Unit 3

Scaling & measurement techniques: Concept of Measurement: Need of Measurement;

Problems in measurement in management research – Validity and Reliability. Levels of
measurement – Nominal, Ordinal, Interval, Ratio. Attitude Scaling Techniques: Concept of
Scale – Rating Scales viz. Likert Scales, Semantic Differential Scales, Constant Sum Scales,
Graphic Rating Scales – Ranking Scales – Paired comparison & Forced Ranking – Concept
and Application.

Concept of Measurement
In our daily life we are said to measure when we use some yardstick to determine weight,
height, or some other feature of a physical object. We also measure when we judge how well
we like a song, a painting or the personalities of our friends. We, thus, measure physical
objects as well as abstract concepts. Measurement is a relatively complex and demanding
task, especially so when it concerns qualitative or abstract phenomena.
By measurement we mean the process of assigning numbers to objects or observations, the
level of measurement being a function of the rules under which the numbers are assigned.

In measuring, we devise some form of scale in the range and then map the properties of objects
from the domain onto this scale.
Need of Measurement
It is used in all our movement, in our research work, our industry. How one knows the
distance, the time, the height and the width of any geometrical shape. How one knows his
size to buy clothes. How one differentiates between cm, inch, foot, meter, mile and km. How
could we deal with studying the universe without measurement? So, measurement is an
important part of human beings’ lives.
 In education, measurement is largely need for the analysis of data from educational
assessments of test.
 It also needs in diagnosing the weak areas of learning of students.
 Measurement is need for the external assessment of the students and relates to the
cognitive areas of man’s achievement.
Problems in measurement in management research

 Respondent: At times the respondent may be unwilling to express strong negative

feelings or it is just possible that he may have very little knowledge but may not admit
his ignorance. All this hesitancy is likely to result in an interview of ‘guesses.’ Transient
factors like fatigue, boredom, anxiety, etc. may limit the ability of the respondent to
respond accurately and fully.

 Situation: Situational factors may also come in the way of correct measurement. Any
condition which places a strain on interview can have serious effects on the interviewer-
respondent rapport. For instance, if someone else is present, he can distort responses by
joining in or merely by being present. If the respondent feels that anonymity is not
 assured, he may be reluctant to express certain feelings.

 Measurer: The interviewer can distort responses by rewording or reordering questions.

His behavior, style and looks may encourage or discourage certain replies from
respondents. Careless mechanical processing may distort the findings. Errors may also
creep in because of incorrect coding, faulty tabulation and/or statistical calculations,
particularly in the data-analysis stage.
 Instrument: Error may arise because of the defective measuring instrument. The use of
complex words, beyond the comprehension of the respondent, ambiguous meanings,
poor printing, inadequate space for replies, response choice omissions, etc. are a few
things that make the measuring instrument defective and may result in measurement
errors. Another type of instrument deficiency is the poor sampling of the universe of
items of concern.

Researcher must know that correct measurement depends on successfully meeting all of the
problems listed above.

Levels of measurement – Nominal, Ordinal, Interval, Ratio.

There are different levels of measurement in statistics and data measured using them can be
broadly classified into qualitative and quantitative data.

Nominal scale is a naming scale, where variables are simply “named” or labeled, with no
specific order. Ordinal scale has all its variables in a specific order, beyond just naming them.
Interval scale offers labels, order, as well as, a specific interval between each of its variable
options. Ratio scale bears all the characteristics of an interval scale, in addition to that, it can
also accommodate the value of “zero” on any of its variables
Nominal Scale
A nominal scale is the 1st level of measurement. This scale used to label variables that have
no quantitative values.

Characteristics of Nominal Scale

 A nominal scale variable is classified into two or more categories.

 It is qualitative. The numbers are used here to identify the objects.
  The numbers don’t define the object characteristics. The only permissible aspect
of numbers in the nominal scale is “counting.” 

Example:

An example of a nominal scale measurement is given below:

What is your gender?

M-MALE
F-FEMALE
Here, the variables are used as tags, and the answer to this question should be either M or F.
 Eye color: Blue, green, brown
 Hair color: Blonde, black, brown, grey, other
 Blood type: O-, O+, A-, A+, B-, B+, AB-, AB+
 Political Preference: Republican, Democrat, Independent
 Place you live: City, suburbs, rural
 Merits of Nominal Scale
a) Nominal scale provides convenient ways of keeping track of people, objects & events.
b) Nominal scale describes differences between things by assigning them to categories.
c) Nominal scales are counted data.

 Demerits of Nominal Scale

a) Nominal scale is the least powerful level of measurement because it has no
quantitative value.
b) Nominal scale indicates no order or distance relationship.

Ordinal Scale
The ordinal scale is the 2nd level of measurement that reports the ordering and ranking of
data without establishing the degree of variation between them. Ordinal represents the
“order.” Ordinal data is known as qualitative data or categorical data. It can be grouped,
named and also ranked.

Characteristics of the Ordinal Scale

 The ordinal scale shows the relative ranking of the variables

 It identifies and describes the magnitude of a variable
 Along with the information provided by the nominal scale, ordinal scales give the
rankings of those variables
 The interval properties are not known
 The surveyors can quickly analyse the degree of agreement concerning the
identified order of variables
Example:
  Ranking of school students – 1st, 2nd, 3rd, etc.
 Ratings in restaurants
 Evaluating the frequency of occurrences
 Very often
 Often
 Not often
 Not at all
 Assessing the degree of agreement
 Totally agree
 Agree
 Neutral
 Disagree
 Totally disagree
 Merits of Ordinal Scale
a) The ordinal scale implies a statement of „greater than‟ or „less than‟ without
being able to state how much greater or less.
b) Ordinal scale permits the ranking of items from highest to lowest.

 Demerits of Ordinal Scale

a) Ordinal scales have no absolute values.
b) The real differences between adjacent ranks may not be equal.
c) Precise comparisons cannot be made with the help of this scale.

Interval Scale
The interval scale is the 3rd level of measurement scale. It is defined as a quantitative
measurement scale in which the difference between the two variables is meaningful. In
other words, the variables are measured in an exact manner, not as in a relative way in
which the presence of zero is arbitrary.
Characteristics of Interval Scale:

 The interval scale is quantitative as it can quantify the difference between the values
 It allows calculating the mean and median of the variables
 To understand the difference between the variables, you can subtract the values
between the variables
 The interval scale is the preferred scale in Statistics as it helps to assign any
numerical values to arbitrary assessment such as feelings, calendar types, etc.
 All the techniques applicable to nominal and ordinal data analysis are applicable
to Interval Data as well.
 Net Promoter Score, Likert Scale, Bipolar Matrix Table are some of the most
effective types of interval scale.
Merits of Interval Scale
a) Interval scales are more powerful measurement than ordinal scales because it
incorporates the concept of equality of interval.

Demerits of Interval Scale

a) The primary limitation of the interval scale is the lack of a true zero.

Ratio Scale
The ratio scale is the 4th level of measurement scale, which is quantitative. It is a type of
variable measurement scale. It allows researchers to compare the differences or intervals.
The ratio scale has a unique feature. It possesses the character of the origin or zero points.
Characteristics of Ratio Scale:

 Ratio scale has a feature of absolute zero

 It doesn’t have negative numbers, because of its zero-point feature
 It affords unique opportunities for statistical analysis. The variables can be orderly
added, subtracted, multiplied, and divided. Mean, median, and mode can be
calculated using the ratio scale.
 Ratio scale has unique and useful properties. One such feature is that it allows
unit conversions like kilogram – calories, gram – calories, etc.

Example:

 Height: Can be measured in centimeters, inches, feet, etc. and cannot have a value
below zero.
 Weight: Can be measured in kilograms, pounds, etc. and cannot have a value below
zero.
 Length: Can be measured in centimeters, inches, feet, etc. and cannot have a value
below zero.

These variables have a “true zero” value. For example, length, weight, and height all have a
minimum value (zero) that can’t be exceeded. It’s not possible for ratio variables to take on
negative values. For this reason, the ratio between values can be calculated. For example,
someone who weighs 200 lbs. can be said to weigh two times as much as someone who
weighs 100 lbs. Likewise someone who is 6 feet tall is 1.5 times taller than someone who is 4
feet tall.

Merits of Ratio Scale

i) Ratio scale facilitates a kind of comparison between variables.
j) Ratio scale is the most precise type of scale.
k) All statistical techniques are usable with ratio scale.
l) Multiplication and division can be used with this scale.

Demerits of Ratio Scale

a) Researcher of behavioral sciences cannot use this scale.