples, crises can develop from a variety of situ-
ations. Considering the different types of crises can assist in performing a
risk assessment on potential threats to an organisation. Crisis communication
scholar Timothy Coombs distinguishes two categories of crises: operational
crises and paracrises (Coombs 2018, p. 26). An operational crisis is one that
directly impacts on the operations of an organisation. A paracrisis is not yet a
full crisis but simply a challenge from a stakeholder that accuses the organisa-
tion of ‘acting in an irresponsible or unethical manner’ (Coombs & Holladay
2012, p. 408). Typically starting with social media claims, and then encour-
aged through the spreading of information on the internet, it becomes a full
crisis when a significant number of stakeholders start sharing similar concerns
and taking action (Coombs & Holladay 2012). There are numerous lists of
crises that can be used to analyse the threat to an organisation; the types
of crises Coombs lists can be seen in Table 3.3 below (Coombs 2017, p. 347).
Table 3.3 Types of crises
Operational Crises
Operational Disasters such as floods, fires, and health emergencies
disruptions from that limit or prevent routine operations.
disasters
Workplace Some form of violence against employees or clients in
violence the workplace.
Unexpected loss of Sudden loss of a leader within an organisation due to
key leadership death, illness or unexpected resignation or termination.
Malevolence A person or group of people purposely attack an
organisation, such as sabotaging operations or products.
Technical-error Failure of technology that leads to a serious accident or
accidents or faulty and dangerous product, such as a gas explosion at
product harm a factory or contamination of a food product.
Human-error Accident or product harm caused by the mistake of one
accidents or or more employees of the organisation, such as an error
product harm in administration that creates financial harm.
Data breach Private and confidential information is accessed, stolen
(physically or electronically) and/or used without
authorisation.
Organisational Management decisions and actions that may place
misdeeds stakeholders at risk or knowingly violate the law, such as
a banking institution or telecommunications company
charging fees for services that are not provided.
Scansis Scandal-crisis. Moral outrage accompanies the crisis, and
stakeholders make judgements about injustice and greed.
Paracrises (challenge crises)
Faux pas A well-intentioned management decision or action that
stakeholders perceive negatively, such as a misguided
statement in a speech or an ad that unintentionally
patronises a specific group of people.
Rumours False information is circulated about the organisation or
its products with the intention of causing harm, such as
fake online reviews.
Challenges Stakeholders challenge the validity or appropriateness

of the actions of the organisation, such as a tweet by
a customer complaining about a policy within the
organisation or delays in providing the product or service.
Collateral damage Someone associated with the organisation is perceived
negatively, placing the organisation at risk due to that
association, such as the advertisers that pulled out of the
radio program in the 2GB example above.
Source: adapted from Coombs (2017, p. 347).
Managing the stages of a crisis

An issue or a risk can escalate into a crisis through a combination of factors,
such as the level of public awareness and concern over the issue, the scale of
the people affected and the level of media involvement. Crisis management is,
therefore, the process by which an organisation manages its preparation for,
conduct during and recovery from a crisis. It involves far more than communi-
cation, but it is the crisis communication element that is of most importance to
us here. So let’s step through each of those stages and look at the key activities
that need to be undertaken from a strategic communication perspective. There
will be more about the specific tactical tips and ideas in Chapter 8.
Preparation for crises involves two major tasks: identifying the threat
of a crisis, and preparing the organisation’s people and processes to deal
with the crisis if it eventuates. In the planning phase (more detail in Chapter 8),
the organisation will need to list the potential crises, identify and analyse the
stakeholders that are likely to be affected and understand what resources
the organisation has for managing the crisis. Personnel for one or more crisis
management teams will need to be identified, briefed on their responsibilities
and trained prior to any crisis.
The communication manager will be responsible for drafting the commu-
nication element of that plan. Rehearsing the plan prepares the team to deal
with the crisis swiftly, logically and efficiently while remaining focused on the
strategic aims and values of the organisation. As with all plans, there needs to
be flexibility to adapt as the circumstances unfold. There will be an environ-
ment of heightened tension and uncertainty during the crisis, but a good plan
will provide the team a stable platform from which to work and to guide them
through the processes.
Communication plays a crucial role in the response stage of a crisis, provid-
ing swift and unambiguous information for the organisation to rectify the
situation. Stakeholders outside the immediate area of impact also need to be
kept informed. They will have a variety of emotional reactions, such as anger,
mistrust, fear, shock and sadness, and responding in a compassionate manner
will be essential. Highlighting the importance of communicating during the
response
the notion of trying to control the crisis itself is at best optimistic, and at worst
futile. But attempting to control your own crisis communication is absolutely
a legitimate objective. (Jaques 2016, p. 111)
A key challenge to communication lies in the nature of the crisis. When a

crisis strikes, there is confusion; channels of communication are disrupted and
emotions are high. People both within and external to the organisation will be
demanding information, but uncovering what is happening can be difficult;
there will be an ‘information void’ (Coombs 2012, p. 141). As more become
aware of the unfolding crisis, pressure for information builds.
This is not the time to be silent. If the organisation does not communicate
with its stakeholders, they will make assumptions or find other sources for their
information which could be incorrect and lead to further problems. Silence, or
a ‘no comment’ response, can also give the appearance that the organisation is
hiding information or not in control of the situation (Coombs 2012, p. 142).
A common public relations mantra is to ‘tell it all and tell it fast’; at the same
time, however, the information must be accurate.
The crisis will eventually move into a post-crisis or recovery phase as oper-
ations return to normal, the frenetic pace and pressure driven by the crisis
lessens and the media move on to another story. To illustrate this, let’s take a
case where there has been a serious fire in a manufacturing plant. It could feel
like the end of the crisis when the fire is out, all injuries have been taken care
of and production has recommenced, even if it is in a temporary facility.
However, the recovery phase is only just beginning. Loose ends need to
be tidied up and the organisation needs to evaluate what happened, why it
happened and how the team managed the crisis.
This reflection can inform amendments to the standard operating proce-

dures for crises and the establishment of new preventative measures to combat
similar threats. From a communication perspective, evaluating the effectiveness
of the messages, and the channels used, is essential. And it may be necessary to
measure the reputation of the organisation to assess the level of damage done
and formulate a longer-term reputation recovery program.
An important consideration is the potential for what has been described as
the ‘crisis after the crisis’ (Jaques 2016, p. 125). Lingering effects of the crisis
may threaten to crack open again or create separate emerging crises. At this
point in time, the organisation is still vulnerable and the need to monitor the
environment and continually assess issues and risks remains undiminished. In
a sense, this brings the process full circle back to the initial stages of the issues
management process.
Corporate social responsibility: People, planet

and profit
Many of the major issues, risks and crises being faced by organisations relate to
their place within society. Over the past few decades, there has been a growing
focus on the responsibility of corporations to society, and the impact
of corporations on society. The power of the corporate sector is
increasingly recognised and, as governments are unable to address corporate
every societal concern, the public often expects corporations to fill social
the gap by providing, for example, support to needy causes through responsibility
sponsorships or philanthropy. This is known as corporate social
responsibility, or CSR.
But to whom or to what are corporations responsible? One way of answer-
ing this is through the simple mantra of ‘people, planet and profit’. In other
words, corporations need to consider their impact on society, the environment
and their investors. This can often be seen in definitions of CSR, such as that
of the Australian Human Rights Commission:
The concept of Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) is generally understood

to mean that corporations have a degree of responsibility not only for the
economic consequences of their activities, but also for the social and environ-
mental implications. (Australian Human Rights Commission 2008)
There are many definitions for the complex notion of CSR but, despite
subtle differences, a number of features stand out. These include:
• the balance between financial, social and environmental responsibilities

• the voluntary nature of CSR (although there are increasing regulations
and expectations forcing companies to act)
• the involvement of diverse stakeholders.
Approaches to CSR often consider four main areas of responsibility: the

market, the employees, the environment and society. These are illustrated in
Figure 3.3 below.
Different terms are used to describe CSR or its related activities. They
are often used interchangeably but sometimes have subtle but important
differences.
• Sustainability—typically has a more scientific focus on the management of

a corporation’s environmental impact, ensuring that resources used can be
replaced.
Figure 3.3 CSR responsibilities to the market, the workplace, the environment and
the community.
• Triple bottom line—in business, the ‘bottom line’ used to refer to the
balance at the bottom of a company’s financial statement. Many compa-
nies are also adding society and the environment to their ‘bottom lines’ of
reporting (also expressed earlier in the chapter as People, Profit, Planet).
• Corporate community involvement—focuses primarily on a
company’s contribution to the community, along with an expec-
tation that the involvement produces a return benefit to the
corporate company.
citizenship • Corporate citizenship—where the organisation is viewed as
a citizen of the community in which it operates, with similar
responsibilities to those of all citizens.
Organisations need to approach CSR strategically. Involvement should be

based on the values that guide the business practice; thus, the reason for under-
taking CSR is as important, or perhaps even more important, than the actions
that are taken. Meaningful CSR goes beyond charity and philanthropy—it is
motivated by business wanting its day-to-day practices to make a positive impact
on society. In large corporations, CSR can be highly structured, with teams of
staff dedicated to implementing policies and procedures and reporting on
outcomes. Take, for example, the Japanese electronics manufacturer Toshiba’s
complete CSR management structure, including an ‘Executive Officer in charge
of CSR’, a CSR management office, a CSR governance committee and ‘Chief
CSR officers’ in their group companies (Toshiba Global 2019). Smaller busi-
nesses will often have fewer formal arrangements, with responsibility for CSR
leadership given to a manager in addition to their regular role, such as combined
PR/CSR, marketing/CSR or internal communications/CSR positions.
The use of the word ‘corporate’ in CSR implies that it is conducted primarily
in the private sector—where for-profit companies and corporations operate—
and that is largely correct. But it is also worth considering CSR from the public
and non-profit sector viewpoints. It could be argued that the whole premise
of the public sector—made up of government and the public service—is to
look after society and that, therefore, social responsibility is at its core. But this
is not typically considered as part of CSR—perhaps because it is not ‘volun-
tary’. Governments do, however, have a significant responsibility to encourage
CSR and relationships between corporations and areas of need in society. The
non-profit sector is typically on the receiving end of much of the CSR activity
of businesses, but it is also watching the corporate sector closely and is vocal in
its criticism of practices it feels are irresponsible. For example, over the years a
chorus of voices called for clearer sugar labelling on soft drinks and other food
and beverages. Non-profit organisations such as Choice (2019), Parents’ Voice
and the Public Health Association of Australia (Martin 2019) campaigned and
addressed the media, placing pressure on businesses to change their practices
and on governments to change legislation. Taking a more proactive approach,
there are increasing numbers of partnerships between non-profit organisations
and businesses to address social issues together. For instance, World Vision
Australia has been working with Jetstar for over ten years on programs to support
Indigenous Australian and developing communities (World Vision 2020).
Ethical challenges to CSR

One of the most quoted critics of CSR is economist Milton Friedman, who
argued that the organisation’s sole responsibility is to maximise profits and that
the shareholders’ interests should dominate business decisions (Friedman 1970).
He argued that it is not management’s money to give away to community and
CSR programs and that to do so is unethical. CSR is also sometimes judged
as undemocratic, as it involves individuals within corporations determining
which social needs should be addressed, rather than society determining where
support is needed. Equally, businesses are sometimes criticised for undertak-
ing CSR purely to build their own reputations, with a focus on ‘good public
relations’ rather than the actions that contribute to the community. Ethical
fashion company Passion Lilie says using CSR opportunities solely for market-
ing purposes is bad practice. Founder and lead designer Katie Schmidt points
out that running a CSR campaign as a quick-fix marketing scheme can backfire
if your business does not follow through on its promise (Schooley 2019).
The challenge for organisations practising ethical CSR is to address the

needs of both investors and society. As with any business decision, the benefits
and barriers need to be considered, often on a case-by-case basis. Benefits to
conducting CSR activities, if done authentically, can include the following:
• Increases in financial performance—for example, the Inglorious Fruit and

Vegetables campaign by French supermarket Intermarché was one of the
first to sell ‘ugly’ and misshapen produce. At 30 per cent of the usual price,
the business made a profit while helping to reduce food waste and provid-
ing financial benefits to farmers (Godoy 2014).
• Reductions in operating costs—for example, Google has a program to
increase the efficiency of its data centres by ‘maximiz[ing] efficient use of
energy, water, and materials, improving their environmental performance’
(Google 2019). In the process, the business saves costs while benefiting the
environment.
• Improvements in brand image and reputation—for example, Disney’s
Global Workplace and Women’s Initiative contributed to the development
of flexible workplace policies and identification of opportunities for women.
These initiatives, along with other CSR activities, enabled the recruitment
of ‘more high-potential women in a variety of fields, including technology’
(The Walt Disney Company 2017, p. 10).
CSR: Australia, New Zealand and global

The Deloitte 2018 Annual Review of the State of CSR in Australia and New
Zealand (Deloitte 2018) analysed key trends in CSR in both countries, looking
at priorities, challenges, organisational structures and implementation of
CSR activities. It also assessed the top-performing companies in CSR for that
year, acknowledging the work of a wide variety of companies including the
National Australia Bank, Transurban, The Walt Disney Company, Westpac,
AirNZ and Fonterra.
Some of the key ‘Snapshots’ from the review reported that:
• Businesses were underprepared for the federal government’s Modern

Slavery Act 2018 (Australian Government 2018a), which took effect in 2019
and required Australian organisations with revenue of over $100 million
to report on modern slavery risks in their global supply chains in an annual

statement (modern slavery refers to crimes of exploitation such as forced
labour, human trafficking, child labour and sexual exploitation, debt bondage,
and slavery).
• CSR contributes to innovation, competitive advantage and reputation.
• The main priorities recognised for the year ahead included:
– promoting diversity in the workplace
– building stronger relationships
– managing regulatory impacts
– managing the implications of technology (particularly data security and
privacy)
– reducing or eliminating any negative environmental impacts.
The last two decades have seen not only a growth in the practice of CSR
but also the emergence of global partnerships and initiatives to help compa-
nies implement and report. The United Nations has been at the centre of
much of this with the launch of the UN Global Compact in 2000, under which
companies agree to sign up to ten ‘principles that address responsible corpo-
rate citizenship’ (www.unglobalcompact.org/United Nations Global Impact
2020). Underpinned by the UN Universal Declaration of Human Rights,
the principles are organised into four categories: Human Rights, Labour,
Environment and Anti-corruption. There has been a steady increase in the
number of Australian companies signing up for the Global Compact, from
28 companies in 2008 to 166 by mid-2019. At that time, twelve companies were
also registered in New Zealand.
Since 2010, the UN Global Compact has continued to work in c ollaboration
with an independent organisation, the Global Reporting Initiative (GRI),
to set standards and improve reporting on CSR initiatives. The focus is on
measurement of the same three factors that are the focus of CSR: economic,
environmental and social performance. Due to the significant number of
organisations involved, the GRI framework has become the global standard
for reporting.
The global focus on CSR was further strengthened in 2015 when the
United Nations created the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (United
Nations Sustainable Development Goals n.d.). The plan contains seventeen
Figure 3.4 United Nations Sustainable Development Goals. Source: Maria Gershunu,
Public Domain.
goals (see Figure 3.4) and 169 targets to end poverty, build economic growth
and address social and environmental issues. As in the true spirit of CSR, these
goals are not legally binding but, rather, are voluntary targets for governments
and organisations to work towards.
The International Organization for Standardization, based in Switzerland,
has developed a standard known as ISO 26000, which gives organisations another
source for CSR guidance and clearly aligns with both the Sustainable Develop-
ment Goals (above) and the other models outlined in this chapter. The aim of
this specific international standard is not to impose requirements but, rather, to
guide organisations on how they can operate ethically and transparently while
considering stakeholder expectations and applicable laws (ISO n.d.).
CSR theories
Just as the topography of CSR definitions is multidimensional, so too is that
of CSR theory. There is no single theory to explain CSR. Rather, numerous
theories and approaches from a range of disciplines have been applied depending
on attitudes regarding the relationship between business and society. Garriga

and Melé (2013) offer a concise classification of the many ways of thinking to
explain CSR, although they note that some theories will be relevant to more
than one category. Their categories are focused on four ‘aspects of social reality:
economic, politics, social integration, and ethics’ (p. 70).
1. Focusing on economics, the first group of ‘instrumental theories’ look

to CSR only as a way of maximising short-term (profits) and long-term
(competitive advantage) interests.
2. Focusing on political theories, the second group looks to the social power
held by corporations and the resulting responsibility to society that this gives
places on them. These theories also take an inward focus on the organisation.
3. Focusing on social integration, the third group of ‘integrative theories’ are
based on the idea that society is concerned with how businesses address
social demands.
4. The final group of theories that could be applied to CSR cluster around the
‘ethical requirements that cement the relationship between business and
society’ (Garriga & Melé 2013, p. 82).
CSR communication practices

In all the frameworks discussed above, the focus is on the conduct of business—
the practices of CSR—which does not always relate directly to the communication
about CSR. This is because CSR should be about ‘doing the right thing’,
not about chasing ‘good PR’. That said, strategic communication does play a
major role in supporting, implementing and understanding CSR. The strate-
gic communication manager’s task will be much easier if the organisation is a
good corporate citizen, as communication with stakeholders can be transparent
and honest.
The communication manager plays an important role in CSR by being
the link between the organisation and its publics, in identifying community
needs and informing stakeholders of what the organisation is doing—acting
in the boundary-spanning role discussed at the start of this chapter. This is
not just in terms of promoting the good work but also in reporting on it from
an accountability perspective. Communication needs to be about not only
what CSR activities are being done but also why the organisation is involved.
Stakeholder theory can guide the practitioner in this regard by

helping them identify stakeholders, understand their needs and
stakeholder
theory expectations and explain the strategic aims and justification for
investment in the CSR program in a manner that is relevant to each
of the stakeholders.
One framework for CSR communication that addresses the
message content, the message channel, the stakeholder and company char-
acteristics, and the internal and external outcomes (effectiveness) focuses on
deciding whether to communicate about the social cause itself or the company’s
links with that cause (Du et al. 2010). For example, Converse produces a range
of rainbow-coloured shoes in its ‘Pride Collection’ to support ‘Minus 18—a
charity which champions Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, Intersex and
Queer Youth Australia wide’ (Converse 2018). In its promotion of the products,
the company could simply feature messages about gay rights and the challenges
of LGBTI youth. However, by talking about the company’s commitment, its
values and how it aligns with the cause, stakeholders are able to gain a greater
understanding of Converse’s motivations, and thereby reduce scepticism.
Taking this a step further, the company could then communicate about the
impact that it is having on the community it supports through this program.
Importantly, this example illustrates the linking of the company’s values to its
practice—a topic we deal with in Chapters 4 and 7.
It’s then important to consider which platforms—whether paid, owned,
earned or shared—are the best to get your message across (we discuss these
channels in more detail in Chapter 5). Again, understanding stakeholders can
help here: which media platforms do your stakeholders use? What channels
do they trust? How can you help them not only see your communication but
help spread the word through social media? Other factors that can influence
choices about CSR communication include the extent to which stakeholders
connect with the issue itself and the value they place on addressing those issues.
Returning to the Converse Pride Collection example, the company describes
itself as ‘supporters of equality and celebrators of freedom and youth culture’
(Converse 2018) in an effort to show its consumers that it understands what
issues are important to today’s youth.
From a company perspective, both the existing reputation and the CSR
positioning can influence the effectiveness of the communication. A strong
reputation is likely to increase credibility. Built up over a number of years, the

Pride Collection campaign is credible as it builds on Converse’s iconic reputa-
tion as a youth brand. CSR communication is effective in this case, but it does
play a secondary role to the communication about the full range of products.
CSR communication will play an even more significant role if the cause and the
company are so closely aligned that the company is defined by it. For example,
the earlier case of Passion Lilie shows that the raison d’être of the company
centres on ethics and social responsibility (Passion Lilie 2019); therefore, CSR
communication plays an even more prominent role in this company.
CSR communication needs to also help stakeholders ‘understand, concep-
tualise, enact and negotiate CSR’ (Golob et al. 2017, p. 173). In other words,
CSR communication must be more than an exercise in persuasion—it should
be interactive, engaging stakeholders in two-way conversations rather than just
informing them. However, engagement with CSR through social media can
be challenging. One study found that followers of company CSR’s Facebook
pages were willing to like, share and comment on the same platform, but
more reluctant to respond to actions requested by a company if it extended
beyond the platform (Abitbol & Lee 2017, p. 803). This reinforces the need for
companies to look beyond social networking sites for additional creative ways
to achieve engagement.
Mackey argues that ‘the public relations person’s role is to search for and
find the existing public interest of the citizens with which to align the activi-
ties of the organisation’ (2014, p. 141). This approach gives communication a
much more strategic role within the organisation while addressing some of the
concerns about the power of corporations to determine the direction of CSR.
At the same time, answers are not always easily found even when
corporations legitimately work toward a CSR ethic. The concept of
‘public interest’ can be fraught because society is made up of many public
interests and publics often in competition with each other, so there interest
are not always easy pathways for public relations practitioners—or
the organisations they advise—to follow (Johnston 2016).
In this way issues management and CSR can be challenging, sometimes
required to address ‘wicked problems’, a term used to describe complex social
problems that are surrounded by disagreement, inadequate or conflicting
information, large numbers of stakeholders and webs of interconnected issues.
Wicked problems are often difficult to define and defy simple

wicked solutions, requiring close monitoring and management (Coombs &
problems Holladay 2018; Katsonis 2019). The Australian Government include
the following as examples of wicked problems: climate change,
obesity and land degradation (Australian Government, 2018b).
Conclusion
Issues management is at the heart of strategic communication and PR within
corporations, government agencies and not-for-profit organisations alike.
Shifts in society, through technology, media, globalisation, the environment
and political unrest, have intensified the need for organisations to be fully aware
of how these changes can influence the achievement of their strategic goals
and how prudent management of issues, risk and crises can mitigate threats and
leverage opportunities. Organisations need to earn and protect their places
within societies when there are growing expectations about their responsibili-
ties to the communities, employees, the marketplace and the environment.
For the communication manager to be able to manage all problems (wicked
or otherwise) knowledge of, and skills in, issues management and its related
field of CSR are essential, as they provide the strategic foundation for all other
communication efforts. When successfully implemented, they build and protect
corporate reputations and strengthen relationships and trust with stakeholders,
providing a favourable environment for clear, effective and mutually beneficial
communication.
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Chapter 4
Ethical and legal practice
The professional conduct of communication practitioners is guided by two

key principles: ethics and the law. Both concern what is acceptable practice
but there is an important difference between the two. While ethics suggest
what should and shouldn’t be done, the law dictates what can and cannot be
done. The law sets a minimum standard of conduct, but ethics raise that bar
by setting even higher expectations of behaviour. Laws set the rules for the
governing of society, instructing every individual about rights and responsibil-
ities in their private and public lives. As much as possible, these laws address
expected standards of behaviour in black-and-white terms, clarifying what is
possible and what is prohibited, with specific institutions having authority to
make and administer those rules.
Ethics are not always so clear. Although there are generally agreed ethical
standards, they often entail contradictory or conflicting values. In addition,
there are no clear authorities, with the application of the standards often open
for interpretation, and there is no legal obligation to meet the stated expec-
tations of behaviour. The communication industry is self-regulated, with no
single authority setting rules for the practice of strategic communication and
PR. There are laws to ensure that we respect individuals’ privacy, don’t abuse
their rights, recognise ownership of creative outputs and more. And we can be
punished for breaking these laws. Beyond these rules, industry self-regulation
occurs by the establishment and monitoring of ethical standards by professional
industry associations. Yet, unlike professionals such as teachers and doctors,
communication professionals are under no obligation to sign up to these stan-
dards, and, if they do, sanctions are often limited.
88
Ethical and legal practice 89
You may notice that in that last sentence we refer to professionals, rather than
practitioners. This is done deliberately. While there is much debate as to whether
or not the communication industry can be called a profession, we argue that
there is always a need for practitioners to operate professionally. By this we
mean that acting professionally involves maintaining high levels of specialist
knowledge and skill, performing a service of value to society and upholding the
law and high standards of ethical behaviour—regardless of whether the individ-
ual is a member of an industry association or not.
What does all of this mean for the communication practitioner? What
ethical and legal standards are expected of them professionally, and where
do those standards come from? In this chapter, we explore current thinking
behind strategic communication and PR ethics and the codes of conduct that
guide practice. But we’ll also take a look at the theoretical side of ethics, which
will help explain how different approaches guide our thinking. This will hope-
fully help you interpret that uneasy sensation you feel when something just
doesn’t seem right and help guide your ethical decision-making. The chapter
then turns to the legal obligations facing the communication practitioner,
giving overviews of key legislation that impacts on practice, including contract,
defamation, copyright and privacy law.
An overview of ethics
Ethics is a branch of philosophical study that considers ‘what ought to be the
grounds and principles for right and wrong human behaviour’ (Johannesen,
Valde & Whedbee 2008, p. 265). Often described as what is right, good, fair
or just, ethics places an additional responsibility on us to not simply do what
is convenient and easy. Ethics goes beyond what is required by the law. Some-
thing may be legal, but not necessarily ethical. For example, think about two
people who share a joint bank account, where the rules of the account mean
that either person can withdraw cash without the permission of the other. If, in
a heated argument, one of the account holders withdraws all of the money, that
would be legal. However, it would not generally be considered ethical.
Let’s consider the same principle at an organisational level. During 2018
and 2019, the Royal Commission into Misconduct in the Banking, Superannua-
tion and Financial Services Industry investigated the Australian banking system
and found numerous incidents of misconduct, attributing them to ‘greed—the

pursuit of short term profit at the expense of basic standards of honesty’ (Hayne
2018). Highlighting the difference between the law and ethics, the Commission’s
report stated that even when the law was not being broken, ‘the conduct has
fallen short of the kind of behaviour the community not only expects of financial
services entities but is also entitled to expect of them’ (Hayne 2019, p. 1).
While there were legal issues to be considered, in the news media’s coverage
the story became one of ethics; of poor judgement, lack of empathy and an
inward-facing, business-at-all-costs attitude.
So how do we decide what is ethical and unethical? If society sets the ethical
standards, how are they determined and what happens when there are conflicts
or disagreements? In the sections that follow, we’ll take a look at some common
practice-based ethical issues and how they are grounded philosophically in
deontology, utilitarianism and virtue ethics.
But before we go much further, a word on social and digital media.
Although social media ethics are often discussed as an addendum to the main
Figure 4.1 Ethics is the study of principles that determine whether human behaviour
can be judged as right or wrong. Photo by Tumisu, Pixabay.
debate about communication ethics, here they will be treated as part of the
overall picture of ethical practice. While advances in technology have provided
new techniques for communicating, the principles underpinning communica-
tion ethics remain solid. New ethical challenges are constantly arising—for
example, as technological developments such as machine learning challenge
the way we collect and use information (see Chapter 5 for further examples).
But this is why it is important to understand the foundational principles of
ethics, which can be applied to these new situations and guide communication
practitioners through the quagmire of contemporary communication ethics.
Codes of ethics and duty

The idea of professional ethics usually includes a commonly accepted sense
of professional conduct, translated into formal codes of ethics, which are
monitored, assessed and enforced through professional associations. These
professional associations, such as the PRIA and the PRINZ, typically take on
the responsibility of setting and monitoring professional standards. However,
as communication practitioners, we also need to consider broader industry
codes—that is, ethics in the fields relevant to our specific workplaces, such
as medicine, health, the law, tourism, fashion and sports management. Public
service codes of conduct are also relevant if we are working within government
departments.
Major professional communication and public relations associations around
the world have well-established codes of ethics for their members, and you are
encouraged to seek out the ones that are relevant to you. Both the PRIA and
PRINZ have long-established standards. Within Australia options for profes-
sional membership could also include the International Association of Business
Communication, the Media, Entertainment & Arts Alliance and the Commu-
nications Council. All of these bodies list their codes on their websites. Most
of the codes deal with broad issues relating to truth and transparency, and the
treatment of clients, society and fellow professionals.
The PRIA Code of Ethics (PRIA 2019) and the PRINZ Code of Ethics
(PRINZ n.d.) are both summarised in Table 4.1 (note: the wording in this table
has been summarised—we encourage the reader to check the full details on the
associations’ websites).
Table 4.1 Summarised codes of ethics from Pria and PrinZ
PRIA Code of Ethics PRINZ Code of Ethics

(summarised) (summarised)
Are fair and honest in their 1. Advocacy and honesty
dealings
Avoid conduct likely to bring Provide independent, objective
discredit counsel
Never disseminate false or Promote the ethical, well-founded
misleading information views of clients or employers
Safeguard confidences Honest and accurate—promptly
correct errors
Have no conflict of interests Avoid deceptive practices
Do not seek remuneration 2. Conflicts of interest
entirely on the achievement of
specified results
Disclose when their judgement Disclose conflicts of interest to
may be questioned on the basis clients or organisations
of personal, business or financial
interests
Are payed for commissioned Disclose client/business interest
services only in published editorial work
Be prepared to identify the 3. Professionalism
source of funding for any public
communication
Avoid false, misleading or Pursue professional
exaggerated claims about their development
skills and services
Inform the PRIA Board of Explain what PR can accomplish
alleged unethical practice
Never intentionally injure Counsel colleagues on ethical
another member’s reputation decision-making
Help improve the profession’s Decline clients or organisations
body of knowledge that require actions contrary to
the Code.
PRIA Code of Ethics PRINZ Code of Ethics

(summarised) (summarised)
Act in accord with the aims and Don’t engage in irrelevant
policies of the Institute or unsubstantiated personal
criticism.
Not misrepresent their 4. Balancing openness and privacy
status regarding gradings of
membership of the Institute.
Promote open communication
in the public interest
Respect the rights of others to
have their say
Be prepared to name clients,
employers and sponsors and
their interests
Safeguard confidences and
privacy
5. Law abiding
Abide by laws affecting PR and
the client
The codes and the procedures for the handling of ethics complaints for the
PRIA and PRINZ are on their websites. Every member of both associations is
required to agree to abide by the respective codes of ethics. PRIA members are
also required to agree to accepting any findings of an independent inquiry. This
technically allows the PRIA to publicly announce and publicise ethics findings.
Professional associations also encourage continuing ethics education through
publications, seminars and the accreditation of tertiary PR and communication
courses. Members of the PRIA, more specifically, are encouraged to display the
Code of Ethics, attach it to proposals, educate their staff and report cases of
unethical behaviour.
The PRIA also has another code, which addresses issues for Registered
Consultancy Groups. Consultancies can join the PRIA as organisational
members rather than as individuals, and this code is designed to address the
specific issues facing consultancy businesses. The ethics of client relations,

fees and income, treatment of employees and business conduct are all covered.
PRINZ also has Guidelines for Online Engagement, which refer back to the
stated Values and Code of Ethics while giving some additional specific guidance
about online conduct (PRINZ n.d.).
As the communication field is self-regulated, sanctions such as censure,
fines and expulsion for acts against these codes can be applied only to those
who have joined the relevant body. This is one of the major limitations of
professional association codes of ethics. No licence or registration is needed
to practice strategic communication and PR, so if an individual chooses not to
align with an association, or is expelled from one, no sanctions can be applied.
This represents a big distinction from other professional fields such as teaching,
medicine, law and accountancy, where you cannot practice, or call yourself an
industry professional, unless you have trained and are registered by a profes-
sional association. Other fields, like journalism and marketing, are similar to
communication and PR.
If you take a closer look at the codes of ethics of the professional asso-
ciations, you probably won’t be surprised by much if any of the content. Of
course, you would expect practitioners to tell the truth, be fair and do no harm
to others. Your family, your education and your community have led you to
understand that these are the ethical standards guiding most people in a civil
society. To a certain extent, you will already have an inherent knowledge of
ethical ‘rules’ and can sense when something may not be quite right.
This perspective of ethics as ‘rules’, or a type of duty to society, comes
from the ethical approach known as deontology. The word ‘deontologi-
cal’ derives from the Greek for ‘that which is binding’. This perspective
says you are duty-bound to act in a certain way, irrespective of whether the
consequences are ‘pleasant or painful’ (Waller 2008, p. 23). In other words,

the means—or the actions taken—are what are most important. Effectively,
what is right is independent of any consequences that might occur as a result
of any actions. A deontologist believes that an act is ethical if it adheres to a
principle that has been set by society. So, for example, telling the truth, no
matter what the consequences, is a ‘good act’ and lying is ‘wrong’ even if it
brings about good consequences. Deontology acknowledges that certain acts
are binding. In doing so it assumes the existence of a rational, abstract good,
which is developed through reason and discussion. In terms of the codes of
ethics discussed in this chapter, the professional associations are active in this
discussion and reasoning. As public relations ethics scholar Mark McElreath
points out, this can be understood by a simple adage: ‘Do only those things
you would feel comfortable explaining to a national TV audience’ (McElreath
1997, p. 54). So, if your employer is considering doing something that you
feel might not be a ‘good look’ if publicly aired, you could ask them if they
would be comfortable explaining it to the audience of 60 Minutes or the daily
TV news!
Philosopher Immanuel Kant argued that ‘reason’ can provide a set of
absolute categorical ethical principles and that a reasoned society, through
‘rigorous analysis of principles, rights, duties, freedoms, and logic’ (Bowen
2016, p. 565) can determine what is ‘absolute’ (or absolutely OK!). He says
that this happens by understanding how we should always act in such a way
that we would want to see others acting. In other words, we act on the basis of
a universal rule or principle that applies to all equally.
The main criticisms of rule-bound approaches are directed to their uncom-
promising nature and lack of consideration of the consequences of an action.
Deontologists argue that there are universal laws, but at times those universal
laws can conflict, leaving the rules open for interpretation and creating para-
doxes. For example, in a professional situation, a rule requiring openness and
transparency could easily conflict with the rule of protecting the commercial
confidences and interests of a client or the privacy of an individual. At some
stage, further analysis, reasoning and rational judgement beyond the rules may
be required. Ethics creates dilemmas because in industry, as in life, situations
are rarely black-and-white.
Professional codes: The case of bell Pottinger

A high-profile ethics breach resulted in serious consequences for a UK firm in
2017. Public relations agency Bell Pottinger was expelled from the international
professional body PR and Communications Association (PRCA) after having
been found to have run an ‘economic emancipation’ campaign in South
Africa, supposedly to help the country’s poor black population (Segal 2018;
Cave 2017). In essence, the agency was accused of running a campaign using
fake Twitter accounts, bloggers and commentators in an effort to stir up racial
division in South Africa and target government officials who did not support the
business interests of the agency’s clients. After due consideration and debate,
the PRCA expelled the agency on the basis that Bell Pottinger had ‘brought
the PR and communications industry into disrepute’ and that the campaign
‘was negative or targeted towards wealthy white South African individuals or
corporates and/or was potentially racially divisive and/or potentially offensive
and was created in breach of relevant ethical principles’ (Johnston 2017). The
PRCA also stated the agency had been ‘taking steps which might mislead or
undermine journalists who were asking questions in relation to the campaign’
(Sweeney 2017).
Bell Pottinger ultimately accepted the decision, agreed to a six-point
program to improve its ethical standards and said that it would abide by the
PRCA Code even though it was no longer a member (Harrington & James
2017). It also said that, while the agency was banned from re-joining the associ-
ation for five years, staff within the agency who had not been associated with
the campaign would join as individuals (Sweeney 2017).
The impact on the agency extended much further than the ban from the
Association. The publicity that it received was extensive, damaging its reputa-
tion significantly. The CEO resigned, but not before dismissing one partner and
suspending three others. The company also lost significant clients and investors
before finally collapsing (Segal 2018).
This case is an example of the impact that a breach of ethics can have for
an organisation and its reputation, and the importance of codes of conduct
that are enforced.
The ethics of loyalty and utility

A particular ethical challenge faced by communication professionals arises when
considering to whom they owe their loyalty. For example, there may be times
when being open and transparent, as our codes instruct us to be, may conflict
with a duty to protect commercially sensitive information or to represent the
best interests of our client or employer. In attempting to reduce a complex situ-
ation into a single rule or duty, it is frequently argued that, as an employee or a
consultant for a client, the communication practitioner is an advocate—much
the same as a lawyer advocating for their client. But this can be used as an excuse
to avoid addressing a more complex situation, the professionals’ wider respon-
sibilities. As a member of different groups in society, an individual is required
to be loyal to themselves, their profession and society as a whole, in addition to
protecting the interests of their employer or client (Christians et al. 2017).
So, how does a practitioner balance the requirement of loyalty to many
parties if and when a dilemma arises? And at what point, if any, should those
loyalties be abandoned when one conflicts with another? For example, if an
employer is behaving unethically, creating a negative impact on society, at what
stage does your loyalty to society outweigh that to the organisation? If your
actions are likely to bring disrepute to your profession, or mark you as unpro-
fessional, should you proceed? And if your employer asks you to do something
that is against your personal values, do you request a change, resign or do the
task under sufferance? This is the dilemma of the whistleblower—an indi-
vidual who exposes secret information about practices or behaviour that are
considered unethical or illegal.
While there are often no simple answers, in considering these different
loyalties we can start to see how the consequences of our actions, and whom
they impact, may influence our decision-making. Who will benefit and
who will be harmed? This leads us to the second ethical approach of conse-
quentialism and the related concept of utilitarianism.
Consequentialism goes far beyond issues of loyalty, but it does make
judgements about an action based on consideration of its consequences. While
rule-based approaches would tell us that lying is wrong, if the consequences of
that action are good, then telling a lie may actually be ethical. In this case, justi-
fying the ethics of that action comes down to who benefits and who is harmed.
Utilitarianism, one form of consequentialism, tells us that an action is

right if it produces the best consequences for all or the majority of the persons
affected by that action. Focusing on the ends rather than the ‘means’ (or the
way to get to the end), this approach is often expressed in terms of a moral
responsibility to promote the greatest happiness, based on the work of Jeremy
Bentham and John Stuart Mill in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries (Mill
2014). In providing the organisation’s voice, the communication profession-
al’s actions extend beyond the individual and the organisation, to society in
general. Stoker argues that:
Utilitarianism appeals to public relations practitioners because it obli-

gates one to society without forfeiting one’s obligation to a client or
employer. As part of society, the organization promotes enlightened
enlightened
self-interest that ultimately benefits the greater good of society. If
self-interest
an organization acts contrary to the public welfare, it must reconcile
misdeeds by coming clean and righting wrongs. (Stoker 2013, p. 955)
One area in which this is clearly demonstrated is the action of CSR and
CSR communication, as discussed in Chapter 3.
Not surprisingly, utilitarianism is not free from criticism either. Some
believe that the concept of the ends justifying the means is too simplistic. For
example, should your corporation participate in philanthropy—handing money
over to those in need in society? Or should it spend the money producing a
better product that would yield a greater good not only for the organisation
but for society?
FaCT CheCk
Consider a situation in a workplace crisis where you are asked to delay
revealing some news in order to avoid community panic. You are told
that, once controls have been put in place, the public can be made
aware but, until then, it would be dangerous to say anything. when
confronted by an unrelenting media pack, would you mislead or lie to
them if required? reflect on how you came to your decision.
Persuasion, truth, authenticity and virtue

Underpinning all these issues relating to rules, codes, and loyalties are more
deep-seated questions of the ethics of persuasion. Wilkins and Christians
(2001, p. 100) suggest that all forms of communication are ‘value laden’ and
persuasive. Even in writing this book, we are trying to persuade you. The term
‘persuasion’ often has negative connotations, and yet are we being unethical here
in trying to persuade you of our point of view? Are you behaving unethically
when you persuade your boss to accept a new idea for your company?
Of course not. And is the public relations professional unethical
when persuading the public to buy their company’s product or accept
rhetoric
their client’s position on a specific issue? Not necessarily. The field
of persuasive communication is covered by the theory of rhetoric,
which is often applied to political communication.
Persuasion can become unethical if it is intended to misrepresent or deceive.
An example of this is found in the idea of fake news. Two elements typically
make up fake news: the misuse of facts and the intention to deceive (Tandor
et al. 2018). In itself, misuse of facts may be due to oversight, misinterpreta-
tion or ignorance—errors of negligence rather than ethics. It is the intention to
deceive that makes this an ethical issue.
Lack of transparency is also unethical and inauthentic if done intention-
ally. This is sometimes done through the withholding of details that provide
a clearer representation of the truth, or through obscuring the true source
of a message and the motivations behind the communication. This can occur
through the use of fake grassroots campaigns that ‘attempt to influence public
policy and manipulate public opinion’, sometimes called astroturfing (Kim
2013). Conflicts of interest can also impact on open and honest decision-
making when a specific interest in one activity clashes with another. For
example, a conflict of interest could occur if a contract was issued to a family
member without going through a thorough tender process.
While codes of ethics typically set guidelines around these principles,
notions such as truth, honesty and authenticity are not always clear, and
guidance for ethical decision-making may need to go beyond any predeter-
mined rules or assessment of consequences. This leads us to a third ethical
approach, virtue theory.
Waller says that ‘you can’t tell whether an act is right or wrong just by
observing the act itself; instead, you must look at the person performing the
act’ (2008, p. 103). So, rather than focusing on the act or the consequences, as
in the two previous approaches, virtue theory focuses on the character of the
actor. The virtuous person is the one who consistently does right acts for
the right motives. It’s not just about doing the right act, but about doing the
right act with the right motivation.
Virtue theory has its genesis in the writings and teaching of the ancient
Greek philosopher Aristotle, who talks about the virtuous person as sitting
between two extremes or two vices—the vice of excess and the vice of deficit
(Neher & Sandin 2007). He argues that there is a ‘golden mean’ between excess
and deficit which can be determined by reason. For example, he lists courage
as a virtue, sitting between an excess, recklessness, and a deficit, cowardice.
Another virtue is self-control. While we can see that self-indulgence is an
extreme to be avoided, Aristotle argues that, equally, self-denial should also be
avoided. It’s about finding the ‘golden mean’ or the balance—and we do that
through reason (Neher & Sandin 2007).
The main criticism of this ethical approach is that virtues do not provide
the guidance that other ethical principles do. How do we determine what a
virtue is? Even though Aristotle says this can be ascertained through reason,
he agrees that ‘it is no easy task to be good. For in everything it is no easy
task to find the middle’ (Aristotle 2009, p. 36). He stresses that it is not just
important to do the right action, ‘but to do this to the right person, to the
right extent, at the right time, with the right motive, and in the right way’
(2009, p. 36).
Virtue theory is not incompatible with either consequentialist or duty-
based ethics. All three approaches discussed here are useful to the practitioner
questioning the ethics of any situation.
Ethical decision-making
Strategic communication and PR professionals are often confronted with
complex situations in which the ‘right’ ethical approach is unclear. An ethical
dilemma is one in which a choice needs to be made against competing
principles, values, interests and priorities, sometimes with all options being less
than desirable. While the philosophical approaches of duty, utility and virtue
may be of some assistance in this, other more practical processes have been
suggested for ethical decision-making.
Parsons outlines five fundamental principles for behaving ethically: veracity,
non-maleficence, beneficence, confidentiality and fairness (2016, p. 18). Based
on those principles, she poses the following questions that can be used by indi-
viduals and teams reflecting on the ethics of a communication task or campaign
and assist them in making a decision:
• Is there harm involved?

• Is there a missed opportunity to do something good?
• Could anyone be misled in any way?
• Will anyone’s privacy be invaded?
• Is it unfair to anyone?
• Does it feel wrong? (Parsons 2016, p. 136)
These questions provide a good start to identifying and defining what the
ethical dilemma is—an essential step towards finding an appropriate solution.
From there, however, there are further considerations as to what factors may
influence the decision, who will be impacted by the decision, and which of our
stated values and principles are relevant to the situation. Two key processes
that can be used to assist in working through ethical dilemmas are the Potter
Box and the Ethical Decision-Making Guide of the Public Relations Society of
America (PRSA 2019). Figure 4.2 presents summaries of both of those models,
showing the similarities in the methods.
Each of the methods consists of stepping through a number of stages,
reflecting on different elements that can influence decision-making. The Potter
Box is designed in quadrants that can be used in a group or individual situa-
tion to brainstorm ideas relating to the situation, the values of the individual
or the organisation (such as professional and moral values), the principles that
are relevant to this situation (such as using deontological or utilitarian princi-
ples), and the existence of loyalties to key stakeholders (Christians et al. 2017).
The PRSA framework uses a list of clearly established and agreed values and
principles to move through a similar process.
Figure 4.2 Ethical decision-making models: Potter Box and the PRSA Framework.
Source: adapted from Christians et al. (2017); PRSA (2019).
An overview of the law

As can be seen, ethics often provide us with choices in determining an appro-
priate course of action. Yet every professional, indeed every citizen, also
needs to comply with certain requirements set out in law (written as legis-
lation) by governments. All strategic communication and PR professionals
need to have a good understanding of the legal requirements that impact
on their professional conduct. This does not mean that there is a need for a
deep understanding of the law. However, a basic knowledge, along with good
use of common sense, will assist the professional in most cases. For example,
common sense tells us that if we act against the terms of a contract, we risk
being exposed to a claim for breach of contract. And if we use someone
else’s creative material without proper consent and acknowledgment, we
could run into copyright difficulties. The key is to limit risk by understand-
ing your contractual obligations, using sensitive information cautiously and
performing checks (what’s known as ‘due diligence’) regarding the accuracy
of information and the reliability of sources before repeating it—and to talk
to other specialists such as lawyers, accountants or financial experts when the
need arises.
The aim of this part of the chapter is to give an overview of some of the key
legal issues facing strategic communication and public relations professionals.
Unless otherwise stated, the laws described below apply to Australian practice;
however, New Zealand and other common-law countries such as Canada and
Britain are very similar in their approach.
Contracts
Contracts typically form a large part of the administrative work in both agency
and in-house roles. Every practitioner will at least have a personal employment
contract that lists their obligations in their workplace. For agency workers,
clients will also enter into contracts regarding the specific work they are seeking.
Both agency and in-house practitioners may also need to draw up contracts
with external specialists, service providers and suppliers for work that they need
to outsource. So it’s important to think about both sides of the contract—that
is, the provision of services and the hiring of services.
Essentially, a contract is an agreement that outlines the obligations of all
parties in the collaboration. While it is best to have a professional contract in
writing, they can exist in oral or implied forms or a combination of these ways.
For a contract to be valid, however, it generally needs to contain the elements
in Table 4.2.
For regular activities pre-designed contracts may be all that’s needed,
but these should be checked by a contract specialist. It’s worth checking the
internet for generic contract templates, as many can be found online, such as
contracts for one-off photography or graphic design services. These include
details such as:
• the service to be delivered (e.g. photography for a brochure)

• the date it will be delivered
• the cost and conditions of payment
• who owns the copyright?
There may also be a need to have individual contracts drawn up by a legal

expert if any of the terms and conditions are non-typical or complex.
Professional negligence
Strategic communication and PR professionals are engaged for their expertise
in the field and this brings a requirement that they undertake their duties with
due care and skill. An action for damages can be brought against any profes-
sional who acts negligently. This does not mean that a successful outcome
must be guaranteed, as there are often other factors that can impact on the
Table 4.2 Key elements of a contract
Key elements of a contract

Offer and One party makes a specific offer to supply goods or services
acceptance in return for something (typically money).
At least one other party needs to accept that offer.
The terms of the offer and acceptance should be clear and
unambiguous.
There is no contract until this happens.
Consideration This is where one item of value (goods, money, services or
promises) is exchanged for another item of value following
a bargaining process—an exchange of promises.
It is the reason for the contract.
Parties All the parties that would benefit from the contract should be
named in the contract.
The terms of the contract cannot be enforced by an unnamed
party.
Capacity Each party to the contract must have the legal capacity
to act on that contract—that is, be of sound mind and
appropriate age.
A person signing on behalf of an organisation must also have
the authorisation to do so.
Legality The terms and conditions of the contract are legally binding.
success or failure of a particular communication activity. However, if it can

be shown that the professional has not acted with the care and skill that could
be expected within the industry, then damages for negligence may be sought.
Managing the risk of a claim of professional negligence involves some basic
attention to keeping accurate records of activities, advice given and received,
and keeping notes of meetings and conversations. These records may be
useful in demonstrating that due care and skill were exercised. For any action
of negligence to proceed, there is a legal requirement of what is referred to as
a ‘duty of care’. This means—as the name implies—that a duty or responsi-
bility is vested in any individual when involved in professional conduct. This
is probably best understood when applied to care-based professions, such as
a teacher supervising school students or a doctor advising patients. However,
all professionals need to ensure that they act with care and diligence, only
offer advice that they are qualified to give and minimise risk-taking where
clients are involved.
Consumer protection
Work in strategic communication and PR often requires building relations
with consumers, usually performed in collaboration with the marketing team.
Awareness of laws that specifically deal with consumer protection is therefore
essential. In New Zealand, consumers are protected by the Fair Trading Act
1986 and the Consumer Guarantees Act 1993. In Australia, the Competition and
Consumer Act 2010 (CCA) and the Australian Consumer Law (ACL), which is
Schedule 2 of the Act, protect consumers from corporations that are misleading
or deceptive in their conduct and/or representation. These laws are adminis-
tered by the Australian Competition and Consumer Commission. The CCA
is Australian Commonwealth legislation that applies to corporations only, and
state and territory governments have therefore enacted their own consumer
protection laws to cover other dealers, often under the label of ‘Fair Trading’
laws. To ensure some national consistency, however, under each state’s legis-
lation the ACL applies as law within their jurisdiction also. For example, in
South Australia the Act is the Fair Trading Act 1987, which is administered by
the Consumer and Business Services section in the Attorney-General’s Depart-
ment. Check the appropriate legislation and website in your own jurisdiction.
Consumer protection laws at national (section 18 of the ACL) and state
levels prohibit misleading and deceptive conduct—even conduct that is likely
to mislead or deceive. For communication and PR professionals, this creates
the need to ensure that content creation and message development include fair
representations of the goods or services being promoted. The legislation does
not define the terms ‘misleading’ and ‘deceptive’, but case law (see Weitmann
v Katies Ltd (1977)) generally accepts that to mislead means to ‘lead astray in
action or conduct, to lead into error, to cause to err’ and to deceive means
to ‘cause to believe what is false’. The legislation says ‘mere puffery’ would
generally not be considered misleading, as the claims would be so fanciful or
superlative that nobody would be reasonably misled by them. The caution here
for communication professionals is that, if in any doubt, it is worth seeking
advice before publishing. Section 29 of the ACL also provides more specific
detail and examples of false and misleading representation.
Intellectual property
Intellectual property (IP) is defined by IP Australia as ‘property of your mind
or proprietary knowledge’ (IP Australia n.d.). Generally speaking, IP laws
involve the protection of rights concerning creative outputs and efforts. They
can be very complex, but there are two main areas relevant for communication
practitioners: copyright and trade marks.
Copyright
Copyright law protects the expression of ideas—not the ideas themselves. That
is, it exists once the idea is expressed in one or more specific formats listed
in the legislation. The relevant laws are Australia’s Copyright Act 1968, New
Zealand’s Copyright Act 1994 and amendments that have been made to both.
Unlike trade marks (which are explained next), there is no requirement to
register copyright in Australia or New Zealand (whereas copyright law in the
USA calls for IP to be registered). The protections exist as soon as the idea is
expressed in ‘works’ that are literary, dramatic, musical or artistic, or in ‘subject
matter other than works’, which include sound recordings, cinematographic
films, television and sound broadcasts and published editions of works. The
works must be original but they do not need to be of literary or artistic merit to
qualify for copyright protection.
In fact, copyright has been found
to be included in a phone book
listing, a list of numbers and even
in a colour. In Australia, copyright
expires after 70 years; it depends
on the type of work as to whether
this is after it was published or
after the author dies. After that
time it is said to move into the Figure 4.3 The absence of the copyright
‘public domain’ and may be used symbol does NOT mean that the material is
without permission. in the public domain.
Holding copyright gives the owner (usually the creator of the work,
but rights can be transferred to another) certain rights to reproduce, adapt,
broadcast, publish, perform and/or distribute the work, or to sell or license
the copyright to another party. Conversely, if copyright is not owned by an
individual, these actions could result in an infringement. There are some
subtle differences in the rights that are held and the legislation should
therefore be checked for specific cases. Some subject matter other than
works may have multiple elements that are covered by copyright, such as
a television broadcast that could have separate copyrights over the script,
the music, the story, design elements and other factors. Whether you are
protecting your own copyright or seeking permission to use the creative
works of others, you need to understand how the law applies in each situa-
tion. This is equally pertinent to the use of creative material in online/social
media platforms.
There are, however, some exemptions to copyright—some of which

you may recognise from your university work. These include copying for
the purposes of research or study, criticism or review, parody or satire, or
reporting news. Personal copying is also allowed (e.g. recording a television
program for personal use). Libraries, galleries, archives, universities and
schools also have broader rights for copying.
Ownership of copyright is not always straightforward but contracts, as
discussed earlier, can help to clarify copyright ownership.
Trade marks
Australian law defines a trade mark as
a sign used, or intended to be used, to distinguish goods or services dealt

with or provided in the course of trade by a person from goods or services
so dealt with or provided by any other person. (Trade Marks Act 1995,
section 17).
New Zealand’s Trade Marks Act 2002 describes trade marks as ‘any sign
capable of (i) being represented graphically; and (ii) distinguishing the goods
or services of one person from those of another person’. A trade mark can be a
logo or slogan—such as Nike’s swoosh symbol and its ‘just do it’ slogan—but
it can also include a ‘letter, number, word, phrase, sound, smell, shape, picture,
movement, aspect of packaging, or a combination of these’ (IP Australia 2019).
The company’s name, or a domain name, however, are not trade marks and
need to be registered separately.
While it is possible to hold a trade mark without registering it, it is more
difficult to defend against any infringements. By registering a trade mark, you
have exclusive rights to its use. For a trade mark to be registered, it must be
distinctive, describe the specific goods or services to be covered by the trade
mark, and specify the ‘class’ of goods or services to which they belong. The
trade mark will only be granted for the class or classes that are nominated
within the application. So, for example, a trade mark registered for clothing
will not prevent another company using a similar trade mark for a different
type of product. A trade mark registration may also be removed if it is not
actively used.
Defamation
The laws of defamation attempt to balance the rights of people to speak
freely with the rights of people to protect their reputation. The principles
of defamation are similar across all jurisdictions. All states in Australia have
separate defamation laws, which were (for the most part) made uniform in
2006. New Zealand has the Defamation Act 1992, which is similar to the
Australian laws. For a defamation to have occurred, three factors need to
be evidenced:
1. the material was published in any form—that includes in hard copy, online
or broadcast
2. a person was identified
3. the material conveyed a meaning which tends to:
– lower that person’s reputation
– leads people to ridicule, avoid or despise that person, or
– injures that person’s reputation in a business, trade or profession.
For the material to be defamatory, it need only suggest or imply defama-
tory issues; it does not need to expressly state them (Butler & Roderick 2015,
pp. 33–36).
A claim for defamation can be defended by the publisher of the material
under a series of defences, the primary ones being:
• that the material was substantially true (with the onus of proof on the
publisher)
• that it was fair comment or opinion (rather than stated fact)
• the publisher was covered by qualified privilege (which has developed into
a media-related defence)
• fair report of proceedings of public concern (e.g. courts).
One consideration of defamation is that, even though a publication may
have been defamatory, if the content has not reached a wide or important
audience then it may be best to simply ignore it. If legal action is instigated,
there is the potential for the material to reach an even greater audience through
the publicity, further damaging the reputation of the individual. The phenome-
non of drawing increased attention to something that you are trying to supress
has become known as the ‘Streisand effect’ following an effort by singer Barbra
Streisand to have a photo removed from a website. The photograph was one in
a series used to highlight coastal erosion, but in doing so it revealed her home.
Prior to her legal action, the photograph had only been downloaded six times,
but the publicity surrounding the case drew hundreds of thousands of people to
the website. Streisand also lost the legal case (Masnick 2015).
Defamation laws apply equally to all publications, including social media.
A case may be brought against someone who has published a potentially defam-
atory remark in a Facebook post or a tweet, for example. A more contentious
area of the law, however, relates to responsibility for the comments posted
by members of the public on an organisation’s social media site. In 2019,

a judgment in the NSW Supreme Court found that the owners of a Facebook
page have control over posted comments and are, therefore, responsible for
blocking or removing material that is likely to defame (Mitchell & Whitbourn
2019). Another Australian case saw Google facing a contempt of court charge
for failing to take down defamatory comments (Whitbourn 2019). These cases
focus attention on who is responsible for publishing and re-publishing in the
digital era, illustrating the difficulties of legislation keeping up with technology.
R
One of the most highly publicised defamation cases in recent years was that of
actor Rebel Wilson’s case against Bauer Media. Wilson asserted that her repu-
tation had been damaged due to claims made in a popular tabloid magazine
that she had lied about her personal details and history. The court found in her
favour on the basis that the information published was not true. The wide reach
of the publication was also considered to be a factor in the judge’s decision.
While the initial record payout awarded to Wilson was later reduced signifi-
cantly, she was reported as saying that ‘at the end of the day the jury restored
my reputation, I’ve moved on personally and professionally’ (Byrne 2018).
Spam
Spam presents a field of consumer law that is important for the communi-
cation professional and the limitations of their practice. The Spam Act 2003
regulates the sending of ‘unsolicited commercial electronic messages’ (spam).
The legislation covers emails, phone calls, text and video messages to mobile
phones, and instant messaging; however, it was written before the common use
of bots for marketing purposes, so caution should be exercised and the intent of
the law considered when using any new technology. In Australia, the legislation
is enforced by the Australian Communications and Media Authority (ACMA),
which publishes useful guides for industry.
Section 6 of the Act outlines exactly what a commercial electronic message
is; in general terms, however, it is one that either advertises, promotes or offers
to supply goods or services, land or business opportunities, or assists others to
dishonestly obtain property belonging to another person.
According to the Act, commercial electronic messages must:
• have the consent of the recipient—either express or implied

• clearly identify the sender and include the sender’s contact information
• provide a functional and obvious unsubscribe facility. (Australian Commu-
nications and Media Authority n.d.)
The best way for organisations to protect themselves against being guilty
of spamming is to ensure that they have consent to contact the individuals
and organisations with whom they are communicating. Generally speaking,
by signing up to a mailing list or subscription service, the recipient expresses
consent to receive that information—such as when you’re asked to give your
email to a clothing retailer at the point of purchase. However, in some cases
permission can be inferred based on a relationship between two parties. For
example, if the organisation deals with an individual on an ongoing basis, then
consent to receive messages may be inferred. Additionally, an organisation
can send a commercial electronic message to an email address that has been
published elsewhere. But in both situations, the message must relate directly
to the relationship that you already have or to the recipient’s line of work
(Australian Communications and Media Authority n.d.).
The organisation must keep records of who has consented in case they are
called upon to provide it as evidence. Using a double opt-in process—whereby
a consumer’s initial consent to opt-in is followed up with a message asking
them to confirm their consent—is also a good practice for organisations.
While public directories can be used to contact people with marketing
messages, an organisation sending messages needs to ensure that there is an
obvious and strong connection between the individual they are sending to and
the product or service that is the subject of the message. In these cases, the
message must be sent to a specific person and not to a generic email address or
contact number.
Exemptions are provided in the Act for registered charities, educational
institutions (in some cases), government bodies and political parties. It is
also possible to contact recipients with factual messages that are not deemed
‘commercial information’, such as product recalls.
Privacy
Closely related to the consent elements within the Spam Act 2003 is the law
of privacy, although this also extends into broader areas of communication
activity. The relevant legislation in this area in Australia is the Privacy Act
1988 and The Privacy Amendment (Enhancing Privacy Protection) Act 2012. The
Acts apply to all businesses and not-for-profits that have an annual turnover
of more than $3 million, although they can also apply to smaller businesses,
particularly in the area of the provision of health services.
At the core of the Privacy Act are the Australian Privacy Principles (APPs),
which guide private and public sector organisations regarding the handling of
‘personal’, ‘sensitive’, and ‘health’ information. This specifies that:
• personal information includes names, addresses and phone numbers

• sensitive information concerns data about topics such as ethnic origin,
political opinion, religious beliefs and sexual preferences
• health information material includes the health and disabilities of an
individual, their care, and genetic information. (OAIC 2019a)
The thirteen principles in the APPs can be found on the website of the
Office of the Australian Information Commissioner (OAIC), divided into five
categories: consideration, collection, dealing with, integrity of, and access to
personal information (OAIC 2019b). The principles describe the standards,
rights and obligations concerning:
• open and transparent management of personal information

• the need for organisational privacy policies
• how personal information will be collected, secured, used and disclosed

• individuals’ rights to access and correct their personal information. (OAIC
2019c)
Common complaints about privacy include the use and disclosure of

information, with remedies often consisting of apologies, compensation and
training of staff.
One simple trap that can be avoided is to ensure emails to subscriber lists
for newsletters or marketing-related materials do not publicly display email
addresses. These are considered personal information under the Privacy Act
and therefore they should be blind copied (BCC) to recipients so others on the
list are not able to see their addresses and the fact that they are on the list. As
well as staying within the law, this is also good ethical practice.
It is also good business practice to clearly state how individual information
will be collected, stored and used. While it is not a legal requirement, establish-
ing privacy policies and publishing them on the organisational website provides
transparency and builds a relationship of trust with stakeholders.
Conclusion
Poor ethical and legal practices can threaten the reputation of the strategic
communication and PR industry. As you start your professional career, it is
essential that you recognise and comprehend the standards of behaviour
expected of you so you can represent the industry well and contribute to
your organisation, to your clients and to society. A clear set of personal and
professional values will build your reputation and make you stand out in
the crowd. This chapter has given you a start to building your knowledge
of the ethical challenges you may face, why they are problematic and how
you can reflect on them to produce sound decisions in the face of uncertainty.
Industry codes of ethics are important, but you need to understand how they
have emerged and how to deal with dilemmas that go beyond their guidance.
The chapter has also given you a start to understanding some key legal
obligations and responsibilities that you will face as a practitioner. An under-
standing of the fundamentals will alert you to potential problem areas and help
avoid legal challenges. Expertise can always be accessed if needed. Remember,
the laws both protect your rights and outline your responsibilities.
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Chapter 5
working in a
media-dominated world
We live in a world dominated by media and technology. Studies show that

many people spend up to 24 hours each week online, mostly on mobile
devices (OfCom 2018). As media scholar Mark Deuze points out, ‘at some
point it becomes impossible to disentangle whether we use media, or media
use us’ (2012, p. 5). This ‘media life’, as he calls it, is today’s reality—a reality
marked by ubiquitous media (meaning ‘they are everywhere’) and pervasive
media (meaning they ‘cannot be switched off’) (Deuze 2012, p. xi). Even if
we do escape or switch off our own media, there is a sea of external media
that hits us from all directions—other people’s screens, billboard advertis-
ing, public transport campaigns, t-shirt slogans, on-hold phone messaging,
clothing brands and so on. Individuals and society are powerless to escape the
media life around us.
This adaptation to media has been called the ‘mediatisation’ of
individuals and society (Hjarvard 2008), while the world in which mediatisation
we live has been called ‘the Platform Society’ (van Dijck, Poell &
de Waal, 2018) because it is so reliant on the connective elements of
online platforms that shape the way we live and how society is organ-
ised. This chapter will investigate these ideas and why they have become such
important concepts for communication and PR professionals. It will examine
how our media-saturated world sits at the heart of much strategic communi-
cation, public relations and marketing activity and how these industries have
had to adapt to the media environment. It will also consider the importance
117
of relationship-building, which has emerged alongside the changing media

landscape. Far from becoming a lesser element in modern mediated lives, rela-
tionships are more central than ever. The need to connect and collaborate is
a primary driver in the motivation of media users and creators. In the 2020s,
as digital media continues to strengthen its hold on individuals and societies,
the idea of sharing stories, messages, images and ideas via media has reached
new heights, and with it has come an increased expectation that online rela-
tionships of differing sorts reinforce the sharing activity. This reached new
heights during the COVID-19 pandemic when the world shut down from
so much physical interaction and was forced into online interactions for
personal and work activity. Apps such as House Party, Zoom and TikTok were
downloaded at record rates.
Meanwhile, online media has also underpinned a new language that has
grown up around the need for connectedness: words such as share, chat, friend/
unfriend and hashtag now describe activity based on the idea of co-creating
media. In other words, media content exists and undergoes change during the
process of being shared. What is a hashtag, after all, unless it is shared? What
is a post if not liked, shared or commented on by someone?
In this chapter we will examine how major changes to media have
impacted on institutions, organisations and individuals, and how
digital these changes influence and shape the social, cultural, political and
economy economic practices of everyday life. It is no coincidence that govern-
ments have for decades been focusing on developments in what has
become known as the ‘digital economy’.
At the centre of this economy is the work undertaken by strategic commu-
nication practitioners: those working in a variety of disparate roles, engaging
with media for a living, a cause, a calling or even just for fun.
(Post-)Converging media
This era of media has confirmed the end of a time in which different mediums
existed in isolation. These were once viewed as single ‘silos’—individual
mediums that operated and were used separately from each other. Take, for
example, TV—watched only on television sets; newspapers—read only as printed
matter; books—read only in bound volumes. Now, those who use media—and
Working in a media-dominated world 119
that’s just about everyone—do so across multiple platforms or channels, and

with the intention of connecting, intersecting, collaborating and c o-creating with
others. The primary aim of using media is no longer just about sending out
signals, news, messages or images to passive viewers, listeners or readers. The
process has shifted from a dominant ‘one-to-many’ model (e.g. newspapers)
to a ‘many-to-many’ model (e.g. social networking) in which people co-create
content across many platforms. This includes the part played by journalists,
who work alongside and often at intersections with other social media users
generating news, chat, images and stories. Journalists are part of the many-to-
many cycle of media, no longer in a silo of their own but working within the
bigger, networked and interconnected media world. We pick up the topic of
working with journalists later in the chapter.
The idea of media coming together, or convergence, is not new. For well
over a decade, there has been much discussion centring on the blurring of
‘the lines dividing the separate mediums’ (Johnston 2007, p. 27). At the same
time, there has also been an observed ‘divergence’ as media fragmented and
many more voices arrived on the scene (Johnston 2007). Media scholar Henry
Jenkins coined the term ‘convergence culture’ in 2006 in his book Conver-
gence Culture: Where Old and New Media Collide. Jenkins summed up the idea
as ‘the relationship between three concepts—media convergence, participa-
tory culture, and collective intelligence’ (2006, p. 2). Here’s what he said
about them.
Media convergence: convergence is all about ‘[t]he flow of content
across multiple media platforms, the cooperation between multiple media
industries, and the migratory behavior of media audiences’ (Jenkins 2006,
p. 3). This relates to technological, industrial, cultural and social changes
where ‘old’ and ‘new’ media interact in complex ways.
Participatory culture: this is how the ‘circulation of media content—
across different media systems, competing media economies, and national
borders—depends heavily on consumers’ active participation’ (2006, p. 3).
The term participatory culture was intended to contrast with traditional ideas
of more passive audiences. As such, it focuses on how media production and
consumption came together rather than occupying separate roles. The term
‘prosumer’—a combination of a producer and consumer—became a new word
and a new way of theorising a changing audience.
Collective intelligence: this final element of convergence culture is a

collective process as media consumption and production combine to create
something bigger, working more effectively as the sum of all parts rather than
individual parts. Jenkins points out: ‘None of us can know everything; each
of us knows something; and we can put the pieces together if we pool our
resources and combine our skills’ (2006, p. 4).
While there have been many developments and challenges to Jenkins’ ideas
since convergence became a hot-button topic of the 2000s, these three compo-
nents still provide a solid foundation for explaining media convergence today.
But, as Jenkins admitted, convergence is complicated! ‘Don’t expect the uncer-
tainties surrounding convergence to be resolved anytime soon’ (2006, p. 24).
The PESO model

One way of thinking through the convergence of media as it applies to the
practices used by communication and PR professionals is through the popular
idea of ‘PESO’—a media model that uses a Venn diagram to show the overlap
of paid, earned, shared and owned media (Dietrich 2014). (Note: we moved
the ‘shared’ space into the middle to allow it to overlap with ‘paid’ since paid
influencers have become such a major part of media sharing). PESO has
become a common way of describing the different and intersecting parts of
media practice. It is based on a simple typology.
Is it paid for? Is the coverage advertising-based—either the traditional
type such as at the cinema, or via payment of social media mentions, otherwise
known as ‘sponcon’ (sponsored content)?
Is it earned? Has content been of sufficient interest or impact to generate
its own coverage by either the news media or other social networking sites?
This can also be considered ‘organically driven’ media because it is generated
by newsworthy content.
Is it shared? Has the media

message/story/image been popular
enough to be shared via social
media?
Is it owned? Is content part of
an organisational online presence,
usually content on a website, in a
media kit, or on an organisation’s
own social media channels?
The originator of the PESO
model, Gini Dietrich, first wrote
about PESO in her book Spin Figure 5.1 PESO media—paid, earned,
Sucks (2014) and she continues shared and owned. Source: Johnston &
to write about it on her blog of Rowney, originally adapted from Dietrich
the same name (Dietrich 2019). (2014).
PESO has provided a simple tool
for thinking and talking about media as converging and intersecting. It has also
helped to consolidate our understanding that media is developed in a variety
of ways.
This also includes media impact. Dietrich says PESO activity should also
be measured for it to be effective. Without measuring your PESO model
activities’ effectiveness, you don’t know where to focus. She asks:
• Which topics are truly engaging your audience?

• Which channels drive the most traffic?
• What publications are bombing with your audience?
These are all answers only data can give you (Dietrich 2019). In measur-
ing your data you will automatically use research and evaluation techniques.
These can range from using our own evaluation tools (such as Hootsuite’s
social media monitoring), which can be done in-house, or outsourcing to
big media intelligence and data technology companies such as iSentia. Data
analytics and social listening are now both big business (there are many
companies that do this work) and good for business (it affects your bottom
line and your relationships with your publics). We will consider how to use
data and listen to audience feedback in the next chapter.
The smartphone changes everything

Got a smartphone? Stupid question! Those smartphones we all own have
become a symbol of the converged media world. Just over a decade after the
first smartphone arrived on the scene in 2007, the British Office of Commu-
nication (OfCom) declared that smartphones were the first ‘truly converged
media device’ (2018, p. 57). What began as primarily a mobile telephone has
become central to many parts of our mobile lives: a personal digital assistant,
camera, MP3 player, satnav tool, social networking source, news site, movie
screen, money manager, medical support and so on. Research group Deloitte
announced in 2018 that smartphones had become the ‘true center of our lives,
both inside and outside the home’ (Westcott, in Spangler 2018). In Australia at
that time, smartphones were described as ‘fast becoming our main computing
device and we’re willing to invest more and hold onto it for longer’ (Deloitte
2018a, p. 19). By 2016, smartphones had become more popular than comput-
ers for going online (OfCom 2018), and, by 2018, 89 per cent of Australians
owned and used one (Deloitte 2018a). In the USA, smartphone penetration
was only slightly lower, at 85 per cent in the same year (Spangler 2018). In
the United Kingdom, 78 per cent of adults used and owned a smartphone
(OfCom 2018). Overall, the smartphone and smart TVs (those connected to
the internet) represent the biggest growth areas of all media (OfCom 2018).
What has occurred alongside the rapid rise of the smartphone has been
the adoption of mobile applications. The expression ‘there’s an app for that’
was trademarked by Apple in 2009! As one tech commentator observed: ‘Obvi-
ously, the trendsetting company knew a good thing when they saw it’ (Potts
2016). Since then, apps have become a highly competitive business. As smart-
phones moved into the dominant media position, apps went along for the ride,
bringing convenience and simplicity based on a limited (or no) financial outlay.
Apps now work across just about every facet of our media world in:
• our economic lives—think mobile banking

• our social and romantic lives—think social networks and dating sites
• our medical lives—think reminder systems for medical treatments
• our eating activities—think mobile food delivery
• our leisure time and travel—think ride-sharing booking systems
• our health and wellbeing—think keep-fit and health apps.
TikTok’s COvid-19 public information campaign

In March 2020 TikTok began a new content partnership program with the World
Health Organization (WHO) to help get messages about COVID-19 through to
its users. The WHO also began hosting a live-stream on TikTok, via its official TikTok
page, sharing up-to-date information with TikTok users. TikTok said it wanted to
make sure the information was readily available among all the creative content
being shared on the app. It was especially important because there were so
many channels and so much contradictory information on COVID-19 out there.
TikTok wrote:
At TikTok we’re focused on supporting our users by providing accurate

information and resources from public health officials, as well as continued
support, encouragement, and uplifting videos that our community share with
each other during this challenging time. To that end, we’ve partnered
with the World Health Organization (WHO) to create an informational page
on TikTok that provides trustworthy information, offers tips on staying safe and
preventing the spread of the virus, and dispels myths around COVID-19.
Figure 5.2 TikTok used this image on its COVID-19 information page. Source:
TikTok (2020).
The rise in mobile phone usage, the mobility of media and the popularity
of apps show clearly that what changes are not our cultural practices, but the
delivery systems that bring them to us. For example, we still listen to music, but
the delivery of the music changes: from radio, to vinyl, to cassettes, to CDs, to
MP3s, to Spotify or other streaming services (and radio and vinyl are back in
vogue again). So, in short:
Delivery technologies come and go all the time, but media persist as layers
within an ever more complicated information and entertainment stratum . . .
once a medium establishes itself as satisfying some core human demand, it
continues to function within the larger system of communication options.
(Jenkins 2006, p. 14)
In only a few years, our converged media culture has become about enter-
tainment, economic, social and political exchanges; how we understand just
about every part of the world. Figure 5.3 illustrates some of the major develop-
ments that have become central to global media activity over this period. And,
as smartphones and other mobile devices are rarely turned off in the modern
media economy, so too the work of those employed in this digital economy has
become a virtually 24-hour-a-day industry.
Digital media literacy and fluency

So what does it take to work as a strategic communication practitioner in
this busy and constantly evolving media world? You need knowledge—and
a degree of mastery—of the way media operate and the impact
they have across society and within the digital economy. This is
digital often referred to as digital media literacy or fluency. It is defined
economy as: ‘the ability to use, understand and create media and commu-
nications in a variety of contexts’ (OfCom 2018, p. 1). The New
Media Consortium, based in the USA, categorises three types of
digital media literacy within the college or university learning environment.
These are equally useful for thinking about the work environment of strategic
communication.
1. Universal literacy: a familiarity with using basic digital tools such as office
productivity software, image manipulation, cloud-based apps and content,
and web content authoring tools.
2. Creative literacy: includes all aspects of universal literacy and adds more
challenging technical skills that lead to the production of richer content,
including video editing, audio creation and editing, animation, an under-
standing of computational device hardware, and programming—along with
digital citizenship and copyright knowledge.
Figure 5.3 Global media since the smartphone. Source: adapted from OfCom
(2018) original graphic (UK stats); Deloitte (2019b) (Australian stats); Paul (2020).
Infographic courtesy of Joel Hawkins.
3. Discipline literacy: diffused throughout different classes in appropriate

ways that are unique to each learning context, e.g. sociology courses can
teach interpersonal actions online, such as the ethics and politics of social
network interaction, while psychology and business classes can focus on
computer-mediated human interaction. (Alexander et al. 2017, p. 1)
If universal literacy is the basic stuff that everybody should have (hence the
name), we can determine that, as professionals, we need to do more. In fact,
strategic communicators need to combine both the other two fields: creative
literacy calls for specialist media knowledge and skills, infused with innovation,
originality and a touch of the artistic; disciplinary literacy calls for an understand-
ing of specialist fields, with the capability of interpreting and translating these
fields to both the broader community and targeted, niche audiences. Creative
literacy needs to be something the communication and PR professional builds
on for life. Disciplinary literacy can change, as workers move from industry to
industry. For example, you may work in the field of science in one communica-
tion role and the travel industry in another, each calling on specific knowledge
of that particular field.
The World Economic Forum (WEF) has identified creativity as an essen-
tial component of media literacy for the 2020s (Alexander et al. 2017). This was
highlighted in a report that examined the most important job skills for 2020,
with creativity coming third after problem-solving and critical thinking. The
full list of the WEF’s job skills is shown in Table 5.1.
Creativity is so important because, although machines are taking over so
many human activities and automation is bolstering efficiency, they cannot
replace human imagination. ‘Put another way, embedded in effective digital
literacy training is the spirit of learners as creators. Digital tools themselves are
merely enablers, pushing the envelope of what learners can create’ (Alexander
et al. 2017, p. 2). This is also about convergence cultures at work. Conver-
gence is not about media appliances—rather, it occurs both within individual
consumers and through their social interactions with others, with fragments
of information extracted from within the flow of media and transformed into
something else (Jenkins 2006, p. 4). Digital media literacy experts say it is
how people ‘contribute to the local and global knowledge ecosystem, learning
Table 5.1 World Economic Forum ‘Future of Jobs’ report (2017)
2020 2015
1. Complex Problem Solving 1. Complex Problem Solving
2. Critical Thinking 2. Coordinating with Others
3. Creativity 3. People Management
4. People Management 4. Critical Thinking
5. Coordinating with Others 5. Negotiation
6. Emotional Intellience 6. Quality Control
7. Judgment and Decision Making 7. Service Orientation
8. Service Orientation 8. Judgment and Decision Making
9. Negotiation 9. Active Listening
10. Cognitive Flexibilty 10. Creativity
through the act of producing and discussing rich media, applications, and
objects’ (Alexander et al. 2017, p. 2).
The application of this to people moving into the communication industry is
pretty clear. You need to bring to your role both media skills and a critical under-
standing of how they work, and this calls for one other key characteristic of the
media worker for 2020 and beyond—adaptability. The New Media Consortium
points out that digital media literacy calls for more than knowing how to use
mobile devices, software and media-creation tools. It also calls for the capacity
to intuitively adapt and adjust to new digital environments, and to develop habits
that cultivate lifelong learning about media, aiming for a continuous mastery of
new skills. This requires critical judgement in selecting digital tools and eval-
uating how your contribution impacts within the potential reach of your work
(Alexander et al. 2017). Without high-level proficiencies in media production
and a critical understanding of what’s going on in media, you cannot expect to
become good at the job of working in and using media in your professional life.
Some universities have identified the importance of digital media literacy
across the whole student cohort. This has resulted in some excellent online
tools being made available, not just to communication PR and media students,
or even to the student body of the university that developed them, but to
the wider community. These provide some useful open-access resources for
the future communication and media student and upcoming professional.

Some of these include:
• All Aboard: this is national collaborative project from the Irish higher
education sector. It aims to empower individuals who use technology to
support their work, study or other aspects of living in a digital age.
• Digital Essentials: this is a series of online modules developed by the
University of Queensland, Australia for building digital skills for success in
study and work.
• Domain of One’s Own (DoOO): this is an initiative by the University of
Mary Washington in the USA that provides students’ modules to develop
advanced digital fluency skills.
• 23 Things: this is a self-directed course in digital knowledge run by the
University of Edinburgh, Scotland. It seeks to expose the user to a range
of digital tools for helping with personal and professional development as
a researcher, academic, student or professional.
Developing language of media

As the media has gone through radical disruption and transformations over
the past two decades it has created a language of its own. Words and expres-
sions like PESO, FOMO, mediatisation, co-creation, produser, churnalism and
clickbait have emerged to describe something new on the media scene. Other
words that existed previously have either been appropriated to describe a media
phenomenon or moved into common use—for example, troll, influence(r),
algorithm, metric, fake news, bot, share, like and friend. Likewise, acronyms
and shorthand expressions have also been introduced. If you had written LOL!
OMG! TTYL! twenty years ago, chances are it would have looked more
like a coded response than a predictable message. And emoticons and emojis
now take the place of words, used with text or instead of text to convey under-
standing, agreement, disagreement, emotions and so on.
As Oxford Dictionaries points out:
Emoticons such as ;-) and acronyms such as LOL (‘laughing out loud’—which
has just celebrated its 25th birthday) add useful elements of non-verbal commu-
nication—or annoy people with their overuse. (n.d.)
Emoticons and emojis have gained an important place in modern media

language and are now mainstream. Illustrating this, Oxford Dictionaries chose
an emoji—the ‘Face with Tears of Joy’ —as its word of the year
in 2015. It ‘was chosen as the “word”: that best reflected the ethos,
mood, and preoccupations of 2015’ (Oxford Dictionaries n.d. (b)).
There are now nearly 3000 registered emojis (Emojipedia 2018), with semiotics
some popular ones represented below. These are a clear example of
semiotics at work.
Figure 5.4 It’s official! The world loves emojis. Source: adapted from Image by
Pixaline, Pixabay.
Understanding the language of media—both textual and visual—is an

important part of media literacy. Even more important than the slang, acronyms
or emojis is the professional language that has developed around media and
the way it is used for effective strategic communication. If you take a look at
one or all of the open-access resources listed in the previous section you’ll see
how media discourse has developed. For instance: what is a digital footprint?
Digital security? Geolocation? This is just part of the language that you’ll need
to have a working knowledge of to work in a media-centric industry
like strategic communication. Sometimes, this is referred to as
‘professional discourse’.
discourse
These words and concepts show us ‘new’ media isn’t new for too
long. Where Jenkins talked of ‘old’ and ‘new’ media, referring to the
shift to digital and mobile media, we’ve moved on. Media is constantly
changing and as it changes it is no longer new. While we do still sometimes
need to distinguish between ‘old’—also called legacy or traditional—media and
‘newer’ media, it is important to use such terms with care.
A multimedia world
The emoji is an excellent example of how images have taken the place of words.
Text is no longer enough for communication in the 2020s. Media is now over-
whelmingly visual and multimedia. News media outlets work hard to respond
to this demand. For example, The New York Times now publishes at least fifteen
multimedia pieces per day (McCoy 2017). In Australia, the ABC and other
media organisations now standardly incorporate text, sound, images and video
in multimedia packages. They also distribute their stories via a range of plat-
forms—so you can get your news via a phone app, on radio, TV, or online; in
real-time or in catch-up. When stories are told and distributed in different
ways, using a range of platforms, it is called a transmedia approach.
Vision rules and this is unlikely to change. What will change is the scope
and variety of ways vision is used. One study predicts that video will account for
more than 80 per cent of all internet traffic by 2022 (Cisco 2019). PR and corpo-
rate communication now de-emphasise text in favour of a more visual approach
(McCoy 2017). But for visuals to work they need to be strong, engaging and
appropriately pitched to your target audience. It’s important, therefore, to have
a visual strategy, and this should be planned around the most appropriate media
package for the platform and audience. Visual communication encompasses
everything from illustration, to graphics, charts, photos, video, GIFs, animation
and, increasingly, virtual reality or augmented reality, or any mixture of these.
For social media, you might lean toward micro-narratives, GIFs and video,
whereas for audiences and industries in which homepage visits are common,
you might beef up your interactive content. And of course, you’ll want to
ensure all your content is mobile-friendly. (McCoy 2017)
Visual content retains audience attention for longer. It is also more easily
understood and shareable. Interactivity, too, grabs and extends audience
engagement. The importance of vision has resulted in a highly specialised
industry, with some creative media agencies focusing on developing visual
content and unpacking complex stories into easily understood visual packages.
Agencies such as Killer Visual Strategies and Visual Capitalist use strong visuals
in many different forms—from infographics to animations—to tell complex
stories. Visual Capitalist says the company ‘exists for one reason—to help make
this complex world a little easier to understand’, combining big data, visuals
and storytelling.
Their inclusion of big data means that complex data sets can be distilled
into one or more simple images, thus simplifying the information transfer
from producer to consumer. So, for example, topics such as ‘The Geogra-
phy of the World’s Top 50 Billionaires’, ‘Where Investors Put Their Money
in 2018’ or ‘The World’s Largest 30 Economies in 2030’ can be illustrated in a
single infographic or chart. This illustrates what is known as ‘data visualisation’,
described as ‘the process of displaying data/information in graphical charts,
figures and bars’ (Technopedia n.d.). During COVID-19, graphs and info-
graphics were widely used to explain complex concepts and information that
was rapidly changing. We use an infographic from the Australian Government
in Chapter 10. PC Magazine says data visualisation isn’t really as mysterious
as it may seem, even though many users have been reluctant to use the new
tools and technology. ‘It’s really just a general term that applies to any graphic
that explains the significance of a new insight or data set visually rather than
simply numerically’ (Rist 2018). Technically a simple pie chart is data visualisa-
tion. Some of the free access data visualisation tools include Tableau Public and
Tableau Gallery, Google Data Studio and Microsoft Power.
But, of course, not all images come from data. Photographs and video capture
quite different vision and very different experiences to data-driven formats.
For decades images have stopped the world—the moon landing, war atrocities,
human rights movements, political events, sporting moments and so on. And
despite being constantly bombarded with images via social media—yes, we do
love all those puppies and kittens—people are still ready to stop and take notice
of certain ‘great moments in time’. The world was enthralled in March 2019
when the image of New Zealand Prime Minister Jacinda Ardern was projected
onto the world’s tallest building, Dubai’s Burj Khalifa, following terror attacks
at two Christchurch mosques

seven days earlier. The image,
which included the single word
‘Peace’ written in English and
Arabic, featured Ms Ardern
embracing a Muslim woman at
the funeral of those killed in the
shootings. The simple image
was seared into the minds of
people all over the world, illus-
trating the values of tolerance
and forgiveness that Ms Ardern
became known for in the crisis.
The image was tweeted by
Dubai’s Prime Minister Sheikh
Mohammed, in English and
Arabic, reinforcing the inter-
national response. What the
range of images illustrates is Figure 5.5 Photo of New Zealand Prime
that simple photographs, as well Minister Jacinda Ardern projected onto Dubai’s
Burj Khalifa. Source: @HHShkMohd, Twitter.
as complex and ‘manufactured’
images, have a place in telling stories and conveying information and emotion
that resonate with audiences.
Images and video posts by everyday citizens have also become a part of
the co-creation of media by government, corporate and news organisations as
audiences share their photo and video experiences on social networks. News
organisations now regularly use vision from audience members about every-
thing from amazing sunrises to crisis situations because audiences can provide
on-the-spot, relatable content. Crowd sourcing of images is commonly used
by tourism and travel organisations, food and drink companies, festivals, social
protests and so on because it can provide a first-hand ‘feel’ about destinations,
issues and events that brings with it an authority because it is first hand. For
example, Outback Queensland used this approach when it called on Instagram-
mers to post their images of the outback, simply asking people to:
Tag #OutbackQueensland to give us permission to feature your photos
The many beautiful and quirky photographs that were posted now also
appear in Outback Queensland’s blogs and other online media assets. This
approach to content creation and curating is discussed more in Chapter 9.
Vision might rule in multimedia, but audio is also on the rise. Podcasts,
radio and audio books have never been more popular (Edison 2019). While radio
and audio books have a long history of popular use, the podcast is a relative
newcomer to the media world, first launched in 2004 (Watson n.d.). One US
study found that more than half the population in the USA had listened to
podcasts, illustrating how podcasts had ‘crossed into the mainstream’ of media
(Edison 2019). This rise in popularity of the podcast has been attributed to
many causes, including ease of access, mobile capability and the emotional
connection people have to stories. Podcasts are also extremely adaptive:
prevalent in mainstream media, such as the ABC and BBC, widespread in
indie media and also popular with corporates, such as Heineken and General
Motors, for telling owned stories. The range of podcasts is also part of their
appeal, covering just about any subject you can think of—from political satire
and critique, to sport, investigative journalism, true crime, fashion, medita-
tion and business.
Working with journalists and influencers

Those planning to work at the professional interface with media will likely
engage with two important groups of people whose job it is to tell stories
and share news and ideas: journalists and influencers. Journalists are part of
the traditional media interface for strategic communication and PR practi-
tioners, generally working in recognised media organisations like newspapers,
TV, radio and internet-based news. Influencers are a much newer breed.
They are the people who have achieved a strong online following and have
the ability to influence the behaviour or attitudes of others through their
media channels. There are some similarities and differences—a journalist

can be an influencer, although influencers are usually not professional jour-
nalists. Influencers increasingly are paid (or receive products) for mentions or
stories; journalists generally do not (if they are already in a paid media role).
What attracts you to a particular influencer or journalist will be based on
how they connect with a particular audience, share material and get noticed.
Some general advice when you are planning to pitch a story to journalists and
influencers includes:
• know what’s going on in the news

• use interesting research
• have vision, or ideas for vision
• consider their deadlines
• proofread your work
• pitch to the right journalist or influencer
• get to the point quickly.
Locating and connecting with these two groups isn’t too difficult—some
channels work better for journalists, others more so for influencers. You can
approach them directly via their email or social media; through online services
like Sourcebottle; via some specialist PR and communication agencies such
as HooZu and Hello Social (linking influencers to clients); or by using a
recognised media source such as Margaret Gee’s Australian Media Guide or
Telum Media.
Let’s take a closer look at these two groups.
Influencers
When Jenkins talked of convergence culture in 2006, the word ‘influencer’
as we know it today did not exist. While the term is certainly not new—
in fact its original reference has been traced to ancient descriptions in
astrology—Dictionary.com has only listed the term influencer since 2016
(Solomon n.d.). As lexicographer (dictionary writer) Jane Solomon points
out: ‘The word influencer has been used in English since the mid-1600s,
though of course back then it wasn’t a job title’ (Solomon n.d.). Now the
term is used to describe an individual who influences behaviour and attitudes,
often associated with brand associations and the purchasing of products or
Figure 5.6 The way the term ‘influencer’ trended upward after 2017.
services. We looked at the word using Google Trends and found that prior
to 2017 there wasn’t much interest in the word at all, as the screenshot in
Figure 5.6 shows.
‘Influencer’ is reasonably synonymous with other job titles such as
brand ambassador, thought leader, knowledge broker, opinion shaper, taste-
maker, SMI (social media influencer) and expert. If you are really interested
in the number of synonyms, you can check out Power Thesaurus, which
lists 88 synonyms for the word influencer! More important than the title,
however, is what influencers can do for the strategic communication profes-
sional. Influencers are connected. They have large or specifically targeted
online followings. They provide what is often considered ‘authentic’ media
material—although as numbers of influencers have grown they have attracted
criticism for their lack of authenticity. This cohort of media workers is so
varied that communication professionals need to be prepared to do their
homework when seeking an influencer’s endorsement—whether for political
leverage, fashion endorsement or sports following. Influencers have expanded
from an organic concept, in which people posted content and others followed
out of fun, to a thriving business of what is now called ‘branded content’
whereby the influencer is paid for promoted mentions. This is explored in
more detail in Chapter 9.
The story of influencer lil miquela

Meet Lil Miquela (if you haven’t already). In 2018 she was rated as one of the
25 most influential people on the internet by Time Magazine (Schmidt 2018).
Miquela Sousa was launched onto the Instagram scene in 2016 and quickly
generated a strong following, with over 1.5 Instagram followers last count. She
has promoted brands such as Prada and Chanel, lent her support to social
causes such as Black Lives Matter and has launched songs on Spotify. The
19-year-old Brazilian-American model, with perfect skin and a few freckles, is a
major influencer. But her story is a bit different to most influencers—because she
isn’t real. Miquela is a computer-generated avatar, created and ‘managed’ by
a US company called Brud. Wired magazine reported in 2018 ‘CGI “influencers”
[computer-generated influencers] like Lil Miquela are about to flood your feeds’
(Katz 2018). A twist in the Miquela story is that in 2018 she quit her involvement
with Brud—apparently.
Figure 5.7 Lil Miquela’s Instagram profile.
Journalists
The role of the journalist is considerably more established than that of the influ-
encer. Popular culture shows journalists working on newspapers, magazines
or television—think Spotlight, The Post, Almost Famous, Superman! The truth

is, although many journalists still work in these traditional roles, the move
online and to different media formats and platforms means journalists work in
many and varied places and roles. Journalists have evolved into a very
agile and adaptable ‘breed’ and, despite changes and disruption to their
traditional roles, remain a major part of the knowledge economy.
knowledge
They generate their stories via a range of sources; they’ll watch economy
your Twitter feed for good content and may be interested if you
have a story that fits their publication profile. They will appreci-
ate a well-written, newsworthy media release or media pitch sent
to their email, Twitter or via their Messenger channel. They are voracious
watchers, readers and listeners of other media, where they get story ideas, and
they monitor government and civic sectors such as courts, parliament and local
councils, chambers of commerce, museums and public meetings.
Relationships are a traditionally important part of working with journal-
ists. If you have developed a relationship with a journalist in a particular field
of reporting—also known as a ‘round’ (or sometimes called a ‘beat’ which is a
more American term)—such as federal politics, fashion or rugby league, you
will develop a sense of what stories will work for that journalist. This is the
traditional field of media relations: that is, working with journalists to achieve
news media coverage. Media relations is still a core element of strategic commu-
nication. Gaining exposure via the news media brings with it the endorsement
of that media publication or outlet—this has translated into something more
valuable than paid space because the story runs on its own merits. In the
PESO model, this is earned media. Now, however, paid media, via influencers,
competes with journalism for content.
Getting the attention of the media can take perseverence but the benefits can
be rewarding if your story is run (in a favourable way). Forbes (2017) has developed
ten pointers to assist with getting your story noticed and picked up by journalists:
1. Don’t sell. There is no reason to sell a journalist on anything. Your story

should sell itself.
2. Avoid making unsolicited phone calls. Journalists are busy people, so if
you haven’t scheduled a time to talk on the phone, it’s best not to call. Email
them and keep your pitch short and to the point.
3. Be part of trend stories. Brainstorm ideas on significant issues and come

up with stories that tie in to a current trend. Work with your client and
team on this and use that intelligence to provide stories to journalists.
4. Start by understanding journalism. Realistic messages and strong
relationships are essential. Ensure you send the right pitch to the right
reporter, and remember you are working in a competitive environ-
ment. Even with the best relationships, your story must stand on its
own merits.
5. Pitch journalists stories specifically relevant to them. Customised,
grassroots outreach has repeatedly proven itself as the most effective way
to earn media coverage.
6. Stick within your area of expertise. Stay within your area of expertise
and be selective when pitching to journalists.
7. Do your homework. Research which publications reach your target
audience and think about how you can make the journalist’s life easier.
Customise your pitch by referencing previous stories that inspired
your story idea and why it’s meaningful to their audience.
8. Expect anything. Interviews can often go off-topic, so be prepared. It’s
your job to prepare your internal people—those being interviewed—for
the unexpected. Likewise, stories you send out, and social media that is
picked up, may end up bearing no resemblance to how you want your story
to run, especially if your client has a controversial side to them.
9. Serve the readers, not yourself. You have to have a story and something
valuable to share with the audience that is not just a sales pitch for you or
your company. The most read, viewed, shared news usually lacks obvious
branding.
10. Build trust before pitching. Earned media starts with developing the
relationship. You do not just meet a journalist, send them your pitch
and expect results. Before you even get to the pitch, you must develop a
foundation based on the relationship and trust. (Forbes 2017)
Media tools
You might choose to go with a journalist or influencer, or alternatively approach
your audience directly through your owned social media (or a mix of all three).
Using the PESO model, you can determine the best options and mix them
up. A wide range of tools and methods are available to reach your audiences,
which incorporate many of the elements we have looked at in this chapter and
elsewhere in the book: multimedia, storytelling and enabling your audience to
co-create using different channels. Although we cannot examine all of these
in this chapter, we will briefly look at three key media tactics (which are also
included alongside a wide suite of tactics in Chapter 9):
1. social media posts/calendars

2. media releases/alerts
3. media conferences.
In today’s strategic communication environment these are among the best

known and most used of all the media communication tools.
Social media posts/calendars

You need to exercise judgement in how you implement social media messag-
ing. Social media is so ubiquitous that it calls for a strategic and organised
approach, which means coming up with novel and interesting ideas that engage
your audience, using multimedia channels. Social media planning allows you
to spread and diversify your story delivery across different channels and over
time. This means you can plan and coordinate with other departments in your
organisation or consultancy about what’s coming up and where the best stories
can be found. A planning schedule also lets you ‘drip feed’ stories into a very,
very busy media environment.
There are many social media planners that let you organise ahead, but the
important point is that you are organised. Some of the benefits of using a social
media calendar include:
• providing an overview for your team of what content needs to get out there
• making sure you keep up regular posts across a range of channels
• ensuring posts are planned ahead (in case you call in sick or take leave)
• allowing you to double up at busy times and use less urgent posts (like
historic or testimonial posts) at quieter times
• targeting your posts to the channels that reach the people you most need
to reach.
Dietrich points out:
You need to fish where there are fish. In social media terms, that means to be
where your audience and community already talk about you, your competitors,
and industry topics, and engaging with them there. (2018)
She provides the following tips for connecting with a social media audience.
• Search. Take your top ten keywords and search for them on Google and
through a social listening tool such as BuzzSumo. Where do conversa-
tions around those topics occur? Look for specific social media responses,
community sites, news articles and blogs.
• Analyse. Google Analytics can provide some metrics for you. Log on and
look at your referral report. Which social channels send you the most traffic?
• Survey. Conduct an audience survey and ask them to share where they get
their information online and which social channels they use.
Here’s an example of a social media calendar that lists a range of social

media posts across a variety of channels over a one-month period.
Figure 5.8 Social media content calendars let you plan your content distribution over
the month. Source: infographic courtesy of Tess Johnston.
Media releases/alerts
Probably the best known of all media tools, used to connect with the news
media, is the media release. Also called a ‘press’ or ‘news’ release, these announce
the news of the day directly to the news media and other key stakeholders
(such as researchers or government departments). Most large organisations
include media releases on their website, listed under media-dedicated links
such as ‘News’ or ‘Media’. The central rule of producing an effective media
release is to write, where possible, in news style. This means you need to
read and analyse media style so you can pick up the similarities. News stories
strive to answer six basic questions: Who? What? When? Where? Why?
How? (the 5-Ws and H). Ideally, the first four of these will be covered in
the first few paragraphs of a media release. News is usually written using
a style called the inverted pyramid, which prioritises the key points at the
top of the story (at the widest part of the pyramid), followed by the remain-
ing information in descending order of importance. The logic behind this
style is that the newsworthiness of the story is clear from the first paragraph.
From a PR and strategic communication perspective, it means that a well-
written release is more likely to run verbatim or near-verbatim. Quotes are an
important part of a media release, and they should come from someone autho-
rised and senior in your organisation. Some elements of release style include
the following elements:
• one sentence per paragraph

• a catchy headline with a verb in it
• direct quotes
• short and to the point (usually 300–400 words maximum)
• includes contact details at the bottom (this may be you, or whoever is the
PR contact).
Media releases remain an important source of information for public

dissemination. A good place to find excellent examples is on university websites.
An important point to remember about media releases is that they require
you to write clearly, concisely and with a purpose. Due to this, and their
constancy in the field of media relations, they are an important style to master
because they make you focus on two important elements: what’s new and how
to say it concisely.
An alternative form is the media alert—the smaller cousin of the media

release, sometimes also called a media advisory. It is a short, to-the-point
message usually sent out to provide information about an upcoming event or
announcement. For this reason, it has some overlap with an invitation, often set
out using the 5-Ws and H to make its point and purpose very clear.
Media conferences
The media conference (also called a press or news conference or ‘presser’) may
be called for a wide variety of reasons, generally to make a big announcement.
Ideally, in a strategic communication and PR role, you’ll be in a position to
proactively arrange media conferences, with plenty of time to plan and prepare,
and to check that everything is in place. Sometimes, however, a media confer-
ence will be called in haste—for example, to explain a disaster or crisis. All
media conferences are different, so there is no set list of who should be invited
or when to hold them: for instance, a presser called by a state or federal govern-
ment department or emergency service during the bushfires of 2020 will be
different to the many called to update on the COVID-19 pandemic in the same
year; different again to a sporting final like the Australian Open tennis or the
AFL or NBL Grand Final. The invitation list should be sent to journalists and
bloggers/influencers who will be interested in covering the event and, impor-
tantly, to the media outlets that reach your organisation’s target publics.
Media power
The complex and demanding media environment presents a massive amount of
opportunities—it also presents a lot of challenges, such as how to stand out in
the crowd. Beyond this, however, are the negative, even destructive, elements
of the world of media technology. These include:
• the power held by the major media companies
• privacy issues
• data breaches and cyber security
• trolling
• fake news
• hate speech
• addictive media behaviour
• online bullying.
Scholars and those in public office, such as regulators and politicians, have
become increasingly alert to the challenges of online technology and media
usage, and there are new and emerging laws and regulations being developed
and changing all the time. However, the pace at which media is developing and
changing (think of Lil Miquela, for example) is often too quick for the laws
and regulations to keep up. MIT Technology Review reports that ‘[w]e haven’t
come to grips with what is ethical, let alone with what the laws should be, in
relation to technologies such as social media’ (Wadhwa 2014).
The issue of online news production has become one such legal and regu-
latory challenge as media producers have battled with online giants Google,
Facebook (and others) which aggregate their news stories without paying
for them and unfairly compete for the advertising dollar. In April 2020, after
months of trying to negotiate a voluntary code of conduct with Google and
Facebook, the Australian Government decided it would develop a manda-
tory code to cover the ranking of news content, sharing of data and sharing of
revenue generated from news (Haydar, 2020). The proposal, to be developed
by the Australian Consumer and Competition Commission (ACCC) in draft
form for consultation later in 2020, would be enforced through penalties and
sanctions. The move to force the tech giants to pay for Australian news content
was reported to be ‘the world’s toughest crackdown on the unfair market
dominance of digital platforms’ (Scarr 2020).
Also at the centre of much criticism of online media is the notion of true
participation and participatory culture. Critical scholars say the promise that
the internet would bring a form of ‘democratisation’ to online

participation did not occur.
democratisation As Chen points out: ‘The wishful story about how the Internet
was creating a hyper-democratic “participatory culture” obscures
the ways in which it is biased in favour of power’ (2007, n.p.). Such
power rests with the big media organisations, like Google, Amazon
and Facebook, which have access to all the information that is fed into all media,
every day, by all people. That ‘big data’ that is used to make those infographics
and charts we talked about earlier is extremely useful, but it is also problem-
atic. That Google Trends figure earlier in the chapter is based on everyone’s
searches, but the use of our data comes at a price. That price is privacy.
MIT Technology Review point out that gaps in privacy laws have grown
exponentially. While there is a public outcry about government surveillance
of our data, that surveillance ‘pales in comparison when compared to the data
that Google, Apple, Facebook, and legions of app developers are collecting’
(Wadya 2014).
Our smartphones track our movements and habits. Our Web searches reveal
our thoughts. With the wearable devices and medical sensors that are being
connected to our smartphones, information about our physiology and health
is also coming into the public domain. Where do we draw the line on what is
legal—and ethical? (Wadya 2014)
Online behaviour is used to predict future preferences across shopping,

voting, banking, music and movie choices, holiday destinations and many other
parts of life. It is estimated that 35 per cent of what people buy on Amazon
and 75 per cent of what they watch on Netflix is driven by algorithms based
on previous viewing and purchasing behaviour. These algorithms work by
analysing past behaviour (e.g. what you have bought or watched), as well as the
behaviour of others (e.g. what people who bought or watched the same thing
also bought or watched). ‘The key to the success of these algorithms is the
scope of data available. By analysing the past behaviour of similar consumers,
these algorithms are able to make recommendations that are more likely to be
accurate, rather than relying on guess work’ (Pallant 2017, n.p.).
Welcome to the world of machine learning or AI, which, like human intel-
ligence, is pretty impressive—but also flawed. Knight (2017) says people can
be too willing to trust in mathematical models because they believe these will
remove human bias. However, as algorithms replace human processes they are
not held to the same standards and often remain unchecked. As a result, algo-
rithms can be used to decide things like who gets a job interview, who gets
granted parole and who gets a loan—not something you necessarily want left
to a machine (Knight 2017).
Thus, while metrics-driven algorithms provide great opportunities for
the communication and marketing industries in terms of predicting patterns
of behaviour and purchasing, they come with hidden issues. This requires
communication practitioners, who work at the interface of IT and consumer
roles, to keep abreast of what’s going on and to do their best to maintain ethical
practice. Microsoft has developed a simple mnemonic for those working at the
AI interface: FATE (fairness, accountability, transparency, ethics).
Unfortunately, all the data that is stored means, inevitably, that data
breaches sometimes occur, placing the issue of privacy under close scrutiny.
A Facebook breach in September 2018 saw 29 million users’ accounts
impacted as the cyber-attackers used an automated program to move from
one friend to the next (ABC News 2018). Profile details such as birth dates,
employers, education history, religious preference, types of devices used,
pages followed and recent searches and location check-ins were stolen (ABC
2018). The attack was described as ‘a complex interaction of multiple bugs’
at a time when Facebook was already facing multiple government investiga-
tions into its privacy and data-sharing practices (Matsakis & Labowski 2018).
This was said to be ‘a reminder about the dangers posed when a small number
of companies like Facebook . . . are able to accumulate so much personal
data . . . without adequate security measures’ (ABC 2018). This is discussed
further in Chapter 4.
Conclusion
Much has occurred in the decade-and-a-half since Jenkins and others popular-
ised the idea of convergence and media participation. Since then, other media
scholars have chosen different ways of describing media, such as ‘porous’,
‘hybridised’ and ‘interlinked . . . along a continuum’ (Turner 2016, p. 125).
Media scholar Graeme Turner says the media ecology in which we now operate
has been ‘re-invented’ (2016). The idea of true participation has been chal-
lenged, because while much of the world participates in media, it does so at
a price: the price of privacy and relinquishing data to others. Nevertheless,
participation in media is now part of our cultural life. In various ways, audi-
ences have become a part of the media process, not only at the end as a receiver
but often and regularly along the media continuum.
With tools like the smartphone, and with the capacity to engage in online
media in so many ways in this ‘Platform Society’ (van Dijck et al. 2018), the
opportunities for strategic communication are virtually endless. The challenge
for the industry, and for you as a practitioner, will be staying abreast of change,
regulations and laws that emerge; conducting ethical practice where laws may
not yet exist; and being discerning about what media is best for what situation.
Finally, as boundless as it appears to be, the media is only part of the commu-
nication equation. Face-to-face, personalised communication will always have
a place in successful and strategic communication practice. We examine this
elsewhere in the book and look at a broad list of tactic choices in Chapter 9.
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Part 2
Process, planning and

implementation
Chapter 6
research, measurement
and evaluation
To work strategically, communication practitioners must be informed by insights

into the situation and the stakeholders, be accountable for their actions, and
fully understand the impact of those actions. The ability to undertake robust
research and evaluation is a fundamental skill for all strategic communication and
PR practitioners, yet its importance is often overlooked or pushed aside due to
budgetary and time constraints. We have access to more information than ever
before and more tools to help us find and manage that information. However,
this doesn’t mean that the research, measurement and evaluation tasks are any
easier—challenges remain. Research takes more than a quick Google search and
evaluation is much more than counting media mentions or Instagram likes.
When shopping for a new car, a new computer or other significant
purchase, you would most likely spend some time researching and consider-
ing options. You determine a need (or desire) for something new and start by
asking trusted friends, family or colleagues about what they have purchased
and what they think of its form and function. You take stock of your current
situation to determine how much you can afford and what you really need the
new product to be able to do for you. From there, you may do an online search
for more facts, suppliers and costs. And then you may have even more questions
for the salesperson before you commit to the purchase. Very few of us would
simply go down to the first car dealership, hand over a credit card and drive
away in something new. Yet, unfortunately, that is how some organisations and
practitioners approach their communication activities.
151
152 Process, planning and implementation
Without research and evaluation, communication activities are at best

ill-informed, inefficient and ineffective, and at worst dangerous. Communica-
tion that addresses an ill-defined problem, targets the wrong public or delivers
an inappropriate message not only wastes time and money, but could also miss
opportunities for growth, damage the organisation’s reputation or leave people
at risk due to a lack of important information. Communication practitioners
need to have inquiring, curious and sceptical minds—constantly asking ques-
tions and challenging assumptions. In this world of ‘fake news’, the practitioner
must always find and present factual and useful information.
International attention to the need for strong research, measurement and
evaluation in strategic communication practice has been growing in recent
years. Some of this has been spurred on by international agreement to the
Barcelona Declaration of Measurement Principles—voluntary guidelines that
set out expectations for measurement of public relations and communica-
tion (AMEC 2019a). Industry bodies, including the International Association
for Measurement and Evaluation of Communication (AMEC) and national
industry associations around the world, devised the principles in 2010, updating
them in 2015. These principles are displayed in Figure 6.1.
But what do you need to research and how do you do it? This chapter
builds on the Barcelona principles and outlines some of the key issues within
research, measurement and evaluation facing practitioners today. It describes
the key phases of research and how these inform the planning and implemen-
tation of initiatives that will deliver on the strategic intent of the organisation.
The chapter will then look at different types of research and the broad range of
techniques and metrics you can use to inform all stages in the communication
process. It finishes by providing an overview of key technological developments
used by contemporary practitioners, some of which are still in their infancy but
have huge potential for the industry.
What and when to research

Strategic communication and PR can be conceptualised as a process that, once
set in motion, is ongoing. Research is essential to this process—whether to
inform the situation and planning (formative research), to track the progress
of a program as it is implemented or to evaluate the achievements of the
Research, measurement and evaluation 153
Figure 6.1 Barcelona Declaration of Measurement Principles 2.0. Source: adapted

from AMEC (2019a).
communication activity (summative or evaluative research). As the communi-

cation and research processes align they also become circular, through the use
of the evaluation of previous communication strategy outcomes to inform the
development of new programs.
One of the most effective ways of viewing the research process is through
inputs, outputs, outcomes and impacts. These terms are used in a range of
communication and public relations measurement and evaluation models,
such as that of the PRIA (2017; Macnamara & Gregory 2018). Inputs deter-
mine what goes into the project or program; outputs are the actual elements of
the program or campaign, such as an event or a newsletter; outcomes are the
results of those outputs on the target public, audience or stakeholder group;
and impacts refer to the intended and unintended impacts of the campaign
on the organisational goals and on society. In order to determine what inputs
and outputs should be, and what outcomes and impact actually are, strategic
communication practitioners conduct research.
This input–output–outcome–impact framework can be aligned with a stra-
tegic communication planning, implementation and evaluation process that
will be discussed in Chapter 8. This provides a clearer picture of what needs
to be researched and when that research should be undertaken. When those
decisions are made, the practitioner can choose the most appropriate research
methods and techniques to collect the information. These relationships are
demonstrated in Figure 6.2. More detail on the planning process within this
diagram is given in Chapter 8, Figure 8.1.
Figure 6.2 Integrated planning and research cycle.

Input research
Input research provides the communication practitioner with a practical road
map. It can indicate what problems or opportunities actually exist, what the
perceptions and beliefs of the relevant publics are, and what tools or methods of
communication would be most effective in helping the organisation achieve its
objectives with those publics. Input research thus provides a basis for strategy
and planning.
At the start of the process there is a need to gather as much information as
possible on the issue or situation to be researched. Therefore, the vital first step
in research is to clarify the organisation’s objectives and the role that communi-
cation can play in achieving them.
Exploratory research techniques are then used to collect all relevant infor-
mation on the situation, the organisation and the publics. This reveals gaps in
the information at hand and indicates to the practitioner or the organisation
what other information is needed. Research gathered from existing sources is
known as secondary research, but additional, new research, known as primary
research, may also be required.
Useful information can be obtained by investigating the factors that
influence the current situation both within and outside the organisation.
Internally, organisational documentation can shed light on strategic intent,
the outcomes of previous communication activities, important stakeholders
and the resources available. The PESTLE framework, discussed in Chapter 3,
can be used to assist in the constant environmental scanning that will identify
external political, economic, social, technological, legal and environmental
factors relevant to the organisation and its operations. For example, informa-
tion can be sought about proposed legislation or the introduction of a new
technology which impacts on the current situation. Consider, for instance,
the objective of Osteoporosis Australia in increasing the bone health of the
Australian population. Input research could uncover that vitamin D deficiency
is a significant issue, that the success of anti-cancer campaigns has reduced
the public’s understanding of the need for sunlight exposure in supplement-
ing vitamin D levels, and that young mothers are a high-risk group. This
could then result in a campaign to increase levels of awareness among certain
target publics.
The opinions and attitudes currently held by the organisation’s key publics,
such as the young mothers above, also need to be identified. Questions a
researcher should ask include:
• Who are the target publics?

• What are their characteristics?
• Why are they important to us?
• Where do we find them?
• How do we reach them?
• How active or involved are these publics relative to our interests?
• What do we need to consider in our message design?
Many resources are available for data gathering in this explor-

atory phase and, with developments in technology, the collection
organisational
listening and analysis of data have become more accessible. A culture of
organisational listening needs to be established and processes
established to monitor the available information.
Internal and external stakeholders should be given opportunities to provide
information about their needs and potentially be involved in decision-making
about the direction of the campaign. Blogs, social networking sites and news
media coverage can be valuable sources of information about what issues are
being discussed, who is engaged with the issues and what opinions are being
expressed. The use of RSS (Really Simple Syndication) readers or aggrega-
tors allows researchers to monitor and sort information from many websites,
blogs and podcasts in realistic timeframes. Google News can be searched for
trending topics, but it can also be used as a relatively easy way to track discus-
sions on blogs, by using the drop-down Tools menu.
The information collected during the input research is then analysed

to determine priorities and inform the objectives of the campaign. Using a
framework such as a SWOT (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, threats)

analysis gives some focus to the data collection. Further development research
(which may be formative or exploratory) may be required to determine the best
time to launch a program, the most effective communication messages and
the costs involved in implementing the program. All of these initial research
efforts indicate what must be done to rectify, improve or maintain the situation,
but they also allow the practitioner to set a reference point, or benchmark, to
measure any change after the program is conducted. This type of input research
contributes to the later evaluation of programs.
An important point to note is that input research does not end with the
development of a plan. Constant monitoring of the situation continues as
the plan is implemented and tracking research can be used to inform changes
to the campaign in real-time.
Output research
During the output phase, research can reflect on the delivery of messages,
allowing the practitioner to fine-tune or modify the plan as it is implemented in
order to achieve greater success with outcomes. Output research gathers infor-
mation on the appropriateness and quality of the messages and the activities
that can be fed back into the strategy development or implementation phases
to improve the campaign.
Information sought during the output phase of the research could also
include quantitative data such as the number of messages sent to the media
and the number of activities designed, the messages placed and activi-
ties implemented, and who received the messages and participated in the
activities (particularly important in countries with multicultural populations).
Continuing the osteoporosis example given above, output research could test
the interpretations of the messages to determine the need for refinement, as
well as gather statistics on how many times the messages appear in women’s
magazines or lifestyle programs.
Output research checks that the channels of communication, such as radio,
television, newspapers, magazines, the internet and social media, brochures,
workshops, community meetings and viral videos—in other words, the total
communication mix—were correctly chosen and designed for the particular
campaign or program. This type of information is useful for measuring activ-

ities but should not be used to justify the effectiveness of a program. It may,
to some extent, provide an organisation with data with which to analyse the
efficiency of activities and examine the business processes within the public
relations department; however, it is important not to confuse activity with
achievement of the communication goals.
Outcome research
Outcome research measures and evaluates what the outputs have achieved
in terms of a change in the awareness, understanding, attitude or behaviour
of the target publics (Watson & Noble 2014). Evaluation should reflect the
size and direction of that change from an agreed and predetermined bench-
mark. It not only indicates the level of success or failure of the program or
campaign but can also demonstrate how effective planning and communication
have been.
In order to undertake outcome research effectively, evaluation criteria must
be established at the beginning of the planning stage, prior to implementation
of the program. The criteria should be dictated by the program’s objectives,
which must be set in observable, measurable and time-specific terms. For
example, using the osteoporosis example, evaluation criteria may be set at
achieving a 20 per cent growth in awareness among women aged 18–45 in a
twelve-month period. Measurement tools and methods used to set a bench-
mark prior to the campaign launch can then be replicated at the end of the
program to determine whether the outcomes have been achieved. This will
ensure that the most appropriate techniques are used to gather information
and that the research measures the most important aspects, providing useful and
relevant feedback on the success of the program.
Outcome research also measures the extent to which the original
campaign objectives were met, providing a sound basis from which to begin
planning future campaigns. It is crucial that evaluation findings be used and
fed back into the program on a continual basis (Watson & Noble 2014, p. 58).
Accurate documentation of the processes and decisions undertaken through-
out a campaign assists in the evaluation of current, and the development of
future, programs.
Impact research
In more recent research about measurement and evaluation, the importance of
measuring the impact of the communication activity on the organisation and
on society has been highlighted (Buhmann & Likely 2018; Macnamara 2018;
Macnamara & Gregory 2018). While the awareness, attitude or action of the
publics may have been influenced by the campaign (outcomes), the signifi-
cance of this to the organisation also needs to be assessed. In other words,
did this improve reputation, increase the financial standing of the organisa-
tion, or create efficiencies and savings? At the same time, did the outcomes
have a positive effect on society, such as resolving a community problem or
improving wellbeing? While some of these impacts may be easy to measure
(e.g. organisational cost savings), others may require more detailed qualitative
research to assess.
Informing and measuring Gumtree’s PR success

The Head of Communication at Gumtree UK, the online marketplace, wanted
to improve the measurement of the company’s growing public relations efforts
and ‘be able to demonstrate value to senior leaders’ (Cision 2020). To do this,
Gumtree partnered with Cision Insights, a communication agency that offers
a variety of services including measurement and media intelligence.
Using a range of techniques, often engaging other specialist research
companies, exploratory research informed the development of communica-
tion activities to build awareness and trust in the company’s offerings, develop
its reputation and increase traffic to its website. Constant monitoring of percep-
tions, attitudes and communication activities played a significant part in
delivering a comprehensive program with outcomes that delivered on all its
objectives.
Some of the techniques undertaken included:
Input research
• A reputation tracking survey (built by Cision) targeting both consumers and
business partners.
• Market research to identify consumer attitudes, including the use of UK Pulse

(an independent survey) to identify appropriate publications to reach key
audiences.
• Development of an outreach program to identify key journalists and
influencers.
• The use of media monitoring as an ‘early warning system’ for issues
and crises identification and management.
Output research
• Media analysis of coverage generated by public relations efforts to identify
general themes as well as ‘influential advocates and detractors’.
• Tracking of website usage data and its relationship to media coverage.
Outcome research
• A campaign tracking survey to measure levels of outcomes such as aware-
ness, sentiment, exposure and alignment with the company mission.
While there was no formal measurement of impact (something that Gumtree

intends to address in future projects), the measurement of outcomes showed a
positive effect on the business overall. Additionally, the company’s partnerships
with the RSPCA, cybercrime authorities and the police to reduce the unethical
practice of puppy farming could also be a positive impact on society.
Figure 6.3 Fighting puppy farms through strategic communication research and
evaluation. Photo by Berkay Gumustekin, Unsplash.
Research methods
As mentioned above, an organisation can obtain the information it seeks
through both formal and informal research, using qualitative and quantita-
tive methods. In addition, the practitioner may make use of primary research,
which is original research conducted by or for an organisation; or second-
ary research, which utilises others’ findings or material. Within all these
methods, a wide range of techniques is available to the researcher to gather
information.
Formal and informal research

Formal research is a scientific approach to answering questions. While it is
relatively expensive and time-consuming, objectivity, credibility and reliability
can be achieved when it is conducted properly. Formal research uses prescribed
and established methods to give insight and depth to issues and has a high
prediction value. Organisations will sometimes commission research experts to
conduct this type of research rather than using less qualified in-house personnel.
Using a step-by-step procedure, formal research seeks to answer a key question
or respond to a problem. For example, research could explore the attitudes of
females aged 14–21 towards binge drinking by undertaking a systematic survey
of a scientifically chosen sample.
Informal research has no agreed rules and procedures and is usually cheaper
and more immediate than formal research. As informal research is subjective, it
does not offer the prediction and reliability value of formal research (Newsom
et al. 2013) and, as a rule, cannot be replicated. As a complement to formal
research it plays an important role in the communication profession and other
sectors, especially in the early stages of exploratory research. Many informal
research techniques can offer insight into various issues in strategic communi-
cation and PR and can provide context when more formal research techniques
are unavailable. For example, an initial search for information through a search
engine like Google could identify key issues and publics to be targeted for
further research or program planning. Such a search might reveal similar
studies that have been completed and identify key interest groups with a stake
in the issue being addressed.
Qualitative and quantitative research

Formal research is undertaken mainly using qualitative and quantitative
methods. Each has its own characteristics and provides various types of infor-
mation and outputs. They can be used individually or combined in a research
program, depending on the type of information required. If the data sought are
numerical, the use of quantitative research is generally appropriate; if the data
are verbal or more descriptive, the methodology will usually be qualitative. An
important difference between the two approaches is that quantitative research
can easily be replicated, while qualitative research cannot. Generally speaking,
quantitative research addresses issues of how much, while qualitative research
addresses issues of why.
Qualitative research is descriptive and informative, placing emphasis on
the analysis and synthesis of information when exploring a new phenomenon
or probing more deeply into an existing issue. Sample sizes are usually small
and therefore the results of the research are not typically claimed to be repre-
sentative of a whole population. Qualitative research is ‘richer in meaning
and detail’ than quantitative data gathering (Babbie 2016, p. 27) and, while
it may seek answers to specific research questions, it is also open to finding
additional information and new insights. In strategic communication and
PR, qualitative research may be used as exploratory research conducted to
help plan a campaign or understand its outcomes. For example, it could be
used to discover the reasons why people do or do not conserve energy within
their homes.
Quantitative research is used to validate a situation; to confirm or refute
beliefs, thoughts, feelings or opinions that an organisation already holds on a
specific issue but has not substantiated. In this sense it is confirmatory research.
Often undertaken through surveys, the data gathered are usually based on and
analysed using statistical formulae. Such work may be conducted by profes-
sionals who are trained and experienced researchers, as question construction,
survey sample selection and mathematically sound interpretation of data are
crucial to achieving accurate information.
A mixed research approach combines both qualitative and quantitative
techniques, drawing on the strengths of each to gain greater insight into the
data gathered. When used in the same research task, qualitative techniques can
be used to explore an issue, with more quantitative techniques following up to
confirm numbers. Alternatively, qualitative methods can be used after quantita-

tive research in order to delve more deeply into meanings behind the statistics.
Table 6.1 shows the most common relationships between each of these
methods and techniques. The table is not intended to be definitive but acts
as a guide to the breadth of techniques available. While they are classified in
this table as informal or formal, qualitative or quantitative, the boundaries are
Table 6.1 Research methods and techniques
Formal Informal
Qualitative Environmental monitoring
Analysis of existing data Analysis of information from:
Analysis of feedback Archives
Audits of communication and social Case studies
media Diaries
Content analysis Electronic databases
Ethnographic studies Expert review
Focus groups Interviews (unstructured)
In-depth interviews Libraries
Organisational culture study Panel discussions
Quantitative and qualitative Testimonials
Internet and social media analytics
Media content analysis
Social media analysis
Quantitative
Media metrics (circulation,
readership, viewers)
Web statistics (views, clicks)
Surveys
Audience analysis
Pre-testing (messages and tactics)
Readership studies and statistics on
distribution
Benchmark studies
Readability studies
Records and databases (e.g. incoming
phone calls, chatbot interactions
and other messages and complaints)
blurred and may shift depending on how the techniques are employed. For
example, surveys are frequently statistical and therefore quantitative; however,
open-ended questions that are then analysed and interpreted could take a more
qualitative approach. A research plan will not be limited to one method or
technique but will use a range of tools, depending on the desired outcomes and
accuracy level, the timeframe and the budget.
Data collection and analysis techniques

Once a general method has been selected, the communication and PR researcher
needs to consider which techniques will achieve the agreed research objec-
tives. Even when resources are limited, the range of options available ensures
that some level of research is always possible. Selection of techniques should
therefore take into consideration not only the objectives, but also the time,
budget and skills available. The PRIA Measurement and Evaluation Framework
(PRIA 2017) provides a useful and detailed implementation matrix that aligns
methods that can be used to address each stage in the research and evaluation
process. The matrix also offers ‘metrics and milestones that can apply’, giving
a clearer picture of what can be measured (PRIA 2017). Some of the most used
research techniques are discussed below.
Surveys
Surveys are frequently used research techniques in strategic communication
and PR. They involve giving a standardised questionnaire to a selected group of
people, chosen to represent a larger research population. They provide a conve-
nient way of gathering data about the target publics’ knowledge, expectations,
attitudes, opinions and beliefs and are administered through questionnaires.
Surveys can be used to set benchmarks before a campaign as they can be easily
replicated in the evaluation phase to assess the level of change and measure the
outcomes and impact of the activity.
A scientifically constructed sample using random probability sampling
techniques will enable generalisations to be drawn from the results. In prob
ability sampling, the total population is known and there is an equal chance
of any member being selected in the sample. For example, the population
may be first-year students at a specific university with a smaller sample being
generated by a program that randomly selects 500 students for surveying. Non-
probability methods are used when the total population is difficult to define
and the researcher, for various reasons, subjectively selects a sample for study.
For example, the desired total population may be 18- to 25-year-old females,
but for speed and convenience the researcher selects a sample of 50 students
from a single university class. As such, these methods are more subjective in
their approach and results cannot not be presented as a true reflection of the
wider population; however, this type of research will still offer useful insights
into attitudes and behaviours.
Communication and PR practitioners should understand the core concepts
of this type of research and be able to undertake simple surveys. However, a
systematic, precise approach and subsequent analysis often requires a profes-
sional pollster or research company. Professional research organisations such
as Colmar Brunton (www.colmarbrunton.com.au) and Australian Survey
Research (https://aussurveys.com) can assist organisations with the design
and implementation of surveys and other research tools, as well as providing
detailed analysis of the data gathered.
Online questionnaires are preferred for many surveys and can be delivered
via websites, blogs and social networking sites. Additional costs can be encoun-
tered in software development, but online surveys are generally viewed as more
cost-effective than other methods, and low-cost tools that are easy to adapt
are increasingly available. For example, SurveyMonkey (www.surveymonkey.
com) provides a basic service at no cost or more advanced capabilities for a
fee. This is probably the most popular current easy research tool, with around
40 million customers at last count (Pickavance & Turner 2019). There are
many survey tool options available, including:
• SurveyMonkey
• AskNicely
• Formstack
• SurveyGizmo
• Google Forms
• Qualtrics.
The tools vary in their complexity and functionality and typically have
some form of interface with Facebook, Twitter or QR codes, as well as email
and websites (Pickavance & Turner 2019).
While the speed of response is good for online surveys, problems can be
encountered with the technical capability of the audience, response quality,
privacy issues, viruses and accuracy of sampling. Despite these limitations,
online delivery remains popular, as other methods of delivering surveys have
their own challenges. The popularity of the telephone survey is waning, with
response rates limited due to factors such as competition in the telemarketing
sector and spam regulations. Face-to-face surveys may result in higher response
rates but are costly and labour-intensive. Depending on your research needs,
small surveys, such as those that you complete in a store when you sign up for
membership, may provide useful data.
Questionnaire design can impact the accuracy of the results. Closed-ended
questions provide the respondent a list of answers from which to choose, while
in open-ended questions the respondent is asked to give an answer that requires
some comment. Scales allow respondents to fit their answers into a quantifi-
able category. Various techniques are available, such as the Likert scale, which
requires the respondent to select from a range of answers from ‘strongly agree’
to ‘strongly disagree’. See Figure 6.4 for examples of differently structured
questions in a survey.
Interviews
In-depth interviews, structured or semistructured, are conducted with specifi-
cally chosen people or samples within the target public, using questions that are
generally pre-tested and asked of all respondents, requiring detailed explanation
in response. They give the practitioner insight into the respondents’ attitudes,
beliefs and actions regarding an issue or as a result of program messages and
activities. Due to the time-consuming nature of interviews, sample populations
are significantly smaller than those reached by questionnaires. While they
could be used to gain information from broad publics, they are particularly
Figure 6.4 Example of a questionnaire using open- and closed-ended questions,

using SurveyMonkey.
useful to gauge specialist opinion from key industry or sector leaders, such
as school principals on directions in education, or judges on how the media
represents justice issues.
Focus groups
Focus groups, a form of qualitative research, are popular in communication
research. They typically consist of groups of eight to twelve individuals who
share similar characteristics. The interviewer or facilitator moves the discus-
sion in the necessary direction while avoiding irrelevant discussion and without
imposing their own views on the group. Focus group facilitators are adept at
ensuring that all members of the group are heard rather than allowing the dis
cussion to be hijacked by a vocal minority. Focus group discussion enables the
practitioner to collect preliminary information from the target audience about
message comprehension and acceptance. This technique can be used for various
purposes, including pilot studies, pre-testing of key messages and evaluating
changes in attitudes or knowledge in the target audience. For example, focus
groups are used by politicians to test and inform political messages, advertising
and image-building strategies before, during and after political campaigning.
Environmental monitoring
Trends that may affect an organisation can be identified and systematically moni-
tored to assess whether they threaten its successful functioning. Scanning and
tracking are environmental monitoring processes. Scanning involves ongoing
observation of general trends in the environment, while tracking concerns the
constant monitoring of specific opportunities or threats in the environment that
affect organisations. Monitoring the content of online newsgroups, chatrooms,
blogs, websites and social networks can identify the views of others, providing
information to inform program development or evaluation. Online tools and
methods for scanning and tracking the environment include those that can be
used in-house at low cost, and others that can be outsourced, such as:
• Google Trends
• Google Alerts
• tracking Twitter and Instagram hashtags
• Brandwatch
• Mention
• Rapid Miner.
Organisations can also examine responses to their own online activity, such
as measuring page views, time onsite, bookmarks and search engine effective-
ness. Debate about what should and should not be measured is ongoing, with
techniques constantly being developed (see the International Association of
Measurement and Evaluation of Communication). Proprietary tools, such as
Facebook Insights, are specific to each social media platform, whereas Google
Analytics can be used across many platforms to gather information such as
content, conversion, and social and advertising analytics. Technology compa-
nies such as Salesforce and Hootsuite offer social media monitoring platforms
that assist practitioners in the management of social media posts and include
measurement and evaluation functions.
Monitoring the news media establishes the extent of coverage of an organi-
sation’s messages, with an emphasis on reach (the total number of target public
members exposed to the message) and frequency (the number of times the
target public was exposed to the same message). The formality of this technique
can range from detailed, using complex database management techniques, to
informal, such as a collection of press clippings. There are numerous commer-
cial providers of this service. Two of the largest are iSentia and Meltwater, which
search print, radio, television, internet and social media, providing reports to
clients on the coverage of both their organisation and issues relevant to their
operations. Media monitoring informs an organisation of what has been covered
in the media, measuring some of the outputs of a public relations effort; however,
for a more detailed evaluation, a content analysis should also be undertaken.
Content and sentiment analysis

The raw data collected through this monitoring of third-party online activity
and organisational and news media activity then needs to be examined in more
depth. The value of the information extends beyond measuring how many
times an organisation is mentioned, or how many ‘likes’ it achieves, and instead
lies in the type and quality of the coverage. Changes in statistics can be tracked
over time, revealing trends, but the content should also be examined in more
depth. Content analyses enable researchers to identify and examine themes
and trends in information gathered through any of the research methods, but
particularly through environmental monitoring.
Practitioners systematically code and quantify pictorial and verbal content
of printed or transcribed material. Close attention is given to analysing the
content and tone of media coverage and the reporting of key messages. For
example, a long-standing practice of news media analysis has involved cate-
gorisation of coverage as positive, neutral or negative for the organisation.
Originally performed manually, software is now available that can automatically
process large amounts of data using artificial intelligence (see the discussion on
AI later in this chapter). Sentiment analysis can also be performed on many
forms of internet and social media content gathered during the monitoring
process, including review sites and customer feedback. Some of the tools and
services for monitoring also provide sentiment analysis functions (such as
Hootsuite Insights).
News and social media analysis can also be outsourced or conducted
in-house. Research companies can undertake thorough analysis and report-
ing of many forms of media; for example, products such as MediaPortal and
AAP’s Newscentre provide comprehensive analyses of all forms of new
and traditional media. Organisations can also conduct their own analysis with
free or purchased software applications or develop their own proprietary systems
of analysis.
Communication audits
Communication audits use a range of research tools to evaluate the effec-
tiveness of an organisation’s internal and external means of communication,
examining factors such as channels of communication, messages, stakeholder
satisfaction and the communication structure and/or ethos of the organisation.
Surveys, interviews, focus groups and analysis of corporate documentation are

some of the tools used to perform a range of research tasks, such as:
• corporate communication audits, designed to assess the position and function

of the organisation’s communication department and its operations
• readership studies, designed to measure the number of people in the target
public who read organisational publications and remember the information
read
• content analysis, designed to measure how the media handles news and
other information about the organisation
• readability studies, which measure the ease with which the target public
reads all written communications from the organisation.
Case studies
Case studies investigate situations within their real-world context to produce
a depth of understanding that is not always available using other research
methods. Investigating a single or small number of cases to understand the
complexities of their unique circumstances can provide insights about, or an
evaluation of, an event or phenomenon (Yin 2018). Data is gathered from
multiple sources, including through observation, interviews, archival records,
documents and physical artefacts (Yin 2018). Sacrificing breadth for depth
of research, case studies are particularly useful in providing examples of best
practice in communication (Watson & Noble 2014, pp. 42–44).
Advertising value equivalents—a note

Advertising value equivalents, or AVEs, place a monetary value on the media
coverage obtained by an organisation by calculating what the space or time
would have cost in advertising terms. The Barcelona Principles (AMEC
2019a), and many industry associations around the world, actively discourage
the use of AVEs; however, they are still requested by some senior managers
seeking a quantitative measure of the communication effort. The communi-
cation industry argues that AVEs are not an accurate methodology for various
reasons, including:
• They measure cost rather than value, inaccurately equating advertising and
editorial publicity.
• They lack analysis as to whether the coverage was positive, neutral or

negative.
• They use inaccurate and misleading advertising rates and multipliers.
(AMEC 2019b; Macnamara 2017)
Research metrics
So, what can be measured?
In terms of news and social media coverage, the PRIA’s Media & Social Media
Content Analysis Guidelines (PRIA n.d.) provides templates to guide the record-
ing of activities and outputs. It suggests recording ‘the reach of each item,
a rating for tone and a rating for the achievement of five qualitative criteria
of their choice’. Those qualitative criteria should be selected in accordance
with the objectives of the activity. The guidelines also specify the need for
consistent and transparent use of the measures of reach (audience and reader-
ship figures) and tone (how the subject of the article or segment is characterised)
to ensure valid replicability of measures over time.
The PRIA Evaluation Implementation Matrix (PRIA 2017) and the AMEC
taxonomy (AMEC 2019c), both developed by Professor Jim Macnamara,
provide a more detailed list of possible metrics, each aligned with the various
phases of research and the methods that can be used to obtain the results. Key
metrics can be seen in Table 6.2.
These metrics are suitable for a range of news, organisational and social
media. Social media measurement has attracted a great deal of attention in
recent years due to the relative ease of recording statistics on these plat-
forms. Johnston and Rowney (2018, p. 125) present a useful categorisation of
social media and website metrics, emphasising the need to choose metrics
that align with campaign objectives. They classify the metrics in the follow-
ing manner:
• Common metrics: followers, reach, impressions and sentiment

• Engagement metrics: shares/retweets, mentions, comments, likes
• Consumption metrics: page views, users, sessions, average time on page,
pages per session, bounce rate
• Conversion metrics: conversions, downloads, form completions.
Table 6.2 Key metrics for each stage of the research process
Inputs Activities Outputs Outcomes Impact

SMART Number Reach (e.g. Recall rates Targets met
(specific, of media audited Likes/ Customer/
measurable, releases circulation, follows/ employee
attainable, issued ratings) shares retention
relevant, Number Impressions Awareness Cost savings
time-bound) of news Share of voice levels Reduced
objectives conferences Tone/ Inquiry rates health costs
KPIs Number of sentiment Registrations Positive
Benchmarks web pages Event Subscribers public
Audience posted attendance Positive opinion
needs Numbers of Click comments Public
Channel publications, throughs Customer/ support
preferences events, Views employee Increase in
awards, etc. Cost per satisfaction wellbeing
click/view/ Trust/ Policy
impression reputation approval
ratings
Reduced
criticism
Endorsements
Sign-ups
Source: adapted from PRIA Evaluation Implementation Matrix (PRIA 2017).
Each of these metrics is also defined in The Dictionary of Public Relations

Measurement and Research (Stacks & Bowen 2016). This is a useful reference for
clarifying any terms used in research and evaluation.
Big data and artificial intelligence

The internet and social media have brought with them a significant ease in the
collection and analysis of data. Big data, AI and machine learning (ML) are
terms that we hear more and more frequently. But what are they, and how do
they affect the research and evaluation efforts of the strategic communication
practitioner? We’ll need to start with some basic concepts.
All research will produce data, but what makes it ‘big’? Three factors:
volume, variety and velocity (Oracle Australia n.d). Technology has allowed us
to collect large quantities of data from a wide variety of sources, with greater
speed than ever before. But the greater quantity and complexity of that data
creates a need for specialist techniques and tools to draw valuable and accurate
information in a timely manner. Many of the internet and social media plat-
forms use technologies, such as those used by Facebook Insights, in their
in-built analytics functions, and similar technologies sit behind Siri, Alexa
and ‘Hey Google’, using huge volumes of user information to improve search
functions and target advertising more effectively.
We can consider AI an umbrella term covering a number of technologies.
AI itself is not a new concept. In a general sense, it refers to the way that
computers are programmed to undertake tasks that could be considered ‘smart’,
making decisions based on the information (or data) that is fed into them.
ML is one aspect of AI, in which algo-
rithms are adjusted based on the data
that is being processed. The more
data that is fed in, the more refined
the algorithms become, producing
more precise outputs (Marr 2016).
Natural Language Processing
(NLP) uses ML to enable computers
to analyse, interpret and manipulate
language in the form of written and
speech data (SAS 2019). Themes
in the language can be identified,
providing the communication prac-
titioner with the ability to summarise
and infer trends in large amounts
of data. Other examples of the
use of NLP include online transla-
tion tools (such as Google Translate) Figure 6.5 AI, such as that used in Google
and language generation capabilities Mini, is being used for communication
such as those used by social media research. Photo by Charles Devulio,
bots (Marr 2019). Unsplash.
While some professions are concerned about the potential for machines
to take over their work, there are great advantages in that ‘AI will help
PR [and strategic communication] companies process their data at a rapid
speed, improving how PR companies perform their services’ (Whitaker 2017).
For example,
Royal Bank of Scotland uses text analytics, an NLP technique, to extract import-
ant trends from customer feedback in many forms. The company analyzes data
from emails, surveys and call center conversations to identify the root cause of
customer dissatisfaction and implement improvements. (SAS 2019)
It is now standard practice for organisations to gather data through their

loyalty programs to inform their community building and relationship manage-
ment. For example, Sephora’s customer relationship management (CRM)
strategy centres on learning as much as possible about customers and bringing
them together around Sephora products. This combines Sephora’s key aim of
selling make-up with creating an online community where customers discuss
beauty products and share advice. At last count, the loyalty program had over
10 million members (Fanning 2019).
For the communication practitioner, the technology can provide more
informed strategy, research, planning and issues, risk and crises management.
For example, NLP could be used in input research for issues management to
search news coverage, scrutinise political speeches and examine social media
posts to gain an understanding of who is taking what perspective on an issue.
In a crisis, the real-time analysis of data can assist in quickly determining how
stakeholders are managing the situation and what their information needs are.
NLP can be used to conduct a sentiment analysis of large amounts of data—for
example, as part of output research a Twitter feed or hashtag could be moni-
tored over a period to judge whether the sentiment is positive or negative,
providing intelligence that leads to changes in messaging as required. Software
and services such as IBM Cognos and IBM Watson Studio Desktop can easily
bring AI capabilities into the organisation.
What big data, AI, ML, NLP and other technological developments
provide is a new depth to research and evaluation in strategic communication
that can significantly benefit the robustness of business intelligence and thereby
strengthen the standing of the profession. According to Kerry Sheehan, the 2020
Chair of the the Chartered Institute of Public Relations (CIPR) Artificial Intelli-
gence Panel (#AIinPR) in the UK, the benefits of this technology include:
• improved decision-making
• greater understanding of stakeholders and their motivations
• more informed and effective storytelling
• increased productivity in content creation, planning and reporting
• competitive advantage. (Waddington 2019)
For all the hype about these immense technological developments, however,
there continues to be a significant need for human-based analysis. A study
conducted by the CIPR in 2018 predicted that, by 2023, ‘38% of public rela-
tions skills could be complemented or replaced by AI . . . but key human traits,
like empathy, trust, humour and relationship building, cannot be automated’
(O’Neill 2018). Warning of the limitations of automated analysis, Comcowich
argues that ‘media analysis requires evaluation of subject, positioning, messag-
ing, and issues—evaluations that only well-trained human analysts can perform
with an acceptable level of provision’ (Comcowich 2019). The challenge is that
the limits of technology are far from being reached and the future remains
unknown. The contemporary practitioner must be competent in data manage-
ment, keep abreast of the technological developments and know what services
to employ (e.g. in-house or outsourced) when situations arise.
AI
A study titled The Effects of AI on the Professions: A Literature Repository was
published by the CIPR in the UK in 2020. This review marks an important turning
point in the awakening of the communication industry to the impacts AI
will have on the work being delivered and the skills required. It highlights the
need for thorough exploration of workforce issues, education and training,
communication ethics and the ‘organisational and societal role that public
relations professionals will have in the future’ (Gregory & Virmani 2020, p. 9).
Accompanying the report is a literature repository containing approximately
170 reports, books, articles and videos on the impact of AI on the professions,
which not only informed the study but provides easy access to information on
the topic for both practitioners and academics.
Research organisations
As outlined in this chapter, research requires considerable expertise, which may
sometimes be beyond the level of knowledge of the communication practi-
tioner. In those instances, there are many private and public organisations in
Australia and New Zealand that can undertake research in support of an organ-
isation’s communication and public relations activity. The key is to ensure that
those contracting the services of specialists can clearly articulate the research
need and assess the quality of the services being provided.
The Australian Social and Market Research Society, the Association of
Market and Social Research Organisations and the Research Association New
Zealand publish directories that list and describe the services supplied by
companies and independent researchers. Filters can be applied to search for
expertise in research methods such as focus groups and surveys, or researchers
that specialise in specific tasks such as employee satisfaction surveys, corporate
reputation measurement, market segmentation and website evaluation.
Conclusion
This chapter has shown that there is a clear need for research and evaluation in
the establishment and completion of communication activities and campaigns.
But, in doing so, it also shows the complexity involved and skills required to
do this research effectively. With so much information now available, there is a
need to be careful and selective in accessing and using data to ensure campaigns
are well informed and accurately evaluated. So, in research and evaluation, as in
any other activity undertaken by communication practitioners, responsible and
ethical practice is paramount. The practitioner needs to guard against decep-
tion, confidentiality issues and dishonesty in the collection of data, ensuring
that research processes are transparent to all involved. In the analysis and
presentation of results, it is important to ensure the focus remains on the stated
objectives. The same pool of techniques and metrics can be used across all
the various stages: inputs–outputs–outcomes–impacts. Selection of the most
appropriate tools should consider how the objectives can be measured but will
also depend on the research culture within the organisation, the available time
and budget and the requirements of the project. The increasing availability
of raw and big data sets can be both advantageous and overwhelming, but we
need to be smart about how to draw useful information out of them in the most
expedient way. Quality of research and evaluation information will usually be
more valuable than quantity. The challenge for strategic communication and
public relations practitioners continues.
Acknowledgement: This chapter uses sections published previously in Glenny, L.

& Singh, R. (2014). Research and Evaluation, in J. Johnston & M. Sheehan
(eds), Public Relations Theory and Practice (4th edn). Crows Nest, NSW: Allen and
Unwin. The work of Dr Raveena Singh in the original chapter is acknowledged.
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Chapter 7
working strategically
Strategy sits at the heart of all public relations and professional communication
practice. It is both central and critical to successful communication practice,
underpinning just about everything else in the planning process—from tactics
to execution. In fact, without clear strategies, developing and implementing
communication tactics (outlined in Chapter 9) will have much less chance of
success. Why? Because strategies provide guidance and focus for everything
that follows. A useful way of understanding strategy is provided by Hax and
Majluf (1985, p. 12):
Literally, thousands of decisions are being made every day in large and complex
organizations. The only way to make them consistent is to establish some sense
of permanent strategic direction that provides a rich framework within which
those decisions can be made.
With this in mind, it’s no coincidence that the term ‘strategic’ is used to
describe so much practice in the daily agenda of the workforce—strategic plans,
strategic communication, strategic priorities and so on. It has almost become
a cliché because of its overuse. Nevertheless, we need to dig deep to really
understand what it means because it can mean the success or failure of an organ-
isation, a campaign and, of course, communication practice. When applied to
communication, strategy provides consistency, structure and cohesiveness. This
should be embedded in all communication within an organisation, whether
internally or externally directed. A key part of strategy, therefore, is the actual
process of communicating. In order to make communication achieve what we
180
Working strategically 181
need it to achieve—such as persuading, informing, motivating, sharing and so

on—we need to do it in a systematic way. Ideally, strategy should provide both
direction and scope for an organisation’s planning and operations—one that is
responsive and flexible to its internal and external environments, and one that,
if truly integrated into the workings and operations of an organisation, makes
a promise to its stakeholders or publics. As Tilley explains, strategy is ‘about
formulating a guiding idea and considered intent that responds to the needs of
an organisation and its publics’ (2009, p. 171).
In this chapter we’ll look closely at the importance of strategy and how
it translates into strategic communication. We’ll consider the connection
between strategy and goals, aims, objectives and tactics. We’ll also examine
how strategy should line up with other key concepts of organisational vision,
mission and values. The chapter also presents examples of how strategy is used
by governments, organisations, brands and causes.
Getting clear on strategy

The word strategy comes from the Greek word stratēgia, meaning ‘general-
ship’. It is, therefore, no surprise that strategy is often explained in terms of its
military foundations. In the military, strategy generally refers to the develop-
ment and deployment of national economic, diplomatic and military resources
to gain an advantage and achieve a national goal or series of goals (i.e. win
the war). At the highest level of planning, strategy has very broad aims and
is concerned with the ‘big picture’. Two other levels of war—operations
and tactics—sit below this, narrowing the focus at each step. At the operational
level of war, attention is directed to ‘the planning and conduct of campaigns’,
where a ‘series of simultaneous or sequential operations’ are managed and
contribute to the overall strategy (Dunn 1996). At the front line, the tactical
level of war involves the short-term activities that are selected to achieve
specific objectives and win the battle (Nickols 2012). We’ll return to this align-
ment with tactics and objectives later in the chapter and elsewhere in the book.
Now transfer the concept of strategy from a military context to a range of
other arenas—let’s use corporate, political or sporting examples. It can help
if you visualise this—generals planning the war, sporting coaches preparing
for the season, political parties manoeuvring for an election win—you get
the picture! Possibly the most difficult to visualise is the corporate context,
because these arenas are usually not as publicly played out, but a boardroom
scene will generally provide a setting for strategy in action. The strategy
is focused on the highest levels of the organisation and its overall purpose
and aims, just as military strategy is focused on the goals of the nation. And
so, strategy easily makes the jump from a military setting to those other
places and times where informed, purposeful and systematic choices need
to be made—to win on the sporting field, claim success in an election, keep
customers and employees loyal to a brand, or capture the hearts of people for
a cause.
Because the term ‘strategy’ can be used on its own, as a noun, or as an adjec-
tive to describe something else, as in strategic planning, directions, management
and communication, we tend to get a bit dulled to what the word really means.
And, to be fair, it is often just assumed or taken for granted. Equally problem-
atically, it also often gets confused with tactics. This is why we have dedicated
a whole chapter to explaining and exploring strategy—because it’s so central to
public relations activity and how successful professional communication needs
to be practised. For this reason, we first look at ‘strategy’ (as a noun) and, later
in the chapter, consider how it translates to our own field of strategic commu-
nication practice.
Scholars have been defining strategy for many years. Leading Professor of
Communication Carl Botan proposes three levels of strategy:
• Grand strategy: this is the strategy that runs through a whole-of-

organisation decision-making process. It is central to the policy-level
decisions an organisation makes about its goals, alignments, ethics and rela-
tionships and other elements that impact on an organisation.
• Strategy: this is at the campaign level of decision-making. It involves
manoeuvring and arranging resources and arguments to carry out the
organisational grand strategies.
• Tactics: these are the specific activities and outputs through which strategies
are implemented—also understood as the technical elements of strategic
communication and public relations. (Botan 2018)
The grand strategy sits at the top of all of an organisation’s planning,

thinking and doing, and the others follow. That is not to say the grand strategy
is more important—they all work together. Botan points out that ‘[a]lthough
grand strategy is at the top of the hierarchy, it is completely dependent on
tactics . . . and one or more strategies to give it substance’ (2018, p. 14). He
further points out that authority and guidance flow down from the grand
strategy, while substance and tangible outputs flow upwards from tactics and
campaign strategies. We’ve developed this in Figure 7.1.
Figure 7.1 The relationship of grand strategy, strategy and tactics.
While Botan’s hierarchy is not used by everyone (i.e. you won’t find the
expression ‘grand strategy’ in all texts), it is a useful way of thinking about
strategy for those engaged in the field of strategic communication and PR.
In this chapter, we will focus more on this concept of grand (or overarch-
ing) strategy. What Botan might refer to as a second-level strategy we label
the ‘operational level’ to avoid confusion and examine in more detail in the
campaigns and planning chapter (Chapter 8). Tactics—Botan’s third level—is
then explored in depth in Chapter 9.
Let’s take a look at some other business definitions of how strategy is seen
to direct a whole-of-organisation approach. Mintzberg and Water (1985, p. 259)
refer to strategy simply as
a pattern in a stream of decisions.

Nickols (2015, n.p.) calls it
a complex web of thoughts, ideas, insights, experiences, goals, expertise,

memories, perceptions, and expectations that provides general guidance for
specific actions in pursuit of particular ends.
An early definition from Chandler is very comprehensive, illustrating the

purposeful nature of strategy:
Strategy is the determination of the basic long-term goals of an enterprise, and

the adoption of courses of actions and the allocation of resources necessary to
carry out these goals. (cited in Nickols 2015, n.p.)
These definitions provide a way of thinking through the grand strategy—

or big picture—which then guides strategy throughout an organisation at the
campaign and operational level and finally in tactical selection. All strategies
need to align with other parts of an organisation—for instance, you could not
claim to be driven by an environmental sustainability strategy while pumping
out toxic wastes into a waterway, or using non-recyclable packaging or driving
fleet cars that guzzle and spew high levels of omissions. No amount of rhetoric
about your organisation’s position on the environment will work if the actions
of the organisation don’t follow through and support the strategy. The strategy
therefore needs to run through all parts of the organisation, at every level and
in all activities. This illustrates, therefore, that grand strategy extends well
beyond the communication and PR role and must be embedded everywhere.
Yet the communication and PR manager should always have a hand in how
this is authentically and transparently operationalised throughout the organ-
isation. Otherwise, translating the grand strategy into the implementation of
strategies at the second and third level (operational and tactical) cannot be
truly successful.
A good way to figure out the ‘whole-of-organisation’ approach to strategy
is to examine the complex layers that apply to all organisations. Mintz-
berg proposed five basic principles of strategy, which he called the ‘Five Ps’
(Mintzberg 1992):
• perspective (a way of doing business)

• position (in the marketplace, compared to competitors)
• ploy (deliberate manoeuvring in relating to competitors)

• plan (a specific direction)
• pattern (a consistent series of actions).
While useful, this list tends towards a marketing approach and does not
include a goal orientation. This was rectified by Tilley (2014) who created
a new set of ‘Six Ps’—specifically adapted for better understanding strategy
as it applies to public relations—including goal orientation, which she called
‘purpose’. The Six P approach provides a framework for understanding how
grand strategy is central to a whole-of-organisation approach, as outlined in
Table 7.1.
Each of the Six Ps provides insights into how to better understand the
overall or grand strategy. Together, they provide a holistic way of develop-
ing, adjusting and reorienting grand strategy in relation to the publics or
stakeholders that are important to an organisation.
It can be easier to understand these concepts when we apply them to organ-
isations with which we are familiar. Australian digital marketing company
King Kong undertook research into some of the most successful companies in
the world (Suby 2016). It found common threads of strategy related to:
1. the way the brand presented itself

2. how it responded to consumers (or publics/stakeholders)
3. the way it stayed true to its values and mission.
King Kong looked at the strategies used by successful Fortune 500

companies and summarised some of the best known, which are discussed
below. While you’re reading these, think about how the Six Ps might apply.
Some will be more simply identified than others. As Sabri Suby from King
Kong points out, successful companies are hardly going to give away their
marketing expertise and provide a thorough breakdown of their success-
ful strategies! Nevertheless, we can make some educated guesses. Based on
Suby’s analysis, we’ve identified one of the Ps in each of the following well-
known companies. While these are applied here to big corporate brands, the
Six Ps are equally as applicable to developing strategies in small and medium
enterprises (SMEs), non-profits and political and government organisations
and departments.
Table 7.1 Six principles of strategy
Description and Guiding

Principle Questions Implementation
Perspective How does your organisation see Use history, leadership,
the world? structure, mission, vision,
Understand your organisation’s values, financial status,
nature, role and norms, and its culture including corporate
perspective on the world. codes or other norms to
show the way your
organisation sees the social,
political, cultural or economic
world.
Position How is your organisation situated Environmental scanning and
in relation to the external forecasting help to identify
environment in which it operates current and emerging
and must adapt? conditions and forces in the
Understand your external surroundings.
organisation’s position within A strong knowledge of issues
the context of the external management is needed here
influences and environmental (see Chapter 3).
conditions.
Publics What is the nature and extent Identify key publics and
of your organisation’s reputation research the nature and
with its key publics extent of their relationships
(or stakeholders)? with the organisation and
Is the organisation listening their knowledge and
effectively? perceptions of the
Understand how your organisation.
organisation needs to work Identify useful insights
with its publics and how they as well as gaps and
impact on it. Be responsive to misconceptions in publics’
the public’s perspectives, needs, knowledge. Segment and
goals and aims. prioritise publics so it is
clear who is active, aware,
apathetic or latent (see
Chapter 7).
Description and Guiding

Principle Questions Implementation
Purpose What is your organisation’s This should be closely tied to
priority? vision, mission and values.
Will it aim to fix particular Write succinct overarching
gaps or misconceptions, or bring goals that link to the
existing practices into line with organisation’s perspective,
publics’ expectations? position and how it can meet
Set goals. Clarify, broadly, what publics’ needs.
your organisation is aiming to
achieve.
Process What approach or direction will Write a broad ‘process
you take to get the organisation statement’ as an overall
closer to its goals? guideline for the more detailed
What approach will the communication plan that
organisation’s resources and will follow. Is your approach
perspective allow you to take? to change the organisation’s
In a very general sense, decide operations, to communicate
how you are going to achieve intensively with opinion
your purpose. leaders in key publics to
correct a misconception,
or something else?
Given all the specific variables
influencing this situation, how
much will you accommodate and
how much will you advocate?
Pattern Are your approaches consistent? Check the intended process
Ensure your ‘process back against earlier research
statement’ is consistent with findings and consult internally
your organisation/client’s and externally to pre-test
overall perspective, position (predict reputational outcomes
and purpose. from) the strategy.
Ensure you have the resources
to deliver it sustainably. Modify
if necessary.
Source: adapted from Tilley (2014), previously adapted from Mintzberg (1992);
Mintzberg et al. (2003).
Coca-Cola: known for brand consistency

Coca-Cola is one of the best-known brands in the world. It has kept its brand
identity and product consistent for over 130 years, its logo has not altered
significantly and its marketing slogans have continued to promote similar
messages over time. The company favours consistency, and this has paid off for
it in the long run. It remains sure about the brand’s image and identity.
Key P: Pattern. This speaks to Coca-Cola’s expertise in developing a pattern
of consistency in the brand.
Figure 7.2 Coca-Cola: known for brand consistency. Photo by Amos Bar-Zeev, Unsplash.
Apple: known for creating a movement

Apple’s ‘movement’, which has been somewhat cult-like, focuses on an image as
much as the product. In order to get people excited, Apple has created what Suby
calls ‘beautiful, aesthetically pleasing gadgets that are not just for tech nerds’.
Apple’s marketing and public relations has also helped to convey this by making
people feel as if they need its products to enhance their life in some way.
Key P: Perspective. This speaks to Apple’s expertise in creating a way of
thinking about the world.
Colgate: known for creating trust

Colgate has taken a purposeful approach over the years to educate consumers.
This strategy has helped the brand not only to sell tubes of toothpaste but
also to become one of the leading and most trusted toothpaste products in the
world. Through its oral health care education, Colgate positions itself to help
to solve consumers’ problems, generate long-term relationships and build trust.
Key P: Purpose. This speaks to Colgate’s purpose to be a leader in dental
health care.
Starbucks: known for social media strategy

Starbucks is the perfect example of a business that has excelled at the use of
social media. It is clued in with what its fans want by connecting with them on
highly successful Facebook, Twitter and Instagram accounts. Its social media
includes clever use of videos, GIFs and other images; custom images that go
along with its tweets; responding to followers, especially on Twitter; staying up
to date with current events and using them to its marketing advantage.
Key P: Publics. This speaks to Starbuck’s priority in communicating with its
consumers.
Nike: known for selling a story

Nike paints a story about its famous shoes and the journey they take. It sells
the story, which in turn positions it to sell its products. Nike has a strong
presence on Instagram and uses it effectively to tell its stories. It promotes
strength, fitness, health and things that are much bigger than just a pair of
runners.
Key P: Position. This speaks to Nike’s use of story to keep hold of its place
in the market.
These success stories are each underpinned by long-term, responsive and
clever strategies. If we dig deeper into these and other big, successful organisa-
tions we find they each include strategic decisions to:
• maintain consistency in branding efforts to make logo and taglines more

recognisable
• create a movement with their brand by offering consumers the chance to be
part of something innovative and ‘life-changing’
Figure 7.3 Nike sponsors BIKETOWN in the US city of Portland. Photo by Cat Mapper
(Max Ogden), Unsplash.
• build trust with their consumers by offering valuable information and

additional benefits other than just the products or services offered
• integrate social media into PR and marketing strategies and work on devel-
oping a strong social presence
• make sure their business stands for something and try to be an active
participant in their community
• sell a story rather than just the specifics of a product or service using social
media or a blogging platform. (Suby 2016)
Flexible strategies
While these companies have each shown ‘pattern’ and consistency in various
ways, they have also shown flexibility and openness to change. Organisations
don’t plan their strategy and then walk away from it and hope for the best. It
needs to be managed as an organic concept. The world is changing so rapidly
that successful organisations must be agile and responsive to both the external
and internal environment and, importantly, listen to what their publics are
saying. Sull (2015) points out that because of developments and fluctuations in
technology, regulations, stakeholder choice, economic and competitor fluctu-
ations, the best-laid plans sometimes need to be reconfigured—this certainly
applies to strategy. Having a non-responsive strategy can result in, at best, a
rocky future, and at worst the demise of the organisation. As circumstances
change, as stakeholders make their views known, and as other elements come
into play, strategies must capture new information, make midcourse corrections
and ensure the timing is right to make tactical decisions. Sull recommends
that ‘[i]n fast-paced industries, companies should think of strategy as an itera-
tive loop with four steps: making sense of a situation, making choices, making
things happen and making revisions’ (2015, p. 57). This reinforces the need
for ongoing evaluation, as outlined in Chapter 6, and also links decisions about
strategy to issues management, as outlined in Chapter 3. Sull’s strategy loop is
adapted in Figure 7.4.
Figure 7.4 The strategy loop highlights how strategy should be in a constant state of
revision. Source: adapted from Sull (2015).
The strategy loop also shows how decisions are impacted by external
factors, including what competitors are doing, new or pending regulations and
laws, the impact of new technology, trends in stakeholder choice, and economic
fluctuations such as local currency variations and interest rates. Internal factors,
such as staffing, also need to be considered, especially with the changing labour
market being impacted by casual workforces and increased AI. Some of the
external factors, such as technology, are also internal factors. All of these—both
external and internal—should be monitored during the four phases. So, for
example, a university might consider the following external and internal factors:
• What are other universities doing in the marketplace? How are they
perceived? What are their points of difference?
• Are new laws being implemented or on the horizon that impact on inter
national enrolments, internal fee structures, or pay structures?
• Is the local financial currency high or low and will this impact on
international student numbers?
• How has changed technology impacted on the delivery of courses? Is there
demand for online or massive open online courses (MOOCs)? What tech-
nology is needed to teach and research effectively?
• What is the level of casualisation in the workforce and what are the
implications of this?
• Do the current staff have the expertise to break into high areas of demand
or specialised areas, or are upskilling and training, or new appointments,
required?
To further illustrate the strategy loop in action, let’s return to one of the
Fortune 500 companies: Apple. Apple points to the importance of ongoing
evaluation and refinement of its strategy. Here’s how they explain it:
[T]he first thing we ask is, what do we want people to feel? . . . Then we begin
to craft our intention. It takes time. There are a thousand no’s for every yes. We
simplify, we perfect, we start over . . . (Apple, in Kirk 2013)
But while Apple may have moved to the top of the pack due to its grand
strategy (Kirk 2013), this wasn’t always the case. In the 1980s the Apple II and
Macintosh series of home computers struggled to keep up with the competi-
tion, losing the battle against PC computers from IBM (Yeung 2018). ‘The
company struggled with maintaining sales and it finally succumbed to defeat

as Windows-based personal computers from Microsoft gained a stronghold
in the market’ (Yeung 2018). Apple’s strategic change of direction was multi-
faceted, incorporating the realignment of its grand strategy based on simplicity
and premium user experience. In the fast-paced world of home computing,
Apple’s realignment had many parts, incorporating a whole-of-product experi-
ence—from music (and the iPod) to phone (and the iPhone)—each prioritising
a user-friendly and intuitive interface (Yeung 2018). Apple moved to use both
‘a retroactive and proactive approach’ in its product strategy (Yeung 2018).
What this meant was that it looked at external and competitor markets as well
as within its own product base, developing products by incorporating ideas
used elsewhere, improving on those, removing undesirable qualities and inte-
grating differentiating features (Yeung 2018). This resulted in products that
appear new and innovative but remain familiar or recognisable. It’s easy to
apply this to the strategy loop: Apple made sense of the external environment,
making choices about how to differentiate the brand and, importantly, develop
its point of difference. But it also continually looked within, asking: what are
we doing well, and what can we do better? These strategic decisions continued
to be refined over time as Apple launched into dedicated stores, continued its
creation of an Apple community and developed complementary products and
services such as iPhones with apps and iPods with iTunes (Yeung 2018). Apple
and other tech companies, like Intel and Google, have become world leaders
for their responsiveness to external and internal stakeholders.
Some strategies—no matter how responsive—will still struggle
to deal with problems beyond the organisation or sector’s control.
wicked
Just as some issues are tough, persistent and ‘wicked’, as we saw in
problems
Chapter 3, strategy can also be impacted by ‘wicked’ problems
which have no simple solution, or no solution at all.
Professor of Strategic Management John Camilus explains how organi-
sations need to be agile in their strategic thinking around wicked problems,
reinforcing our earlier comment from Apple:
In a wicked world of complex and shadowy possibilities, enterprises don’t

know if their strategies are appropriate or what those strategies’ conse-
quences might be. They should therefore abandon the convention of thinking
through all their options before choosing a single one, and experiment with
a number of strategies that are feasible even if they are unsure of the impli-
cations. (2008, p. 5)
Camillus (2008, p. 5) calls these ‘robust actions’ which deliver results in

various scenarios while encouraging ‘risk taking’ and ‘thoughtfully implemented
initiatives’ (2008 p. 6). ‘These companies believe that unexpected and even
unsatisfactory results contribute to organizational learning’ (Camillus 2008,
p. 6). At the same time as working on strategy, and addressing problems (‘wicked’
or ‘tame’), it is important for organisations to stay true to their sense of purpose
(Camillus, 2008). This is encapsulated by their values, vision and mission.
What about values, vision and mission?

Despite the need to be responsive to change and agile within the workspace,
strategy should never lose sight of the vision, mission, values, goals and
objectives of an organisation. Some of these are more constant than others.
While goals, objectives and tactics will vary from campaign to campaign, an
organisation’s vision and mission are more fixed and its values should stay
firm. These are the foundation upon which an organisation bases itself and
presents itself to society, and should therefore underpin the grand strategy.
As Miller explains (2014):
Defining the vision and mission are critical before starting on strategic
elements. After all, what is the strategy trying to achieve if not the company’s
mission? And what is the mission if not an embodiment of the vision?
An organisational vision is aspirational. The vision statement expresses

how the organisation looks to the future and the values that guide it. Hubspot’s
Lindsay Kolowich (2019) says a vision statement describes where an organi-
sation wants a community, or the world, to be as a result of the organisation’s
products or services.
Mission statements describe how an organisation aims to achieve its vision;
sort of a conceptual road map of how to chase that elusive vision, often includ-
ing details of the organisation’s purpose, publics and position (the Six Ps can
be useful here). Like the vision, the mission also explains the organisation’s
purpose, but it goes beyond the vision by clearly outlining how the vision will
be accomplished (process and pattern). Miller explains: ‘In other words, the
mission statement is a way to express the vision in practical terms. It should be
concrete and include goal-oriented language’ (2014).
Values (sometimes called principles) underpin the standards the organisa-
tion holds firm. These are all about what the organisation stands for, reflecting
the journey it has taken to get where it is now and how it sees itself moving
forward. They are central to an organisation’s culture and overall philosophy
and are often expressed as a ‘values statement’. These are often used in ethical
decision-making processes, as discussed in Chapter 4.
The principles of levi Strauss & Co

For a values statement to be effective, it must be reinforced at all levels of the
organisation and used to guide attitudes and actions. Organisations with strong
values follow them even when it may be easier not to. Clothing manufacturer
Levi Strauss & Co provides an example. When Levi Strauss began to source its
manufacturing overseas, outside the USA, the company developed a set of
principles called the Global Sourcing and Operating Guidelines for overseas
operations and suppliers. One of the principles covered the use of child labour.
It read:
Use of child labor is not permissible. Workers can be no less than 15 years
of age and not younger than the compulsory age to be in school. We will
not utilize partners who use child labor in any of their facilities. We support
the development of legitimate workplace apprenticeship programs for the
educational benefit of younger people.
Levi Strauss found that one of its contractors was employing children under
fifteen in a factory in Bangladesh. The easy solution would have been to replace
those workers, but the children’s wages may have supported an entire family. If
the children lost their jobs, they may have had to resort to begging. Levi Strauss
found a solution that supported the company’s values of empathy, originality,
integrity and courage: it paid the children to go to school, covering tuition,
books and supplies, while continuing to pay salaries and benefits. Levi Strauss
was driven by company values to find a strategic solution (Lumen Learning n.d.).
These foundational elements are often published on organisational web

sites, in annual reports, brochures and other media. Table 7.2 provides several
examples from Australia and New Zealand. While some organisations, such as
the Australian Red Cross, publish their vision, mission and values very clearly,
many do not publish all three. Nevertheless, the publication of all or some of
these elements becomes a statement to the world—this is who we are, what we
represent and how we see our part in the world. It is all about not only how an
organisation sees itself but how it wants others to see it.
Taking a ‘helicopter view’ of strategy

The vision, mission and values incorporated into a grand strategy that establishes
the organisational goals and objectives will, in turn, drive operations and tactics.
Strategy is like a big, central cog in the machine of organisational thinking,
connecting to the many other moving parts. So how do they all link up?
In explaining the difference between strategy, goals, objectives and value
statements Graeme Kenny from the Harvard Business Review says that strategy
should take a ‘helicopter view’ of the organisation and its goals while focusing
on its stakeholder needs (2014). In other words, it should be able to see the ‘big
picture’ as if looking down on the organisation. He uses the following example
of a successful grand strategy from John Mackey, co-founder and co-CEO of
the multi-million dollar US natural-foods retailer Whole Foods Market.
Customers, employees, investors, suppliers, larger communities, and the envi-
ronment are all interdependent . . . Management’s job at Whole Foods is to
make sure that we hire good people, that they are well trained, and that they
flourish in the workplace, because we found that when people are really happy
in their jobs, they provide much higher degrees of service to the customers.
Happy team members result in happy customers. Happy customers do more
business with you. They become advocates for your enterprise, which results in
happy investors. That is a win, win, win, win strategy.
Table 7.2 Examples of vision, mission and values statements
Organisation Vision Mission Values

Australian To improve To be a leading Seven fundamental principles:
Red Cross the lives of humanitarian Humanity; Impartiality;
vulnerable organisation Neutrality; Independence;
people in in Australia, Voluntary service; Unity;
Australia and improving Universality
internationally the lives of
by mobilising vulnerable
the power of people through
humanity. programs
delivered and
promotion of
humanitarian
laws and values.
GetUp! GetUp is GetUp gives GetUp is, and always has been,
working everyday an independent organisation.
towards a Australians the GetUp members come from
thriving chance to make every walk of life, with a shared
democracy in extraordinary belief in fairness, compassion
Australia led impact—online, and courage. We campaign
by the values across the on issues that our members
and hopes airwaves and in care about in the fields of
of everyday the streets. Environmental Justice, Human
people. We Rights, Economic Fairness
envisage a Fair, and Democracy. GetUp is
Flourishing and about making change, not just
Just Australia. making noise. Everything we
do is guided by carefully crafted
strategies designed to win.
Sometimes that means we gather
in raucous protest, other times
that means partnering with
policy experts to develop new
solutions, or we exercise our
consumer power, and everything
in between.
Table 7.2 Examples of vision, mission and values statements continued
Organisation Vision Mission Values

Volunteering A New Zealand To promote, Responsiveness: We respond
New Zealand that promotes, support and boldly with leadership and
values and advocate for innovation, enabling the
supports volunteering. community and voluntary sector
effective to achieve excellence and the
volunteering for best outcomes.
the benefit of Inclusiveness: We recognise
individuals and and value the diversity of all
communities. expressions of volunteering.
Collaboration: We work with
our key strategic partners,
stakeholders and members to
promote, value and support
effective volunteering.
Excellence: We strive for
excellence in all our activities.
One thing to remember is that goals, objectives, strategy and tactics cannot
substitute for each other. That might seem logical, but you’d be surprised how
often one is used to describe the other—for example we found one definition
that says ‘goals refer to the objectives an organisation strives to achieve’. Kenny
reminds us that a list of goals is not a strategy even though they are sometimes
used interchangeably (2014). The differences are explained further in Chapter 6.
They are interconnected and interdependent, but they are not inter-changeable.
Grand strategies in action

Determining an overarching or grand strategy is how all organisations—from
clothing manufacturers to global NGOs, from local councils to Commonwealth
governments—plan and position themselves for the future. These should always
have the important publics set firmly in their sights and incorporate input from
the people who make up those publics. Grand strategies are complex, detailed
and carefully thought through, often contributed to by many people from many
departments (e.g. planning, human resources, communication/PR, finance and
development). In this way, the major departments advise from their positions
of strength—importantly, communication and PR need to be part of the ‘big-
picture’ thinking of an organisation and, for that reason, should have a seat
at the executive table. As grand strategies need to be flexible, they need to
combine many long-term initiatives, responding to what’s been done in the
past, often with a view to improving the future. Sometimes this results in these
strategies being articulated over a set timeframe that builds in ongoing moni-
toring and evaluation and provides a way of measuring objectives and outcomes
at a finite point in time.
Grand strategies will, therefore, usually be explained using a logical pathway,
including any or all of the following elements:
• Vision
• Mission
• Values
• Objectives
• Outcomes
• Implementation and actions
• Monitoring and evaluation.
They are often presented publicly using strong images that support the
key themes and with easy-to-read tables and charts. In virtually all cases they
will explain the consultation process; this is particularly important for PR and
communication, as it refers to the way stakeholders are not only included in the
process but are also often central to the strategy’s purpose and position. In the
following examples, stakeholder communication underpins how the strategies
were advanced and developed. Each of these five- or ten-year strategies has
been summarised for this chapter and can be examined in more detail online.
Australian Heritage Strategy (2015–2025)

The Australian Heritage Strategy encompasses three parts of Australia’s
heritage: natural, historic and Indigenous values. Its focus is on the manage-
ment and long-term protection of Australia’s heritage, exploring ways to
support and fund these over a ten-year period. The Strategy highlights how
heritage identification, protection and management is a shared responsibility
across all levels of government, as well as across businesses and communities.
It was developed following a consultation process that included community

groups, organisations, individuals and government agencies, who contributed
to the development of the vision, outcomes and objectives that make up the
strategy. It states its vision as:
Our natural, historic and Indigenous heritage places are valued by Australians,
protected for future generations and cared for by the community.
This then flows into the following outcomes and objectives:
Figure 7.5 Vision flows into strategy, objectives and outcomes in the Australian
Heritage Strategy. Source: information from Australian Government (2015).
Christchurch’s Multicultural Strategy: Te Rautaki Mātāwaka

Rau (2017–2021)
This grand strategy is called ‘Our Future Together’. It outlines the strategy
to underpin how New Zealand’s Christchurch City Council plans to make
Christchurch an inclusive and welcoming city. It lists improvement of its
service delivery, the upskilling of the internal organisation and the develop-
ment of authentic relationships to achieve its goals. The five-year multicultural
strategy is highly aspirational in language. It lists its strategic vision, twelve
principles and four strategic goals. In addition, it provides an action plan (to
achieve the goals); an implementation schedule; and outcomes (based on three
overarching Māori values). Much of the report is bilingual, using English and
Māori languages, which shows the importance of the different communities

that underpin the strategy and its goals. Its vision is:
Love and respect to the land, which is the foundation of hospitality. Care for
the people. (Aroha ki te whenua, te tūāpapa o te manaaki. Kia atawhai ki te iwi.)
Christchurch (Ōtautahi) is an inclusive multicultural and multilingual city
that honours the Treaty of Waitangi (Te Tiriti o Waitangi) and values our
environment—a city where all people belong. (Christchurch City Council 2016)
UNHCR’s Strategic Directions (2017–2021)

This strategy document provides a vision for the future, including a commit-
ment to put people first, strengthen and diversify the UNHCR’s partnerships,
work across the spectrum of forced displacement, and provide practical,
concrete support to secure protection and solutions for refugees, the internally
displaced and stateless people. It lists five core directions to ‘chart an overall
course in relation to major global challenges’ (UNHCR 2017):
1. Protect
2. Respond
3. Include
4. Empower
5. Solve.
In taking forward its vision, it proposes eight results-oriented objectives
that deal with issues such as systems, staffing, culture and ways of working;
these are listed in Figure 7.6.
Linking strategy to communication

These big-picture strategies are intended to deal with nationally and inter-
nationally important issues—heritage, multiculturalism and refugees. By their
nature they are aspirational, because they deal with complex social issues.
However, the same type of approach is needed in the corporate sector to
enable companies to survive and flourish in highly competitive environments.
In every case, the grand strategy requires communication at multiple levels
with internal and external publics, via a range of communication methods.
So, how does the strategy translate into communication practice with these
important stakeholders?
Figure 7.6 UNHCR Strategic Directions. Source: information from UNHCR (2017).
Here’s an example of how it works in practice. New Zealand’s largest seafood

company, Sanford, was established over 100 years ago and sets itself a vision of
being the ‘best seafood company in the world’ (Sanford 2018). It recognises
that ‘best’ does not equate with ‘biggest’, placing a heavy emphasis on values,
particularly through sustainable practices that protect natural resources. Its
annual report for 2018 outlines its ‘journey’ and ‘aspirations’, underpinned by
its values of care, passion and integrity.
Its ‘business excellence framework’ sets measurable goals that provide the
direction for all activities within the organisation in order to achieve its vision.
Six ‘performance outcomes’ highlight its strategic priorities:
1. Building a sustainable seafood business

2. Healthy food and marine extracts
3. Healthy oceans
4. Protecting the environment
5. Our people
6. Our communities and partnerships.
A formal stakeholder engagement process in 2018 identified ‘transparent

and effective communication’ as an issue of key importance and impact, ranking
just behind safety and sustainability issues (Sanford 2018, pp. 20–21). The
vision and framework reveal the directions and opportunities for communica-
tion planning. A clear positioning statement about being the best in the world,
and what ‘best’ means, could influence choices in communication activities and
messages that showcase the business achievements to the world. Communi-
cation goals and objectives should flow from the six performance outcomes,
with campaigns and projects aiming to provide awareness, understanding and
engagement in each area. Communication plans will not only promote these
activities but also help create understanding and meaning, which will assist in the
achievement of the goals. Some stakeholders, such as employees and communi-
ties, are explicitly identified, while others (such as consumers, environmentalists
and the supply chain) can be easily deduced from the other outcomes in the
framework. And messages about sustainability, health, innovation and quality
would be likely to feature strongly in communication plans (Sanford, 2018).
Delivering strategic communication

So, whose role is it to be the strategic communicator for an organisation? One
answer is that it’s the role of everyone in the organisation: from floor staff to
the CEO. Communication occurs all the time within and across organisations.
Take, for example, a flight attendant making an announcement on a plane,
a minister delivering a sermon to a congregation, or a teacher explaining key
concepts in maths and language; all of these are likely to fulfil at least part of
their organisation’s mission. However, none of these people would class them-
selves as public relations practitioners or professional strategic communicators.
In most cases, the strategic communication function rests with communication
specialists. This function enables organisations to talk to many and different
stakeholders or publics and to be responsive to these groups of people. The
strategic communication role is, therefore, publics-centred and publics-driven.
Professional communicators have various crucial strategic functions:
1. At the grand strategy level, the communication manager will ideally be

involved in an advisory capacity at the top level of strategy development
and management. This allows them to be part of all three levels of

strategy and to contribute to thinking, planning, responding and deliver-
ing. This is considered an advisory or management function.
2. At the operational and tactical levels, to lead both communication and rela-
tionship management of planning, and delivery of campaigns, programs,
key messages and so on.
3. At all levels, to listen to and interpret feedback from stakeholders to assist
with revisions and responses as part of the strategy loop.
4. At all levels, to provide information to inform strategy going forward.
This keeps the grand strategy and specific campaign strategies on track.
Multinational soft-drink company PepsiCo put it like this: ‘The messages
articulate the strategic direction of the company and motivate people to move
behind it’ (MacKenzie, in Argenti et al. 2015). Strategic communicators there-
fore both drive and follow the grand strategic and larger organisational agenda.
As global transport group FedEx point out: ‘Communication is at the center of
everything. You can’t execute strategy if you can’t communicate about it’ (Glen,
in Argenti et al. 2015).
And, since communication is a core function of every human organisation,
communication takes you to the very core of all such organisations (Botan 2018).
Strategic communication managers will ideally be positioned to help devise
organisations’ grand strategies, to have that ‘seat at the (executive) table’, which
then makes the transition to the operational and tactical phases of strategy
straightforward. This calls for taking the lead in developing communication for
implementing policies and practices, and connecting and listening to publics,
whether they are customers, investors, news media, employees, volunteers,
community or school groups or others (Botan 2018).
At the start of the chapter, we looked at definitions of strategy. Let’s now
consider how strategy is applied to the field of communication in popular defi-
nitions. How do leading international scholars define strategic communication?
Botan defines it in the following way:
SC is the use of information flowing into the organization (research) to plan and
carry out a communication campaign addressing the relationship between an
organization and its publics. SC is research based and publics centred rather
than organisation or message centred. (2018, p. 8)
Another useful definition is provided by Zerfass and colleagues:
Strategic communication encompasses all communication that is substan-

tial for the survival and sustained success of an entity. Specifically, strategic
communication is the purposeful use of communication by an organization
or other entity to engage in conversations of strategic significance to its goals.
(Zerfass et al. 2018, p. 493)
What is interesting about these two definitions—both excellent, both

developed in 2018, one in the USA (Botan), the other in Europe (Zerfass and
colleagues)—is their different focus. Botan’s definition is publics-centred rather
than organisation- or message-centred, while Zerfass et al. focus on the success
of an entity or organisation. Each of these definitions, therefore, provides us
with different, complementary views of strategic communication. They show
that there is not one way of looking at strategic communication: there are
many facets to it. They also illustrate the richness of the theory and scholarship
in the field which we are studying. We leave the chapter with the following
Fact Check.
Conclusion
Strategy is the starting point for much organisational practice—planning,
implementation and, certainly, communication. If we return to Hax and
Majluf’s (1985, p. 12) observation at the start of this chapter, it’s easy to see
the link. As thousands of decisions are made every day in organisations, a clear
strategy is the only way to make these consistent and establish a clear direction,
which, in turn, provides a clear framework for future decisions. Communi-
cating these decisions, directions and frameworks falls to communication
professionals through the reports, communiques, white papers, memos, press
releases, social media, annual reports, videos and other tactics they specialise
in developing. Equally, if not more, important, however, is the public relations
or strategic communication role in advising on strategy—how it aligns with an
organisation’s structure and operations, connects with stakeholders, underpins
key performance indicators and, ultimately, maps and reflects the heart and
soul of an organisation.
This chapter has outlined why strategic communication needs to be
connected to the grand strategies of organisations. The next chapter will
develop themes from this chapter as strategy is put into practice at the planning
level. Using Botan’s three-tiered approach, we now move to level two, the oper-
ational level of strategic planning. Following that, Chapter 9 examines tactics
in detail, thereby delivering Botan’s trifecta and the most hands-on part of the
strategic communication role.
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Chapter 8
Planning and campaign

development
The strategy has been set and the organisation has its direction. But what does
this mean for the communication manager and staff? How can communication
assist the organisation in reaching its aims? What does it need to do and how
does it do it? In this chapter we explore the planning process, moving from the
strategic level to the operational level—from the long-term thinking to what
you will do today.
Effective communication doesn’t just happen. It requires research, a
thorough understanding of the environment in which you are working, who
you are communicating with and what you are aiming to achieve. It needs
planning. Without a plan, your milestone birthday party would be a lonely
affair, in the wrong location, with no food or music. Instead, to ensure a
memorable celebration, you start to plan months ahead, thinking about what
location, guests, food, drinks and activities would make it a raging success.
You work out what can be achieved within your budget, choose a suitable
time and carefully craft your Facebook invitation to persuade everyone that it
will be a great night. And after the event, you sit back and reflect on the glory
of a successful party while thinking about what could be done even better
next time.
The processes you have used for your party are not that different from any
other form of planning activity. A common pattern to planning exists, whether
it be a business strategy, a government initiative, a program of advocacy or
208
Planning and campaign development 209
the communication activities to support any of these. The previous chapter

referred to four steps in the strategy loop: ‘making sense of the situation,
making choices, making things happen and making revisions’ (Sull 2015, p. 57).
This common pattern is what this chapter will discuss in more detail. The aim
is for you to understand the principles of planning that can be adapted and
applied to any situation in which you may be operating as a communication
professional.
While every communication plan sets out to achieve the broader aims of
the organisation—be they making a profit, selling more widgets or persuading
someone to take up your cause—ultimately the purpose of communication is
to achieve an exchange of meaning. In other words, an organisation needs to
be heard and understood, and it needs to hear and understand its stakeholders.
To do that effectively and efficiently, careful planning backed by thorough
research is needed.
The interrelationship of plans

The purpose of planning is to map out a direction towards achieving a goal. But
where does that goal come from? Ideally, planning starts with strong leadership
(which is collaborative across the organisation) and then cascades downwards.
At the strategic level, the organisation’s business or corporate plan (sometimes
referred to as ‘The Strategy’) typically states a mission, supported by values,
and outlines the broad goals that guide the members of the organisation in
striving to deliver on the mission. These elements provide the starting point
for the plans that follow. We can see that happening in the Sanford case study in
the previous chapter, where the vision set the direction for the seafood company
in terms of its strategic priorities.
Planning also occurs at operational and tactical levels. While there are
distinctions between each of these levels (as discussed in Chapter 7), in practice,
plans will often straddle more than one level, combining elements of each to
address the specific requirements of the organisation or the activity. While this
chapter will guide you through different types of plans and a generic frame-
work for planning, it is important to understand the processes used by your
organisation at any given time. Figure 8.1 shows a hierarchy of plans at the
three levels of strategy, operations and tactics.
Figure 8.1 Examples of plans at the strategic, operational and tactical levels.
• A strategic plan outlines the broader vision, goals and objectives over a longer
time frame, typically three to five years, giving general direction to the
organisation. It specifies the priorities and broad strategies without stipulat-
ing the day-to-day activities needed to achieve them. This is what we have
outlined as the ‘grand strategy’ in Chapter 7, illustrated in the Australian
Heritage, Christchurch Multicultural and UNHCR examples of goal-
seeking, aspirational strategies. While this level usually focuses on the overall
organisational/corporate plan (or strategy), a corporate communication plan
that outlines the broader communication goals for the entire organisation
over a year or more could also be considered strategic. The same applies for
issues management, marketing and business unit strategies.
• An operational plan has a narrower focus on the work that needs to be

achieved to deliver on one or more elements of the higher strategic plan
within a shorter, defined timeframe. Examples of operational plans for
communication include a campaign plan, a consultation or engagement
plan or a social media plan. An operational plan may consist of various
stages or phases that break the activities into discrete units based on time,
audience or channels.
• A tactical plan is the lowest level of planning and focuses primarily on the
administrative and logistical tasks that need to be undertaken in order to
achieve the objectives in a higher-level plan. This could include event plans,
media relations activities and social media content calendars.
Every organisation will employ a different set of plans and a different

planning technique. Each new plan should be cognisant of the ones that came
before and others that exist in different areas of the organisation. They need
to be integrated, or networked, so that there is no duplication of effort or
contradiction.
Communication campaigns
From a communication perspective, the organisation’s strategic plans set the
direction for all lower-level, and shorter duration, operational communica-
tion plans. In a sense, the strategy for corporate communication will be like a
business plan for the communication department in a medium to large organ-
isation. This is sometimes referred to as a program, as it details a collection of
communication activities addressing a broader, more complex issue, targeted at
numerous publics over an extended period. It could encompass multiple inter-
related campaigns or constitute a single campaign with different phases.
At the operational level, communication campaigns serve a number of
different purposes. Taking their direction from the goals and objectives of the
strategic-level plans and programs, operational campaigns differ in that they
generally address single issues, in fixed time frames, with a clear start and end.
Different types of operational plans may guide a campaign, each with a slightly
different focus, but they follow similar frameworks and often overlap. The
broader issue, risk and crisis management of the organisation, for example,
could lead to operational plans for issue, risk and crisis communication, or
stakeholder or community engagement plans. The campaign for an organi-

sational change management strategy could direct a change communication
or employee communication plan. And a corporate communication strategy
could be supported by stakeholder engagement, employee communication
or media plans. While some organisations produce a separate social media
plan, a more integrated approach incorporates social media within the
corporate communication or campaign plans, aligning all the communica-
tion activities and platforms. Clear ownership of and buy-in to the plans
should occur at each level, while maintaining flexibility and adaptability as
circumstances change.
The integrated planning and research cycle

Planning formats and processes will differ depending on the organisation
and its processes. Efforts to describe communication and public relations
planning processes in a concise manner have resulted in a range of acronyms
that follow the basic premise of the strategy loop’s four steps of making sense,
making choices, making things happen and making revisions, discussed
in Chapter 7 (Sull 2015, p. 57). Common variations all start and end with
research and evaluation, with different ways of labelling the actions in between,
such as:
• PIE (Planning, Implementation, Evaluation)

• RACE (Research, Action, Communication, Evaluation)
• ROPE (Research, Objective, Programming, Evaluation)
• ROSIE (Research, Objectives and goals setting, Strategies and planning,
Implementation, Evaluation). (Brunner 2019)
More detailed models follow the same patterns. Smith’s framework

includes four phases of formative research, strategies, tactics and evaluative
research, although he then breaks it down into nine more specific steps (Smith
2017). Similarly, Gregory’s planning model includes analysis, aims, objectives,
stakeholder/public, content, strategy, tactics, timescales, resources, monitor-
ing, evaluation and review (Gregory 2017, p. 180). Most models accept that the
process is cyclical rather than linear, in that each plan is informed by the ones
that precede it and ongoing internal monitoring.
In Chapter 6, you were introduced to the integrated planning and research

cycle, highlighting the elements of the research process. In Figure 8.2 below,
we present the same integrated planning and research cycle, distinguishing
the separate, but related, elements of research, planning, implementation and
post-implementation activities. But this time, the diagram accentuates the
elements of the planning process. The plan itself consists of six steps as seen in
the central rectangle. These are:
1. analysis of the situation

2. analysis of the publics
3. setting goals and objectives
4. action planning
5. administration planning
6. review planning.
Integrated Planning and Research Cycle
SOCIETY / ENVIRONMENT
GRAND STRATEGY – Corporate / Organisational
INPUTS
PLANNING
Situation Publics Goal Action Admin Review
analysis analysis setting planning planning planning
• Problem or • Identification • Goals and • Messages • Schedules • Measurement
Opportunity • Analysis objectives • Tactics • Budgets plan
• Environment • Prioritisation • Action • Channels • Evaluation
plan
IMPLEMENTATION
IMPACT OUTCOMES OUTPUTS
Figure 8.2 The integrated planning and research cycle.

As the figure shows, the planning process is influenced by issues in society

and the environment, underpinned by the higher-level strategy, and informed by
input research. Once implementation of the plan has begun, ongoing research
monitors the outputs, informing adaptations to the original plan if required. In
this sense, the planning process is responsive to change as long as the actions
continue to pursue the organisational goals. The final evaluation of the plan
and its implementation is directed by the goals and objectives that were estab-
lished at the beginning of the planning process. One-off campaigns end at that
stage, but there is also the possibility that a new campaign or planning process
can emerge from the results of the previous one and the cycle starts anew.
In this chapter, we look specifically at the planning process and the six
steps required to complete a plan. The intersection of planning and research
will also be identified; however, detail about research processes are covered
in Chapter 6. Each step will be explained in terms of the planning require-
ments for a generic campaign, with examples for a fictional campaign for the
Lakeview Zoo. Planning for other communication activities generally follows
the same processes, but some distinguishing features of crisis planning will be
highlighted at the end of the chapter.
Step 1—Situation analysis

The first step, Situation analysis, asks:
• What’s happening, and is this a problem or an opportunity?

• What external factors impact on our ability to operate and to communi-
cate?
• How strong is our existing communication and what resources do we have?
You’ve been tasked to develop a communication plan but where do you

start? Planning serves a purpose—it addresses a need. Clearly, understanding
that need, and how a communication activity can assist in achieving the organi-
sation’s strategic goals, is essential. So, before you begin you need to take stock
and see what is happening around you. To do that, you need information on
four main areas: the situation, the external environment, the internal environ-
ment and the publics who are impacted by the situation. The research that
you do to seek this information is known as input research (see Chapter 6 for
research techniques).
Let’s start with the situation. Think about the big picture—the problem
that needs to be fixed or opportunity to be grasped. You need to accurately
identify what that problem or opportunity is and unpack the issues that sit
behind it—a process that is often overlooked in the hurry to get the campaign
off and running.
One method to assist in this analysis is represented in Austin and Pinkle-
ton’s approach to building a problem statement (Austin & Pinkleton 2015,
pp. 23–24), where they ask the six questions shown in Table 8.1.
Table 8.1 Building a problem statement
Question Examples
What is the problem? Damaged reputation, declining
membership or sales, impending
legislation
Where is the problem occurring? Internal/external, local/national/
international, within certain groups
When is it a problem? Always/occasionally, seasonal,
cyclical
How did it become a problem? Lack of awareness, product quality,
ineffective relations
Who is the target and for whom is Specific stakeholders
this a problem?
Why does this threaten the The implications of the problem,
organisation’s ability to fulfil its threats to future operations or
mission? negative impacts on individuals
Source: adapted from Austin & Pinkleton (2015, pp. 23–24).
Now take a look outside the organisation. Smith suggests that you look at
four elements in the external environment: supporters, opponents, competitors
and external impediments (Smith 2017, p. 50). And he also recommends assess-
ing the visibility and reputation of the organisation. Informal desktop research
is a good starting point; however, additional primary research may be required.
Some quick questions to ask then would include:
• How well known is the organisation and what is its reputation?

• Who supports or opposes the organisation in its endeavours, how strong is
their voice and how could they be engaged?
• Who are your competitors, how are you different, and are there opportuni-
ties to work collaboratively?
• Are there any changes in the PESTLE (political, economic, social,
technological, legal, environmental) situation that could impede the imple-
mentation of the communication plan?
Turning the focus inwards, start by looking at other plans that could inform,
guide or complement the one you are developing. Audit the performance of
your organisation and its communication and determine its capacity to take on
the work being planned. Some information may be easily available, but other
issues could require informal or formal research. Input from key stakeholders,
including management and employees, is valuable at this early stage. Questions
that could be investigated here include:
• What is the strategic direction that informs your planning process?

• How does the evaluation of previous plans and activities inform the current
planning process?
• How well is the organisation performing and what are its needs in terms of
communication?
• What is the quality of the communication activities to date and what
communication channels does the organisation control?
• What structures and resources (including budgets) within the organisation
are available for this plan and its implementation?
Lakeview Zoo communication campaign—situation

Problem: Lakeview Zoo has a strong reputation as a place to visit, but the
community is not aware that its primary purpose is conservation work rather
than entertainment. The impact of this is that visitor numbers and support for
conservation programs are not as strong as they could be.
External research reveals numerous factors that impact on the Zoo, includ-
ing the threatened withdrawal of government funding and an increase in
environmental and animal welfare

concerns in the community. Internally,
research shows that the communica-
tion effort has largely been directed
towards family entertainment and
that, while the budget is extremely
limited, there is an enthusiastic, dedi-
cated and talented communication
team. The Zoo has a clear strategic
mission—to protect and promote Figure 8.3 Analysis of Lakeview Zoo’s
global animal conservation—that will situation reveals the focus on conservation.
be used to guide the planning. Photo by Dušan Smetana, Unsplash.
Step 2—Analysis of publics

The second step, Analysis of publics, asks:
• Who do we impact and who impacts us?

• What do we know about our publics?
• Which public needs the most attention at this time?
Now that you have a good idea of the problem and the external and internal
factors being encountered, attention can turn to the organisation’s publics—
drilling down into who they are, their interests, their preferred method of
engagement and the relationship they have with the organisation. Two main
steps are involved here: the identification and the analysis of the publics.
Publics can be identified in terms of broad categories such as employees,
consumers, community, media, government, suppliers and investors. But that is
just the start. Broad groups such as ‘the community’ or the ‘general public’ are
not helpful in a planning sense. Each of these categories can be broken down
into smaller and more well-defined characteristics using factors such as demo-
graphics, geographics and psychographics, or by their level of influence within
their own communities. For example, when considering government, are the
publics local, state-based, national or international? Do you need to engage
specific politicians, special committees or public servants? Which departments
and agencies? Or, for a not-for-profit campaign, are you targeting everyone
in your attempts to rescue abandoned puppies or do you want dog-lovers of
certain age groups with stable homes?
Once the publics have been identified, understanding their characteristics
and needs will assist in developing more accurate messages and tactics. Not
all publics will be interested in engaging with the organisation all the time.
Their level of interest and activity will vary across time, depending on the situ-
ation. For example, some publics will be highly engaged and interested in all
issues; others will be more active on single issues of interest; and some publics
may only attend to ‘hot issues’ that receive intense public interest
for short periods of time (Grunig 2013, p. 836). A useful theory
situational that addresses this is situational theory of publics (Grunig 2013,
theory of pp. 834–836; Aldoory & Sha 2007).
publics This theory considers publics to be either active or passive in the
way they seek out information (deliberate search or accidental encoun-
ter) and process it (the level of attention and thought). Three variables that will
influence their level of activity, presented from the public’s point of view, are:
• Problem recognition—do I see a problem that needs to be fixed?

• Constraint recognition—can I do anything about it?
• Level of involvement—am I affected by it?
If the public can answer yes to all three variables, they are considered to
be an active public, or even an activist public if they become involved by sharing
information. If they are missing one or two of the variables, then they could
be considered aware, latent or apathetic publics, with the potential to become
active. Figure 8.4 explains the differences between each of the publics, and
suggests actions and responses that organisations could take to assist publics to
be more active.
These stages of development may give some indication as to which publics
may be the most interested and active, but another factor to consider is the
power that the publics have over the organisation—be it political, economic or
social. An interest/power matrix (see Figure 8.5 below) maps these two factors
against each other. Plotting each public on the matrix can assist in determining
which ones to address first. The matrix can also be used to consider the most
appropriate communication strategies to use (Gregory 2007, p. 66).
Figure 8.4 Stages of development of publics. Source: adapted from Smith (2017,
pp. 80–83); Aldoory & Sha (2007); Grunig (2013).
Figure 8.5 Interest/power matrix.

L
An analysis of key publics, in relation to the conservation aspect of the zoo’s
function, revealed key publics to be addressed.
• Young adults, school students, interstate and international visitors share the
passion of conservation but are not aware of the Zoo’s role in it (latent publics).
• National conservationists are not aware of the Zoo’s work and achieve-
ments (latent public).
• Potential sponsors are aware of conservation issues but prioritise other issues
within their CSR programs (apathetic public).
• Zoo volunteers are passionate about conservation but not sure how to help
(aware public).
Step 3—Goal setting

The third step, Goal setting, asks:
• How do we want to present/position the organisation?
• What do we want to achieve?
Now that the situation has been explored, the organisation should have a
clearer understanding of how it, and its products and/or services, are perceived
by the key stakeholders. But does this align with how it wants to be seen? How
does the organisation wish to present itself? This may well be identified already
in the mission statement or organisational values, where phrases such as ‘industry
leader’, ‘best company’, ‘customer-centric’ or ‘environmentally sustainable’
provide a clear statement that distinguishes the organisation from its competitors.
Goals and objectives established on the back of a strong understanding
of the situation and the desired position will guide the whole communication
plan, its implementation and its evaluation. They will ensure that resources and
time are managed efficiently and effectively and that the communication team
is aware of what needs to be achieved not only for the communication task but
also for the organisation.
Goals are expressed as broad, conceptual statements that address the
problem identified in Step 1. So, if the problem is that there are strained
relationships with key stakeholders that are impacting on the organisation’s
performance, then the goal will focus on rebuilding and strengthening those
relationships. At this stage, no detail on how that will be done is given, just
the identification of a preferred end state. Goals can address organisational
reputations and relationships, or they could be task-oriented—‘concerned with
getting things done’ (Smith 2017, p. 106). A plan may have one or a few goals
but, to keep the focus, don’t have too many.
Objectives emerge from these goals, providing greater specificity about
what milestones need to be reached on the way to achieving the broader goal.
Each goal may therefore have multiple objectives but, again, the number needs
to remain manageable. Objectives are clear statements of intent and need to
be SMART—specific, measurable, achievable, relevant (or realistic) and time-
specific. In doing so, they set the direction for the tactics while also establishing
the parameters for measuring success.
Objectives need to focus on outcomes (what will be achieved) rather than
outputs (what will be done). To achieve specificity and make an objective useful,
numerous elements should be included.
• Desired change—consider specifically what you are seeking to

achieve. Think about the three As of awareness, attitude and
action (Smith 2017, p. 111; Gregory 2017, p. 182). This frame- attitude
work is based on the three psychological processes that affect component
communication: cognitive (what people know), affective (what model
people feel) and conative (what people do), described in the

attitude component model.
• Content of change—what is it that you want the public to know (awareness),
to feel/believe/accept (attitude) or to do (action)?
• Direction of change—start with an action verb that directs this process, such
as ‘increase’, ‘deliver’, ‘obtain’, ‘decrease’, ‘speed up’, ‘implement’, ‘break
into’, ‘connect’, ‘link’, ‘maintain’.
• Size of change—how much do you want to change, expressed in terms of
numbers or percentages? This gives the measurable component of SMART
objectives.
• Who you want to affect—identify the specific public/s being targeted by that
objective.
• Time period—what is the period of time needed to achieve the change?
Some potential goals and objectives for our Lakeview Zoo communica-
tion campaign are listed below. Note the relationships between the goals
and objectives, as well as the structure and the SMART elements in each of
the objectives.
Goal 1: Build a reputation as national leaders in animal conservation
(reputational goal).
• Objective 1.1: Increase the awareness among 18- to 35-year-old Lakeview

residents of the Zoo’s conservation plan by 30 per cent over the next
twelve months.
• Objective 1.2: Achieve recognition of two main conservation projects in a
national forum in the next two years.
• Objective 1.3: Increase positive attitudes of interstate and international
visitors towards the role of zoos in conservation by 20 per cent over the next
twelve months.
Goal 2: Strengthen partnerships and support in increasing conservation

activities (relationship goal).
• Objective 2.1: Attract 100 attendees to two key partnership events in the
next six months.
• Objective 2.2: Increase the satisfaction rate of Lakeview Zoo’s volunteer
brigade by 15 per cent over the next twelve months.
• Objective 2.3: Increase corporate sponsorship by 10 per cent over the next
twelve months.
Step 4—Action planning (tactics)

The fourth step, Action planning, asks:
• What do we want to say?

• What actions and responses are appropriate?
• How can we reach and engage our publics?
Until now you have resisted the temptation to come up with creative ideas
to reach out to your publics. But now that you have some direction from the
goals and objectives, you can get down to the tactical level to specify the actions
to be taken. In this step, consider three aligned elements that will determine
what you do to achieve the goals and objectives that have been set: the messages,
the tactics and the channels.
The first part of action planning is to decide on the messaging that will be
used to achieve the objectives. Again, this should be derived from the strategic
direction, such as a positioning statement or the direction given in the objec-
tives. Message strategies should be kept simple and consistent. A key message
that encompasses all publics and actions provides a common voice but can still
be tailored to fit each circumstance. It can be used in all aspects of the campaign
from printed material, to media interviews, speeches, websites and social media.
Careful crafting of the message will assist in it being accepted and retained
by the targeted audience. In other words,
[m]essages and the way they are conveyed are the starting point of the thinking,
attitude or behavioural change that the organisation is seeking. Badly done,
they can be the end point too. (Gregory 2000, p. 113)
In order to be persuasive, messages should should balance factual

information with emotion (such as humour, compassion, guilt, fear)
and come from a source that the public finds credible. This incorpo- rhetoric
rates elements of logos, pathos and ethos as described in the theory
of rhetoric.
They could:
• state facts
• highlight the virtue of something
• suggest a new way of doing something
• seek the audience’s agreement, advocacy about an issue or behaviour change.
At the same time, you should consider the ethical and legal consequences of
messages. Words and images/vision should not promise what cannot be deliv-
ered. They need to be clear and inoffensive, avoid jargon and, where necessary,
translate to other languages without causing confusion.
Messages can be both verbal and non-verbal, so cues such as logos,
colours, symbols and music can complement or replace words in messaging.
Think of the power of an advertising jingle that sticks in your head or the
power of the colour red for Coke, KFC, Vodafone and Qantas.
Messages need to be developed with the audience in mind—
they need to tap into the interests of the public, not be driven by
The Hierarchy
the needs or perspectives of the organisation. Understanding how
of Effects
model messages are received and processed by the audience will assist in
developing messages with impact (Austin & Pinkleton 2015). The
Hierarchy of Effects model explains how people move through
stages of understanding, first needing to be aware of a product or
The Elaboration issue before they can form an attitude and preference for it, which,
Likelihood in turn, may lead to a behaviour change.
theory The Elaboration Likelihood theory shows us that our messages
are more likely to be considered more intently by audiences who feel
they have a stake in the issue being addressed, while others who use
a more peripheral route to processing information will lean more
Diffusion of
heavily on the credibility of the source rather than the content of the
Innovation message (e.g. Diffusion of Innovation).
Messages can have various types of structures, including:
• simple declaration—‘Fonterra to close Dennington site’

• questioning—‘Have you ever wondered where your fruit and vegetables
come from?’ (Coles supermarket)
• creative—‘No buTTs . . . because the world is not an ashtray’, ‘Don’t be a
tosser’ (No buTTS campaign)
• staged:
– key message—‘Keep your hands off our Ambos!’ (Ambulance
Tasmania)
– related messages:
° ‘I can’t fight for your mate’s life if I’m fighting for mine’
° ‘Everyone deserves to be safe at work’
° ‘Make it socially unacceptable for any of your mates to threaten or
assault an ambo’.
Key messaging for this campaign will be about the work and achievements in
conservation, but this will be adapted for each audience depending on the
factors above as well as the objectives. For example, to increase volunteers’
satisfaction rating, the key message can be tailored to show how they contrib-
ute personally to the global conservation movement. This might also include
providing t-shirts with the key message so they can showcase the cause and
also show off their involvement. Potential sponsors could be given emotional
messages that show the threat to global conservation if the Zoo’s work is not
maintained. Targeting school children with the messages, to show they can
be part of the solution, potentially targets both holiday volunteers and school
sponsorships.
The second decision to make in action planning concerns the tactics—

the actions and responses that will help achieve the goals and objectives that
have been set. Take a look at the objectives and think about how they can
be achieved. Numerous creative ideas will come to mind and brainstorming
is a good way to approach the task. A large range of tactics and tools are
available, and many are covered in more detail in the next chapter. Think
in general terms in the first instance, as you will be more specific when
you select the channels that will be used. You can delineate between ‘pro
active’ actions, which are internally directed and controlled, and ‘reactive’
responses, which are driven by external demands (Smith 2017). Actions
could include publicity, transparent communication, social media and events,
while responses could include apologies, investigations and adjustments to
operations.
L
Numerous actions could be taken to address each of the objectives separately,
or a single action could address multiple objectives. Actions addressing the first
objective,
to increase the awareness among 18- to 35-year-old Lakeview residents of

the Zoo’s conservation plan,
could include:
• the hosting of an after-dark tour at the Zoo

• developing a social media campaign to share the cutest/ugliest/scariest
animal
• creating interactive displays at third-party festivals
• bringing the Zoo to schools and schools to the Zoo through talks and visits,
holiday volunteer programs and competitions.
These actions may also address some of the other objectives or comple-
ment other actions.
To really pinpoint those tactics, it will be necessary to select the channels

that will be used to reach and engage the various publics in the campaign—the
third part of action planning. Some specific examples include news and social
media platforms, organisational publications, and specific events and open
days in which the predetermined messages can be shared directly with the
publics. In this section, we’ll outline key points that need to be considered
when selecting the channels to use in a campaign.
With so much choice, where do you start? You need to consider the
practicalities of time and budget; however, much of the direction will come
from the goals and objectives, and actions and responses, that have been set
so far in the planning process. Some channels will be obvious. See the examples
for our Lakeview Zoo campaign below.
Numerous theories can inform the selection of communication
two-step channels. The two-step flow of communication reminds us that
flow of some people will receive their information from opinion leaders
communication rather than directly from the source.
Therefore, the use of ambassadors, celebrities and influencers may

be appropriate in some cases. Theories of relationship management
relationship
and rhetoric suggest that we need to include some channels that allow management
two-way engagement with the targeted publics.
The theory of uses and gratifications prompts us to consider the
way targeted publics use various communication channels and how
they wish to engage with the organisation.
uses and
By understanding agenda setting and framing used by relevant gratifications
media outlets, efficient choices can be made regarding which channels theory
to target and how to best approach them.
In writing the plan, the selected communication channels need
to be presented in a logical order, and their links with the objectives
should be shown. Tactics may be grouped together in four ways: agenda setting
and framing
1. By tactical category—using the PESO framework or similar
2. By public—grouped according to the key target publics in the
plan
3. By goal and/or objective—show the direct relationship between the channel
selected and the goal and/or objective that it will help
4. By department—using the organisational structure, identify who will have
the responsibility to manage that channel. (Smith 2017, pp. 340–341)
The deciding factor is clarity: a clear structure will facilitate logical imple-
mentation.
L
Let’s look at some of the objectives for the Lakeview Zoo discussed earlier to help
select the channels. If we are to reach young adults from our city, then relevant
communication channels could be through social media, most likely Instagram
and YouTube, or events that they attend, such as music festivals, perhaps using
visual displays and roving ambassadors. For social media it’s important to use a
range of channels and hashtags such as #Lakeviewzoo. To reach the local and
international visitors who are already at the Zoo, communication channels could
include improved messaging on signage and a survey as guests are leaving.

And for the objective of seeking national recognition, the channel could be an
award nomination for conservation work. All three objectives may also benefit
from news media coverage—print, radio and television. Since zoos are inher-
ently visual places with lots of animals, using a visual approach in any medium
would work best. A detailed description of the giant tortoise (#gianttortoise) will
be significantly enhanced by an image or video. Some social media was set up
solely for the purpose of sharing imagery, so use it when you have the talent.
While each communication channel serves a purpose in itself, they also need
to work together to deliver on the communication goals and organisational
mission. When used together in a carefully managed campaign, they will also
be shared—news picks up others’ social media, festival stories make it to the TV
news, the international guests will use social media to share #Lakeviewzoo with
their friends at home and so on.
Figure 8.6 Using hashtag #gianttortoise and this image would be simpler than
trying to describe this tortoise in words. Photo by Dušan Smetana, Unsplash.
Step 5—Administration planning

The fifth step, Administration planning, asks:
• What financial, human and other resources are needed?

• How long will each step take and what are the deadlines?
• In what order should actions be taken?
• Who has responsibility for each action?
Now that the actions have been planned, the administrative requirements
for implementation need to be specified. Schedule and budgets are central to
this step of the planning process, but related to this is the need to consider the
human and material resources required and the allocation of responsibilities to
individuals to ensure the tasks are done. This is the project management phase.
One of the first considerations will be whether there is a need to establish
separate phases in the campaign. If the campaign is particularly complex, has
many parts working simultaneously or is spread over a long time, the division of
actions into phases may assist in keeping the project on track. Phases allow for
grouping activities into smaller elements with shorter time periods, allowing
monitoring and adjustment as the larger project continues.
Schedules ensure that everyone is aware of what is happening and provide
frameworks for discussions in team meetings. In that sense, schedules provide an
avenue for communication between multiple parts of the organisation involved
in the project. The schedules not only specify the deadlines for each activity
but also show the relationships between each element to achieve maximum
coordination and impact from an integrated approach. They list each activity
in the order in which they need to be undertaken, highlighting the schedul-
ing of simultaneous activities. The schedule also specifies milestones, such as
planning meetings, the end of phases, approval deadlines, evaluation activities
and the production and distribution of materials.
Schedules serve as the framework for monitoring and controlling a project.
Various tools can be used to map out the schedule, from a simple to-do list or
spreadsheet to more complex software programs, such as Microsoft Project,
that manage the resources and budgets as well. These are often based on
Gantt chart methods, which display the activities to be completed in a vertical
list on the left side of the chart. The total time required for implementation is
mapped across the top of the chart and broken into manageable time frames,
which could be hourly, daily, weekly or monthly depending on the complexity

of the campaign. By mapping each activity, the project manager can monitor
which tasks are on schedule and the impact that may have on the tasks that
follow. This can be colour coded according to team member responsibility.
Figure 8.7 is an example of a Gantt chart using a Microsoft Excel template.
Figure 8.7 Microsoft Excel Agile Gantt chart.
A budget allows you to direct, monitor and control organisational resources.

Competition for the budget can be fierce within an organisation and you may
need to negotiate with other departments and the CEO. A detailed budget
can assist in that negotiation phase by showing what is involved, what can be
adjusted if needed and the likely impact of those adjustments.
The first step in budgeting is to consider the resources needed for the
task, such as people, materials, facilities and services that are not available
in-house. Salaries for permanent staff may not need to be included in a
budget, but the costs incurred by bringing in additional staffing or specialist
skills to assist with a campaign (such as graphic designers and videographers)
will need to be included.
Expenditure should include:
• people—salaries and benefits, contracted personnel

• equipment and facilities—IT equipment, furnishing for events, meeting
rooms
• communication collateral—design, production, printing and publishing costs
• media costs—advertising, overheads
• administrative items—office supplies, travel, surcharges
• contingency—always have a budget line for unexpected costs (approx.
10 per cent, but depends on the risks associated with the budget estimates).
It is not just about costs. The budget should also specify whether there
will be any income to offset those costs (such as sponsorship, entry fees, sales
of merchandise) and what portion of the activity the company will need to
cover. This could also include where you have ‘in-kind’ support, such as where
a butcher provides meat for a fundraising event at no cost but expects signage
on the tent and program. You would mark this as no cost if that was the case,
but it could still be included in the overall budget to give visibility of their
involvement.
Primarily a budget will forecast the expenses and income; it should
then be used as a monitoring tool to keep track of the actual costs. In this
way, savings made in some areas may be reallocated to others as the plan is
being implemented. The use of a spreadsheet, or other program that allows
you to insert formulae for the subtotal and totals, will allow for easier adjust-
ment as the project continues. A simple example of a budget is shown in
Figure 8.8.
The organisation’s financial standing should always be considered and,
in the case of not-for-profit organisations, care needs to be taken to avoid
overspending or being seen to be wasting the valuable resources of the organi-
sation. When resources are few, there is a need to be creative in your approach
to budgets and to look for opportunities to save or to bring in additional
funds. Budget saving ideas include the use of volunteers, asking for
donations from attendees, seeking corporate sponsorship or sharing
costs through collaboration with like-minded organisations. For non- cause-
marketing
profits, the adoption of a cause-marketing approach can be very
useful as well.
Figure 8.8 Example of basic budget.
L
The time constraints set by the objectives will dictate the total length of this
campaign, but some activities may need to fit around timelines set by third parties,
such as the conservation awards and music festivals. Each tactic will need to be
broken into more specific tasks and milestones, and monitoring and evaluation
activities will also need to be included. Considering the financial status of the Zoo,
care will need to be taken in the selection and funding of the tactics.
Step 6—Review planning

The sixth step, Review planning, asks:
• How will we know how well we have done?

• How will we measure our activities?
• How will we evaluate our success?
In the final step, plans need to be prepared for the monitoring, measure-
ment and evaluation of the communication campaign. This is a straightforward
procedure which lists the actions that will be taken to determine the extent
to which the objectives have been met. More detailed information about the
research involved in measurement and evaluation is provided in Chapter 6.
The focus in this chapter is on the details that need to be included at the end
of the written plan.
Two main processes need to be mapped in the review phase: the measure-
ment of outputs and the evaluation of outcomes. Both are valuable but they
serve different purposes. Outputs, the activities that ‘reach and engage the target
public/s’ (PRIA 2017, p. 2), are measured in terms of the material produced and
the numbers reached. In this way, the strategic communication and PR practi-
tioner can account for what has been done. But to assess what has been achieved,
there needs to be an evaluation of outcomes, ‘what the target public/s take out
of communication and initial responses . . . and . . . what sustainable effects the
communication has on the target public’ (PRIA 2017, p. 2).
The plan for measuring outputs should include the expected metrics and
timeline of key activities—how they will be measured and what are accept-
able benchmarks. For example, quantitative information about the amount
of coverage in news media, or the number of newsletters, social media posts
or event attendees, gives an indication of the work that is being done. At the
same time, further information should be collected regarding responses to
messaging and the effectiveness of the channels of communication to assess
whether changes need to be made to the plan while it is being implemented.
The scheduling of the measurement is important; while final statistics and
results are useful at the end of the campaign, measurement should also
be taken periodically, which is often referred to as tracking research or
monitoring.
The plan for evaluation could also be phased throughout the implemen-
tation, assessing the effects on the publics at key milestones in the campaign.
Measuring outcomes is more difficult because they are often less tangible,
but they should tie in to your objectives. The objectives set at the start of the
planning process will dictate what outcomes need to be evaluated and accept-
able levels of success. For example, if the objective is to achieve a 20 per cent
growth in awareness over a six-month period, then a survey to see how much
the targeted public knows about the issue or product would be appropriate.
As the measure is in terms of growth, there will need to be similar research
conducted before the campaign starts to provide a benchmark. A clear align-
ment between the objectives and the evaluation needs to be made explicit in
the plan.
The key to planning the monitoring and evaluation of this campaign is to anchor
it in the objectives (see p. 222). For example, for the objective of increasing
awareness of the 18- to 35-year-old local residents, a number of tasks will
need to be undertaken, including establishing the baseline level of awareness
before the campaign starts and the replication of the same measurement tool
at the end of the campaign. However, as the objective attempts to change
their knowledge of the conservation plan, messages may need to be tested
and modified in the planning or early implementation phases for greater
impact.
Tools such as surveys will be needed to evaluate the awareness, attitude
and behavioural changes sought in the objectives, but reporting on outputs
throughout the implementation will also give management some confi-
dence that the campaign is proceeding to plan. Statistics on social and news
media activities, reach and engagement may be useful for this purpose. For
example, tracking hashtags and the sharing of key messages can provide
insights.
Crisis planning—key considerations

The principles and processes described in this chapter are appropriate for all
types of communication activities, such as corporate communication, social
media, stakeholder/employee/community engagement and issues/risk/crisis
communication. Adaptations may be necessary at times, and specific consider-
ations will be determined by the situation being faced. Here, we briefly consider
one of these areas in particular—crisis planning—because it has perhaps the most
distinctive features due to unknown elements and timeframes. One of the key
differences between crisis planning and other planning is timing—you cannot
plan when a crisis hits, so you must plan in advance to be effective. Likewise, the
implementation of the plan, which occurs when a crisis hits, is always a stressful
time. This is why crisis and planning go hand-in-hand. Table 8.2 highlights some
of the special considerations needed at each part of the six-step process.
Table 8.2 Crisis planning—additional considerations
Step Crisis planning—additional considerations

Situation Identify and list all potential crises and perform a risk
assessment.
Identify likely supporters and opposition for each
potential crisis.
Identify crisis teams and spokespeople, location options
for a crisis control room and resources needed.
Publics Keep list broad and general, providing a framework to
assist in the specification and prioritisation of publics
when the crisis hits.
The status of publics will change in a crisis, with
non-publics and latent or apathetic publics potentially
becoming more aware and active.
Goals Pre-crisis phase: keep goals and objectives general to assist
in the preparation for unknown crises.
Crisis phase: focus on keeping key publics informed on
important and breaking information.
Post-crisis phase: focus on addressing the repair of both
operations and key stakeholder relations.
Table 8.2 Crisis planning—additional considerations continued
Step Crisis planning—additional considerations

Action Messages: Truth, authenticity, openness and timely
responses are needed. Develop standard messages in
advance. For example, draft a holding statement to
advise stakeholders that a situation is unfolding, and
that more information will be provided when available.
Actions: Proactive actions such as the use of organisational
communication channels (website, social media, SMS)
can be planned. Build strong relationships with key
media and opinion leaders needed for potential reactive
responses.
Channels: List external and internal channels that currently
exist, with up-to-date contact information, to be used as
a checklist to address the specific needs of each crisis.
Administration No specific dates can be determined until the crisis has
hit.
Prepare by building frameworks or templates, and by
listing time frames and costs for standard activities.
Identify resources and quarantine for use in crises if
necessary.
List the roles and responsibilities of staff and any need for
additional staff or skill sets.
Review Consider the allocation of time, resources and
responsibilities for this function.
Expectations regarding the measure of success of
effective crisis communication management, set prior
to the crisis will provide a benchmark for evaluation
post-crisis.
Conclusion
There is an old adage of unknown origin, often attributed to Benjamin Franklin,
that says: ‘The person who fails to plan, plans to fail’ (O’Toole 2018). No matter
who said it, it rings true. But equally, a good plan is just the starting point. Once
the implementation starts, previously unknown factors will place unexpected
demands on the plan, so flexibility and adaptability are essential characteristics

of the campaign manager. A plan should never be set in concrete. It needs to
bend and flex to changing circumstances while remaining true to purpose. The
goals and objectives are the key to keeping a changing plan on track, so consid-
erable thought and effort needs to be given to these. Additionally, successful
development and implementation of a plan is dependent upon an understand-
ing of how the plan is informed by research throughout the process—not just
at the start and end.
Planning is a process that is clouded by different approaches and different
terminologies. But at its heart is a logical course of action that does not differ
significantly in different contexts. Soldiers use the acronym SMEAC when
giving orders to their troops, describing the situation, mission and execution,
and detailing the administration/logistics and command/signal arrangements. The
CEO of a Fortune 500 company sets out a strategy for the next five years of the
company in a similar way.
For the communication practitioner, the steps outlined in this chapter
provide a logical pathway for thinking about a problem or opportunity and
setting a course of action. Whether that plan is for corporate communication,
a campaign, stakeholder engagement, issues/crisis/risk management, social media
or any other function, the methods examined in this chapter are applicable.
References
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Excellence in Public Relations and Communication Management: Challenges for the Next Genera-
tion (pp. 339–356). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Austin, E.W. & Pinkleton, B.E. (2015). Strategic Public Relations Management: Planning and
Managing Effective Communication Programs (3rd edn). New York, NY: Routledge.
Brunner, B.R. (2019). Public Relations Theory: Application and Understanding. Hoboken, NJ: John
Wiley & Sons.
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MIT Sloan Management Review (pp. 52–60). Boston, MA: MIT Press.
Chapter 9
Tactic selection and

content creation
In Chapter 7 we considered Carl Botan’s three levels of strategy: tactics, he

explained, can be considered the third level of strategy. These were described
as the specific activities and outputs through which strategies are implemented—
also understood as the technical elements of strategic communication and
public relations. As Botan commented, ‘Although grand strategy is at the top
of the hierarchy, it is completely dependent on tactics’ (2018, p. 14). We now
return to this crucial component of the communication tool-kit—one which
is both exciting and daunting. Exciting, because there is so much choice;
daunting also because there’s so much choice! Where to start, what to choose
from the hundreds of tactics available, how to mix them up and who to pitch
them to—these are all choices we have to make as strategic communicators.
More than ever in today’s communication and media world we are spoiled
for choice, because the digital environment has vastly expanded the commu-
nication tactics that are available to us. Add to that other tactics that are
not digital- or media-focused, such as philanthropy or CSR, and the options
are seemingly endless. But whether tactics are focused on an Instagram
feed, a brochure, a community rally, a round-table meeting or a commit-
ment to philanthropy, they all share one thing in common: they can be used
to achieve certain objectives or goals, serving a strategy that has been put
in place earlier. Most are fundamentally communication tactics, although
some, like CSR and philanthropy, are also part of an organisation’s or group’s
value system. Tactical selection, overall, is all about deciding how to achieve
239
the best outcomes in terms of objectives, goals, strategies and plans for the
organisation.
To give you a sense of the vast choice of tactics, we’ve put together our
‘Top 100 Tactics’ later in the chapter. This is not intended to be a compre-
hensive list (that would be impossible); it’s just a sampler of the many tactics
available for selection by the strategic communication practitioner. We’ve also
explained how tactics work in a bit more detail, providing a range of examples
in the chapter. And we examine two critical parts of tactic development and
execution—content creation and distribution. The creation of most tactics
and how these are distributed to the audience incorporate both the creative and
technical skills that you need to bring to the strategic communication mix.
Controlled/uncontrolled tactics
There is a long-standing distinction in public relations between what are known
as controlled and uncontrolled communication tactics. Controlled communication
is managed right through delivery, from its creation to how it finally connects
with stakeholders—through things such as advertising, brochures, books and
events. Uncontrolled communication, on the other hand, involves third parties
who may change the communication during the process, and so it cannot be
managed right through the delivery stage. Traditionally, this was best represented
by media releases, sent to the news media and transformed into news outside the
control of the public relations practitioner. While this distinction does still exist,
the digital media environment has mixed up much communication activity so
that it is now often co-created or co-produced and the clear distinction between
creator/producer and audience/sender no longer exists. As we saw in the media
chapter, the contemporary converged and shared online media environment
means that many tactics are created by one person and then changed or adapted
as they move from person to person. Stories and content are shared; mash-ups
and memes are created. In the world of media, this is usefully expressed in the
PESO model outlined in Chapter 5 (Dietrich 2013). In that model, paid, earned,
shared and owned media are shown as overlapping (see Figure 5.1).
Whereas control of the message and distribution of content was once
considered paramount in strategic communication and PR, the lack of control
Tactic selection and content creation 241
has become one of the fundamental elements of content and distribution today.
Successful companies and other organisations realise that getting others to
co-create for them can be one of the most valuable tactics available. At the same
time, taking care with ‘owned’ tactic selection, combining different tactics in
the most strategic ways, and making sure these are timed and pitched appro-
priately can mean the difference between hitting your target and missing the
mark. We now take a look at how to go about tactic selection and how content
and distribution can be best managed.
Tactic selection
Carefully selected and combined tactics provide the opportunity to create
great impact and achieve our goals and objectives. Increasingly they are used in
combination because of the many platforms and delivery methods available to
reach different stakeholders. Where once a single media release to a journalist
may have achieved the simple purpose of letting the media and your audience
know your story, these days you’d also use Twitter to send the same message
because it’s so popular with media. However, while you’re at it, you might
as well repurpose your story for your owned platforms, such as Instagram.
A combination of the digital as well as traditional options can usually work
well to cover your bases. Strong tactics should take into account a range of
important issues such as timing, the context in which they will be used, cost,
opportunity, resourcing, reach and ethics. However, as Adams points out,
‘tactics should not be chosen using a shopping list approach . . . they must
relate to the stakeholders and must be part of an overall creative strategy’
(Adams 2014, p. 132).
As we saw in the previous chapter, tactics equate to ‘action planning’. They
are chosen to achieve the goals and objectives and to activate the strategy. In
their many and varied forms (see the Top 100 table below), they are also the
best way to deliver key messages and the stories that you want to tell. Story-
telling is now among the most popular tactics—this is made clear in our later
discussion on content creation. In the following case study, we take a look at
the stories and other tactics used by the natural cosmetic brand Burt’s Bees.
Here, we trace the brand’s strategy, first through its story and then through the
tactics found on the company’s website, highlighting the tactics in bold as we

go. You’ll also find these tactics listed and briefly explained later in the chapter
in the Top 100.
The story of Burt’s Bees

The story of Burt’s Bees includes a treasure trove of ‘feel good’ tactics. After
you read how the story unfolds on the website, below, you can learn how the
company has put its weight behind its #BringBackTheBees campaign to save
the world’s bees. The story starts here:
It began in Maine about 30 years ago. Burt the Beekeeper was happily
selling honey from the back of his truck. But fate had other ideas for the
bearded hero when he met Roxanne Quimby. Burt and Roxanne hit it off
and before long she was making candles with unused wax from Burt’s
beehives. From those original candles, to the iconic Beeswax Lip Balm, to over
180 products—Burt’s Bees has been guided by a single principle: Nature has
the best answers. (Burt’s Bees 2019a)
This is a great start to the story about Burt’s love of bees and everything
bee-worthy, which continues as the tactics seem to organically unfold. Burt’s
has partnered with Sydney’s Taronga Zoo to develop a conservation and
education observation exhibit. The key message is: ‘A world without bees is
unimaginable and we’re committed to supporting our buzzing friends’ (Burt’s
Bees 2019b). Burt’s has also committed to philanthropy by setting up the
‘Wheen Bee Foundation’—a not-for-profit that promotes awareness of the impor
tance of bees for food security. It explains what plants work best for bees and
the importance of bees in the pollination process and the survival of flowering
plants. A YouTube link on the website shows a raft of media coverage from
television, print and online showcasing the #BringBackTheBees campaign and
including an interview with Sydney-based artist and influencer Mulga painting
a cool mural that depicts the kinds of foods that would not exist without bees.
The campaign is also promoted by nude nutritionist and influencer Lyndi
Cohen, who explains how ‘pollination is responsible for one in every three bites
of foods that we eat’ and also conducts some vox-pop interviews with passers-
by in the Sydney streets. The campaign is a fundraiser, committing $1 for each
limited-edition lip balm that’s sold. The website houses YouTube, Instagram,
Twitter and Facebook social media links.
That’s at least twelve tactics on our count—and we didn’t even look that hard!
(Also note, that’s just the Australian story—the website provides language-
specific links to 21 countries, many featuring different stories and campaigns.
You might want to go international and look at the others.)
Figure 9.1 Joel Moore aka Mulga (right) and another artist paint the
#BringBackTheBees mural as part of the campaign of the same name in Sydney
(on the corner of York and Wynyard streets). Source: Burt’s Bees.
Developing content and delivery methods

In strategic communication and PR we’re in the business of creating content.
At the centre of tactic selection, therefore, is the idea of content—what do we
want to communicate—and the delivery method or execution of that content—
how will it reach its intended audience? These are equally important elements
of tactic selection. We’ll look at each in turn.
Content and the ‘4-C model’

Communicating with stakeholders means listening to what they have to say
and sharing messages and stories with them. Organisations have long created
their own content as part of this sharing process. Some has been directed to
the news media, through press releases or feature story ideas, while some has
been channelled directly to audiences, such as brochures or advertising. Not
surprisingly, however, the majority of content generated by organisations
today is digitally shared via websites and social media platforms. What clever
organisations are increasingly doing is calling on their stakeholders to tell their
own stories and link them with the themes of the organisation. They’ve figured
out that, although facts and figures are important, people tend to be more
attracted to stories or narratives that are relatable to their own lives, experiences,
aspirations and fantasies.
When we talk about ‘stories’ in strategic communication, they may be
about individual and personalised stories, but they can also be the organisa-
tion’s own story. The main organisational story is usually found in the ‘about
us’ section of the corporate website or at the front of a company brochure or
annual report. Their stories are what define organisations over and above their
buildings, technology and infrastructure. Recall Chapter 7, where we looked at
how stories are used strategically by well-known names such as Nike and Coca-
Cola. As these stories by various storytellers develop across a range of media
channels, organisations will often unite them into a ‘unified story’ or ‘brand
narrative’ that represents the organisation’s public image, values and so on. It
is this variety of storytellers, using different media techniques across multiple
platforms, that enable an organisation’s content and its various stories to be
integrated and shared. The use of many media channels telling different story
versions is known as transmedia storytelling, a term coined by Jenkins (2007).
Increasingly, content sharing is achieved by combining original content and

‘curating’ the work of others. Simply put, curation ‘is the process of select-
ing content and telling a story about it’ (Wolff & Mulholand 2013, p. 5).
Originally a term from museum and art gallery practice, content curation
has taken on a much wider meaning as the opportunities created by massive
volumes of online content are harnessed for strategic communication
purposes. Some say the reason curation has become so popular is due to the
information ‘glut’ created by the user-generated content revolution (Zhong
et al. 2013). As such, the role of the content curator ‘is not to create more
content, but to make sense of the best and most relevant content and thereby
to add a voice and point of view about existing material’ (Villi et al. 2012,
p. 491). Pinterest is one of the best-known curation platforms, but news and
other organisations are also efficient curators. Online newspapers, which curate
blog posts from outside sources, and sporting organisations that use news story
feeds on their websites and their fans’ social media, are also in the business of
curating the content of others. Online curation has taken various forms: it is
Figure 9.2 Content creation and curation are both part of the storytelling mix.
Adapted from SketchBubble (n.d.).
the foundation of Facebook’s moments and Twitter’s threading (Weissman

2017). In terms of sharing stories through tagging, digg.com and reddit.com
have also allowed sharing of articles and curating news.
An acknowledged risk with curation is that it is very simple to use or appro-
priate other people’s work without their knowledge or consent. Mashable’s
Steve Rosenbaum describes this as ‘The Great Creationism Debate’, which
‘pits creators against curators’ based on the rules and ethics of using the content
of others. He says creators should have the ability to create boundaries, both
editorial and economic, around what they create and how it is repurposed
(2010). Those working in strategic communication should consider this when
curating content and never pass work off as their own; be confident that all
links would be endorsed by the source; and be respectful by taking down links
if requested. The concept of curation comes from the Latin word ‘cuare’ which
means ‘to care’ (Villi et al. 2012, p. 490)—hence its use in art and museums, and
to describe the greenkeepers’ care of sports fields—so keep this in mind when
you curate your own digital spaces and use the work of others in the process.
Online content is a multi-faceted activity. It has become a recognised way
of making the most of works that have been created by others. In addition to
creation and curation of content, we can add two more important elements
in content development: composing, in the form of message, image or story
elements; and crowdsourcing, through bringing together like-minded people in
online communities. Each is important in the online development of media
content, and each has been developed through online participation. Crowd-
sourcing is based on the idea of outsourcing to a crowd (or ‘crowd outsourcing’,
in full). In content development terms, this means getting an audience or user
group to proactively participate in the creative process of developing a volume
of content. Probably the best-known example is Wikipedia, which is largely
crowdsourced, but companies like Dr Martin and Trip Advisor also actively
seek significant volumes of input from users. When we talk about composing,
we mean bringing together the parts or planning in the creative process—from
an email, to a story, a photo or even a music score. You compose your posts on
social media when you edit a photo, add text or graphics and so on. It seems
a natural thing to do, but it should involve careful thought and consideration.
We can think of these processes as parts of what we call ‘the 4-C content
model’.
Figure 9.3 The 4-C content model.
This approach of
• creating
• composing
• curating
• crowdsourcing
acknowledges the many and varied ways content is created and co-created,
shared, integrated, modified, enhanced, published and distributed. Each of the
four Cs adds a layer to help explain how content can be developed at the organi-
sational and individual level, in institutional and personal contexts. Online media
content grows daily. What we need are tools to better understand and manage
the proliferation of content and how we can use it, ethically and strategically, as
communication practitioners seeking to benefit and contribute to this culture.
Delivery methods
We’ve already begun talking about delivery methods as part of the sharing
and participatory approach to content. But how does this work in practice? And
how do we choose the best methods of message or content delivery? As digital
marketing expert Kevin Cain (n.d.) points out:
It’s only after you have created something great that the real work begins as you
try to figure out all of the best ways of delivering that content to your target
audience. After all, no matter how good your content is, it’s never going to get
consumed unless that content reaches your audience.
You will be familiar with many of the delivery methods available to distrib-
ute your content: social media, email, video sharing and that old favourite—the
post! You’ll also have seen how businesses use these methods to connect with
you through paid advertising on social media. You might have even found a
direct mail in your letter box at the last election (this method is on its way out
but still pops up at election times).
Strategic communicators use these various delivery methods and many
more. They publish on their own websites and through email, distribute to the
online, print, radio and television news media, create billboard or bus shelter
signage (part of ‘ambient’ publicity or advertising—see this explained in the
Top 100), seek sponsorships and even use skywriting (where the sky is, literally,
the limit!). Cain suggests the following tips for content distribution:
1. Post on your website. Make sure your homepage is designed to encourage

visitors to segment themselves in some way, such as having it based on their
industry or a particular challenge they face. This allows you to target
visitors’ experiences and direct them to the information that they will find
most useful and engaging. Rather than trying to create a single message that
communicates all things to all people, having separate, segmented messages
allows you to communicate that your organisation understands and serves
a visitor’s industry and/or ‘pain points’. It also solves the issue of cluttered
messaging on your homepage.
2. Other websites. Your own website will only take you so far. Even if all your
content is optimised for search and your website is set up for segmenta-
tion, it will only receive a fraction of the traffic you’d like to receive. That’s
why it’s important to look for opportunities to post your content on other
content-hosting sites, especially those that are highly trafficked. Utilising
sites like SlideShare or Visual.ly will give you access to larger audiences
and also create an opportunity to direct people back to your website where
they can find more content. Another way of using others’ sites is by putting
a teaser out and driving traffic back to base—this is also a major function
of social media.
3. Social media channels. Due to the massive choice of social media channels
you have to be selective and focus on the ones that will work best for you.
The key is to aim for a select number of channels that will have the highest
impact with your target stakeholders. Typically, in Australia and New
Zealand, this might include a combination of the following main channels:
Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, LinkedIn, TikTok and YouTube (plus any
of the major up-and-coming channels). In other countries, like China, you
would use WeChat or Weibo. You need to do your homework on which
of these your target stakeholder groups engage with. Social media is one of
the best-known tactics to raise brand awareness, foster engagement and
develop a community. It’s also a great way to get others to co-create or
share your story. For example, see how Twitter is used by Ariana Grande
and Bernie Sanders in Chapter 10.
4. eNewsletter. Newsletters have always been a great way to deliver content
and raise awareness about lots of stories. The eNewsletter is a simple and
effective method for making contact with stakeholders, driving website
traffic and encouraging engagement. Aim to keep eNewsletters regular—
weekly usually works best—for regular updates. Keep the content short and
pithy, new and fresh so that you grow your numbers.
5. Influencers and journalists. This list includes bloggers, consultants,
analysts, so-called ‘thought leaders’ and others who influence s takeholders
by connecting with them. These people will usually be chosen because
they have clout and reach that you probably don’t. Building strong rela-
tionships with influencers and journalists enables you to distribute your
content via them, with two huge advantages: first, it creates an opportu-
nity to get your content out to the influencer’s large audience and, second,
it gives your content the added authority of being shared by that third
party (Cain n.d.).
Other simple tips on tactic distribution and reach include:
• using a humble hashtag

• exploiting a variety of media, including ambient, social and news
• using quiet times on the calendar to make an announcement
• leveraging a trending topic when you have something important to add to it

• making sure if you are a sponsor you get the exposure you’re paying for
• getting behind causes or social issues (authentically, not just for show).
Content creation and distribution are two sides of the same coin, meaning
they work in parallel and are equally important. Together they make up a
crucial part of the tactics tool-kit.
Branded content and content marketing

Two of the biggest developments in content creation that have occurred in the
past decade have been the emergence of branded content and content marketing.
These are all about developing content—everything from movies, video games,
social media, blogs, reality television, sponsorship and events—that connects a
brand or organisation with entertainment, lifestyle, news or the issue of the day.
Integrated marketing communication (IMC) has long been acknowledged as an
overlapping space between marketing, advertising and PR; branded content is
now also very much a part of the expanded field of strategic communication.
Content agency VeraContent’s Melissa Stein points out that while many
people see branded content and content marketing as the same thing, because
they both use content creation to reach potential audiences, they use different
methods with separate goals.
1. Branded content uses immersive storytelling to generate an emotional

reaction from the audience (e.g. see Nike in Chapter 6 and Red Bull in this
chapter). This does not involve pushing the brand; it’s about association
with a feeling and values.
2. Content marketing is a slower process. Its purpose is to gain loyalty from
an engaged audience to generate leads and connections and drive sales. The
return on investment is about building a positive image of the brand. This
entails publishing on your own platforms, search engine optimisation to
channel traffic back, interacting with your audience base and contributing
to the online community (Stein 2019; Foo 2020).
Although in the past branding has been more associated with market-
ing than public relations, this relationship approach to content marketing
shows how communication industries are coming together. The relationship

aspect is illustrated by content marketing expert David Beebe, who explains:
‘Content marketing is really like a first date. If all you do is talk about yourself,
there won’t be a second date’ (in Stein 2019). What he means, of course, is
that it’s not all about you on the first date—you need to consider the other
person’s interests, choices and preferences as well. This means finding topics
to talk about that work for you both, and activities that you can share. We can
see the prioritisation of branding alongside relationship management as part of
the communication and PR mix in the way international communication and
public relations groups now position themselves—many, such as the Phillips
Group (part of the WorldCom group), list ‘Brand and Marketing’ as among
their core fields of expertise.
Some brands have become famous for both their branded content and
content marketing: energy drink Red Bull is among these, successfully linking
the brand to just about everything ‘extreme’ through its sponsorship and
associations with extreme sports and sportspeople. It has funded events and
teams at major events in a diverse range of sports and entertainment including
Figure 9.4 Muay Thai kick boxing in Cambodia—pick the sponsor! Photo by Pablo
Reballedo, Unsplash.
motorsports, ice-hockey, martial arts, e-sports, skiing, flying, cliff diving and
more. While Red Bull receives extensive media coverage, its tactics are about
associating the brand image, the Red Bull, with a ‘feeling’ (lifestyle or image)
rather than a drink, and developing a community among its followers.
Top 100 tactics and tools

As we noted earlier, the choice of tactics and tools in strategic communication
planning is huge. To prove this, we developed our ‘Top 100’. Each tactic or
tool is summarised in the following table, but that’s only a teaser. These can be
easily explored online or in other more advanced texts in the field. As discussed
elsewhere, tactics are also known as ‘action planning’, representing the activ-
ities and tools that are selected to achieve specific objectives. We’ve used a
fairly liberal interpretation of tactics here, to capture as many forms of ‘action
planning’ as possible.
Table 9.1 Top 100 tactics
Tactic Summary Explanation

A
Activation The process of making something active or operative.
In marketing and PR, this usually refers to beginning
(or activating) a campaign or setting an event in motion.
Activism Behaviour that is intended to bring about political or
social change. It is action on behalf of a cause that uses a
range of tactics to achieve its ends, often associated with
environmentalism, human and animal rights, equality and
civil liberties, e.g. Black Lives Matter protests of 2020.
Advertising The business of using paid persuasive messages about
products and/or services to attract customers using a variety
of media channels.
(Similar concepts: ‘Paid’ in the PESO model; native
advertising)
Algorithm A process or set of rules used in calculations or other
problem-solving operations, used to predict human
behaviour, and now a standard part of media monitoring.

Ambassador A representative or promotor of an organisation, cause or
product, e.g. Greta Thunberg was awarded the ‘Ambassador
of Conscience’ award by Amnesty International in 2019.
(Similar concept: influencer)
Ambient The use of items and places for advertising or promotions,
advertising/media typically in urban locations, as an alternative form of media.
Can be posters, pop-ups, signage or similar, e.g. messages
on the backs of car park receipts, on footpaths or walls, in
railway carriages, on milk cartons. See the Burt’s Bees street
art earlier for a good illustration.
(Similar concept: guerrilla advertising)
Annual General A yearly gathering of a company’s shareholders, required by
Meeting (AGM) law. At an AGM, the directors discuss the company’s past
performance and future strategies and shareholders can vote
on company decisions and the election of board members.
Annual report A company’s yearly report to shareholders (and other
stakeholders) documenting its activities and finances in the
previous financial year. Presented to shareholders no later
than 21 days prior to the AGM, but generally housed in
digital form on the company website.
App Short for application, used in digital mobile devices and
desktops. Apps provide an easy computer interface for
business, government departments and others. They
provide a simple digital connection with stakeholders.
Artificial The use of computer systems or machine intelligence to
intelligence (AI) perform tasks previously requiring human intelligence,
such as reasoning, discover meaning, generalise or make
decisions.
Astroturfing The deceptive use of communication practices that purport
to be from members of the public, often associated with
marketing or public relations campaigns that seek to create
impact through unethical means.
Award A prize or other mark of recognition given in honour of an
achievement. Awards can also be used as part of sponsorship
deal, which can be used to raise the profile of an individual,
e.g. wo/man of the match in sport.
Table 9.1 Top 100 tactics continued

B
Backgrounder A written document that provides background information,
often available in a media/press kit or on websites and used
by journalists.
Bio (Biography) A document that provides biographical information about
a person, often a celebrity or thought leader, used for
promotional purposes. Can also be used in CVs or other
mainstream use.
(Similar concept: profile)
Blog A portmanteau (merger) of web and log, blogs are written
in an informal or conversational style. Some media have
incorporated blogs into their online formats, e.g. The
Guardian’s blogposts. A vlog is a video version of this that
includes short video posts.
(Similar concept: citizen journalism)
Book A written text that is published in printed or electronic
form (the latter is known as an ebook), with or without
illustrations. Self-publishing online is also an option.
(Similar concept: booklet)
Branding The promotion of a product or organisation by means of
advertising, marketing, sponsorship and distinctive design,
e.g. Red Bull (see this chapter)
(Similar concept: branded content)
Briefing A meeting to give information or instructions; may also be
given in written form. Commonly used in PR to brief an
executive preparing for an interview, by a client to provide
information about a campaign, or a PR executive back to
a client.
(Similar concept: background brief)
Brochure A small booklet in paper or digital form, containing pictures
and information about a product or service, using layout
and design to appeal to the reader.
(Similar concepts: flyer/flier; pamphlet; booklet)

B-roll footage In film and television, B-roll (or B-reel) is extra or
alternative footage made available in addition to the main
film footage. In digital media, this now represents unused
vision (as the film-roll no longer exists).
C
Cause-marketing For-profit organisations linking up with not-for-profit
organisations for mutual benefit, including profit enhancing
and CSR, e.g. Subway and Pauls Milk linking up with
Foodbank.
Celebrity A famous person, in entertainment, sport, politics,
journalism, cooking or elsewhere, often used in PR and
marketing to endorse or represent a product, organisation,
cause, political party or issue.
(Similar concept: influencer)
Collaboration The action of at least two parties working together to
produce an agreed outcome or goal, e.g. a book author
collaboration.
(Similar concepts: partnership; cause-marketing)
Colour-theming Using colour to brand or associate a product, campaign
or event, e.g. McGrath Foundation use of pink cricket
balls, wickets, clothing and marketing; Red Ribbon
Day as a symbol of solidarity of people living with
HIV/AIDS.
Community A reciprocal consultation process between a service
consultation provider, company or government body and a
community that encourages participation and dialogue
by all parties.
Community An announcement on radio or television that is run free of
service charge and promotes a charitable cause or activity, or which
announcement constitutes a service to the community.
(CSA)
Competition When used as a tactic, competitions are used to encourage
participation in an event or activity, e.g. a radio competition
to win tickets to a music festival.

Conference An organised, formal meeting of people with a shared
interest. May also refer to an interactive screen-based video
conference, linking different locations.
(Similar concepts: video conference; webinar)
Corporate social Business or other activity that aims to contribute to
responsibility societal goals of a philanthropic, activist or charitable
(CSR) nature or by engaging in or supporting ethically-oriented
practices. Associated with business commitment to
the so-called triple bottom line, i.e. people, planet and
profit.
(Similar concept: corporate citizenship)
Crowdsourcing Crowd outsourcing in full. Entails getting an audience
or user group to proactively participate in the creative
process to develop a volume of content, e.g. Wikipedia
is a crowdsourced repository.
D
Data Information, usually facts and statistics, for reference or
analysis purposes. A standard part of the formal research
process.
(Similar concepts: research; big data)
Direct mail A form of marketing or political communication, involving
sending a letter or promotional material to prospective
customers or voters through the postal system.
Documentary A television or radio program, or film, that shows actual
events or provides factual information about a particular
subject.
Door stop A staged or spontaneous interview of a politician or other
public figure as they enter or leave a building.
E
Email Short for electronic mail, delivered as messages distributed
electronically from one computer user to one or more
recipients via a network.
(Similar concept: listserv)

Event A planned public occasion that is usually of importance to
sections of the population, often identified as ‘special’ to
highlight its significance, e.g. a music festival, the Olympic
Games, your graduation ceremony.
Expert A person who has specialised knowledge on a particular
topic, often sought after to share that knowledge. Typically
used as a spokesperson or associated with an organisation
on a topical issue.
(Similar concepts: thought leader; spokesperson)
F
Fact sheet Easy-to-read, simply laid-out reference guide, this format
lists the key attributes of an organisation or event, often in
point form, without embellishment.
Fake news False stories that appears in the mainstream news
and spread on the internet, consisting of deliberate
disinformation or hoaxes.
Familiarisation A tour or first-hand experience of a place or product
(Famil) provided to journalists and influencers to seek positive
publicity. Famils necessitate being somewhere or
experiencing something first-hand to write, comment or
post about it in an informed way, e.g. travel writers visiting
a tourist destination.
Feature article Journalism style that uses narrative structures and provide
human interest or ‘behind the news’ stories, unlike news
which is based on ‘breaking’ stories. Typically found in
magazines, newspapers or online.
Fundraiser An event or person that/who raises money for a charity,
cause or other enterprise, e.g. see Burt’s Bees example in
this chapter.
G
Gamification Applying elements of computer games to encourage
engagement with a product or service. Used in health
and education to increase awareness and activity; marketing
to enhance brand knowledge and customer retention.

GIF Stands for ‘Graphics Interchange Format’. A GIF is an
image file that is used for sending still or moving images.
Greenwashing The practice of making unsubstantiated or misleading
claims about the environmental benefits of a product,
service, technology or company practice. Typically about
persuading the public that corporations are acting in
environmentally responsible ways.
Guerrilla Associating a brand with an event, location or organisation
marketing without having an official partnership or sponsorship
agreement in place, usually undercutting another
organisation that has a legitimate claim to the promotion.
(Similar concept: ambient marketing)
H
Hashtags # A symbol # used to label keywords in social media
posts. The name ‘hashtag’ was coined by a Twitter user,
combining the number sign or ‘hash’ symbol (also called
a pound sign) and the metadata tag which is used to link
to certain words. Widely used to associate a message with
key words, phrases or causes, e.g. #BringBackTheBees
campaign by Burt’s Bees.
I
Influencer A person with a social media following who has the ability
to influence potential buyers, users or voters by promoting
or recommending products, services, causes or issues,
e.g. Ariana Grande and Bernie Sanders in Chapter 10.
(Similar concept: SMI)
Infographic A visual representation of information or data, using charts,
diagrams or other visual representation—either static or
animated. In PR, this provides an alternative form for
fact sheets, statistical or informative material to make it
more visually appealing, using free software e.g. Canva,
Visme, Stencil, Freepik, Easel, Infogram, Google Charts,
Venngage, Snappa.

Interview A discussion between at least two people in which one
asks questions and the other answers. A formal version
of a conversation, typically conducted in PR contexts
by a journalist, e.g. a news interview is intended to gain
information from the interviewee which will be used in
a news story. If for TV news, a short segment of about
15–20 seconds (known as a grab) is most likely to be used.
J–K
Journalism News and features published in various formats and media
that inform the audience/reader about what’s happening
in the world. Journalists have traditionally written for
newspapers, magazines, TV, radio or other news websites.
Some bloggers and influencers overlap with this role. Brand
journalism is generated from within an organisation.
L
Letter to the A letter sent to a newspaper or other publication about
editor an issue or opinion held by a reader. Letters were
traditionally published together on a page near the
newspaper’s editorial, written on a major issue of the day.
Before social media these were considered one of the main
‘litmus tests’ to gauge public opinion, but there are many
others today.
Lobbying A practice by individuals or private interest groups seeking
to influence the decisions of government, e.g. the Australian
Medical Association lobbying government on health care;
an environmental group lobbying the government on
reducing greenhouse gas emissions.
M
Magazine Originally a printed publication, now also online, containing
articles, illustrations and other features on specialist or
generalist subjects, typically aimed at a particular readership.
These provide a format for longer-length stories that may
not be suitable for newspapers.
(Similar concept: e-zine)

Media conference An event organised to officially announce information and
answer questions from the media. Enables a corporation,
government or other organisation to announce news to
the media in a single meeting to gain impact and allow for
uniform release of news.
(Similar concepts: press conference; presser;
news conference)
Media kit News and information materials developed by PR for the
news media, providing stories, organisational background
information such as fact sheets and backgrounders,
photography and details about key personnel and bios.
Usually available under a ‘media’ or ‘news’ banner on a
website and may be printed out for distribution at media
conferences or events.
(Similar concept: press kit)
Media platform An online service, site or method that delivers and connects
media to an audience, enabling feedback, discussion
or sharing, e.g. Facebook, Instagram, TikTok, Weibo,
Wordpress.
Media relations A part of public relations that deals with the news media
which seeks to gain media coverage or influence the way a
topic is covered. Typically, this means coordinating directly
with the people responsible for producing the news, current
affairs or other media publishing, such as journalists or
producers.
Media release A story sent by an organisation that announces news.
Usually written in the so-called inverted (upside down)
pyramid with a summary of the news at the top and less
important elements as it goes on. Aims to cover the ‘who’
‘what’ ‘where’ ‘when’ ‘why’ and ‘how’ of news.
(Similar concepts: news release; press release)

Media training Training prospective spokespeople (e.g. CEOs, politicians)
in how to manage an interview with the news media,
including how to behave on camera and in media
environments. Usually involves question and answer
practice, using clear language, and avoiding ‘gotcha’-style
questions from journalists.
Meeting A gathering of people for a particular purpose, especially for
organised discussion intended to achieve certain outcomes,
e.g. staff meeting, group meeting. Can be a valuable
internal PR tactic with small numbers of participants, held
either in person or remotely online.
N
Native Paid material which resembles the style and form of an
advertising online publication, intended to promote the advertiser’s
product while not explicitly stating it is advertising. An
earlier version—the advertorial—was a combination of
advertising and editorial (news) but was generally (although
not always) stated as such.
(Similar concept: advertorial)
Newsletter A printed or electronic publication written to inform and
update members of an organisation or other interested
group about issues and events.
Newspaper A printed publication that includes news articles (editorial),
images (photographs and video) and advertisements.
Editorial is written by journalists. Most newspapers also
have an online version.
O
Online platforms The online environment which connects social, economic
and political activity among users of the internet. Online
platforms have changed cultural and social behaviours and
generated large bodies of data which are used by corporates,
e.g. Uber, Amazon; and government, e.g. health and
education departments.
(Similar concept: platformisation)

Op-ed Short for ‘opposite the editorial page’—this is an opinion
piece typically published by a newspaper, written by
someone not part of the publication’s editorial team, that
is an ‘outsider’ to the news team.
Opinion piece An article in which the writer expresses their personal
opinion about a particular issue or news story. Because it’s
based on opinion it may be controversial or provocative,
as opposed to news, which is typically more factual.
P
Partnership A relationship between two or more parties, typically
bringing something to the relationship that works to the
other parties’ benefit as well as their own, e.g. Burt’s Bees
has a partnership with Taronga Park Zoo (see the case study
in this chapter).
(Similar concept: collaboration)
Philanthropy Promoting the welfare of others, typically expressed by the
donation of money to good causes, e.g. Nick Kyrgios’s and
other tennis players’ donations to the bushfire appeal in 2020.
Photography The process of creating photographs to illustrate a story,
theme, issue, event or person, used to create an impression
by presenting something visually, e.g. see Unsplash for
copyright-free images (throughout this book).
Pilot study A small, preliminary study conducted prior to a full-scale
research project to test various elements of the future
planned project.
Pitching Proposing a newsworthy idea to a journalist or influencer in
the hope or expectation that they will write and publish the
story.
Podcast A digital audio file (similar to or of a radio broadcast) that is
available on the internet for downloading to a computer or
mobile device. A video podcast is called a vodcast. Apple’s
most popular podcasts for 2019 were The Shrink Next Door,
7am, Parental as Anything and The Lady Vanishes.

Position A formal written statement regarding an issue that is used
statement to express a particular position, viewpoint or policy on a
particular matter, usually in business or politics.
(Similar concept: position paper)
Presentation A speech or talk using visual materials to present a new
product, idea or piece of work to an audience.
Promotion Publicising a product, service, brand or organisation to
increase awareness and attract sales. Typically associated
with marketing communication.
Q
Questionnaire A research tool consisting of a series of questions (often
with a choice of given answers), devised for the purposes
of a survey to gain insights into an issue, phenomenon or
event, e.g. online platforms such as Uber use a short version
when you rank your experience.
R
Radio A form of media that is based around the activity or
industry of broadcasting sound programs to the public.
Formats include music, news, talk-back, current affairs,
sports broadcasts and podcasts for downloading.
Rally An organised mass meeting of people, especially supporters
of a particular issue or cause who come together to show
solidarity and seek ways to manage social, political or
environmental problems.
(Similar concept: protest)
Research A detailed study of a subject with the intention of updating
or creating new knowledge or insights. Includes the
systematic investigation of a subject in order to establish
facts and reach new conclusions. Results generate content
for news coverage and sharing and data that may be
used for a multitude of reasons, such as predicting
consumer behaviour.
(Similar concepts: qualitative and quantitative methods; data)

Round table A meeting where experts gather in a formal setting in order
to discuss a particular topic, usually guided by a meeting
agenda, led by a meeting chair, and often used as a ‘think
tank’ to brainstorm and work through ideas.
(Similar concept: forum)
S
Script writing Writing of scripts for mass media outputs, such as film,
television productions, video games or advertisements. For
ads or short-form video, these are typically presented in two
columns for audio and video, with details such as speech,
timing, camera shots etc. included.
Social media Digital media that enable users to create and share content
or to participate in social networking using a wide range of
media platforms. One of the most pervasive forms of media
used in most strategic communication campaigns. A social
media calendar is a weekly or monthly plan of social media
posts.
Speech A formal address or talk delivered to an audience. Best
known as used by political speakers or thought leaders who
use techniques such as repetition, alliteration, humour,
drama, storytelling to create word pictures and impress
main points, e.g. examples in the theory chapter under
‘rhetoric’.
Spokesperson The person who is typically officially designated to speak on
behalf of an organisation, politician, group or official. The
person journalists will seek out for a comment.
Sponsorship A financial arrangement between an organisation, usually
a corporate, to support a person, another organisation,
activity or cause, e.g. sponsors of sportspeople are shown
by the logo on the players’ uniform, such as Westfield’s
sponsorship of the Socceroos; Hyundai’s sponsorship of
Carlton in the AFL.

Stunt An outrageous or provocative action undertaken to attract
attention and gain publicity for a person, cause, organisation
or brand responsible, e.g. Red Bull’s stratus space jump,
where Felix Baumgartner jumped 23 miles to earth from
space; PETA animal rights activists running naked through
Pamplona, Spain, to parody the bull-run tradition.
Storyboard A sequence of drawings, graphics or illustrations, typically
with directions and dialogue, that show the shots planned
for a movie, television or other media production.
Storytelling The activity of telling, writing or showing stories for
entertainment, education, social or cultural purposes.
Cultural groups have their own stories or narratives,
which are shared, often including historic, moral or social
messages. Organisations also tell stories to connect with
their stakeholders, known as organisational storytelling.
(Similar concept: narrative)
T
Talk show A radio or television format, especially one in which
listeners, viewers, or the studio audience are invited to
participate in the discussion, or phone in, sometimes
focusing on well-known people or celebrities in an informal
interview-style discussion.
(Similar concept: talk-back (radio))
Television A mass medium for entertainment, education and news
which can be viewed on various devices and sometimes
watched live, but also may be viewed at leisure in ‘catch
up’. Smart or connected TVs (CTV) are digital, internet-
connected, storage-aware computers which are set up
to access multiple entertainment platforms. The many
television formats—from news to reality programs—provide
many options for gaining publicity or exposure for PR.
Trade show An exhibition that brings together members of a particular
industry (such as travel or agriculture) to display,
demonstrate and promote their latest products and services.

U
User-generated Any form of content, such as images, videos, text and audio,
content (UGC) that have been created by consumers or end users of an online
service and made publicly available to other consumers.
V
Video A recording of moving pictures and sound, especially
as a digital file or DVD. Now a standard part of news
publishing, used alongside still images and text online in
multimedia formats. A vlog is a video log which typically
takes an informal approach, often created on smartphones.
Video news A video version of a news release, made to look like a
release (VNR) news report but including promotional content. Typically,
it will include vision and an interview grab, created by PR
or marketing specialists. VNRs will only gain attention if
they are not overtly promotional and should be based on
real news.
Vision Visual representations are now mainstream in information
delivery, content creation and distribution. Vision can result
in higher engagement than text-only messaging. Modern
media is set up for visuals; also part of ambient delivery
as well.
Vox-pop From the Latin phrase vox populi, meaning ‘voice of
(interviews) the people’, this form of street interviewing is used in
journalism to gain short interviews (usually only one or
two questions) with members of the public. Used typically
in relation to a topical issue such as voter preference or in
response to a major news event.
(Similar concept: research)
W–Z
Webinar Short for web-based seminar, a webinar is a presentation,
lecture or workshop that is transmitted and conducted over
the internet using video conferencing software. Often used
in training, research or professional contexts.

Website A set of related web pages found under a single domain
name, used as the main source of go-to information about
an organisation. Usually includes links to other media such
as social media (e.g. Twitter, Instagram), media materials
(usually under a ‘media’ or ‘news’ link), information about
the organisation (such as history, mission and vision),
contact details and more. One of the most important
forms of ‘owned’ strategic communication for any
organisation.
Wiki A website or database developed collaboratively by a
community of users, allowing other users to add, modify
or update content. One of the best known is Wikipedia
(a portmanteau of wiki and encyclopedia), which is
collaboratively created and edited.
Conclusion
If you thought communication tactics began and ended with social media,
we hope we’ve convinced you to think again! Don’t misunderstand—we love
social media! However, it is only part of the media and communication mix,
representing just some of the tactics that are available to the communication
practitioner. Tactics are not chosen at random, nor should they just reflect what
you as a practitioner are most comfortable with—they should be strategically
selected to achieve a purpose, synchronise with and complement each other
and reach the target audiences you need to reach. Because of this, they will
differ from campaign to campaign, organisation to organisation, just like the
Burt’s Bees and Red Bull examples in this chapter—different objectives and
campaigns, and very different tactics.
Brisbane communication company BBS reminds us of the relationship
between tactics and the other functions in the strategic communication mix,
noting: ‘If you think of the plan as a journey, the objective is the end of the
path, the strategy is the direction that path takes and the tactics are what you do
along the path’ (BBS 2016). What you do along the path is choose, create,
develop, curate and deliver tactics—this is easily among the most exciting and
creative of all the communication roles. But if these are to be executed effec-
tively, they need to be supported by a solid foundation at the start of the journey
and along the path, and this calls for research, strategy and planning.
References
Adams, P. (2014). Tactics. In J. Johnston & M. Sheehan (eds), Public Relations: Theory & Practice
(pp. 108-136). Crows Nest: Allen & Unwin.
BBS Communication (2016). Strategy and Tactics: Why it’s Important to Know the Difference. Retrieved
from www.bbscommunications.com.au/strategy-tactics-important-know-difference/
Burt’s Bees (2019a). Our Story: It’s Your Typical Beekeeper Meets Artist Story. Retrieved from
www.burtsbees.com.au/about-us/
——— (2019b). Outreach: Sweet Partnership to Save the Bees. Retrieved from www.burtsbees.com.
au/sweet-partnership-to-save-the-bees/
Cain, K. (n.d.). Making Contact: How You Deliver Your Content Matters. Convince & Convert.
Retrieved from www.convinceandconvert.com/content-marketing/making-contact-how-
you-deliver-your-content-matters/
Foo, S. (2020). Branded Content vs Content Marketing (All You Need to Know). SpeechSilver
(6 January).
Jenkins, H. (2007). Transmedia Storytelling. Blog post (21 March). Retrieved from http://henry
jenkins.org/blog/2007/03/transmedia_storytelling_101.html
Phillips Group (2020). What We Do. Expertise. Retrieved from www.phillipsgroup.com.au/
Rosenbaum, S. (2010). Why Content Curation is Here to Stay. Mashable (4 May). Retrieved from
https://mashable.com/2010/05/03/content-curation-creation/
SketchBubble (n.d.). Content Creation: What is Content Creation? Available from www.
sketchbubble.com/en/presentation-content-curation.html
Stein, M. (2019). Branded Content vs Content Marketing: What’s the Difference? VeraContent
(13 March). Retrieved from https://veracontent.com/2019/03/13/branded-content-vs-
content-marketing/
Villi, M., Moisander, J. & Joy, A. (2012). Social Curation in Consumer Communities: Consumers
as Curators of Online Media Content. Advances in Consumer Research, 40, 490–495.
Weissman, C.G. (2017). Why the Once Darling Storify is Coming to an End. FastCompany
(12 December). Retrieved from www.fastcompany.com/40506878/why-the-once-darling-
social-service-storify-is-coming-to-an-end
Wolff, A. & Mulholland, P. (2013). Curation, Curation, Curation. Proceedings of the 3rd Narrative
and Hypertext Workshop (pp. 1–5). Paris: ACM.
Zhong, C., Shah, S., Sundaravadivelan, K., & Sastry, N. (2013). Sharing the Loves: Understand-
ing the How and Why of Online Content Curation. Proceedings of the Seventh International
AAAI Conference on Weblogs and Social Media (pp. 659-667). Retrieved from file:///F:/
Curating%20media/Journal%20articles/Sharing%20the%20loves.pdf
Part 3
Theory
Chapter 10
Theory: where learning starts
If learning starts with theory, then why put this chapter at the end of the book,
you may ask? There are two reasons for this: first, we understand that both
theory and the idea of theory can be daunting, so we think many students might
find theory easier to understand after the more practice-focused chapters;
second, you will have seen throughout the book that we have used sticky notes
to highlight many theories along the way. This has enabled you to read about
these theories in different contexts, in an applied way. This final chapter is
therefore set up so you can go directly to the theories flagged in the sticky notes
and learn a bit more about each of them. We’ve linked the theories—listed
alphabetically—back to where they sit in the book by providing page refer-
ences, and also included short explanations, related theories and key theorists
for you to further investigate. Due to the scope and range of theories that can
be applied to public relations, this chapter presents short ‘chunks’ of theories
and how they can be applied in practice. This cannot provide the depth of
knowledge you will need to write an essay or learn the complexity of any single
theory, but we think that, at an introductory level, it’s more useful to provide
you with the fundamentals of theories and their application, rather than dense
theoretical explanations or critiques that can bog you down. The chapter is
intended to be referred to as needed rather than read in a single session—kind
of like a ‘theory-pedia’ style chapter that we encourage you to drop in and
out of when you see a theory in the book and want to know more about it. We’d
rather you take away ideas from this chapter and use them as starting points for
further reading (we’ve added a few pointers for this at the chapter’s conclusion).
271
272 Theory
This is why we’ve suggested your theoretical journey starts here, because, in
a way, it does.
The word ‘theory’ comes from the Greek word ‘theōrein’, which means ‘to
look at’ (orgtheory, n.d.) or ‘theōria’, which means to ‘contemplate or speculate’
(Etymology Dictionary, n.d.). Following these definitions, we use theories to
examine, test, speculate about and explain things. Theories have been used
to test gravity, the speed of light, general relatively, evolution and other big
things. Most theories are not quite so grand, but they are still important in
providing a framework for examining what we do in the social sciences, human-
ities and business. Formal theories (and concepts and models), like the ones we
examine in this chapter, are recognised by specific academic disciplines. Of
course, there are also informal theories which we use to explain everyday life—
you might have a theory that if person A comes to a party, person B might get
upset; if you eat a tub of ice-cream every night you might put on weight; or, if
you don’t do much work in class you’ll get a pretty ordinary grade. We’ll stick
with formal theories in this chapter, but we remind the reader that theories
are simply tools to help us work out problems, get to know a subject better or
explain an issue, phenomenon or the reason for a specific outcome.
Why theory?
More than a century ago, educational theorist and philosopher John Dewey wrote
about the importance of connecting theory with practice; in doing so, he prior-
itised the need for reflective practice. Though his writing focused on education,
philosophy and democracy, there is much we can learn in strategic communi-
cation from his conceptions of the theory–practice nexus. Dewey argued that
reflective learning breaks down distinctions between thought-and-action and
theory-and-practice, and that it was a mode of inquiry central to experiential
learning (in Saltmarsh, 2011). Dewey’s approach to theory has much merit for
today and for our field—using it as a way of reflecting on practice, rather than
prescribing practice. As such, theory is one kind of experience; it is what Dewey
saw as an intermediate phase of inquiry, summed up in the following way:
As we live our lives, we confront problems which invoke the need for inquiry
and, often, there is a need to devise a tool of explanation and amelioration.
Theory is that tool, generated by these encounters. (Hildebrand 2018)
Theory: Where learning starts 273
Human minds, Dewey argued, were intended to actively adapt, exper-

iment and innovate. Ideas and theories therefore function experimentally
within cultures and need to be evaluated in the situation in which they are
explored (Hildebrand 2018). Thus, theories are organic and changing—they
provide ways of thinking, but they change as new knowledge is found and as
society evolves. New theories are emerging all the time, reflecting how society
and the world are changing. This chapter presents a range of older and newer
theories—and some that were old but have been revived for the digital era.
Public relations theory scholar Steve Mackey describes theories as ‘imag-
inary road maps’ (2004, p. 43) that can be used to gain understanding. He
argues that ‘[t]heoretical approaches provide a framework through which
questions are raised and the nature of events are processed and probed and
analysed’ (2004, p. 43). Those questions can take you in different directions.
A range of theories can be used to look at the same topic from
different angles, but this doesn’t mean one is correct and others
are wrong—it simply means that there are many ways to view the
social capital
same problem, issue or phenomenon. There is no one-size-fits-all in
applying theory to a problem. Let’s consider a couple of examples.
A study that looks at how volunteers can be drawn together might
use any number of theories to explain how this works: theories of
social capital (using people power) or capacity building (how community
communities bind together). capacity
But a different study on the same topic could also draw on critical building
theory, a critique that looks at the use of labour and power differ-
ences, and might ask: why doesn’t the state pay people to do the job
of unpaid labour?
Such a case study occurred in real life in Australia during the
bushfires of 2019–2020, when the question of paying volunteer fire- critical theory
fighters was raised, challenging government to respond. Initially, rural
volunteer firefighters were the social and human capital who stepped
up to the challenge but, as time went on and they had spent many months at
the task, critical theory became an equally appropriate lens for viewing their
situation of disadvantage as illustrated in media coverage. Another example
could centre on the participation of people online, a concept that was central
to Henry Jenkins’ ideas of convergence. One school of thought (theory) about
274 Theory
this was that the internet would revolutionise public participation

and access to the media, a theory that became known as the ‘democ-
democratisation ratisation of media’.
On the other hand, theories of political economy and critical
theory say that true participation is limited by inequitable access, and
that information is dominated more than ever by big media organi-
sations such as Google and Facebook, who exploit users’ media use.
political In a way, then, theories provide the language to explain ‘how’ and
economy of
‘why’ things happen. If we dig deeply enough, we’ll see how theories
media
underpin social, political, economic and cultural activity all around
us. We just have to look.
In the development of public relations as an academic discipline, theories
have been drawn from a range of intersecting fields because public relations and
strategic communication touch on, and interface with, so many parts of society:
from sociology to philosophy, marketing to management, media studies to
consumer behaviour. Communication studies and public relations’ own theories
also provide important entries throughout the chapter as well. Now, in the 2020s,
as public relations has expanded to a broader field of strategic communication,
there is scope to both expand the field of theory and to draw together the dispa-
rate and somewhat fragmented ideas falling under the ‘strategic communication’
banner. If we follow Dewey’s philosophy, and Mackey’s more recent lead, we can
embark on the theoretical journey with an open mind, knowing that we need to
reflect as we go and not be afraid to adapt and experiment with theory.
Theories and key concepts

The chapter is now dedicated to presenting a range of theories, concepts and
models that are used throughout the book and flagged by sticky notes in each
chapter (and we’ve added a few additional ones for good measure).
Agenda setting theory Agenda setting theory centres on how the mass
media selects and prioritises news. In turn, people look to the media for
indications of where they should focus their attention and what issues are
priorities, based on the emphasis the media places (or does not place) on
issues. While personal beliefs, one-to-one discussions and peer groups also
influence public opinion, the agenda setting theory focuses on the role of
the mass media in the process. Agenda setting recognises the role of news
gatekeepers—those people who choose what is important and newsworthy
and then determine its position among competing news stories. In tradi-
tional media, this gatekeeping role is undertaken by people such as news
editors and chiefs of staff. However, social media influencers and other
online thought leaders are also modern-day agenda setters, leading opinion
in everything from fashion to politics. An added dimension to this theory is
agenda building, which brings in other levels of influence that put issues
on the public agenda and influence public policy through publishing on
these issues. A related theory is framing or second-level agenda setting.
How it’s used: For public relations, agenda setting and agenda building enable
organisations to contribute to the public agenda by making their stories
rise to the top of the pile. We can consider two ways of getting involved
in agenda setting or agenda building: either proactively generating news,
issues or events, or reactively responding to news, issues and events. Both
are equally relevant and important as strategic communication tools. When
aiming to get your story onto the news agenda, consider those times of
the year when journalists are on the lookout for seasonal stories—like
Christmas. In 2019, Gold Coast Health’s Facebook page ran two upbeat
videos, having fun while working up to Christmas, sending key messages
about health and safety. Both videos were picked up by local television and
newspapers. Their public relations manager explained:
The rationale behind the videos was to show doctors and nurses as human
beings, using music as a way to relieve stress for positive mental health. It also
promotes a ‘they are just like me’ mentality as part of an effort to improve
health literacy and communication between patients and clinicians. The
Christmas videos continued the messaging, as the hospital enters its busiest
time of the year around the festive season when the Gold Coast’s tourist
population swells and people may be faced with longer waiting times. Not
only did this style of social media activity promote earned media coverage,
Gold Coast Health saw an average 10-fold increase in viewers and around a
20-fold increase in engagement and positive sentiment in its owned media.
(Sullivan 2019)
276 Theory
In this book: see pp. 67, 227, 287, 290, 291, 306.
See also: framing theory; mediatisation.
Look up: Max McCombs & Donald Shaw; Everett Rogers & James Dearing.
Attitude component model Attitudes are recognised as having three

components: affect, behaviour and cognition (sometimes referred to as
the ABC model of attitude or the tri-component model of attitudes).
Affect refers to the process of feeling—the emotional reaction or feelings
we have towards an object. Cognition refers to the process of thinking—
our awareness, knowledge, beliefs and understanding of an object. The
third component, behaviour, refers to the influence of our attitudes on
our behaviour. For example, I might fear the impact climate change will
have on my future (affective response) and believe that human behaviour
is a major contributor to climate change (cognitive response). This may
lead to me changing my consumption habits or participating in a protest
(behavioural response). Criticisms of the model question which compo-
nents take precedence and influence the others (i.e. do we think, then feel,
then do—or do we feel or do first?). This model underpins some of the
thinking in other models/theories such as the hierarchy of effects and
AIDA (see below).
How it’s used: Often used in a product marketing sense, understanding how atti-
tudes develop and lead to actions can help the communicator develop and
target messaging for the best effect. An appeal to an audience’s emotions
can be more effective if the message is about a charitable cause or a luxury
product. An appeal to cognitions, however, may be necessary if the message
is about solving a problem or purchasing a hi-tech product. Electioneering
typically sees a mix of both affective and cognitive appeals to win over the
public vote.
In this book: see p. 221.

See also: hierarchy of effects.
Look up: Milton Rosenberg & Carl Hovland; Steven Breckler.
Community capacity building Capacity building is a concept or process about

combining the skills and knowledge of people within a community to achieve
mutual goals. It can take the form of training, fundraising, and technical
or service assistance that can help a community grow its skills or improve
access to resources, economic development and quality of life. Capacity
building is typically associated with assisting communities to help them-
selves, often incorporating assistance from government or non-government
organisations (NGOs). While external organisations often lead in capacity
building, engaging and involving community members has been found to
be a crucial component of capacity building as they can identify local gaps,
strengths, opportunities, and priorities (Cavaye n.d.). This makes social and
human capital central components of capacity building.
How it’s used: Communication between governments or NGOs and local

communities is key to effective capacity building. Often associated with
big NGOs such as the UN working with developing countries, capacity
building occurs at all levels and communities. The Queensland Government
has a ‘Capacity Building Toolkit’ to assist rural and regional Queenslanders
develop increasingly sustainable, liveable and prosperous communities.
It has worked with local communities to revitalise their towns, training
and productivity. For example, the development of the ‘Outback Revival’
community development organisation was formed after a community
forum in the western Queensland town of Longreach identified growing
issues and opportunities in the region. Outback Revival supports network-
ing opportunities for individuals and community groups, works on projects
such as the production of furniture and timber products, provides infor-
mation technology training for community members, and assists economic
opportunities in beef and wool industries and tourism (Cavaye n.d.).
In this book: see pp. 46, 302, 304.

See also: social capital, community consultation
Look up: United Nations Development Program; Sue Kilpatrick
Corporate citizenship A close relative of CSR and cause-marketing, corpo-

rate citizenship focuses on the moral and ethical obligations of for-profits in
their relationship with society and the environment. This includes holding
civic values and ideals and employing them in progressive and respons
ible ways. This requires a shift from the maximisation of short-term profits
towards activities that serve the long-term interests of an organisation and
278 Theory
all of its stakeholders. However, this needs to balance the cost of corpo-
rate citizenship activities against the cost of manufacturing and marketing
products and services in a responsible manner. Increasingly this balance
is aligned with the related concept of social enterprise. International
standards associations such as Transparency International and Social
Accountability International provide frameworks for developing best
practices in the area of corporate citizenship.
How it’s used: It is not difficult to imagine how corporate citizenship works for
public relations—in fact it should be embedded in corporate strategies.
Corporate citizenship impacts on relationships with all stakeholders—
consumers, employees, investors and competitors. Online ratings and
rankings have made corporate citizenship all the more transparent, placing
an added pressure to perform at this level. Deakin University’s Centre for
Sustainable and Responsible Organisations provides many examples of
corporate citizenship and CSR. An example of how corporate citizenship
works alongside social enterprise is outlined in the ‘Thankyou’ story in
Chapter 2.
In this book: see pp. 41, 60, 76, 79, 256, 284–5, 305.
See also: CSR; social enterprise.
Look up: Malcolm McIntosh; Transparency International.
Critical theory Critical theory (also called critical social theory) is a set of
theoretical frameworks that consider injustice and oppression in society and
culture, suggesting how to create possibilities for the freedom and equality
of people and values. It emerged in Germany in the 1930s as a theory that
critiqued, rather than explained, society. It criticises the way people are
influenced to think by capitalist and neo-liberalist cultures, particularly
by powerful players that either control the mass media or dominate other
communication methods. Critical race theory has grown alongside (or
out of) it and calls out the injustices faced by minority groups. An associ-
ated theory is the public sphere, which once considered how public places
enabled people to come together to discuss social problems and political
action and to form public opinion. A problem with public sphere theory
was that it was exclusionary towards minority groups and so it was revised
to account for how multiple publics exist in multiple public spheres.
How it’s used: Critical theorists argue that public relations assists corporations
and governments to maintain a privileged position in society, by excluding
voices from public debate. This theory calls for organisations and institu-
tions which are big and powerful to carefully consider how their actions may
manipulate or distort communication, or publics through communication.
Because critical theory focuses on critiquing capitalism and neo-liberalism,
and the exploitation that results from them, public relations should be
aware of the relationship dynamic and asymmetries that exist in the society
of which they are a part.
In this book: see pp. 273–4, 281.

See also: political economy of communication/media; public sphere.
Look up: Jürgen Habermas; the Frankfurt School; Christian Fuchs.
Cultivation theory Cultivation theory (also known as cultivation analysis)

looks at links between television viewing and attitudes to the world. The
theory originally examined the impact of violence on television. It is
based on the premise that television is a shaping force in society and helps
create viewers’ social reality. Those who watch television extensively are
more likely to see their world in terms of the images and ideologies that
are presented on television through repeated exposure over time. This
shaping of ideas occurs gradually over time, so viewers are unaware of
the effect that television has on them. Two important concepts added to
cultivation theory are mainstreaming and resonance. Mainstreaming occurs
when television symbols dominate other sources of information about
the world and when outlooks across societal groups (especially for heavy
viewers) begin to converge. Resonance occurs when viewers see some-
thing on television that has relevance to their own lives—boosting the
cultivation effect.
How it’s used: While cultivation theory originally examined violence on tele
vision, it has been expanded and updated to examine related fields of video
games and reality TV. Some sectors or industries have expanded their
communication into television to showcase what they do and their commit-
ment to social and political good. For example, police (e.g. The Force),
280 Theory
customs (e.g. Border Patrol), lifesaving (e.g. Bondi Rescue) and the courts (e.g.
Court Justice) have been the basis of recent service-based reality-TV shows.
While these may move a long way from the original research conducted
decades ago, they nevertheless show how industries or sectors can cultivate
their public profiles and contribute to public perceptions of their role in
society through television.
See also: mediatisation; agenda setting; two-step flow of communication.

Look up: George Gerbner & Larry Gross; Jennings Bryant & Dorina Miron.
Democratisation This is a term used to describe many things—from science

to media. Our focus is on its use as a theory in explaining how online media
and technology have provided social interaction capabilities for individuals,
removing them from the sole domain of governments and large institu-
tions (such as media organisations). While the democratisation of media
was expected to provide greater access and contributions to the democratic
process—hence the name—many now argue that this has not occurred. On
the one hand, digital media has empowered a new participatory culture.
On the other hand, the idea that the internet would remove the monopoly
stranglehold of media giants has not occurred—the media giants have just
changed—the ‘big five’ in 2020 are Alphabet Inc. (which owns Google),
Amazon, Microsoft, Apple and Facebook. Increasingly, the use of the
internet competes with a loss of privacy which therefore challenges how
democratic the internet truly is.
How it’s used: The fragmented and diversified platforms available in the online
environment means communication and PR must be smart and strate-
gic in how they generate their own content, curate the content of others
and encourage co-creation by other users. Because the best endorsements
are those external to the organisation, organisations can make the most
of audience media usage and get them to help tell the organisational
story. The widespread use of influencers, and data collection that can
predict online behaviour, are both strategic communication tools that
have evolved out of the broader access to the internet. But practitioners
need to be mindful about how they manage other people’s privacy and
personal data.

See also: political economy of media; digital economy; critical theory.
Look up: Jose van Dijck; Clay Shirky.
Digital economy (also referred to as the online or internet economy) The

shift to the online world has had a profound and wide-ranging impact on
society, culture and the economy. The way we live and do business, follow-
ing the rise of personal computing, the internet and social media, is now
vastly altered, representing a new type of economy. Underpinning this
change is the computing technology that has altered patterns of production
and consumption. Concepts that have been generated out of the digital
economy are ‘the platform society’ and ‘platformisation’ which refer to
the dominant online platforms that connect and dominate society. There
are many other major fields that intersect with this changed economy—
privacy, cybersecurity, intellectual property and AI—which all demand
various levels of attention in planning, strategy and ethical and legal opera-
tions for governments and businesses.
How it’s used: As with the democratisation of media, the new online economy
means that organisations must find their way around in the digital space.
The use of digital platforms is now central to how many businesses,
governments and third sector organisations conduct activity, connect
with stakeholders and communicate. The activities of the ‘big five’ online
giants, listed in the previous entry, provide ample illustration of how this
theory is put into practice. The disruptions and innovations of the online
economy have impacted the way people consume news, gain access to
banking, download and use other people’s work, interact socially and learn.
The so-called ‘sharing economy’ is part of this. Beginning with platforms
such as Airbnb and Uber, this has changed the conventional view of a
market-based economy. Likewise, the aggregation of news by the major
tech companies like Facebook and Google has altered traditional models
and expectations of ‘pay as you go’ for news and information.

See also: political economy of communication/media; democratisation.
Look up: Jose van Dijck; Manuel Castells.
282 Theory
Diffusion of innovations theory This is a broad, multistep model that deals

with the stages that members of a social system go through as they under-
stand and adopt anything that is new. It helps with understanding how
information is processed through society, how it is used to make decisions,
and how new trends spread. The theory was developed in the 1960s to
include five stages in the diffusion process: awareness, interest, evaluation,
trial and adoption. In the adoption phase, innovators or influencers acquire
and use the innovation. After that, increasing numbers of users follow.
How it’s used: Influencers increasingly play a role in recommending new ideas,
concepts, products and services. Once an idea is picked up and shared,
it’s easy to see how this theory can work in practice. This is how fashions
change and take hold, and why clothing, food and other businesses seek out
people to share their feedback on social media. This theory can be used to
learn about what’s trending socially by using analytics tools such as Union
Metrics, Meltwater, Brand Mentions and AgoraPulse.

See also: two-step flow of communication; hierarchy of effects model.
Look up: Bruce Ryan & Neil Goss; Melvin DeFleur & Sheoron Lowery.
Discourse In everyday language, discourse usually means conversation or

discussion. As a theory, however, discourse is more complex than this.
Discourse can encompass all forms of communication and how they are
used in specific contexts. These may be drawn from within a social, polit-
ical or cultural framework, such as communication by politicians, and
professionals (e.g. doctors) and subcultures (e.g. surfers or skateboarders).
Because discourses require a cultural understanding, they can be used to
include and exclude people. A simple way of summing up discourse is as
‘communication practices, which systematically construct our knowledge
of reality’ (Schneider 2013). Discourse comes from the field of sociolinguis-
tics (sociology and language). It is related to Critical Discourse Analysis
(CDA), which incorporates power imbalances in language; and semiotics,
which is the study of signs.
How it’s used: A good way of understanding discourse is by considering the

way politicians speak and frame their messages, sometimes introducing
new words for old—for example, climate change for global warming; queue
jumpers for asylum seekers. In turn, words become accepted into language
because of their dominance across many sectors. In strategic communica-
tion and PR, it’s important to be mindful that, because you are in charge
of messaging, the words you use count. People must understand your
language and the context in which you mean it—otherwise it can result in
confusion. Likewise, your words should honestly represent the content of
your message.

See also: semiotics; CDA.
Look up: Michel Foucault; Norman Fairclough.
Elaboration likelihood theory Elaboration likelihood theory (also known as

the elaboration likelihood model) has been a leading theory of persuasion
and attitude change and provides insights for communication planning.
Elaboration likelihood refers to the probability that people will evaluate
and process issue-relevant information before they make decisions. The
theory suggests that listeners have two mental routes to attitude change,
which involve differing levels of thought or elaboration: the central route
and the peripheral route. The central route involves a high degree of
mental effort, using reason and evaluation to determine if ideas have merit
and implications. Central processing is usually triggered by the personal
relevance of an issue. The peripheral route is a more automatic or passive
response, involving an instinctive mental shortcut to accepting or rejecting
a message without weighing up the arguments at the same level. Informa-
tion is processed faster through the peripheral route but resulting attitude
and behaviour changes are not sustained.
How it’s used: This theory has been applied to studies across many industries
and sectors, from health care to marketing. In advertising and market-
ing, central processing will usually result in longer-term commitment to
a brand or product. In the digital marketplace, if consumers are used
to buying online they are more likely to connect via the central route to
purchase a product because they care more about the message, it is more
relevant to them and they are more at home on the platform. Motivation
284 Theory
and ability have been found to promote central processing and higher
elaboration. If consumers are not usually online purchasers, on the other
hand, they will need to be persuaded by other elements in the online space,
such as a star-ratings, cheap prices, free shipping and the visual pull of the
image. Then again, they might just go to the shop to buy the product!
(Yocco 2014).
In this book: see pp. 224, 287.

See also: hierarchy of effects model.
Look up: Richard Petty & John Cacioppo.
Enlightened self-interest This is an ethical theory which suggests that a

person can serve their own interests while also benefiting society at large,
their local community or other individuals. In essence, it is about finding
a balance between individualism (self-interest) and common good (public
interest). In a business or political sense, it therefore aligns with motiva-
tions that work for an organisation and society or a community, as with
cause-marketing and corporate citizenship. The idea behind this theory
is that the wider public interest and individual interests are not mutually
exclusive—they can overlap. The way it is operationalised is by incorpo-
rating civic activity into the workplace and in individual behaviours such
as voting, volunteering and looking after the environment, the elderly and
at-risk groups. The concept is associated with the idea of ‘doing well by
doing good’ and shares common ground with social enterprise.
How it’s used: One way we see this theory in action is through pro bono work.
Latin for ‘the public good’, pro bono publico (usually shortened to pro bono)
is understood to be work by industry specialists or professionals, under-
taken at no cost (or reduced cost) for worthy causes. Fields such as the law
and medicine are known to work pro bono for good causes, but public rela-
tions and marketing consultancies also conduct pro bono work. The PRIA
lists pro bono work as one way practitioners can update their continu-
ing professional development. Public interest was the driving force when
sporting stars came out in droves to offer financial support to victims of
the devastating bushfires in Australia in 2019–2020. Among those who got
behind the cause was tennis star Nick Kyrgios, who pledged $200 for every
ace he hit during the 2019–2020 summer season. Others followed Kyrgios’s
lead, donating funds based on their aces served in tennis and tries scored
in rugby. Tennis Australia also supported the cause, launching the ‘Rally
for Relief’ to raise funds for the Red Cross. Kyrgios told the media: ‘We’ve
got the ability and the platform to do something like that. My hometown
is Canberra and we have the most toxic air in the world . . . It’s bigger than
tennis’ (New Daily 2019).
In this book: see pp. 51, 98, 159, 297, 309.

See also: corporate citizenship; CSR.
Look up: Alexis de Tocqueville; John Ikerd.
Excellence theory Excellence theory explains how public relations can be

structured and implemented to contribute as a management function to
overall organisational effectiveness. It suggests public relations should
identify strategic publics and build long-term relationships with them
through symmetrical two-way communication (see the four models theory,
below). This theory suggests that the organisations that are most successful
in achieving public recognition are those whose executives or elected offi-
cials support the public relations function and recognise the importance of
listening to and communicating with their publics (Grunig 1992).
How it’s used: This theory has sparked ongoing debate and discussion about
whether symmetry can be truly located, or whether asymmetrical public
relations is more the norm and truly achievable. This theory, then, may
be described as aspirational—that is, we can aspire to excellence and this
must begin with honest and productive long-term relationships with
publics.
See also: four models.

Look up: James Grunig & Todd Hunt.
Four models The ‘four models’ approach to public relations was first theo-
rised by James Grunig and Todd Hunt (1984). The models, which have
been the subject of much review and debate over the years, are as follows:
• Press agentry This model is based on the use of stunts to gain

attention, particularly by the media.
286 Theory
• Public information This model is typified by a one-way ‘informa-

tion out’ communication approach to inform an audience, public or
stakeholder group. It includes news releases, brochures, posters and
websites. In this model there is no option of feedback from the audience
or receiver.
• Two-way asymmetric This model incorporates the option of feedback
to an organisation that communicates information. It includes opening
dialogue with audiences or publics with the potential to modify the
original communication, but it accepts an unequal power base between
organisation and public.
• Two-way symmetric This is the basis of the excellence theory and
occurs when an organisation takes part in dialogue with publics or
stakeholders, achieving equally beneficial outcomes for all parties.
Originally seen as the ideal model, it has been criticised for its lack of
realistic expectations due to the nature of unequal power relations that
usually exist.
How it’s used: Since there are four models, we will look at how symmet-
rical public relations works. It is probably best understood in the
context of community or public consultation. Successful consultations
can be measured by listening to and accommodating public feedback
into organisational plans and policies. For example, this could occur
through organisational listening in the workplace where staff are unhappy
about certain structural issues—positive outcomes could include adjust-
ments to work conditions, more staff employed or better staff benefits.
Another example is where a local government body meets with community
members to hear grievances about a proposed development. Outcomes
could include changes to the proposal to respond to community demands,
such as adding a ‘greening’ requirement to the development. The level
of accommodation and compromise by the organisation will determine if
the response is symmetrical or asymmetrical.

See also: excellence theory; organisational listening.
Framing This focuses on how an issue/event/message is presented or

‘framed’ by the media and understood by its audience. The theory
or process of framing suggests that frames have several locations—the
communicator, text, receiver and culture—which each impact on how an
issue/event/message is understood. Framing is traditionally understood
as how the news media present news, but it is also used when businesses,
governments and groups have an interest in advancing certain ways of
seeing the world. Media framing has been called a second-level agenda
setting theory because it relates to how issues and stories are presented
and understood. Attention should be given to how language, images,
signs and so forth are presented to the audience, which can influence
how people understand an issue or event. Associated concepts are ‘media
bias’, ‘objectivity’ and ‘influence’.
How it’s used: Language (words

and images) and endorse-
ments from well-known
people and celebrities are
used to frame the way a story
or issue is told in the media.
In public relations and
strategic communication,
a high-profile s pokesperson
may be used to endorse a
product or issue, thereby
linking that person and
their positive language to
the organisation or issue.
This is a popular political
tactic, whereby celebrities
are brought in to energise
an issue and frame it in a Figure 10.1 US Democratic Party primary
certain way. For example, candidate Bernie Sanders used a Twitter post
in the 2020 US Democratic to frame Ariana Grande’s social justice support
Party primary campaign, and endorsement.
288 Theory
Ariana Grande showed her support for candidate Bernie Sanders. He, in
turn, used his Twitter account to frame this support around his social justice
agenda.
In this book: see pp. 39, 67, 227, 275, 290, 291.
See also: agenda setting; mediatisation.
Look up: Erving Goffman; Robert Entman.
Hierarchy of effects model This is a marketing communication model based

on the steps involved in getting consumers on board with a product or
service. As they transition from being unaware of a brand, to forming atti-
tudes and understanding, and, finally, to becoming an end user, they follow
a metaphorical hierarchy or pyramid, as illustrated below. Essentially, there
are several steps involved in the process (either four or six, depending on
your source). The four-step version is called the AIDA (attention, interest,
desire, action) model, said to be developed in 1898 by US businessman
E. St Elmo Lewis (Ryte Wiki, 2019).
How it’s used: As the diagram shows, the model begins with gaining attention
and works through all stages to action (usually the purchase or adoption
of a product or service). The stages can also be translated in the following
order: think, feel, do. It centres on using persuasion and influence to get
consumers to act in a certain way and relate to consumables, experiences or
services—for example, in selecting make-up, alcohol, holidays, new phones,
a new car—just about anything that gives you that ‘need to have’ feeling.
Figure 10.2 The AIDA model.


See also: elaboration likelihood theory; attitude component model.
Look up: Robert Lavidge & Gary Steiner.
Knowledge economy In the information age, the global economy has shifted
towards an economy based on intellectual capital or workers’ knowledge.
Knowledge economies (or knowledge-based economies) in advanced
industrial nations typically have a higher level of intellectually intensive
activities than service-, agriculture- and manufacturing-based economies.
Examples of knowledge economy activities include research, technical
support and consulting, supported by a strong focus on education and inno-
vation. New ideas and products, including patents, are indicators of a shift
to a knowledge economy. The knowledge economy is closely related to
concepts of the information age and the network society. The World
Bank defines knowledge economies as having:
1. institutional structures that provide incentives for entrepreneurship

and the use of knowledge
2. availability of skilled labour and a good education system
3. access to information and communication technology (ICT) infra-
structures
4. a vibrant innovation landscape that includes academia, the private
sector, and civil society. (Kenton 2019)
How it’s used: The focus on education and innovation, research and develop-
ment, computing and technology are all indicative of the priorities in a
knowledge economy. Public relations and communication professionals
are knowledge and information workers who communicate about inno-
vation, sometimes innovating themselves. The industry sits at the centre
of knowledge economies and networked societies because communicating
acts as a central link for knowledge exchange between so many sectors,
stakeholders and ideas.

See also: network society; information age.
Look up: Tadlo Umeaso; Manuel Castells.
290 Theory
Mediatisation This theory describes how social institutions are affected by,
and seek to adapt to, the media. The original context for examining and
understanding mediatisation was at the interface between politics, political
communication and the media, and the impact media had on the develop-
ment of policies and institutional communication. As such, the news media
was said to have altered the way politics was communicated, to ensure politi-
cians get media attention and stories are framed according to their narrative
agendas. It has since evolved from a purely political communication theory
to a more general sociocultural concept of how society is shaped by the
world of media and how people have adapted. A related concept is ‘media
logics’, which refers to how media is prioritised, processed and commu-
nicated. In the digital media environment, mediatisation now crosses all
aspects of culture and the adaptation continues. Mediatisation has been
likened in impact to globalisation and commercialisation.
How it’s used: Successful political leaders have become masters of using media
to get their messages across. This includes the rise in the ‘celebrity’ politi-
cian—people like Boris Johnson, Donald Trump, Emmanuel Macron and
Justin Trudeau. This celebrity status ensures their presence in mainstream
media and most are now masters at using social media (or their public rela-
tions teams are). In the case of US President Donald Trump, his pervasive
social media-fuelled communication has become legendary, resulting in
his cult-like status and following among his fans and voters. Trump has
become one of the most mediatised people of our age; as one critique put
it, ‘[n]o other president has so thoroughly dominated the press as Trump
manages to do, largely because of his extremely active posting habits and
his bombastic writing traits’ (Diggit 2017).
In this book: see pp. 32, 117, 128, 276, 280, 288, 306, 307.
See also: agenda setting and priming; framing; network society.
Look up: Kent Asp; Stig Hjarvard.
Narrative theory This theory (also known as narratology) is about the study
of narratives and their structures. It centres on how narratives provide
meaning-making on individual, social and cultural levels, shaping our life
experiences. Narrative theory emerged from literary studies but has many
interdisciplinary strands across cultural studies, history, languages, psychol-

ogy and writing. Communication, advertising and marketing have adopted
and developed their own use of narratives to assist in meaning-making and
crafting narratives around organisational identity. Narratives (sometimes
explained as a ‘system’ of stories but often used interchangeably with just
‘stories’) make sense of life and identity, evoke emotions, connect people
and develop communities through the telling, listening, hearing, interpret-
ing and sharing process. Brand narratives associate particular brands with
dedicated narratives or storylines. These are a practical application of how
narratives work.
How it’s used: For strategic communication, narrative theory translates to brand
narratives, which are about how organisations or brands present themselves
through their stories. It helps if you have a fun, authentic story to kick-start
the brand narrative. Our example in Chapter 9 of Burt’s Bees provides a
narrative of two people meeting and brainstorming the now highly success-
ful natural beauty range. That story, as we note in Chapter 9, cuts across
many cultures. There are many other stories throughout the book that
illustrate how narratives are used.
In this book: see pp. 32, 33, 40, 130, 244, 257, 265.
See also: framing theory; brand narrative.
Look up: Mieke Bal; Paul Wake.
News values News is commonly defined by news values, or the criteria

by which news is judged as newsworthy. Originally developed by Johan
Galtung and Mari Ruge in the 1960s to describe newsworthiness, news
values have been revised many times since. One of the most recent lists,
with a digital focus, includes fifteen news values: exclusivity; bad news;
good news; conflict; surprise; audiovisuals; entertainment; drama; follow-up
stories; the power elite; relevance; magnitude; celebrity; news organisation’s
agendas; shareability (Harcup & O’Neill 2016). These factors contribute to
the overall news agenda and how a story is framed. For this reason, they
overlap with agenda setting and framing.
How it’s used: The simplest way to use news values in communication and PR
is to consider how they will feature in your stories. News values might be
292 Theory
considered a bit vague at times (good news/bad news) but they are worth
keeping in mind as you think about what stories will resonate with your
audience. In particular, in the list above think about audiovisuals and share-
ability, which have grown exponentially in importance in recent years. At
the same time, don’t overlook conflict; whether it’s a story you want to
share or one you hope won’t be shared, stories that include conflict often
attract attention.
See also: agenda setting and priming; framing.

Look up: Johan Galtang & Mari Holmboe Ruge; Tony Harcup & Deirdre
O’Neill.
Organisational listening This theory divides dialogue into the equally

important elements of listening and speaking. Fundamentally, listening is
about the basic human need to be understood and to understand others. The
International Listening Association was launched in 1979, and listening is
a part of rhetorical studies, although organisational listening as a commu-
nication theory has only gained prominence in recent years. Listening is
first and foremost an interpersonal communication activity that consists of
physical and cognitive processes of hearing, interpreting and responding.
At the organisational level, a willingness to listen to internal and external
stakeholders is seen as impacting on positive organisational outputs,
success, reputation and effective practice and production. Poor listening
is associated with negative organisational outcomes, such as conflict and
mistakes, including errors, misunderstood work orders, feedback confu-
sion and decreased safety in the workplace (Barbour 2017). Organisational
listening is increasingly connected to gauging online sentiment through
social media.
How it works: Organisational listening is a central component of issue, crisis

and relationship management. Organisations need to put in place tools to
effectively listen and respond to what their stakeholders are saying. Real-
time listening enables organisations to spot trends quickly and respond
proactively. Social listening (or listening to social media activity) monitors
social media channels for mentions relating to brand name, competitors’
names, keywords and so on. It then provides tools to analyse what’s going
on to enable a responsive approach. Social listening tools are available from

Hootsuite, BuzzSumo, HubSpot and Sprout Social. While clearly import-
ant to brands, social listening is also hugely important for service industries
such as police and emergency services, which rely on feedback about missing
persons, flooded roads, road accidents, fires and so on. Equally, govern-
ments establish programs to listen to community views when developing
policy, using both face-to-face and online forums. For example, through
the South Australian Government’s YourSAy program, the views of citizens
across a wide range of issues have been used to inform over 400 government
decisions (Government of South Australia 2020).
Figure 10.3 The South Australian Government uses social media to listen to
community views on policies such as its draft Youth Action Plan.
See also: relationship management; issues management; rhetoric.
Look up: Joshua Barbour; Jim Macnamara.
Propaganda Propaganda is the deliberate and systematic attempt to shape

the way audiences think and influence behaviour. It is a form of persua-
sion designed to manipulate the truth in order to change attitudes or
behaviours. Propaganda has a history of being used to promote an ideology;
it is derived from the word ‘propagate’ which means to spread or multiply.
In modern times, propaganda has been considered in a more negative
294 Theory
context due to its close historical associations with religion, warfare and
politics—and sometimes all of these together.
How it’s used: War posters were among the most popular forms of propa-
ganda used by all governments during World Wars I and II. There are
also propaganda posters associated with many internal revolutions. While
propaganda is more associated with twentieth century historical events, it
was used more recently as a tactic that was called out by critics following
the ‘war on terror’ in Iraq. When the USA announced in 2003 that Iraq had
weapons of mass destruction, the omission of facts, fabrication of truths and
deception illustrated that propaganda remains a communication tool that
Figure 10.4 Left: Posters were called ‘weapons on the walls’, playing a major role
in enlisting troops and boosting morale. This Australian armed services poster
was used to encourage enlistment (1916). Source: State Library of South Australia.
Right: The ‘America under communism’ illustration is the front cover of an
anti-communist Catholic comic book called ‘Is this Tomorrow’, published by the
Catechetical Guild Education Society of St Paul, Minnesota, USA (1947).
is still practised by governments. As Figure 10.4 illustrates, governments

and churches used propaganda to elicit support (left) and create fear (right)
during the twentieth century.
See also: rhetoric.

Look up: Garth Jowett & Victoria O’Donnell; Edward Herman & Noam
Chomsky; Sheldon Rampton & John Stauber; Edward Bernays.
Public interest Public interest is a central concept within democracies.

It centres on how the ‘relationship between the individual and the state
should be managed in order to produce a fair, lasting democratic system of
governance’ (Johnston & Pieczka, 2018, p. 9). As a theoretical field it has
emerged out of political philosophy and is well known for being difficult
to define—something that is compounded by expressing public interest as
‘the’ public interest. Because no single interest is possible in a modern,
pluralistic society it is more useful to understand the concept as applied
to many publics and many interests which share different positions and
perspectives on the world. It is generally defined within the context it is
used—such as in legislation, government policies or regulation, or court
decision-making, often calling for balancing of competing interests (such as
free speech and privacy). Like wicked problems, sometimes this is fraught
as there can be no right or wrong answer. Another allied theory, enlight-
ened self-interest, which sees a compatibility between individual and
public interests, is easily understandable in the context of the COVID-19
virus (illustrated below).
How it’s used: Public interest is a term that is used to argue or justify an
outcome. In its simplest form, the expression ‘it’s in the public interest’
is commonly used. It is widely cited in politics, media and legal decision-
making. In journalism it is associated with media reporting practices that
are intended to hold powers to account, with public interest journalism
associated with ‘quality’ or ‘investigative’ reporting. Public interest
communication has been described as central to how public interest
is framed and how different interests are communicated or expressed
in society (Johnston & Pieczka 2018). Public interest can be communi-
cated as a form of public argument, through persuasive or information
296 Theory
campaigns, by deliberative reasoning in public forums and places. A good

example of how public interest was communicated was in the health
warnings during the COVID-19 crisis. These included key messag-
ing such as: ‘stay home’, ‘we’re all in this together’, ‘stop the spread’,
‘maintain social distancing’ and ‘wash your hands’. Nevertheless, while
this might appear like a simple one-sided public interest scenario, there
were many interests to balance within the larger context of COVID-19,
such as balancing people’s personal liberties and income streams with the
health imperatives of restricting movement.
Figure 10.5 This ‘Know the signs’ poster was used during the early part of the
Australian Government information campaign when the main target audience was
travellers. It was published on 2 March 2020, two weeks before officially closing the
borders to non-residents. Source: Australian Government, Department of Health.

See also: enlightened self-interest; wicked problems.
Look up: Barry Bozeman; Jane Johnston & Magda Pieczka.
Relationship management Relationship management focuses on developing

a partnership between an organisation and its publics, one that goes deeper
than a transactional relationship or a communication process. Centred on
the principle that public relations should benefit both an organisation and
its publics, relationship management suggests that it is important to foster
relationships in an ongoing and productive way rather than approaching
publics simply as a means to an end. Characteristics of trust, openness,
involvement, investment and commitment are fundamental to successful
relationship management. While it has been argued that it’s difficult to
measure intangibles such as value and success in relationships, Hon and
Grunig (1999) propose six factors that can be assessed:
1. control mutuality
2. trust
3. commitment
4. satisfaction
5. exchange relationships
6. communal relationships.
These six factors are useful to determining relationship management

outcomes. In a business and consumer context, this theory has some
common elements with customer relationship management (CRM).
How it’s used: Relationship management centres on how organisations build

and care for their relationships with key publics or stakeholders—these are
usually people, but might also be animals or the environment. (For example,
Bank Australia says its money is ‘clean’ because it is never loaned to indus-
tries that do harm, such as coal, nuclear weapons, gambling, tobacco or
live animal exports, and it builds its relationships around this.) It’s easy to
understand how relationship management works when we consider the
traditional face-to-face settings in which a relationship is crucial, such
as with your doctor, veterinarian or hairdresser. These industries rely on
relationships for return business—you’d hardly go back to a hairdresser
298 Theory
or doctor who didn’t speak or listen to you, or a vet who was mean to your
cat! With the rise of ecommerce, many industries have had to adapt to the
online environment to manage their relationships. Out of this has grown
tactics such as online personalised chat that helps you manage a negotiation
or purchase and the development of loyalty programs.
In this book: see pp. 10, 21, 60, 175, 204, 227, 251, 292–3.
See also: organisational listening; social capital; CSR.
Look up: Mary Ann Ferguson; John Ledingham & Stephen Bruning; Linda
Hon & James Grunig.
Rhetorical theory Rhetoric refers to language that is used to inform,

persuade or motivate. It is usually associated with persuasive speech. The
rhetorical tradition is one of the oldest in the study and understanding
of human communication, with its origins traced back to ancient times.
Core elements of rhetoric dating from the ancient Greek philosopher
Aristotle are still considered important today. According to Aristotle,
rhetoric involves three elements: ethos, the character or credibility of a
speaker; logos, the logic of the argument presented; and pathos, the use
of emotional appeal. Other elements, such as social position and rela-
tionship to the audience, are also important. Rhetoric has become an
important way of understanding political speech. Rhetorical devices, such
as alliteration, analogy and repetition, provide ways of connecting with
an audience or listener. In the 1990s the concept of digital rhetoric was
coined to describe a new approach that is multimodal. This emerging field
is interdisciplinary in nature and includes digital literacy, visual rhetoric,
digital media, human–computer interaction and critical code studies
(Eyman 2015).
How it’s used: Rhetoric is about skilfully using language to convey a meaning
and achieve a purpose—this can be to persuade, inform or motivate.
Rhetorical devices are used to evoke emotion and responses. Winston
Churchill, British Prime Minister during World War II, was famous for
his political speechmaking and use of rhetoric. In an essay entitled ‘The
Scaffolding of Rhetoric’ written in 1897 (available online), he begins by
saying: ‘Of all the talents bestowed upon men, none is so precious as the
gift of oratory’. He lists rhythm, analogy and accumulation of argument

as among the most important elements of strong rhetoric.
See also: ethos, pathos and logos.
Look up: Aristotle; Robert Heath; Douglas Eyman.
Semiotics This is the study of signs and symbols within specific cultures.
It involves signs, which directly refer to what people see, such as photo-
graphs; and symbols, which are learned codes, such as language. Audiences
decode images and words according to their own personal, cultural or
social terms of reference to obtain their own meaning of a message.
Semioticians (scholars who study semiotics) propose that messages
consist of denotative meaning,
which is literal, and connota-
tive meaning, which involves
the internal associations each
receiver brings to the message.
Other meanings can be ambig-
uous, when a message has
multiple literal meanings, and
polysemic, in which multiple
associations may vary among
individuals and cultures.
How it’s used: Signs and symbols

are widely used by marketers,
in public relations, in branding
and raising awareness for causes.
These can be so important to
identification of a brand that
they can result in turf battles,
such as the battle for the Red Figure 10.6 This sign could be a
Cross symbol between the life-saver for some international drivers!
American Red Cross charity Road signs are examples of semiotics.
and the pharmaceutical brand Photo by Thandy Young, Unsplash.
300 Theory
Johnson & Johnson in 2007. Johnson & Johnson, which had trademarked
the symbol, filed a lawsuit against the charity organisation, demanding it
stop using it (Saul 2007). Many symbols and signs are taken for granted,
working in social contexts to keep things clear and avoid chaos, accidents or
misunderstandings. These include road signs, like STOP and GIVE WAY;
‘open’ and ‘closed’ shop signs; signs for male and female restrooms; exit
signs; and ‘do not’ swim, surf, climb etc. signs. Commonly identified and
trademarked symbols in business include McDonald’s golden arches, the
Nike swoosh, the Apple apple and Red Bull’s bull.

See also: persuasion; propaganda.
Look up: Charles Sanders Peirce; Ferdinand de Saussure; Roland Barthes.
Situational theory This theory is based on the idea that the level of recog-
nition, involvement and the ability to affect a situation will determine
how people behave in relation to that problem, issue or situation. People
become active publics only if they are sufficiently motivated to be involved
and if they have the ability to find and consider information about how
their interests may be affected. They also need to feel they can achieve
something about the situation at hand. Grunig and Hunt (1984) identified
three key factors that determine the level of advocacy of publics in relation
to their situation:
1. problem recognition, in which people know something should be done
about a situation and think about what to do
2. constraint recognition, when people perceive there are obstacles that
limit their ability to do something about a situation
3. level of involvement, or the extent to which people perceive that what
an organisation does involves them.
Grunig later added two dependent behavioural variables: information
seeking and information processing, also known as active and passive
communication behaviour.
How it’s used: Situational theory is a useful tool in the early stages of a strate-
gic communication and public relations campaign, particularly during the
situation analysis. It can help determine the extent to which stakeholders
will be motivated or have resources to defend or promote their interests.

In September 2019, the Global Climate Strikes saw millions of people
worldwide protesting climate change and inaction by governments.
These protests were particularly powerful because they incorporated
schoolchildren protesting for their future. In this international display of
unity, the problem recognition was clear by the turnout; the constraint
recognition was illustrated in the level of frustration and anger shown
about government inactivity; and the level of involvement was high. The
strikes took place in the week leading up to the United Nations Climate
Summit, with estimates that over 7.5 million people in 150 countries were
actively involved.
Figure 10.7 Climate Protests in 2019 saw schoolchildren walk out of school and
protest for their futures. Photo by Markus Spiske, Unsplash.

302 Theory
Social capital theory Social capital has been called the ‘glue’ that binds people
together. Essentially, it is about the collective and shared value people bring
to a community or society. Making connections among people, building
reciprocal relationships, collaboration, trust and community, are the bases
of social capital theory. It takes two main forms.
1. Bonding: linking people together based on a common identity, such as

family, close friends and people who share a culture or ethnicity
2. Bridging: linking people across different identity groups.
Social capital is one of many capitals. Broadly, the others are financial,
human, intellectual, cultural and natural—some of these overlap, such as
human and intellectual capital, which often coexist with social capital. The
growth in understanding about the non-financial capitals have allowed theo-
rists and policy-makers to consider how different capitals—such as cultural
and social capital—can be used to create bonds in existing communities and
bridge separated communities.
How it’s used: Social capital can focus on like-minded people coming together
for a mutually beneficial purpose. This has been described in diverse
concepts, from sporting groups to environmental activists. These groups
may exist in a physical way or in virtual, online communities. They will
share values, interests and beliefs which may be ideological, such as political
parties, or practical, such as Neighbourhood Watch groups. As an example,
Neighbourhood Watch groups bring together social capital with a focus on
community safety and crime prevention, working closely with local policing
groups. These groups have been in existence since the 1960s in the USA,
the 1970s in New Zealand (called Neighbourhood Support), and the 1980s
in Britain and Australia.
In this book: see pp. 45–6, 273, 277, 304.
See also: community capacity building.
Look up: Robert Putnam; Pierre Bourdieu.
Social contract theory This theory is about the ‘contracts’ people have with
their society. It is about a consensual exchange between citizen and state,
centring on the idea that people live according to an agreement or under-
standing about their obligations to the society in which they live. Likewise,
Figure 10.8 Neighbourhood Watch in Kensington, London. Photo by Bruno Martins,

Unsplash.
governments have obligations to their citizens. In the exchange, citizens

surrender some of their personal liberty and the state commits to guaran-
teeing some liberty and protection. The idea behind the social contract is
that societies do not exist in ‘a state of nature’—instead, there are rules, laws,
authorities and practices that govern behaviour. In being part of society
people are said to give their consent to obeying rules and laws. The concept
of the social contract goes to back to Socrates, gaining popularity during
the Enlightenment period through philosophers Thomas Hobbes, John
Locke and Jean-Jacques Rousseau, and most recently through John Rawls.
How it’s used: The social contract is played out every day in society. Some soci-
eties call on citizens to perform civic duties like serving in the armed forces
for a period of time, or taking part in jury duty. Others are more implicit in
everyday events and activities, such as:
• going through an x-ray machine at an airport

• crossing the road when the flashing light is green
304 Theory
• submitting tax returns

• going to school as a child and sending your children there as an adult
• looking after the elderly and younger members of society
• staying at home as much as possible during the COVID-19 crisis.
The issue with the social contract is that, if you don’t uphold your part of
the social contract, you can be sanctioned by fines or other legal penalties.
However, the social contract is a two-way contract and governments are
also required to respond to the needs of their citizens. Civic unrest can, and
does, result where citizens do not believe their governments are doing their
part. For example, see the situational theory example of climate protests
outlined earlier.
See also: social capital; community capacity building.

Look up: John Rawls; John Locke.
Social licence to operate This is the informal support that organisations

seek from communities (in contrast to formal laws or regulations). A social
licence is therefore said to be specific to the community in which an organ-
isation (or industry) is located or operating. The theory emerged out of
the erosion of community trust in business and other large institutions and
suggests that businesses (and business leaders) need to take an active role in
leading positive change, eliminating harm and maximising benefits for the
local community. It calls for organisations, or whole industries or sectors,
to learn about local stakeholder value and cultural systems, and how these
apply to their perceptions of the organisation and its projects. The social
licence to operate is made up of three components: legitimacy, credibility
and trust.
• Legitimacy: the extent to which an organisation works within the

norms of the community at legal, social, cultural, formal or informal
levels
• Credibility: the organisation’s capacity to provide true and clear infor-
mation to the community and fulfil any commitments made
• Trust: the willingness to spend time and gain trust within the community.
(The Ethics Centre 2018)
306 Theory
employee loyalty, customer satisfaction, community support and public

endorsement work for them.

Look up: Edward Freeman; Edward Freeman, Jeffrey Harrison & Stelios
Zyglidopoulos.
Two-step flow of communication The two-step flow theory suggests that

the media’s influence is filtered by opinion leaders—active media users who
collect, interpret and diffuse the meaning of media messages to less-active
media consumers. In effect, opinion leaders act as a middle layer in the
distribution of media content. The theory was developed in contrast to
media theories that saw the media directly impacting on people (e.g. agenda
setting). Influence comes via innovators, then early adopters of a trend,
followed by the early majority, the late majority and, finally, the laggards.
While it was first introduced in the 1940s, the modern media environment
makes it just as relevant today through opinion leaders or influencers on
social media. These people are said to be ‘third-party’ influencers who are
actively involved in media through participation and co-creation.
How it’s used: The original idea of two-step flow theory was that media and
influencers were separate. Today, the two are highly connected. Mass and
interpersonal media have now been merged—online media is now ‘mass-
personal’. While news is generated by media organisations (e.g. the ABC)
or from aggregated sources (e.g. Apple news), information more broadly
is sought out through personalised sources and friends in online media.
Strategic communication and PR practitioners use this theory when they
identify and use opinion leaders or influencers to amplify their organisa-
tions’ messages. Think about where you take your cues from in voting,
holiday destinations or where to go for coffee. The tweet about Ariana
Grande used previously in the chapter is an example of how influencers are
used to affect voting behaviour.

See also: mediatisation; agenda setting; diffusion of innovation.
Look up: Elihu Katz & Paul Lazarsfeld; Gabriel Weimann.
Uses and gratifications theory While there are continuing debates about
whether it is a ‘theory’ or an ‘approach’, uses and gratifications are
relevant to gaining a deeper understanding of individuals’ use of media.
The theory is audience-centred as it concerns how audiences actively
choose which media to use in order to gratify their social and psycho-
logical need for information, entertainment, social connection, attention
and recognition, to escape from routine or to pursue some other goal.
It moves away from the belief that audiences are passive receivers of
information. Instead, it seeks to understand their motivations for using
a chosen medium and the satisfactions that are gained through both the
process of using that medium and from its content. Differences in moti-
vations and the types and levels of activity are acknowledged, recognising,
for example, that some media use is more habitual than consciously
selected. The theory stemmed from research in the 1950s by Katz, who
was interested in what people did with media rather than what media did
to people.
How it’s used: Early research focused on the news media of the day—
television—through which mass audiences could be reached quickly and
easily. Using more recent digital technologies, attention has now also
turned to the motivations behind the selection and use of the plethora of
media platforms used by today’s diverse and fragmented audiences. For the
contemporary communication practitioner, uses and gratifications theory
can assist in identifying which individuals use which platforms for what
purposes, reaching out to connect with them in the most effective and
efficient manner. For example, delivery of detailed information could be
more appropriate on a website, whereas a tweet could direct the audience
to that site, and the information could be repurposed for a media platform
used for entertainment. The theory also reminds the practitioner of the
competition from other sources in addressing the satisfaction needs of
their audiences.

See also: digital economy; mediatisation.
Look up: Elihu Katz; Jay Blumer; Denis McQuail.
308 Theory
Wicked Problems More a concept than a theory, wicked problems are

complex to describe and even more complex to solve. ‘Wickedness isn’t a
degree of difficulty . . . A wicked problem has innumerable causes, is tough
to describe, and doesn’t have a right answer . . . Environmental degradation,
terrorism, and poverty—these are classic examples of wicked problems’
(Camillus 2008, p. 1). The concept was first proposed to contrast the differ-
ence between ‘tame’ problems that could be resolved by using standard
scientific techniques such as algorithms, logic or rules and principles; with
‘tame’ problems one answer was possible, but not with wicked problems
(Rittel and Webber, 1973). The original focus on systems design has grown
and is now applied to broader social and economic policy problems which
are never value-free, with right or wrong answers. The properties that
distinguished wicked problems were:
1. There is no definitive formulation of a wicked problem.

2. Wicked problems are often ongoing.
3. Solutions to wicked problems are not true or false, but good or bad.
4. There is no immediate and no ultimate test of a solution to a wicked
problem.
5. All attempts to find solutions have effects that may not be reversable.
6. Wicked problems do not have a set of solutions.
7. Every wicked problem is essentially unique.
8. Every wicked problem can be considered to be a symptom of another
problem.
9. There are many explanations for wicked problems.
10. There are no ‘right’ or ‘wrong’ answers. (Rittell & Webber, 1973)
How it’s used: There is no quick fix for wicked policy problems, but some say
that many social and economic problems lie somewhere on a continuum
between ‘tame’ and ‘wicked’ (Australian Government 2018). In addition,
policy problems may move along the continuum over time, for example,
the issue of tobacco control. Decades ago, all levels of government and
NGOs in Australia broadly agreed on the scope of the smoking problem
and the need for it to be strategically controlled. This was put into force
in 1997 by the National Tobacco Strategy which included regulation to
control promotion, and develop taxation, warnings, cessation services,
pharmacotherapies and information campaigns (Australian Government

2018). As the Australian Government points out, ‘when tobacco control
was first conceived of in Australia 30 years ago, smoking was entrenched
in the social fabric of Australian society’. Today it remains a problem but
the scope of its ‘wickedness’ has been reduced due to the strategy. While
wicked problems are not usually fully resolvable, they nevertheless call for
deliberative and purposeful engagement and are associated with democratic
communication and negotiation. Communication management is needed
to work with the many stakeholders—and there are always many stake-
holders because they are complex problems—each having different ideas
about what the problem is, its causes and solutions.
In this book: see pp. 83–4, 193, 295, 297.

See also: enlightened self-interest; deliberative democracy.
Look up: Horst W.J. Rittel and Melvin M. Webber; B. Guy Peters.
Conclusion
Theories provide ways of thinking, seeing and understanding the world. In this
chapter we’ve drawn from the theories mentioned throughout this book, and
added a few others, drawn from theories in media and communication, sociol-
ogy, political science, psychology, ethical philosophy and public relations. By
developing each theory with a short factual account, a ‘how it’s used’ applied
section, suggested similar theories for further investigation, and key theorists,
we’ve intentionally kept the entries compact but as comprehensive as possible.
This is only the start of your journey into strategic communication and related
theory. For further exploration of theory in these fields, we recommend Robert
Heath and Winni Johansen’s comprehensive International Encyclopedia of Stra-
tegic Communication (Heath & Johansen 2018). Some other useful resources
include the Purdue Writing Lab; the Centre for the Study of Theory and
Criticism at Western University, Canada; The Ethics Centre, Sydney; the
Science Media Centre, Wellington; and the Project Narrative at Ohio
State University. Other useful books and journals can be found in the list of
references and further readings, below.
A few final words on theory. Remember it relates to strategy, planning,
tactics, research and ethics—in other words, theory helps with all of these, in
310 Theory
this book, and more. As this chapter has illustrated, when we apply theory and
put it into practice, it can assist in developing organisational thinking, includ-
ing strategy and planning; in making ethical choices; and in tactic selection.
Theory, like research, is an important starting point in strategic communica-
tion and public relations, but it doesn’t stop at the beginning. Theories can
assist the process as we brainstorm our way through research, campaigns,
issues, crises, planning or tactic development. Finally, a willingness to explore
theory and a capacity to understand how it can help provide a depth of
understanding will distinguish the thinkers and problem-solvers in our industry.
Those people, in turn, will find their way into the future leadership roles in
business and industry, politics and government, and the third sector, in our
complex and rapidly changing society.
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Scheufele, D. (1999). Framing as a Theory of Media Effects. International Journal of Communi-
cation, 49, 103–22.
Schneider, F. (2013). Getting the Hang of Discourse Theory: An Introduction to the Field.
Politics East Asia (6 May). Retrieved from http://www.politicseastasia.com/studying/getting-
the-hang-of-discourse-theory/
Shirky, C. (2009). Here Comes Everybody. London: Penguin.

Sullivan, S. (2019). Email interview (31 December).
Tench, R. & Yeomans L. (2006). Exploring Public Relations. Essex: Pearson Education.
The Ethics Centre (2018). Ethics Explainer: Social License to Operate. Retrieved from https://
ethics.org.au/ethics-explainer-social-license-to-operate/
van Dijck, J., Poell, R. & de Waal, M. (2018). The Platform Society: Public Values in a C
onnective
World. New York: Oxford.
West, R. & Turner, L. (2010). Introducing Communication Theory, Analysis and Application (4th edn).
New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Higher Education.
Yocco, V. (2014). Persuasion: Applying the Elaboration Likelihood Model to Design. A List
Apart (1 July). Retrieved from https://alistapart.com/article/persuasion-applying-the-
elaboration-likelihood-model-to-design/
Index
4-C content model 244, 246–7 astroturfing 99, 252

attitude component model 221, 276, 289
action planning 213, 223–8, 241, 252 attitudes 57, 64, 81, 156, 158, 159–60, 161,
activation 13, 253 164, 165, 166, 168, 195, 221, 222, 223,
activism 9, 44, 252, 46–8, 49 224, 234, 276, 279, 283, 288–9, 293
advertising 8, 15, 34, 37–8, 49, 120, 168 and influencers 133–4
native 261 community/social 45, 58
value equivalent (AVE) 171–2 in value statements 195
advocacy 46–7, 48, 49, 60, 300 audience 31, 163, 172, 173, 223, 224, 225,
agenda building 275 240, 241, 244, 246, 248, 249, 250, 256,
agenda setting 67, 227, 287–8, 290, 291–2, 259, 260, 267, 276, 280, 286, see also
306 publics and stakeholders
theory 274–6 and ethics 95
AI see Artificial Intelligence and defamation 110
AIDA model 276, 288 and framing 287
algorithm 10, 128, 144, 145, 174, 252, 308 and media convergence 119
American Red Cross 299 and news values 292
annual general meeting 39, 253 and persuasion 29
annual report 40, 244, 253 and propaganda 293
Apple 122, 144, 188, 192–3, 280, 300, 306 and rhetoric 298
apps 122, 123, 130, 144, 253, and semiotics 299
Ardern, Jacinda 68, 131–2 and technology 44
Aristotle 100, 298–9 and uses and gratifications 307
artificial intelligence 10, 31, 59, 170, 173–6, coronavirus 36, 296
253, see also machine learning definition 6
Association for Measurement and Evaluation engagement 121
152, 153, 171, 172 Australian Associated Press (AAP) 170
315
316 STRATEGIC COMMUNICATION
Australian Communications and Media civil society 28, 43, 94, 289, see also third
Authority 112 sector organisations
Australian Heritage Strategy 199–200 Coca-Cola 188
Australian Red Cross 196–7, 285 Colgate 189
AVE see advertising value equivalents collective intelligence 119–20
communication audits 163, 170–1, 216
Barcelona Declaration 152–3, 171 communities 44–7, 77, 199, 201–2, 277, 302,
Bell Pottinger 96 304–5
Botan, Carl 182–3, 204–5 online 246, 302
brand 12, 13, 38–9, 83, 182, 185, 249 community 35, 44–6, 39, 48, 175, 190, 193,
and Apple 193 200, 204, 217, 255, 284, 286, 293, 302,
and Coca-Cola 188 304–5
and influencers 134–5 action group (CAG) 28, 305
image 15, 78 and CSR 75–6, 77, 81
journalism 15, 259 consultation 255, 277, 305
management 15, 34, 39 engagement 33, 34, 45–6, 235
narratives 244, 291 service announcement 255
branded content 38–9, 135, 250–2 community capacity building theory 46, 273,
branding 13, 34, 38, 138, 189, 250, 254 276–7, 302, 304
budgets 14, 151, 164, 208, 216, 226, 229–32 consequentialism 97–8, 100
Burt’s Bees 241–3, 253, 257, 258, 262, 291 consultants/consultancy 11–3, 31, 93–4
consumer(s) 145, 159–60, 203, 217, 266,
campaign(s) 31, 34, 51, 78, 96, 158–60, 283–4, 288
182–4, 208–38, 309, see also protests as media consumers 306
anti-smoking 308–9 as prosumers 119
Apple see Apple as stakeholders 278
Burt’s Bees see Burt’s Bees behaviour 263, 274
Coronavirus see Coronavirus, see also consent 112
COVID-19 law 106, 111
Coca-Cola see Coca-Cola of Colgate 189
Converse see Converse of Nike 189–90
Lakeview Zoo see Lakeview Zoo of Starbucks 189
management 34 of Thankyou 51
Nike see Nike protection 106–7
objectives 172 relations 37–9
osteoporosis see osteoporosis relationship management 175, 297
propaganda 294 content 221, 240–1, 244–7, 263, 264, 266,
case studies 163, 171 267, 280
cause-marketing 231, 255, 277, 284 analysis 163, 169, 171, 172
Christchurch calendars 211
multicultural strategy 200–1 composing 246–7
shootings 131–2 creation 13, 15, 34, 176, 245, 247
churnalism 128 crowdsourcing 246–7, 256
Index 317
curation 245–6, 247 for community 6

distribution 247–50, 306 for corporate social responsibility (CSR) 74
marketing 250–2 for issue 57
online 246 for organisational relationships 6
user-generated 266 for public 6
convergence 8, 118–20, 126, 145–6, 273 for public relations 6, 7
Converse 82–3 for social enterprise 49
copyright 103, 104, 107–8, 124, 262, for society 6
coronavirus 36, 296, see also COVID-19 for stakeholder 6
corporate for strategy 6, 183–4
citizenship 41, 60, 76, 79, 81, 256, 277–8, for strategic communication 6, 204–5
284–5, 305 for theory 272
communication/communicator 7, 13, 15, delivery methods 241, 247–50
37, 39, 42, 52, 130, 210, 212, 235 democracy 41, 68, 197, 309
partnerships 42–3 democratic 21, 32, 77, 295, 287, 309
social responsibility (CSR) 73–84, 98, 239, democratisation 144, 274, 280–1
255, 256, 277–8, 285, 298, 305 deontology 90, 94–5
COVID-19 36, 65, 68, 118, 123, 131, 142, diffusion of innovation theory 224, 282,
295–6, 304, see also coronavirus 306
creative commons 108 digital economy 118, 124, 281, 281, 307
crisis/crises 13, 15, 34, 35, 48, 59, 67–73, 98, discourse 129, 282–3
132, 142, 175, 292, 296 duty of care 105
management 71–3 duty-based ethics 91–6
paracrises 69, 70–1
planning 211, 235–6 education 9, 14–9, 113, 128, 168, 176, 189,
critical theory 273–4, 278–9, 281 195, 242, 257, 261, 265, 289
crowdsourcing 246, 247, 256 elaboration likelihood theory 224, 283–4,
cultivation theory 279–80 289
customer relationship management 175, 297 emojis 8, 128–9
enlightened self-interest 51, 98, 159, 284–5,
data 10, 59, 70, 121, 143, 156–8, 160, 162–3, 295, 297, 309
256, 258, 261, 263, 280 environmental monitoring 163, 168–9, 170
big 31, 130–1, 144, 173–6, 256 environmental scanning 155, 186
analytics 16 excellence theory 285, 286
analysis 163, 170
collection 157, 164–9, 280 Facebook 35, 51, 83, 166, 189, 243, 249, 260,
mining 10, 21 274, 275, 280, 281
security 79, 113, 143, 144, 145 and cyber-attacks 145
visualisation 131 and data 144
defamation 109–11 and defamation 110–11
definition(s) 5–6, 15–6 and news aggregation 143
for audience 6 insights 169, 174
for communication 6 moments 246
fact checks 5, 20, 40, 58, 59, 74, 76, 98, 103, investigation 69
111, 136, 142, 156, 169, 192, 196, 205, laws 78, 103, 106
222, 243 officials 96
fact sheet 36, 357, 258, 260 Queensland 277
fake news 99, 128, 143, 152, 257 South Australian 293
five Ps 184 strategies 199–201, 217–8
focus groups 163, 168, 171, 177 grand strategy 182–5, 192–3, 194, 196,
Folau, Israel 43 198–201, 203–4, 239
formal research 161, 162, 163, 216, 256 Grunig, James 285–6, 297–8, 300, 301
four models 285–6, 301, 306 Gumtree 159–60
framing 39, 67, 227, 275, 287–8, 290, 291,
292 hashtag 8, 118, 175, 228, 249, 258
hierarchy of effects model 224, 276, 284,
Gantt chart 229–30 288–9
GetUp! 197 hierarchy of plans 209, 211
GIF 130, 189, 258 Hill+Knowlton 12
Global Alliance for Public Relations history 14–18, 133, 145, 186, 267, 291,
and Communication Management 293
19–20 Hong Kong protests 68–9
Global Capability Framework 19–20
goal(s) 6, 30–1, 42, 45–6, 80, 158, 181–2, impact research 159–60
184, 185, 187, 194, 196, 198, 203, 205, influencer 16, 44, 133–6, 142, 160, 242, 249,
209, 2010, 223, 227, see also objectives 258, 275, 280, 282, 306
in Christchurch’s Multicultural Strategy infographics 130–1, 144, 250, 258
200 informal research 161
in crisis planning 235 in-house 11–3, 19, 104, 161, 168, 170,
setting 213–14, 220–2 230
Google 8, 74, 78, 111, 131, 140, 143, 144, input(s) 38, 153–4, 173, 198, 213, 246
151, 161, 193, 258, 274, 280, 281 input research 155–7, 159–60, 173, 175,
Alerts 168 212, 214, 216
Analytics 140 integrated marketing communication 8, 15,
Forms 166 37–8, 250
Hey Google 174 integrated planning and research cycle 154,
Mini 174 212–14
News 156 intellectual property 107–9, 281
Translate 174 interest/power matrix 218–9
Trends 136, 144, 168, 169 International Organization for
Government 27–8, 29–43 Standardization 80
Australian Federal 296, 308–9 interviews 266, 259, 261
Christchurch City Council 200–1 media 33, 34, 49, 138
codes of conduct 91 research 163, 166–8, 171, 266
COVID-19 warnings 36, 65, 68 investor(s) 278
decision-making 60 relations 16, 39–40
Index 319
Instagram 44, 51, 132, 136, 168, 189, 227, machine learning 58, 91, 144–5, 173
243, 249, 260, 267 media 12, 13, 16, 49, 117–146, 156,
issues 21, 29, 31, 40, 46–8, 57–60, 82, 83, 159–60, 169, 240, 241, 242, 244,
138, 156, 161, 169, 197, 201, 203, 246, 248–9, 252, 252–5, 259–60,
214–5, 216, 218, 250, 274–5, 287, 265–7, 274–5, 278, 279, 280, 281,
293 287, 290, 295, 306, 307, see also
management 13, 14, 16, 21, 40, 60–5, 175, social media
186, 210, 293 agenda 31
communication 62–5, 210 alert 141
channels 121, 134, 139, 244, 249, 252
Jenkins, Henry 119–20, 129, 134, 145, 244, conference 33, 34, 36, 139, 142, 260
273 convergence 119, 120
Jetstar 77 democratisation of 274, 280, 281
job Entertainment & Arts Alliance 91
outlook 3–4, 14 financial 15, 39
skills 126 in planning 223, 225, 227–8, 231, 236
titles 15–6, 19, 134–5 in politics 30–2, 33–6, 40–2
Johnson & Johnson 299 in research 163, 170, 171, 172, 173
Jones, Alan 68 language of 128–9
journalism 8, 15, 17, 94, 137, 138, 254, 255, literacy 124–8, 129
257, 259, 266 kit 260
public interest 295 management 13, 31
model (PESO) 120–2, 128, 137, 139,
Kant, Immanuel 95 227, 240, 252
knowledge economy 137, 289 monitoring 111, 121, 160, 169, 252
multi- 130–3, 139, 266
‘Lakeview zoo’ 214, 216, 220, 222, 225, 226, organisations 111, 130, 133, 144, 274,
227–8, 232, 234 280, 306
language 6, 8, 46, 118, 201, 224, 243, 274, power 142–5
282–3 platform 169, 170, 260, 264, 307
and framing 287 relations 16, 30, 32, 34,137, 141, 211,
and rhetoric 298 260
and natural language processing 174 release 33, 34, 137, 139, 141, 142, 173,
clear 261 240, 241, 260
of media 128–9 training 260
Lil Miquela 136, 143 mediatisation 32, 117, 276, 280, 288, 290,
LinkedIn 51, 249 306, 307
listening 121, 127, 140 metrics 140, 145, 163, 164, 172–3, 233
organisational 46, 156, 186, 204, 244, ministerial staff 29, 33, 34, 42
285–6, 292–3, 298, 305 mission 160, 185, 194–6, 197–8, 199, 203,
tools 140, 293 209, 215, 217, 220, 228
lobbying 16, 40–2, 49, 259 statements 194–5, 220
narrative 32, 40, 257, 265, 290 corporate 42–3, 160, 202
brand 244, 291 public-private 27
theory 290–1 with UNHCR 201
natural processing language 174–5 Passion Lilie 77, 83
negligence 99, 104–6 persuasion 83, 99–100, 283, 288, 293, 300
news 32, 34, 40, 51, 67, 108, 118–20, 130, PESO 120–1, 137, 139, 227, 240, 252
133–4, 137–8, 139, 140–3, 156, 157, 168, PESTLE 59, 61, 155, 216
169, 170, 172, 173, 228, 240, 244–5, 257, philanthropy 16, 73, 76, 98, 239, 242, 262
259, 260, 262, 263, 265, 266, 274–5, 281, Phillips Group 251
287, 306 photograph(y) 13, 104, 131, 132, 133, 262,
aggregation 143, 156, 281, 306 299
conference see media, conference pitching 138, 262
fake see fake news planning models 154, 212, 213, see also
Google 156 research model
-letter 249, 261 platform society 117, 146, 281
media see media news podcasts 133, 156, 262, 263
organisations see media organisations
political economy 274, 279, 281
-paper 118, 119, 133, 136, 157, 245, 257,
Potter Box 101–3
259, 261, 262, 275
power 12, 41, 47, 73, 81, 83,197, 218–9, 273,
release see media release
278–9, 282, 286
stories 141, 142, 143, 275
media 142–5
values 291–2
privacy 79, 93, 95, 101, 113–4, 144–5, 166,
NGO (Non Government Organisation) 28,
280, 281, 295
45, 47–8, 57, 198, 277, 308, see also third
private sector 26–8, 36–43, 76
sector, see also civil society
problem 56, 58, 152, 156, 159, 161, 189,
Nike 109, 189–90, 244, 250, 300
214–5, 220, 263, 272–3, see also wicked
problems
organisational relationships 6
organisational listening see listening social 278
osteoporosis 155 -solver 13–14, 20, 46, 126–7, 252
Outback Queensland 132–3 statement 215
outcome research 158, 160 recognition 218, 300–1
outcomes 33, 35, 40, 41, 45, 46, 50, 153–4, propaganda 293–5, 300
173, 200, 202–3, 213, 221, 233–4, 286, publics 7, 16, 81, 83, 155–6, 185, 186–7, 189,
292, 297 194, 201, 203, 204, 205, 2013, 217–20,
outcome research 158, 160 223, 227, 235, 278–9, 285–6, 295, 297,
outputs 153–4, 162, 169, 172, 173, 182, 183, 300
213–4, 233, 234, 239, 264, 292 public interest 83, 284, 295–6
output research 157–8 Public Relations Institute of Australia (PRIA)
Oxfam 69 7, 17, 19, 91–3, 153, 164, 172, 284
Public Relations Institute of New Zealand
participatory culture 119, 143–4, 280 (PRINZ) 7, 17, 91–4
partnership 10, 50, 123, 222, 255, 258, 262 Public Relations Society of America (PRSA)
COVID-19 and TikTok 297 7, 101–3
Index 321
public sector 26–7, 29–36, 76, see also sentiment analysis 170–1, 175
government situation analysis 214–17, 300, 313
situational theory 48, 218, 300, 304
qualitative research 159, 162–4, 168, 263 six Ps 185, 194
quantitative research 162–4, 171, 233, 263 SMART objectives 173, 221, 222
questionnaire 164, 166–7, 263 smartphone 122–4, 125, 144, 146, 266
quick tips 62, 73, 94, 108, 120, 131, 133, SMI see influencer
164 social capital theory 45–56, 273, 277, 298,
302, 304
radio 68, 130, 133, 169, 228, 255, 256, 259, social contract theory 302–4
262, 263, 265 social enterprise 27, 28, 48–51, 278, 284
Red Bull 250, 251–2, 254, 265, 300 social licence to operate 37, 304, 305
Red Republic 12–3 social media 8, 32–5, 36, 40, 43, 44, 47, 49,
relationship management 10, 21, 60, 175, 64–5, 119, 120–1, 130–1, 134, 138–9,
204, 227, 251, 292, 293, 297 143, 163, 169, 170, 172–4, 175, 189, 190,
relationships 10, 15, 16, 21, 30, 32, 37, 42, 227–8, 243, 258, 264, 267, 275, 281, 282,
43, 79, 118, 137, 138, 186, 189, 220–1, see also media
285, 297–8 and crisis planning & communication
research 151–78, 185, 186, 204, 212–17, 67–8, 69, 235–6
233–4, 256, 262–3, 266, 298, 307, and CSR 83
309–10, see also qualitative, see also and defamation 110–1
quantitative and listening 292–3
and data see data and mediatisation 209
as a tactic 49 and two-step flow of communication 206
and the Global Capabilities Framework calendar 139–40, 211
20 campaign 51, 57, 226, 292–3
in copyright 108 curation 245, 246
in social enterprise 50 ethics 90
in the public sector 34 influencer see influencer
rhetoric 99, 184, 223, 227, 264, 293, 295, management 13
298–9 networking 16
rhetorical studies 292 plan 211, 212
rhetorical theory 298–9 platforms/channels 20, 31, 32, 49, 108,
risk 21, 34, 43, 65–7, 71, 103, 105, 106, 226, 244, 249
165, 194, 211 spam 111–13, 166
assessment 69, 235 sponsorship 13, 16, 34, 42–3, 73, 222, 231,
at- 284 250, 251, 253, 254, 258, 264
management 60, 65–7 stakeholder(s) 6, 30, 37, 39, 60, 61, 68–71,
matrix 66 72, 196, 199, 203, 212, 305
taking 194 engagement 20, 34
values 304
Sanford 202–3 stakeholder theory 82, 305
semiotics 129, 282, 283, 299 Starbucks 189
sticky notes 5, 10, 31, 32, 37, 41, 45, 46, 51, two-step flow of communication 226, 280,
57, 60, 67, 73, 76, 82, 83, 84, 96, 99, 282, 306
117, 118, 124, 129, 137, 144, 156, 193,
218, 221, 223, 224, 226, 227, 231, 273, Uluru 64
274 United Nations (UN) 44, 79, 80, 201, 277,
stock exchange 39 301
storytelling 139, 176, 241, 245, 250, 265 United Nations Global Compact 80
strategy 180–206, 6, 12, 34, 38, 175, 209–10, United Nations Sustainable Development
211–4, 239, 241, 267 Goals 79–80
and communication 201–5 Universal Declaration of Human Rights 79
defined 183–4 user-generated content 38, 245, 266
grand 182–3 uses and gratifications theory 227, 307
‘helicopter view’ of 196
loop 191 values 6, 21, 60, 71, 76, 82, 94, 97, 101, 132,
military 5, 182 185–7, 194–8, 250, 277, 199–202, 220,
National Tobacco 308–9 250, 302, 305
six principles of (six Ps) 185–7 civic 277
visual 130 news 291–2
Strauss, Levi 195 virtue theory 99–100
Streisand effect 110 vision 130, 131–4, 224, 265, 266
surveys 162, 163, 164–6, 171, 175, 177, 234 organisational 186–7, 194–8, 199, 200–3,
209, 210, 267
tactics 239–67, 26, 31, 41, 47, 49, 139, 181–3, vision statement 194
212–13, 221, 223–8 Volunteering New Zealand 198
controlled/uncontrolled 240–1
selection 241–3 websites 20, 31, 33, 34, 36, 39, 45, 62, 114,
top-100 252–67 121 141–2, 223, 236, 245, 248–9, 254,
technician 14, 19 259, 260, 267, 286, 307
television 107–8, 118, 137, 169, 228, 242, and advocacy/activism 49
248, 250, 255, 256, 264, 265, 275, 279, and investor relations 39–40
280, 307 company 51, 74, 77, 159–62, 242–3, 244
terror attack 131 in research 165, 166, 168, 172, 177
Thankyou 51, 278 government 42, 113
third sector 26, 28, 41, 52, 281, see also civil professional associations 91, 93
society WeChat 249
Thunberg, Greta 47, 253 Weibo 249
TikTok 118, 123, 249, 260 wicked problems 83–4, 193–4, 295, 297, 308,
trade marks 107, 109 309
Turner, Graeme 145–6 Wilson, Rebel 111
Twitter 35, 51, 96, 132, 137, 166, 168, 175, World Vision 77
189, 241, 243, 249, 258, 267, 287–8
threading 246 YouTube 227, 242, 243, 249

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Strategic

Jane Johnston and Leanne Glenny

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

© 2021 Jane Johnston and Leanne Glenny

Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for this

ISBN: 978-0-367-64108-5 (hbk)

Set in 11/15 pt Janson Text LT by Midland Typesetters, Australia

Part 1: Foundations and the working environment 1

Part 2: Process, planning and implementation 149

Part 3: Theory 269

Working through this book

Part 1: Foundations and the working

overview of the growing field as it developed in Australia and New Zealand

Chapter 2: Communication at work

Chapter 3: Issues, risk, crises and corporate social

Chapter 4: Ethical and legal practice

Chapter 5: Working in a media-dominated world

Part 2: Process, planning and implementation

to the assessment and evaluation of a plan’s success. The chapter introduces

Chapter 7: Working strategically

Chapter 8: Planning and campaign development

Chapter 9: Tactic selection and content creation

We acknowledge the support we have received from our institutions: The

Foundations and the

This book introduces you to the professional world of strategic communica-

full predictions—which cover a range of variables, from pay scales to gender

Figure 1.1 Infographic from Australian Government Job Outlook, Department of

Definitions and language at work

Sticky notes are used to identify an important theory that is

Fact check is used to get you investigating—you become the fact

Table 1.1 Key words in strategic communication and PR

of the term ‘strategic communication’ over ‘public relations’ include that

Public relations is a strategic communication process that builds mutually

In the Australian and New Zealand professional associations the defi-

the deliberate, planned and sustained effort to establish mutual understanding

Public relations practice is the deliberate, planned and sustained effort to

A popular definition of strategic communication, meantime, has most

Strategic communication encompasses all communication that is substan-

words change over time and with cultures

Industries across the communication environment—from public rela-

Communication and relationship development

Who’s who at the zoo (or, the various roles,

before they are welcomed into management as a problem-solver. Remember

Growth in public relations education and

Table 1.2 Many of the titles or fields of practice in public relations

Job title/field/description Job title/field/description

Table 1.2 Many of the titles or fields of practice in public relations

Job title/field/description Job title/field/description

Australia after completing postgraduate studies in the USA, bringing a very

information is available from New Zealand Education which in 2019 showed

Core capabilities for public relations and

1. Strategic analysis: Scanning, assessing and critically analysing the social

7. Reputation management: Identifying appropriate responses to enhance

Zaharna, R.S. (2016). Beyond the Individualism–Collectivism Divide to Relationalism: Explicat-

Strategic communication and public relations activities surround us every day,

We talk a lot about ‘organisations’, so perhaps we need to look at what

take on more of a corporate structure and undertake commercial activities, but