NATIONAL AND STRATEGIC STUDIES

CONTENTS
PAGE

UNIT 1 NATIONAL AND STRATEGIC STUDIES –ZIMBABWEAN HISTORY 1-

11

UNIT 2 THE EUROPEAN COLONISATION OF ZIMBABWE

UNIT 3 ZIMBABWE HERITAGE

UNIT 4 CIVIC RESPONSIBILITY

UNIT 5 ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL PROBLEMS FACED BY ZIMBABWE

SINCE 1980

UNIT 6 LEGAL AND PARLIAMENTARY AFFAIRS

UNIT 7 DEMOCRACY AND GOVERNANCE

UNIT 8 THE CONSTITUTION OF ZIMBAMBWE

UNIT 9 REGIONAL AND INTRNATIONAL RELATIONS

UNIT 10 DIPLOMACY

UNIT 11 INTERNATIONAL CAPITAL AND IMPERIALISM.

UNIT 12 DEVELOPMENT STRATEGIES

UNIT 13 REGIONALISM

UNIT 14 NON-GOVERNMENTAL ORGANISATIONS(NGOs)

UNIT 15 THE MEDIA

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 NATIONAL AND STRATEGIC STUDIES

UNIT 1

1.1 OBJECTIVES

By the end of this unit the student should be able to:

 Define National and Strategic Studies
 Compare and contrast the democracy in the pre-colonial states and the
democracy in the West.
 Examine the level of civilization of the pre-colonial states in the following
areas:
i) Medicine
ii) Governance
iii) Democracy
iv) Culture
v) Technology

1.2 INTRODUCTION.

1.2.1 NASS- The background

There is no educational system that is silent on the values that are accepted and
cherished by that society. Education is about values in other word behaviour
change in all the domains of education that is the psychomotor, the cognitive
and the affective. A skilled artisan or accountant with no sense of his position in
society at the family level or at work or society in general is a social misfit and a
drain to national wealth because of the need to either hospitalise him because he
has AIDS or incarcerate him because he is a criminal and a danger to that society.
A strong sense of belonging or identity, responsibility and accountability are the
things that can be defined as patriotism. Economic giants today and in the past are
and were the most patriotic. In Zimbabwe today the sense of belonging has
eluded both young and old and this is due to selfishness, greed and the collapse of
the extended family due to western values. A culture of greed or a mafia and
mercenary attitude pervades all sectors of society in the banking, retailing,
manufacturing and civil service. The need to change attitudes and the need to
inculcate correct values is not only urgent but imperative now and in the future.

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 1.2.2 NASS -Definition
NASS can be defined as civic education designed to make all
Zimbabweans who go through tertiary institutions become
responsible citizens who are patriotic and can therefore be
mobilised to participate in national development. Civic
education is typical of and in all educational systems and is
not unique to Zimbabwe. Zimbabwe was the odd case in that it
did not have this kind of emphasis in its education as much as
Zimbabwe was the odd case in relation to National Service.
1.2.3 NASS-Purpose
NASS therefore is about positively changing or enhancing the
attitudes of participants with respect to their national identity
and with respect to translating the political gains of the Second
Chimurenga into economic gains in the Third and Fourth
Chimurenga.
1.3 ZIMBABWEAN HISTORY…
Zimbabwe has a beginning in the distant past as witnessed and testified by the
Zimbabwe ruins as well as in the recent past as embodied in the ethos of the
Second Chimurenga war. The second chimurenga in essence establishes our
„enduring political tradition” and ethos. Standing on a hill allows one to see as far
behind as he is able to see as far ahead. Mathematically expressed this would be,
“one is able to see as far ahead proportional to the distance he/she is able to see as
far backward.‟ History is therefor relevant not only for today‟s events and policies,
but allows us to shape our future and avoid the pitfalls of yester -year.
1.3.1 PRE COLONIAL HISTORY
1.3.1.2 The GREAT ZIMBABWE STATE
 State was most powerful before the 14th century i.e. 1500.
 It was called a state because it could raise an army and force the payment
of tribute and was involved in international relations.
 The state was built by a group of people and they were basically the shona
people and who had much wealth in the form of livestock.
 The Shona built the stone capital commonly called Great Zimbabwe which
became the centre of social, religious, economic and political life..
 The king was termed “Mambo”. The name of Great Zimbabwe means
“house of stones” that is “Dzimba Dzemabwe”. Similar “dzimba
dzemabwe” were built across the country for chiefs on rulers who were
loyal to the “mambo” at Great Zimbabwe.

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 1.3.1.2.1 Historical evidence
 Historians have used the oral traditions to try to explain the history of the Great
Zimbabwe state. However, there is little that we normally get from the oral
traditions because the Shonas have no written records.
 Documentary evidence written during the Mutapa state by the Portuguese and
records found in Arab writings have an account on the Changamire and
Mutapa states.
1.3.1.2.2Archaeological Evidence
 Archaeology in the form of clothing found at the Great Zimbabwe and some of
the evidence including bones, copper and iron tools.
 These have been used by historians to show the social economic and political
activities of the people at Great Zimbabwe.
 The structure at the ruins consist of 2 complexes “the Acropolis”or temple area
and the external enclosure which consisted of a large number of stone
buildings.
 Excavations in the external enclosure yielded stone, glass, bead, and
brassware,
 Sea shells, iron ware, iron axes and hoes.
 Local goods included ivory, gold, beads, soapstones, chisels etc.
1.3.1.2.3 Social and Political Organisation
 By 1200 a ruling class had emerged which was strong enough to organize
almost the whole population to build a high surrounding wall made of granite
blocks.
 The Great Zimbabwe rulers exercised power a number of chiefdoms who paid
tribute to the mambo at great Zimbabwe.
 Other chiefdoms may have been independent but connected through marriage
and trade.
 The ruling class controlled trade.
1.3.1.2.4Purpose of the stone structure
1) Security
2) Religion
3) Prestige monument.
4) Occupy slave labour
1.3.1.2.5 Causes for the Decline or Collapse of the State
 The state had become overpopulated leading to a shortage of resources.
 There was increased emigration
 Shortage of resources i.e. salt
 Civil wars
 Declining soil fertility

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  Some dispute that Nyatsimba Mutota left Great Zimbabwe because he had
failed to succeed and left and formed the Mutapa state..
1,3.1.3.THE MUTAPA STATE
 The founder of the Mutapa state was Nyatsimba Mutota who left Zimbabwe in
search of salt or after a succession dispute according to oral history. Mutota
went to the Zambezi Valley where he defeated some weak communities who
were already settled there such as the Tavara or the Dzivaguru people. Mutota
As a result earned the title „ Munhu-mutapa‟ a praise name which means Lord
of Conquering.
 Before the succession dispute, King Chibatamatosi, Mutota‟s father had ordered
Mutota to find salt.
 Initially the king had sent his servant Nyakatondo who had returned with salt
and reported on the abundance of elephants in the area.
 Prince Mutota traveled north leading a large army. He built his capital a
“Zimbabwe” on the slope of Chikato hill near the Utete River.
 Part of this Zimbabwe remains to this day at the bottom of the escapement north
of Guruve.
 Mutota formed an alliance with the Tavara High Priest, Dzivaguru. Upon the
death of Mutota, his son, Nyanhenhwe Matope took over and co-ruled with his
half sister Nyamhita who occupied the district of Handa hence she is often
referred to as Nyamhita Nehanda. The two ruled the Mutapa Empire stretching
from the Anngwa and Manyame Rivers, north to the Zambezi and west to the
Musengezi and Mukumbura Rivers.
1.3.1.3.1The Mutapa Language eschatology and customs
 The people had the same shona language, customs and culture similar to the
peoples of the Great Zimbabwe state. The term “Shona” was not used until
the 19th century. The Ndebele people described the Karanga ie. Mutapa
language and area of control as “entshona langa” which means a place where
the sun sets or a place to the west.
 Nowadays the term Shona is representative of a number of related dialects (in
Zimbabwe) one of which is Karanga.
 They believed in a god whom they called „mwari‟ who is claimed to have
spoken through the spirits of the ancestors and they listened carefully to spirit
mediums i.e. the Mhondoros.
 Religious ceremonies were held to honour the spirit mediums where music
dancing and feasting occurred (Bira). The senior spirit mediums were
Dzivaguru in the north east, Nehanda in the central and Chaminuka in the west.
 At the cultural level the society was closely knit with the family being the nucleus of society
as well as being the foundation of the nation. The basis of this arrangement was a high

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 degree of morality with crime, starvation, delinquency, prostitution, divorce and almost all
known present day social ills being unknown. The law was highly developed to deal with
cultural issues and less defined in terms of commerce. Criminals even murderers were
rehabilitated with the law seeking to reconcile the injured and the culprit and compensate
the victim or his relatives in the case of murder. When a person was murdered life had to be
paid with life and invariably a young woman from the murderers‟ family had to be given to
the victim‟s family. Inevitably, this created a bond between the two considering that at birth
or death there are things that no one could or can do except the relatives of a woman. This
is in stark contrast to equivalent European law which was and remains punitive and divisive.
1,3.1.3.2 The Mutapa Economy
The state existed for almost 500 years in one form or the other. During its peak it
was the heart of a powerful empire which controlled the Zambezi River trade route
and received taxes from foreigners. Not only was the economy based on trade and
taxation, tribute was also part of their economy. The people of the Mutapa
provided a variety of goods for trade. Trade made the Mutapa ruling class wealthy
and the state became strong.
 The people paid tribute to the Mutapa tax collectors and elephant hunters paid
tribute in the form of tusks.
 The Mutapa encouraged the gold miners to do the dangerous mine work in
return the miners had to sell the gold to the Mutapa.
 He taxed all imports and exports, every trader paid tribute, every visitor gifts,
people brought disputes and complains to the Mutapa and paid fees for his
judgement.
1. 3.1.3.3 The Mutapa Political Structures
 They had many advisors and ministers to govern the state.
 Some of the emperors‟ wives were also officials, greeting visitors and handling
their business and as members of his royal court they became very powerful.
 Munhumutapa, his wives and officials wore expensive jewellery and clothes
made from cotton and silk. Most people wore skin aprons.
 A large army was maintained which traveled long distances, patrolling and
collecting taxes and cattle and brought new communities into the empire.
1. 3.1.3.4 The Portuguese Factor In The Mutapa State.
 When Matope died, succession disputes arose. In 1494 Chikuyo Chisamarengu
became king and was the first to receive a Portuguese visitor named Fernandes
who brought rice, cloth and guns as gifts.
 The acquisition of more guns increased Mutapa‟s power such that he was in a
position to assist his ally Makombe of Barwe to take control of Manyika.
 In 1530 Neshangwe became the new king after Chisamarengu had died. He
took over Mbire province earning the praise name Munembire.

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  He introduced the old custom of chiefs sending their ambassador to rekindle
fires at the king‟s palace.
 In 1550 Chivero Nyasoro succeeded Neshangwe and after him Nzou or Ntemba
an unmarried youth, took over and ruled with his mother Chiuya.
 Negomo and his mother Chiuya received a Catholic priest Father Goncalo da‟
Silveira who wanted to convert them to Christianity. Muslim traders at the
king‟s court (vamwenyi) did not like this and plotted to kill Da‟ Silveira. They
subsequently strangled him and dumped him in a pond.
 Goncalo‟s death angered the Portuguese and when they sent an army to revenge
his death, it was defeated.
 In 1607 Gatsi Rusere asked the Portuguese‟s for assistance to fight his rival for
the leadership and in return they were given mines.
 The people of Mutapa refused to tell them where the mines were because of
earlier experience with Portuguese Prazeros(land/ prazo holders)(this is where
the name purazi comes from) who took their land.
 More Portuguese arrived and forced them to work in the fields. The Portuguese
formed private armies and became wild and lawless.
1.3.1.3.5 The Decline or Collapse of the Mutapa State
 The decline was precipitated by the Portuguese private armies and this led the
Mutapa Nyambo Kapararidze to try to expel them.
 He was unsuccessful in this and was overpowered and in his place a puppet
Mamvura Mhande was installed.
 After Kapararidze, the Portuguese chose other Munhumutapas who would obey
them.
 An 18th century Munhumutapa moved his people to Mozambique where new
chiefs were appointed to restore order.
 Chioko was the last ruler to use the title Munhumutapa. He led a revolt against
the Portuguese but was however crashed in 1817 and so ended the legacy of
the Mutapa state.
1.3.1.4 THE ROZVI STATE
 The state arose from plundered wealth by the Rozvi under Changamire Dombo
(1634) believed to having been a powerful ruler. He was very wealthy and
claimed that his father was a mwari and his mother a virgin. The Rozvi capital
was at Thabazikamambo near Bulawayo.
 By 1680 he was at his peak and his state was spread between the Zambezi and
Limpopo rivers and even into areas like Mozambique e.g. Sena.
 The Rozvi Changamire received tribute from smaller chiefs.
 By 1830 – 1860 the state existed in name only.
1.3.1.4 .1 Decline and Collapse Of the State

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 Collapse of the Rozvi state was as a result of Mfecane „or time of trouble”
caused by Nguni tribes who had fled from Tshaka or broken away from the
Zulu state in present day Natal
Zwangendaba crossed the Limpopo with his group and fought the Rozvi ruler
Chirisamhuru.
 The state was further weakened when Kololo Sebitwane in 1836 fought and
defeated the Rozvi. Mzilikazi turned west into Gaza and then north with his
group and finished the remnants of the Rozvi state between 1837 – 1840.
1.3.1.5 THE NDEBELE STATE
The Founder of the State was Mzilikazi son of, Matshobane and grandson of
Zwide. Mzilikazi joined Tshaka under Zwide. He was a chief of a small clan
called Khumalo. He suspected Zwide of the death of his father Matshobane.
 Mzilikazi was sent to recover cattle and he did not surrender the cattle to
Tshaka and fled north.
 He left Natal in 1821/ 1822 with 300 men. The name Ndebele was given as a
nickname by Tswanas and means people of long shields. Mzilikazi increased
his side through conquering and incorporating weak tribes such as the Tswana
and Suthuland some people voluntarily joined Mzilikazi. He was defeated by
the Boers at Enthumbane in the Transvaal. The Ndebele crossed the Limpopo
River in 1837 – 1846 and settled at Inyati near Matopo hills.
 They easily routed the weakened Rozvi and brought adjacent Shona areas under
their control. They conquered Shonas such as the Kalanga and Venda.
1.3.1.5.1 Political Structures
 King was pre-eminent in the Ndebele state. Mzilikazi was the supreme
commander of the army, highest judge with power over life and death. He was
a religious leader who presided over important religious ceremonies such as
Incxwala.
 King however didn‟t rule alone but with two advisory counsels, the Mphakati
and Izinkulu indicating that king was not a dictator.
 The Mphakati was made up of original Khumalo chiefs i.e. those who had left
Natal and knew Zulu military tactics.
 These made the most important decisions although they could be vetoed by the
king.
 The Izinkulu was made up of other chiefs especially those who were
incorporated in the Ndebele state..
1.3.1.5 .2The Ndebele Economy.
Many European historians misunderstood or deliberately distorted the bases of
Ndebele economy. They argued that the Ndebele were nomads and therefore had

PAGE 8
lots of time for raiding the Shona. This was not entirely true. The following were
the basis of Ndebele economy:
 Herding –This was the most important economic activity owing to the fact that
Ndeng initially were not permanently established in Matebeleland. The Ndeng
kept large heads of cattle, sheep and goats.
 They acquired some of the cattle along the way while others were obtained
through the conquered Rozvi and others were received in the form of tribute
from the Shona while others were obtained through raiding.
 Agriculture- the Ndebele had fields in which they grew crops such as millet,
sorghum, water melons etc.
 Agriculture was however, not very popular with the Ndebele because of
climatic conditions.
 Hunting and gathering - Hunting was very popular in the Ndebele state. Their
kills ranged from large animals e.g. elephants and buffaloes to small species
e.g. buck and rodents. Men usually hunted while women concentrated on
gathering.
 They gathered wild fruits, grass seed and insects. Gathering was important in
the Ndebele state as far as it supplemented organised agriculture.
 Trade - They traded internally i.e. amongst themselves and externally with the
Shona
 The Ndebele traded their cattle and gold for grain, corn, cloth, iron, jewellery,
beads etc
 Mining - The Ndebele occasionally carried out some mining activities to a
limited extent. They traded gold with the Portuguese. Mining was done mostly
in winter- after harvest when people didn‟t have much work in the field.
 Tribute - in the form of cattle, grain and to a certain extent women from those
tribes under their control
 Raids/plunder - They raided the unsubdued Shona tribes for cattle, women,
young men and grain.
 However, it should be realized that the Ndebele didn‟t always raid the Shona.
Only those who lived near Ndebele settlements were raided occasionally such
as the Shona in the Masvingo, Mberengwa, Gweru and Kwekwe areas.
1.3.1.5 .3 Ndebele- Shona relations
1.3.1.5 .3.1 The myths and realities.
 Many European historians wrote that the Ndebele always raided the Shona and
that the Shona were on the verge of extinction when settler colonialists came to
Zimbabwe. They used this as an excuse to influence the British government to
colonize this country and the missionaries used this argument more than the
ordinary settlers.

PAGE 9
 The reason why missionaries encouraged the British government to occupy and
destroy the Ndebele Kingdom was because they had failed to convert a single
Ndebele man.
 The truth of the matter is that there was co-existence between the Shona and the
Ndebele had the occasional raid as a common feature of this relationship.
 In the early stages of the Ndebele settlement i.e. between 1840 – 1870 the
Ndebele were pre-occupied with their own security, internal problems such
that they could not always fight the Shona.
 It is also true that some Shona people never experienced Ndebele raids up to
1890 especially those Shona people living north of Harare and Manicaland.
 Those Shona chiefs who refused to pay tribute e.g. Chief Chivi or Bere were
major targets for raids. Ndebele raids did not interfere with the economy of
those Shona chiefs who paid tribute and moreover some Shona chiefs aided the
Ndebele and some stole or raided the Ndebele to recover stolen cattle.
 The Ndebele actually encouraged good relations and there was some level of
inter-marriage.
 The Ndebele adopted the Shona deity “mwari”/umlimu‟ and followed the
Shona traditions of ancestral worship..
 The state was divided into 3 distinct social groups based on history namely:

a) Abezanzi
These were the superior class which occupied most important positions. They
formed the aristocratic ruling class. These were the original Khumalo who had
left Natal and constituted about 15% of Ndebele population ie. The Hadebes,
Khumalos, Mkwananzi.

b) Enhla
These were 2nd most important groups in the Ndebele state. They were Sotho and
Tswana who joined the Ndebele on their way to Zimbabwe. They occupied
important military positions in the Ndeng state and they constituted about 25% of
Ndebele population.

c) Amahole
These were the least important in the Ndebele state. They were made up of the
Kalanga and other Shona speaking people who were conquered and absorbed
by the Ndebele and made up 60% of Ndebele population. However, the hole
who proved themselves in battle also occupied important military posts in the

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Ndebele economy. Due to continued inter-marriage most of these groups lost
their identities ie the Moyos, Sibandas, Ncubes, Gumbos.

1.3.1.5 .3.2 ACTIVITIES

 Define National and Strategic Studies
 Compare and contrast the democracy in the pre-colonial states and the
democracy in the West.
 Examine the level of civilization of the pre-colonial states in the following
areas:
vi) Medicine
vii) Governance
viii) Democracy
ix) Culture
x) Technology

UNIT 2
THE EUROPEAN COLONISATION OF ZIMBABWE
2.0 OBJECTIVES
By the end of the unit the student should be able to:

 Discuss the major causes of slavery and its effects

 Analyse the major deliberations of the Berlin Conference of 1884-5

 Discuss the causes and effects of colonization of Zimbabwe

 Examine the colonisatioin process of Zimbabwe by Europe

 Analyse the causes and effects of Anglo-Ndebele War , the1st

Chimurenga War and 2nd Chimurenga.

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 White settlement in the region was established as early as the 1650s at the Cape
in South Africa. This was a re-supply post for fresh water and food for the East
India trade. The Dutch settlers at the Cape were soon displaced by the British
and pushed north. The discovery of gold on the Rand and diamonds led to the
continued jostling for control between the British and Dutch settlers for the
good part of the two centuries from 1700 through 1800. Hunters and
missionaries who were the trail blazzers for British colonisation spread the
rumor that there was a bigger Rand in the area occupied by the Ndendele
across the Limpopo.

 Cecil John Rhodes who came to South Africa because of ill-health joined his
brother at the Kimberly diamond fields and became rich and directed his
attention to the rumors of an “el dorado” or city of gold to the north.

 Rhodes was an imperialist at heart. His aim was to bring under British Control
all African territory from South Africa to Egypt.

 Rhodes believed in British superiority and thought that it was a British

responsibility to civilize Africa the so called Dark Continent.

 Other imperialists were also interested in Zimbabwe namely; the Boers from the
short lived Transvaal Republic, Germans from South West Africa and
especially the Portuguese.

2.1 The Grobler Treaty

 In1887 the Transvaal government sent its representative Piet Grobler to

negotiate a friendship treaty with Lobengula assuming he was the ruler of all
the territories north of the Limpopo. The agreement - known as the Grobler
treaty provided for a Boer Representative to be resident at Bulawayo and
Lobengula would assist the Boers ( in the face of British threats) if required to
do so.

 In response to the treaty, Rhodes influenced the British government to send a

representative to Bulawayo to negotiate a counter treaty.

2.2 The Moffat Treaty

 John Smith Moffat representing the British government negotiated and signed
the treaty in February 1888. According to this agreement Lobengula was to
cancel the Grobler Treaty. He would also not enter into any agreement with
any European power without the consent of Britain.

PAGE 12
 The Moffat Treaty was supposed to be a treaty of friendship between
Lobengula and the British government but in fact was the first step in the
collapse and subjugation of the Ndeng state.

2.3 The Rudd Concession

 Agreed and signed in October 1888, it led to the occupation of Zimbabwe by

the white settlers through the British South African company. Rhodes had
formed this commercial company to spear head the occupation of this country.

 The Rudd Concession was entered into between Charles Rudd representing
Rhodes and Lobengula. The Rudd delegation consisted of three people namely;

Charles Rudd
Rhodes‟ old friend since their days at Oxford University. He was therefore
an embodiment of Rhodes‟ self interest.

Rotchford Maguire
Was a lawyer and his expertise in the legal language was going to
be useful in tricking Lobengula.

1. Francis Thompson
He was nicknamed “Matebele” because he was fluent in Nguni languages
including Ndebele. He had a perfect knowledge of Ndeng custom. His presence
was therefore meant to influence Lobengula to sign the agreement. Rhodes was
careful in the selection of the Rudd team.

Lobengula didn‟t want to meet this delegation let alone sign the agreement, the
evidence is that:

1) It took the delegation about 6 weeks to meet Lobengula.

2) The delegation bribed Lobengula‟s most trusted senior, Induna Lotshe, who
influenced Lobengula to sign the agreement and for that role Lotshe was
executed together with his family.

PAGE 13
 3) Lobengula was influenced by several whitemen he trusted such as Moffat
who misled or lied to him that the Rudd delegation represented the queen.

4) Because of both internal and external influence, Lobengula signed the Rudd
Concession in October 1888, the terms of which were;:

a) Lobengula was to receive:

 Monthly pension of 100 pounds sterling per month.

 1000 enfield riffles and 100 000 rounds of ammunition.

 A gunboat to be placed on the Zambezi valley to guard against Portuguese

invasion.

b) Lobengula was to grant Rhodes;

 -Granted Rhodes and the BSAC exclusive rights over all minerals and
precious metals in Mashonaland and Matebeleland.

 Not more than 10 white men would enter the country.

 They would dig only one hole.

 They would surrender all their weapons to Lobengula and actually become his
people.

2.4 The Royal Charter

 Armed with the Rudd agreement Rhodes had to have the political protection of
the British government. Rhodes therefor sought and got this protection through
The Royal Charter, granted in October 1889. The document in effect declared
that the Rudd concession had effectively made the territories of Lobengula
British territories under the administration of the British South Africa
Company (BSAC) and by that virtue restricted Boer and Portuguese expansion.
Some German hunters advised Lobengula on what was meant by the document
and he tried in vain to repudiate it.

 He sent two of his Indunas to the queen accompanied by E A Mount and

Charles Helm to inform her that he was no longer interested in the Rudd
Concession. The indunas were deliberately delayed and the repudiation was
too late.

PAGE 14
 To reverse the Rudd agreement, Lobengula granted Edward Lippert a German
businessman a concession for a period of 100 years to mine in Zimbabwe.

 Rhodes bought the Lippert Concession and made his position even more
powerful.

2.5 The Pioneer Column

 Rhodes‟s next step was to organize a group of men who were going to form the
first t settlers in Zimbabwe.

 The group was called The Pioneers made up of 200 settler volunteers and
chosen from thousands of applicants from all over Europe and South Africa.

 Supported by 500 troops, the group was promised 2 000 acres and five gold
claims each. The Botswana protectorate provided 800 African labourers.

 Fredrick Selous guided the settler group because of his knowledge of the
country as a hunter. The group crossed Into Zimbabwe in March 1890 and
built fort Tuli. The column turned east avoiding the Ndeng state and
established Fort Victoria (Masvingo) On 17 August 1890 the Column reached
Fort Charter (Chivhu). From Charter the column reached Harare on 12
September 1890, raised the British flag the Union jack and, and called Harare
Salisbury in honour of British Prime Minister at that time. This marked the
completion of the occupation of the land.

 Leander Star Jameson, Rhodes‟ personal friend was appointed the first governor
of Mashonaland.

2.6 The Anglo - Ndebele war and the Occupation of Matebeleland.

The members of Pioneer Column were largely disappointed with the amount of
gold they got in Mashonalnad.

 They thought that Matebeleland was a little closer to South Africa so a second
Rand could be found in Matebeleland.

 The white settlers also admired the big cattle found in Matebeleland and the
attractive land (rich grazing lands). They even believed that Lobengula‟s
capital was built on top of a gold mountain.

PAGE 15
 It should be borne in mind that the occupation of Matebeleland was inevitable
and unavoidable. It was to complete the occupation of Zimbabwe and, as the
BSAC was bankrupt, it needed gold; hence Matebeleland was their own way
out of that big problem.

 To do so the BSAC had to destroy the powerful and landed Ndebele state and
Leander Star Jameson needed an excuse in order to attack the Ndebele state.
He created conflicts to justify war between whites and Ndebele.

2.7 Precursors to the war

1. The Boundary Line

 According to Jameson, Mashonaland was not part of Matebeleland.

 Jameson drew up his own boundary line to separate Mashonaland from

Matebeleland. He then restricted Lobengula‟s rule to Matebeleland.

 Lobengula never acknowledged the division of Mashonaland and Matebeleland.

 He claimed the whole country as his and to make matters worse, the boundary
line kept on shifting towards his capital thus reducing his area of influence.

2.8 The war - 1893

While Rhodes and BSAC were busy establishing themselves in Mashonaland the
Ndeng were trying to avoid any conflicts with the whites. Since the settlers were
interested in Matebeleland, Rhodes and his people were busy finding ways of
attacking the Ndeng The whites admired the Ndeng‟s rich grazing lands and
suspected gold deposits.

Causes of the War of 1893

1. The Victoria Incident

 Whites employed the Shona people but the Ndebele still regarded later as their
subjects.

 In June 1893 some of the Shona people led by headman Gomala stole 500
metres of telegraph wire.

 They were ordered to pay cattle as fine. They paid this fine using cattle that
belonged to Lobengula and which they had had stolen.

PAGE 16
 Lobengula claimed the cattle to be his and they were returned to him.

 Soon after this event another Shona by the name of Bere is alleged to have to
have stolen cattle belonging to Lobengula.

 Lobengula sent an impi to punish the Shona chief and his people. As a result
Shona servants on European farms were killed and some fled to Fort Victoria
for protection.

 The Ndebele Indunas, Manyao and Uumgandani pursued the Shona people who
sought refuge in Victoria.

 The indunas demanded that the Shona be handed over but Lendy, the magistrate
of Fort Victoria refused and the Ndeng were ordered to vacate Fort Victoria.

 Lendy followed and caught up with Umgandani‟s party and killed all of them
and in response Lobengula mobilized 6000 soldiers.

 The Victoria Incident triggered the war but the issue at stake was that the
white farmers believed that there were rich gold deposits in Matebelaland and
had long planned on how to get there
They also saw the grazing land and good cattle herds of the Ndebele as a recipe
for prosperity even if they were to find no gold.

The powerful independent Ndebele state was seen as preventing white settlers
from getting enough labour for their mines and farms.

2.9 Preparation for war

 By September 1893 Jameson had organized a force of over 1000 well armed
white settlers aided by missionaries from South Africa.

 Jameson promised each of them 2400 hectares of land and 20 gold claims each
if the Ndeng were defeated.

2.10 The Battles

 The white armies left Salisbury and Fort Victoria in October 1893 and moved
south west towards Matopo ready for a show down with the Ndeng.

 In a battle, that took place along the Shangani and Mbembesi Rivers, the
Ndebele impi was heavily defeated.

PAGE 17
 On 3 November after just a month of bloody fighting the invading forces
entered the Ndeng capital, Bulawayo and Lobengula set fire to the city and fled
north where he vanished without trace to date.

 The 1893 war marked the complete conquest of Zimbabwe and an end to
Ndendele Supremacy.

2.11 CRIMES AGAINST HUMANITY.Slavery is the highest level of degrading

another human being. Slavery is as ancient as human existence. The practice was
pronounced under the Roman Empire and at that time it also assumed its
commercial undertones. This practice was perfected by the former Roman
colonies in Europe when they enslaved Africa. Never in the History of mankind
were such atrocities, insensitivity, and cruelty and inhumanity perpetrated by
human beings upon other human beings. Slavery was the crudest method of
exploiting other human beings and in its wake came colonisation which by
definition is slavery with a humane face. The latter like slavery leads to the
exploitation of other man by other man by other means other than brute force.
It is not possible under The United Nations Charter for a nation to unilaterally
attack or annex the territory of another state and where this has happened of late as
when Iraq attacked Kuwait the UN unanimously agreed to reverse the annexture
through force of arms. To colonize another state is therefor the highest form of
state irresponsibility. The USA under false claims of existence of weapons of mass
destruction attacked Iraq in 2003 and there was a global outcry against the war.
Colonization nevertheless took place many centuries before the UN came into
existence but that does make colonization any less a crime against humanity.
Colonisation was perpetrated by the very nations that were vociferously opposed to
the Iraq Kuwait invasion and yet many serious human rights violations were
perpetrated by the colonial powers in this process. In Tasmania Australia, the
aborigines on the island were wiped out to the last man by British settlers. The
Spanish conquistadors demolished whole empires and civilizations in the
Americas.

2.12 SLAVERY
1. The discovery of gold and silver and agricultural potential in South America or
in the Americas created the need for disciplined workforce.
2. Inability of the local or native Red-Indian population to withstand organized
disciplined labour.

PAGE 18
3. Existence of disciplined agricultural and industrial culture in Africa.
4. Indigenous or Red-Indian inability to withstand European diseases e.g. small
pox, syphilis, gonorrhea etc.

5. The existence of a greedy and guliable or naïve chieftainship in Africa which

captured and sold its own kith and kin for a bottle of fire water that is gin.

 Commercial activity therefore contributed much to the consolidation of slavery.

The trade in Europe did not provide sufficient profit because of the problem of
exchange values. But the trade with unindustrialized countries in Africa and
America was more profitable because of the use values.

 This system of trade was a system of robbery based on plunder, piracy and
slavery and colonial conquest.

 To consolidate accumulation or profit in England, the joint stock company was

devised and several of this new economic tool were formed, e.g. the
Adventurous Russia company and the Africa company. According to Nassau, a
well known academic of the time, the objectives of the Africa company were,
“…to kidnap or purchase and work to death the natives of Africa without
mercy.” The Eastland Company had the monopoly and right to trade with the
European hinterland. The Levan Company in which Queen Elizabeth 1 was a
major shareholder became the East Indian Company.

 The Fuggers Company in Germany was first a merchant company and later
became a bank and financed all Germany wars of the period.

 The Fuggers Company in return for financing war was paid through the form of
trading concessions, colonial land and through revenue from colonial mines.

 As contact with Latin America or South America increased, the company

turned to Africa for cheap labour.

 It was the nearest continent with a population used to organize labour which
was also disciplined in many respects. The Uterecht Treaty of 1713 gave
English Merchants the right to supply South America with 5 000 slaves every
year and a special company was formed to supply these slaves.

 Most of the gold and products from the plantations from South America ended
up in British towns.

PAGE 19
 The continued enslavement of African peoples between 1646 and 1680 resulted
in 70 000 slaves being taken to South America. However, only 46 000 survived
the translocation. The slave trade was part of the triangular trade between
Europe, Africa and South America .This trade was very profitable to the
European companies and the African Royal company which was the slave
company paid a dividend of 300% despite loss of half the “goods/cargo” that‟s
despite the death of more than half the slaves en route to the Americas.

 There is therefore a co relation between Europe‟s expansion/development and

slave labour from Africa. The methods used by the companies especially
British firms, was to capture other countries‟ export markets through
colonisation, protectionism and unequal exchange.

 Europe therefore did not undertake its industrial Revolution without the
plunder, the enslavement and the destruction of the native people of Africa.

2.13 COLONIALISM

 Colonialism was a product of European merchants or European commerce. The

former (the merchants) later supported and financed the political institutions
or their governments in their wars of conquest and colonisation and they also
participated in policy making. Colonisation therefore was therefor an economic
necessity. The reasons or causes of Africa‟s colonisation were or are:
a) Facilitated protection of monopoly markets of each European trading nation.

b) Allowed easy access to tropical markets.

c) Allowed access to natural resources essential for industrial activities.

d) Allowed expansion and creation of new markets which had no balance of trade
problems.

e) Colonization facilitated the unimpeded imposition of the religious super

structure and beliefs of the colonizers on the colonized peoples.

f) For glory and imperial prestige.

 African slavery had existed in Europe from about the 16th century but the need
to exploit the wealth of South America saw slavery reaching a climax in the
18th century. Slavery however, came to an end when it stopped serving the
purposes and interests of European commerce.

PAGE 20
 The dynamics of European production and exchange changed and no longer
required slave labour. Britain banned slavery in 1807. Slavery however,
continued or even grew after this banning. In 1833 slavery was internationally
banned but it did not die until a 100 years later and to the shame of Africa still
lingers on in places like the Sudan.

 Slavery was not abolished because Europe had repented of its weakedness but
because commerce could not benefit as much from this evil practice.

 Once slavery was abolished, it was replaced with colonization.

 The commercial revolution in the 16th century expanded trade beyond Europe
and this created a conservative class of merchants and landlords. Commercial
merchants were a class which could not fully satisfy their accumulation
potential in Europe so they turned to foreign markets.

 Primitive accumulation in Europe, that is, getting rich through violence and
other dishonest means, was extended and practiced in foreign lands through
colonization.

 The merchants and conquerors destroyed several civilizations in Africa e.g. the
Ashanti kingdom and the Aztec Civilization in Central America.

 Earlier, five crusades had been wedged or undertaken in the Middle East and
this almost destroyed the Arab civilization. The crusades were less about
religion and more about plunder and theft and robbery. The amount of wealth
stolen in this manner although substantial could not last long and the result was
to exploit the mines and the agricultural potential in Africa and in South
America.

 In South America where more gold and silver than in Africa existed, the mines
could not be exploited using local labour so they resorted to stealing people
from Africa.

 This form of exploitation eventually gave way to paid labour as a more

profitable way of accumulating wealth.

 Development or industrialization in Europe is therefore directly linked to both

colonialism and slavery.

PAGE 21
2.14 THE BERLIN CONFERENCE 1884 – 1885

 Before the Berlin conference in 1884 commercial contact had long existed
between Europe and Africa and in trying to protect their commercial interest,
Europeans had fought many wars and for almost a 100 years between 1700 and
1800 Europe was at war with each other because of commercial or economic
interests. With the growth of England and France as the major military
powers, the wars became less and less However, when German became a
powerful nation towards the end of the 19th Century, the following scenario
developed in Europe;.

 The possibilities of renewed conflict became real.

 The British passed The Navigation and Frauds Act, The Navigation and Staple
acts etc. with a view to monopolising trade with the so called „new world‟ and
„the dark continent.‟

 Portugal fearing wars between Europe and Britain suggested or requested Otto
Von Bismark, the Germany chancellor, to convene a conference for all
interested parties with trading or commercial interests with Africa. This led to
the infamous Berlin conference. The objectives of the conference were:

1. To lay down the rules for the partition and exploitation of Africa.
2 .To prevent war by so partitioning Africa.

2.15 Summary of Contents of the agreement at the Berlin Conference;

1. Freedom of navigation on all major rivers in Africa.

2. Colonization or establishment of protectorates to be entered into voluntarily

between European powers and African Chiefs.
3. A colony to be recognized only where there was visible occupation and
evidence of a written protectorate agreement.

2.16 PARTIES TO THE BERLIN CONFERENCE

2. 1. German ,Belgium ,England, France, Italy ,Portugal

2.17 Contents Of Protectorate Agreements between European Powers and

African Chiefs/Kings.

PAGE 22
1. Parties to the agreement- a). African chief and, b). a European commercial
company.

2. Subjugation or surrender of title to land.

3. The location of the land, its size and general description.

4. Surrender of all political, judicial and military power.

5. Creation of a monopoly trade area.

6. Duration of agreement i.e. infinity or for ever and ever.

7. Rewards for the chiefs and the people, alleged or claimed improvement of their
lives through European civilization.
8. Surrender of all rights to minerals and other resources.

2.18 RESULTS OF THE BERLIN CONFERENCE

1. Led to the scramble for Africa by European powers (nations) through
commercial companies or by commercial companies.
2. The establishment of concessions which were unfair and never explained to the
African chiefs.

3. Resistance or rejection of the concessions by African chiefs when they

understood the implications of the agreement.

4. Use of force by European powers to break resistance and to fully colonise

Africa.

2.19 THE EFFECTS OF COLONIZATION

1. Balance of trade dis-equilibra i.e. negative trade relations between Africa and
European countries during and after colonialism through a new form of
relationship called Neo-colonialism.

2. Exploitation and depletion of Africa‟s natural resources without benefit to

Africa.
3. Underdevelopment of Africa since there was no technology transfer to facilitate
industrialisation (investment was only in infrastructure to enable exploitation of
resources).

PAGE 23
4. Cultural decimation/destruction.
5. Dependency on European economies.

6. Loss of individual and national identity by Africans during and after

colonialism

7. Super enrichment and development of Europe and their extensions in America

and Australia.

2.20 Reasons for the colonisation of Africa.

1. Abundance of natural resources e.g. minerals, rubber, elephants (ivory).
2. Fertile soils and ideal climate in Southern Africa and Kenya..
3. Africa was the source of many major rivers.

4. Existence of a money economy in Africa.

5. Possibility of establishing colonies and monopoly markets.

6. Little to no meaningful resistance

2.21 CONSOLIDATION OF SETTLER COLONIALISM IN ZIMBABWE

2.21.1 Early Settler Administration.

 With the Ndebele state in ruins and the Shona state machinery crumbling in the
face of superior settler firepower, the BSAC proceeded apace to consolidate its
grip on the country. The Transvaal Boer state however posed a great challenge
to Rhodes‟ plans In 1895, Jameson withdrew most of the company‟s armed
personnel into the Transvaal to fight the Boers but was crushed and the
scenario for the Native rebellion in Zimbabwe developed

2.21.2 THE FIRST CHIMURENGA.

2.21.2.1 Causes of the War
 The land Issue
The reserve system or translocation of native Zimbabweans to infertile dry
inhospitable holding areas was introduced.
In 1894 the first reserves were set up in Shangani and Gwaai.

PAGE 24
After the defeat of the Ndebele, the settlers seized their 6 000 acres displacing
many natives and those displaced became fulltime labourers or squatters.

The settlers started ill treating the Ndebele like they were doing the Shona.

 . FORCED LABOUR

The British South African company introduced hut tax to force the Africans to
go to work and in order to raise revenue.

Livestock was seized to force men to go to work for the settler.

To solve their labour problems, the company introduced forced labour. The chiefs
were instructed to recruit able bodied men and hand them over to the BSAC as
labourers- “chibharo”. The Shona and Ndebele so enslaved ran away into the
hills to escape.
The presence of white settlements contrary to the agreements entered into.

Again this did not please the Ndeng who wanted to claim their ancestral land back
as in the reserves there was food shortage and starvation at times.

 CATTLE
Soon after the defeat of the Ndeng in the Anglo Ndebele war, the whites
confiscated the Ndeng cattle numbering about 250 000.

This drastically reduced the Ndeng herd and the Ndeng wanted their cattle back as
it was a sign of prestige.

 TAXATION
This was imposed on the Ndeng for a dual purpose

i) It was indirectly made to force the Ndeng to work in order to pay tax.

ii) It was meant to increase the company income.

 Abuse of Ndebele women by Native Shona policeman.

In order to stop this abuse, the Ndebele had to fight the whitemen and the
employment of their former vassals the Shona as policemen did not please the
Ndebele as they were now told what to do by these Shona policeman.

PAGE 25
 NATURAL DISASTERS
It was at that time that natural disasters occurred. These included drought,
rinderpest a cattle disease and locusts. Africans gave these natural disasters a
religious interpretation; they argued that the presence of the whites had angered
their ancestors hence these natural disasters and they then found it necessary to
drive away the whites in an effort to bring the natural disasters to an end.

 THE ROLE OF SPIRIT MEDIUM

These were very instrumental in bringing about a concented effort to drive away
the white man and they used a variety of methods. They passed information on the
progress made in the preparations for war. Some prophesied that the fighters
would be protected by their ancestors. They also provided medicine which they
claimed made the fighters‟ bullet proof.

 They gave general encouragement to everybody and in some cases they

threatened death to all those who showed no interest.

2.21.2.2 RESULTS

 Africans were defeated because of the inferior weapons that they used which
included spears, shields, bow and arrows against the whitemen‟s machine
guns, cannons and 7 pounders.

 Disunity and dis-organization among the Africans also led to this defeat as
some collaborated with the whites.

 Leaders and spirit mediums were captured and killed thereby leaving the
Africans direction less and leaderless.

 Africans lost faith in their spirit mediums in particular and in their religion in
general leading to many Africans being converted to Christianity. However,
although the Africans were defeated, their efforts need to be recognised. It was
the first time that they had fought a common enemy as a united people.

 It was also important in that it laid the foundation for future wars of resistance
that is the 2nd Chimurenga etc.

 Notable heroes and heroines of the First Chimurenga were people like Nehanda,
Kaguvi, General Magwegwe and Mkwati of the Ndebele army, Chief

PAGE 26
 Chingaira, Mashonganyika, Muzambi, Maremba, Zvidembo, Mazhindu,
Manyongori, Gunduza, Mvenuri and Gutu.

2.21.3 Repressive Settler Legislation which dispossessed and dehumanized

Native Zimbabweans
Almost two hundred whites lost their lives during the first Chimurenga war and
many thousands of Africans died in battle and in the reprisals that followed up to
and during 1898. To secure their position the settlers enacted many pieces of
legislation that effectively proscribed or limited African economic, cultural and
political freedoms.

The Native Reserve Order In Council: 1898.

Effectively removed all native chiefs who were anti- settlers and replaced them
with puppet settler administrators. The act also created reserves or cantonments in
dry inhospitable areas.

The Hut Tax: 1903.

Enacted to raise revenue for settlers and to force black men to go and work for the
white man.

The Dog Tax and Land Bank acts: 1912.

The land bank act provide d new white settler farmers with free tillage for five
years and the same period as grace before commencing to repay loans from the
state owned Land bank.

The European Produce Act: 1917.

Discriminated against natives in so far as agricultural production was concerned
with respect to quantities they could market or the prices they could fetch.

The Morris Carter Commission:1925.

Divided the whole country into agro-zones based on rainfall patterns from the
highest rainfall region 1 to the lowest rainfall region 5. Natives were trans- located
to regions 4 and 5.

PAGE 27
The Land Apportionment Act: 1930.
In 1930 whites who numbered 50 000 were allocated 49 000 000 acres of prime
land while blacks who numbered 1 000 000 were allocated 28 000 000 acres of the
worst land in regions 4 and five. The translocation of blacks was accompanied
with untold violence and starvation and malnutrition became endemic. More
government officials were employed country wide and effect while rule and these
included native commissioners and police man. A land policy after 1905 was
affected which started to impoverish ty blacks and to keep them politically
ineffective. Africans were also excluded from government through strict
qualifications e.g.. The right to vote was given to males over 21 days with an
annual income of 50 000 pounds or with property worth 75 pounds. The Land
Apportionment Act of 1930 confirmed and legalised the displacement of Africans
that had been ongoing earlier.
Up until 1906, ninety percent of Southern Rhodesia‟s agricultural produce came
from black farmers and many whites did not like this state of affairs. As a result,
the Rhodesia Native Labour Bureau (RNLB) stopped blacks from competing with
whites and between 1908 and 1915, 1.5 million acres of the best land was taken
from blacks and given to whites. New boundaries were created to exclude fertile
high rainfall areas from newly created reserves. The latter were located in semi
arid areas. Blacks in regions 1, 2 and 3 were made to pay higher grazing fees and
taxes. Since many could not pay they were removed and settled in reserves which
were situated far away from markets and rail and tarred motor roads. By the
1920s, 65% of the black population had been forced into reserves. This led to
cycle of poverty among Africans which persists up to today -2004.

The Maize Control Act:1935.

The act protected white farmers from black competition in maize production. 2
grades of maize were made, A grade for whites and B grade for blacks. A grade
fetched a higher price while B fetched a lower price. Whites also paid less for
maize they bought from blacks.

The Cattle Levy Act:1934.

 Whites paid less on the market for cattle bought from blacks.

 The government paid more to whites for their cattle.

PAGE 28
 This system impoverished the blacks who were loosing out through this
fraudulent commercial arrangement. As the blacks became poorer in the
reserves they migrated or translocated to towns.

Industrial Conciliation Act:1934.

 Blacks were denied the right to join trade unions.

 Higher paying jobs were reserved for whites that are skilled and semi-skilled
job.

 The act was latter amended to allow natives to become nurses and teachers.

Racial Discrimination Act:1934.

 The act barred social inter-action between the races for an example it was an
offence for a white to share a toilet with a black man or to mix in schools,
hospitals, or hotels even cemeteries.

The Land Husbandry Act: 1951.

 The act barred any African family from owning more than five herd of cattle
or eight acres of land in the communal lands.

The Tribal Trust Land Act:1965.

 The act segregated the ownership of land between white areas and black areas.
Natives could only occupy land in communal lands without holding title to it. In
Towns natives could only lease property and no black man could own a house
in town until after 1980.

The Land Tenure Act:1969.

 The act divided the land on racial lines and designated the best 45 000 000
acres as European land and shared among the 250 000 whites and the worst 45
000 000acres was designated as native land to be shared by the 5 000 000
blacks.

 The act also barred the races from encroaching in the other race‟s land.

 PASS LAWS

PAGE 29
 All black males were required to carry a pass or identity paper which any white
man or police officer of any race could demand at anytime anywhere. This
restricted black freedom of movement from place to place.

2.21.4 AFRICAN REACTION TO REPRESSIVE AND RACIST

LEGISLATION
After the collapse of traditional resistance in 1898 Zimbabwe was ruled by the
British through the BSAC. Africans were speedily brought under control and since
company rule was increasingly becoming inadequate and incapable of running the
country, the British gave the settlers two options to either join South Africa or to
establish responsible self government. In a referendum in 1923 the settlers chose
the latter. The more the settler regime became repressive the more the African
spirit of resistance blazed. Early resistance took crude forms such as jamming of
factory machines or refusing to work on farms and in mines. More refined
resistance took the form of strikes and joining trade unions.

 Between the 1st. and 2nd. World wars the vehicle for political agitation among
blacks were the trade unions. The African Railway Workers Union and the
Reformed Commercial and Industrial Workers Union were the first and most
effective and they also were non tribal.

 Bulawayo the industrial city of the nation at the time saw more political activity
originating and directed from that quarter. In 1945 the ARWU called a strike
that paralyzed the whole network from Mutare to Ndola in Zambia‟s copper
belt.

 In 1948 a general strike paralyzed all industrial and commercial activity in all
cities in the country.

 The white settlers connived to create the federation of the Rhodesias and
Nyasaland (Southern and Northern Rhodesia, ie Zimbabwe, Zambia and
Malawi)and by the early 1950s this absorbed the attention of the natives since
there were many false promises associated with the creation of the federation.
The federation was eventually created in 1953 and its major features were the
following;

 Polarization – all major manufacturing activity was concentrated in Southern

Rhodesia..

PAGE 30
 The communications infrastructure tended to serve and favour Southern
Rhodesia with the Federation railways and airlines being headquartered in
Southern Rhodesia

 The University and all other institutions of higher learning were in Southern
Rhodesia.

 The settler colonialists embarked on a process of ethnic cleansing designed to

rid Southern Rhodesia of all its native blacks and Trans locating them in
Northern Rhodesia and replacing them with what were perceived as docile
migrant laborers from Zambia and Malawi.

 White settlers established permanent homes in Southern Rhodesia dashing any

hopes of early self determination for all the members of the federation as long
as the federation existed.

 1955 The city National Youth league was formed and it was a purely workers
movement operating in the urban areas.

 Church leaders also sympathized with their black congregations‟ political

aspirations. Some churches criticized the settlers in their sermons and hymns.
However there were many racists church leaders who used religion or
Christianity to subdue and indoctrinate their black congregations to accept a
subservient role. These racist apologists were happy to continue with the
policies of segregation in church, politics and the economy and the result was a
proliferation of many independent African churches.

 In 1957, September 12, the African National Congress (ANC) was formed and
it was a merger between the old ANC and the City Youth League led by
Joshua Nkomo. It demanded majority rule.

 It co opted the rural peasantry and organized mass resistances against the Land
Husbandry Act (1951) and it urged the peasants not to cooperate with the
government. Garfield Todd, the federation premier (1953-1957) who was a
liberal, argued for accommodation of African demands but the avowed racists
in his cabinet called for repression of all African political activity. As a result
Todd was deposed in an internal coup for giving in to black demands and
David White head became premier and in 1959 e SR-ANC was banned and
hundreds of blacks thrown in jail.

 1959 to 1965 saw a host of new repressive laws come into effect such as;

PAGE 31
 The Native Affairs Act 1959
The Unlawful Organizations Act 1959

The Preventive Detention Act 159

The Emergency Powers Act 1960

The law and Order Maintenance Act. 1960

 Internal pressure on the settler government produced more and more

repression and the nationalists resorted to pressure Britain to reign in the
settlers and to give independence to blacks but Britain refused.

 January 1960 the National Democratic Party was formed and replaced the SR-
ANC. Joshua Nkomo was elected president and the leardership of the party
consisted of Ndabaningi Sithole, Herbet Chitepo, Robert Mugabe, Bernard
Chidzero, George Silunduka, Jaison Moyo, Leopold Takawira, Josiah
Chinamano, Dumbutshena etc.

 1961 The NDP was banned and the same year ZAPU was formed in December.

 1962 December the Rhodesia Front was elected premier in Southern Rhodesia
and the party represented the hard core white racists determined to wipe out all
resistance to colonialism and Winston Field was then premier.

 1962 September ZAPU was banned.

 1964 August ZANU was formed due to disillusionment with the politics of
tolerance and accommodation and the party was led by Ndabaningi Sithole.

 1964 ZANU was banned and all prominent nationalists were either in prison or
in exile.

 1964 saw the beginning of violent African resistance to colonialism with many
acts of sabotage. Of note is the action by self styled General Chedu who led 100
youths calling themselves the Zimbabwe Liberation army. The same year
ZANU recruited and trained the first armed resistance to colonialism and the
Crocodile group drew first blood when they attacked a police station and killed
a white farmer in Chimanimani(Melsetter).

 1964 Ian Smith was elected premier of the settler government.

PAGE 32
 1965 November 11th. Ian Smith‟s Rhodesia Front made a Unilateral
Declaration of Independence. This made the country an illegal state and
although Britain still claimed to be the legitimate ruler they failed to bring to
justice the settler regime. At about the same time the little island of Anquilla in
the Pacific made a UDI and Britain did not hesitate to reign in the rebels.

 UDI led the nationalists to adopt armed resistance as the first option to gain self
determination and the Smith regime went on an all out campaign to stifle
African aspirations and institutionalized arpertheid or racial segregation as the
system of governance and social and economic life. The same year a state of
emergency was declared. Such a declaration has the effect of suspending some
or all civil liberties and allows the state to take extra judicial measures to deal
with the crisis. What followed were many years of state terrorism and murder
to which the Africans responded by intensifying the armed resistance - the
second Chimurenga war.

 By 1963 the nationalist had secured external bases in independent African

countries like Egypt, Tanzania and Zambia to train their armed wings. Zanu‟s
armed wing became the ZImbabwe National Liberation Army (ZANLA) and
ZAPU‟s armed wing became known as the Zimbabwe People‟s Revolutionary
Army (ZIPRA). Training also took place outside Africa in places like Cuba,
China, and Russia.

 1966 at Chinhoyi the first externally trained ZANLA combatants clashed with
the security forces and all seven members of the group were killed.

 1967 August ZIPRA in alliance with the South African National Congress‟s
armed wing Umkhonto Wesizwe deployed four groups of 20 combatants each
group. The majority of combatants were killed in and around Wankie district.
Rhodesia airforce began to violate Zambian airspace and another larger group
was deployed by the alliance and again was decimated.

 The South African government in response sent troops into Rhodesia and the
Smith government passed the Law and order maintenance amendment bill – 7
September 1967. The law provided for a death sentence on any one caught with
arms of war

 Late 1969/early 1970 the Front for the liberation of Mocambique fighting the
Portuguees in Mocabmique formed an alliance with ZANLA and with more
experience they provided training and logistical support which proved
invaluable and led to the opening of the eastern front. Mass mobilisation

PAGE 33
 became the preferred tool of the armed resistance and met with great success.
Rhodesia and Portugal began joint operations in 1968.

 1972 December ZANLA scored success with the attack at Alterna farm
Centenary.

 1974 April in a coup in Portugal General Sipinoza deposed the premier

Salazaar and brought immediate independence to Mocambique, Angola and
Guinea Bissau.

 1974 John Vorster South Africa‟s Boer premier initiated Détente a policy of
accommodation designed to neutralize the armed struggle by promoting internal
reactionary African nationalists in Zimbabwe. This stalled and almost derailed
the armed struggle especially with the death /assassination of Herbet Chitepo on
18 March 1975 in Zambia.

 Chitepo became the chairman of Dare rechimurenga an organisation formed

after the banning and jailing of the nationalist leaders in 1964 and his task was
to prosecute the war while the leadership was in prison..

 1972/1973 in response to guerrilla offensive the keeps or cantonments were

introduced in all war fronts to deprive the fighters food and other support.

 1974 Internal rivalry and dissent rock both ZIPRA and ZANLA and the OAU
force the two to combine their armed efforts.

 1975 December ZANLA AND ZIPRA form the Zimbabwe people‟s army
(ZIPA) and armed resistance gathered momentum in early 1976 as ZANLA
intensified operations in Gaza, Tete and Manica provinces or fronts or regions
according to ZIPRA terminology.

 1976 In bombing raids on camps in Mocambique, Rhodesians killed many

refugees and guerillas at Chimoio and Nyadzonya in Mocambique and
Freedom camp Mulungushi, and Chifombo in Zambia.

 March 1978 the so called Internal Settlement was reached between anti war and
reactionary black groups in Rhodesia.

 April 1979 the ANC‟s Bishop Muzorewa was elected prime minister in sham
elections and temporarily the Zimbabwe Rhodesia hybrid state existed and it
was not recognized by any state except South Africa. It was during this period
that some of the most gruesome murders were perpetrated against refugees and

PAGE 34
 the armed resistance with the authority and concurrence of Bishop Abel
Muzorewa‟s government.

 South Africa unable to meet the human and economic cost of the war in
Rhodesia pressured Smith for a negotiated solution.

 1979 October the British under international pressure convened the Lancaster
house talks. The parties to the talks were the British government, the Patriotic
Front(ZANU and ZAPU) and the internal group Muzorewas ANC and Smith‟s
Rhodesia front. The talks could not reconcile the demands of the parties
especially on land but both groups hoped against hope that they would win and
be able to maintain their claims and positions from a legialised position.

 1980 March l in internationally supervised elections Muzorewa failed to win a

single seat in parliament , Smith only got his reserved 20 whitemen‟s seats,
ZANU(PF) swept the board with 79 seats and ZAPU(PF) got 20 seats from all
of Matebeleland and ZANU –Ndonga got one seat..

 Independence saw many unrepentant whites emigrating to New-Zealand

Australia Britain etc. where they continue to reminisce nostalgically about the
war and how Britain sold them out.

 1980 April 18 Zimbabwe became an independent state with Robert Mugabe as

premier. The new prime minister offered Josshua Nkomo the titular head of
state position but he declined to accept although several ministries were headed
by his other fellow ZAPU colleagues.

 1980 massive arms caches belonging to ZIPRA and which were suppose to
have been surrendered to the state are discovered and ZAPUs properties with
caches are confiscated by the state. Disturbances of a tribal nature erupt in
Bulawayo in Entumbanen and some people are killed and the army is sent in to
reign in rogue ZIPRA elements and some these flee to the bush

 1982 Former ZPRA elements with clear support from the Arpetheid regime in
South Africa begin a campaign of sabotage, murder and destabilisation in
Matebeleland and the Midlands and such names as Gwesela, Ndevu eziqamula
inkomicho became household names for their notoriety. Hoods, Conjwayo and
other South African saboteurs and agents provocateurs are apprehended in
Zimbabwe. South Africa unleashes a war of destabilization of all frontline
states with rebel movements RENAMO in Mocambique and UNITA in Angola
wrecking havoc to the economies of all Front line states..

PAGE 35
 1982 In response to the rebellion by some ex ZIPRA elements the Fifth brigade
is deployed in Matebeleland and the Midlands and development stalls in the
affected areas as hundreds of Shona civilians perish at the hands of dissidents
and thousands of Ndebele civilians loose their lives in reprisals by the Fifth
Brigade.

 1987 December 22 after protracted negotiations spearheaded by Zimbabwe‟s

first non executive president Mr. Canaan Banana, a unity agreement is signed
between ZANU PF and ZAPU PF. A new party ZANU PF is created and
Joshua Nkomo became a co vice president with Simon Muzenda. All dissident
to be incorporated into society and no charges to be preferred against them and
similarly no charges to be preferred against any member of the Fifth Brigade.

 1980 saw the end of all formal or legal racial segregation but this evil and
immoral practice continued and exists unabated to date. The new government
made strides to correct the colonial evils in the following areas;
1. Universal free primary and secondary education.

2. Free medical and health care

3. Policy of reconciliation towards the former settler

colonialists to which they have to date spurned.
4. Land distribution under the willing seller willing buyer
basis.
5. Integrate and demobilize the belligerents
6. Indeginisation- enabling the native Africans to own and
control business.

7. Expanding trade with the region and the world at large

 1991 A foreign driven Economic structural programme from the IMF and
World Bank was adopted. The programme required Zimbabwe to liberalize
trade, which is allow free movement of goods from outside, restrict or cut
expenditure, and devalue or allow the local currency to float.

 1998 due to ESAP food rioting took place in the major towns due to the
negative effects of ESAP.

PAGE 36
 1998 August the Zimbabwe Defense Forces are deployed to the DRC to help
the beleaguered Kabila regime.

 1998 November Nearing the end of the restrictive 20 year non compulsory
acquisition of land close in the Lancaster agreement, a Land Donor Conference
is organised and many foreign donors pledge to assist Zimbabwe but not a cent
is remitted.

 1999 The labour Union leadership breaks ranks with government and threatens
to form a political party under the leadership of Morgan Tsvangirai and in
September the same year this actual happens in the form of the Movement for
Democratic change...

 War veterans receive lump and monthly gratuities and in the build up to the
2000 elections The labour leardership cum opposition party slides more and
more to the right and is seen supporting settler colonial interests in land
commerce and industry and receives massive monetary and moral support from
the same quarter. This alliance also receives massive external assistance from
foreign interests like the USA and UK governments directly or indirectly
through such organisations as the Westminister Foundation etc.

 February 2000 a new draft constitution is taken to the people in a referendum

and labour, the opposition together with civic organisations mobilise the
electorate to reject it because allegedly it confers too much power on the
president but really because of the „no compensation for land compulsorily
acquired for settlement “clause in the constitution.

 2000 February realising the near success of the landed white class in derailing
the land redistribution by using political parties they funded and helped to
found, Veterans of Zimbabwe‟s 2nd. Cimurenga and landless peasants occupied
white owned farms and forced government to make appropriate legislation to
fast track land distribution – The Land Acquisition Act 2000.

 200 June in parliamentary elections the new party almost upset the ruling
ZANU(PF) party and wins 57 seats to 63 for ZANU PF.

 2000/2001 the opposition near success gives impetus to Britain to ostracize the
Mugabe regime and begins to talk about regime and forces its friends to impose
sanctions on Zimbabwe to ruin the economy in order to make the electorate
vote him out of power. Inflation rises steadily and local white employers on the
whole do everything to arm twist the electorate to vote Mugabe out of power.

PAGE 37
 2002 Presidential elections are won by the ZANU PF candidate and the MDC
refuses to concede defeat or to recognize the new government and goes to court
to challenge the election results and alleges intimidation vote rigging etc.

 2003 the nation is in a political stalemate with threaten invasion from Britain
and America and court challenges to the presidency continuing and the
opposition top leadership is arrested and taken to court for trying to assassinate
the president.

 2004 The 2003 scenario continues but inflation begins to fall and a general
optimistic expectation pervades the nation as preparation and campaigning for
the 2005 gubernatorial elections get underway.

2.22 The Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland(15 Dec 1953- 31 Dec 1963)

The Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland was the product of the general
election of December 15, 1953 and was the first election to the legislative
assembly of the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland, which had been formed
a few months before. The election saw a landslide victory for the Federal Party
under Godfrey Huggins who had been Prime Minister of Southern Rhodesia for the
past 20 years.
Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland, also called Central African
Federation, political unit created in 1953 and ended on Dec. 31, 1963, that
embraced the British settler-dominated colony of Southern Rhodesia (Zimbabwe)
and the territories of Northern Rhodesia (Zambia) and Nyasaland (Malawi), which
were under the control of the British Colonial Office.
From the 1920s white European settlers in the Rhodesias had sought some form of
amalgamation to counter the overwhelming numerical superiority of black
Africans, but this had been blocked by a British Colonial Office that was sensitive
to profound African opposition.
2.22.1 The Idea Of Federation 1953 to 1963
The term federation means loose coalition of nations or organizations where by
each nation report to its central leader whilst returning its otonomy/independence.
The idea of forming a federation of Southern Rhodesia, Northern Rhodesia and
Nyasaland was discussed as early as 1915.
There were two main advantages for the federation, one was economic and the
other one was political.

PAGE 38
 1. economically the federation would give the BSAC control over a large
mineral producing area.
2. the whites in Southern Rhodesia would benefit from cheap labour extracted
from the three nations.
3. politically the whites in the three nations would increase their armament,
both by recruiting fighting men and capitalizing on the weapons from the
three nations.
4. the federation would also improve the settler security against enemies.
5. the principal aim for the establishment of federation was to fight the
Afrikaners in South Africa who had just won the elections and were very
powerful, but their relationship with the whites was not always good.
6. another reason for federation was social, namely that the whites just wanted
to control the blacks in all the three nations.
2.22.2 Steps Towards The Establishment Of The Federation.
 In 1929 the Hilton Young Commission was appointed to look into the
federation question in East and Central Africa.
 The commission recommended against the union of the three nations.
 It baesd its argument on the Devonshire Memorandum of 1923, which
has said that African interest were to be put first.
 It also recommended no self-government of the settlers in Kenya and
Tanzania would be recommended.
 This principle was therefore applied by the Hilton Young Commission
to Northern Rhodesia who felt that the whites population in this
country was so small that it could not make a federation viable.
 In 1938 the Bledisloe Commission was again appointed to look into
the issue.
 Again the Commission objected the idea on the grounds that the racial
policies in the Southern Rhodesia were harmful to blacks.
 In 1951 the conservative party in Britain won the election.
 This party supported the idea of federation.

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  White politicians in Northern and Southern Rhodesia began to
campaign for the idea of federation.
 They openly explained that their nrelationship to the black was like
that of horse and the horserides.
 Inspite of all these objections the federation was imposed on blacks in
1953
2.22.3 Federation Years 1953 to 1963
 The Federation was created in 1953 comprised of Southern Rhodesia,
Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland.
 There was a total of 310 000 whites in all the three nations, and 8 500 000
Africans. The Federal Parliament had 35 seats but 29 belonged to the whites
and only 6 were for the blacks.
 The Federation however did not benefit Zambia and Malawi, it only
benefited Zimbabwe.
 100 000 pounds generated from the Zambians Copper Mine was spent in
Southern Rhodesia in building institutions like the University of Rhodesia
and Nyasaland, later on called the University of Zimbabwe.
 Furthermore, the powerstations at Kariba was built on the Zimbabwean side.
 Northern Rhodesia and the Nyasaland provided ready markets for finished
goods.
 In Zambia , Harry Nkumbula and Kenneth Kaunda fought tirelessly against
the federation.
 In Malawi it was the effort of Kamuzu Hastings Banda who also fought
against federation.
 In Southern Rhodesia people like Joshua Nkomo who formed the ANC in
1957 led the people in the fight against federation.

2.22.4 The 1961 constitutional proposals

 A new constitution was harmed out in Southern Rhodesia in 1961.

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  According to the constitution the electorate was divided into two, the A and
B rolls.
 Roll A would elect 50 of the 65 members of the partiam whilst roll B would
elect only the remaining 15.
 To qualify for roll A one had to have the following:
1. An income of at least 792 pounds per year.
2. fixed property valued at 1650 pounds.
To qualify for roll B one had to have the following:
1. income of 264 pounds per year or ownership of fixed property valued at 495
pounds
A minister of religion or headmen with 20 or more followers automatically
qualifies into the B roll. However three votes on the B roll were equivalent to one
vote in the A roll.
 Joshua nkomo and Ndabaningi Sithole had attended the conference in
1961 and they had surprisingly agreed to these terms.
 The federation broke on December 31, 1963 and Northern Rhodesia
and Nyasaland went on to attend independency the following year.
 When the federation ended Southern Rhodesia benefited in 3 ways:
i) all the military was taken by Southern Rhodesia
ii) university of Rhodesia and Nyasaland became the University of
Rhodesia now University of Zimbabwe.
iii) The Kariba powerstation was now controlled by Southern
Rhodesia (Zimbabwe) although it also applied to Zambia.

2.23 ACTIVITIES
 Discuss the major causes of slavery and its effects
 Analyse the major deliberations of the Berlin Conference of
1884-

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  Discuss the causes and effects of colonization of Zimbabwe
 Show how the repressive colonial legislation proletarianised
and pauperized the blacks during the colonial era
 Examine the colonisatioin process of Zimbabwe by Europe
 Analyse the causes and effects of Anglo-Ndebele War, the1st
Chimurenga War and 2nd Chimurenga

UNIT 3

ZIMBABWE HERITAGE

3.1 OBJECTIVES
By the end of the unit the student should be able to:
 Discuss the following;
i)Political Heritage
ii)Cultural Heritage
iii)Economic Heritage
 Analyse the concept of ubuntu/ unhu in the contemporary society.

The heritage of any nation is based on that nation‟s enduring political tradition. In
the USA, the national heritage is a deep rooted political legacy born out of the war
and rebellion against Great Britain and this is embodied in the term
REPUBLICANISM. The French, who are fiercely proud of their heritage, have the
French revolution which climaxed in the storming of the Bastille palace and the
slaughter of the nobility as their national heritage. Similarly, the young nation of
Zimbabwe has the ethos of the second Chimurenga as the national and enduring
political tradition. The second chimurenga ethos embodies political, cultural as
well as economic principles which define and continue to sustain us as a nation. To
destroy any nation, all one has to do is undermine that nation‟s heritage hence the
continuing psychological war by the enemies of Zimbabwe to distort and demonize
not only the second chimurenga war but those who participated in that war and
especially the heroic leaders of that struggle.

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A heritage can be defined as an enduring legacy, a definitive event, achievement,
tradition or theory to which the peoples of a specific nation rally around, and have
emotional attachments and for which they are prepared to defend and to go to war
if threatened or violated.

3.2 SOCIAL and CULTURAL HERITAGE

Culture in Zimbawe reflects the major ethnic and tribal groups in the society The
demographic statistics show that the people of Shona extraction constitute about
ninety percent of the population with the Ndebele at 2.5%, Tonga, Venda,
Kalanga, Cewa Nambia, Shangaan and other smaller groups constituting about 7%.
The white population has dwindled to less than o.1% of the population. Inspite of
their small number the Ndebele influence on culture is fairly strong not only on the
smaller groups but has rubbed on to the Shona tribes adjacent to them. The reverse
is also quite true. Culture is dynamic. As a result it is a correct generalization that
there is such a thing as African culture in Zimbabwe as opposed to European
culture. There are at most only variations in customs among the various African
groups in Zimbabwean society but the customs are either the same or closely
resemble each other. Zimbabwean African culture has the following major
elements;

- Nuclear or extended family

- Recognition and respect for age, parents and authority.

- Respect for hard and honest work.
- Acceptance of good morals in terms of dress, sex, and marriage.

There has however been a strong negative influence due to the mass media on the
African culture in Zimbabwe. Television radio and the print media have done
much harm in undermining the superior African culture by encouraging foreign
tastes and habits in terms of diet, dress, the family, marriage, sex and the extended
family. The first culprit has been the African family with divorce (unknown and
unthinkable in pure African culture) wrecking many families. Disease due to sex
before marriage and prostitution has grown to pandemic levels especially AIDS
related ailments. The white mans‟ consumption or spending patterns have also
spread among young Zimbabweans and they are finding the extended family
unbearable. Greed and exclusiveness are the hallmarks of the white mans‟ culture
and this is spreading fast among urbanized Africans. Unlike the white person in
Zimbabwe, the African does not have sufficient expendable cash and as a

PAGE 43
result debt and unfulfilled desires and wants are making the lives of many
Zimbaweans miserable.

African culture remains the superior culture in that it keeps society and the nation
cemented. Moreover such social ills as prostitution, pandemics, street kids, crime
and political opportunism (kutengesa nyika) because of greed would be non
existent. All these ills are a result of lack of self respect and lack of personal
identity due to wanting to be a white person eg. Michael Jackson who straightens
his nose or an African woman who wears false hair extensions to look like a
Caucasian or preferring to speak in a foreign language and not vernacular..

The legacies we have as Africans in terms of diet are also unchalengable in that
traditional diet consisting of small grains legumes and African fruits, vegetables
and nuts naturally prevent such diseases as obesity/kusimba - a common feature of
most urbanized woman and the major cause of high blood pressure, hypertension,
osteoporosis and infertility.
In medicine, traditional herbs and a good diet remain undoubtedly the panacea for
a long healthy life and the solution to such problems as AIDS more so than
condoms.

Marriage and the family are the economic base of any society and nation.
Premarital sex, divorce and sex for money and perversions such as lesbianism
homosexuality, drug taking including alcohol directly attack and undermine the
family and as such society. A multiplicity of sexual partners before marriage will
always lead one to either multiple sex partners in marriage or lack of satisfaction
with one partner in marriage.

In religion opinions vary but the facts remain. In African culture the fundamentals
of Christianity are firmly embedded. Respect for age, parents and authority, good
morals that is no fornication or adultery no perversion that is no homosexuality,
taking care of the needy etc. are biblical positions that remain unchangeable. In
short the white mans‟ culture is not only incompatible with Christianity, it is in fact
the antithesis and a direct attack on everything Godly, that is , it is devilish.. The
problem between African religion and Christianity is not lack of morals in African
religion, but methods of accessing God or worship. Indeed this writer is convinced
there is lots of superstition with respect to methods of worship in African religion
in as much as most main line and emerging Christian churches are thoroughly
paginated. It is only right and good therefore to promote and maintain our morally
superior culture while adopting correct Christian methods of worship.

PAGE 44
Our religious inheritance will therefor remain for all time our good cultural values
or morals.

The values of any society therefor serve to define that society‟s identity. History
has much been distorted by painting the African culture as irreligious to the extent
that it is almost the accepted value among most young Zimbaweans to be immoral
because a White Christian has an immoral value or practice for an example
walking naked or partial naked in public despite the fact that this violates Christian
principles. The Black person should there for not use the Whiteman‟s values, or
morals or immorals as the case may be as the reference point for good or bad
values but should use traditional practice as the point of departure and compare
that with biblical principles which remain unchanging Our values as Africans
clearly identify and portray us as a people who shun immorality graft corruption
and laziness. We respect family and authority and hard work. We believe in God
and we have no room for atheism in our culture.
The second chimurenga also defines our political and economic values. At the
economic level the legacy of the second chimurenga and our heritage from that
event is that the resources that are God given belong to Zimbabweans irrespective
of race or creed or tribe. Thus the land as resource number one belongs to all
Zimbabweans. White Zimbabweans with very negligible exceptions believe that
land and all ill gotten gains from the international crime of colonialism and
accompanying ethnic cleansing and segregation are legitimately and exclusively
the property of those former criminals. Whites do not want to share our land with
us. We have said we will equitably share our land with whites and that remains and
will always remain the Zimbabwean African‟s morally right and correct position.
Any so called Zimbabwean therefore of any race who departs from this position is
not only a threat to the interests of the Nation, but is in effect and in essence
declaring that the second chimurenga was not won and lost, that is, won by the
Africans in Zimbabawe through much blood and joy, and lost by settler colonialists
through by much blood and tears. It amounts to a declaration of war.

Through hard work and self- sustaining economic policies, Zimbabweans with land
firmly in their hands, can engage other nations at the economic level and benefit
from the comparative advantages we have in terms of skilled disciplined labour,
good climate, an abundance of minerals and varied flora and fauna - domestic and
wild. Economic activity therefor should benefit Zimbabweans first and foremost
and this should happen through an internal driven economic programme and not
one that is externally driven. Political liberation simply relates to universal
common suffrage being available to all citizens. This was gained fully at Lancaster
as manifested in the result of the 1980 elections and subsequent elections whether

PAGE 45
presidential or gubernatorial. Such a gain is hollow and empty and absolutely
useless if it is not used to bring about economic emancipation. Political
emancipation there for leads to and of necessity must lead to economic
emancipation. This has eluded not only Africa but most of the former colonies
through the practice of neo colonialism by the former colonizers and the USA and
most of the developed world. The war for economic emancipation is the last war
and it is the most difficult war in that it is now being fought at the psychological
level through global media houses and the agency of corrupted local
comprador/reactionary/collaborator journalists who raise and imagine and publish
false notions of the freedoms of expression assembly and association. This leads to
people as it were shooting themselves in the foot because they through a corrupted
democracy – one in which the voters‟ perceptions have been warped in favour of
their colonisers - vote into power those who perpetrate their economic subjugation.
The battle for perceptions is an unfair war, and it is most cruel and criminal
because of the open aggression through demands made on former colonies under
the guise of human rights.
At the political level the second chimurengas‟ heritage is that as a people we are
sovereign and can determine our own destiny without outside interference and
through democratic processes designed to safeguard our hard won independence.
(See governance under legal and parliamentary affairs.)

3.3 Ubuntu\Unhu\Moral Values-The African Values Perspective

3.3 .1 CONCEPT OF “UBUNTU”
 Mbigi and Maree (1995:p7), define Ubuntu as the sense of solidarity or
brotherhood which arises among people within marginalized or
disadvantaged groups .
 It is not unique to African people, but can also be found elsewhere.
 It is the foundation of communal African livelihood.
 It expresses our “interconnectedness, our common humanity and
responsibility to each other that deeply flows from our deeply felt
connection” (Nussbaum 2003;2).
 It brings to the fore images of supportiveness, co-operation and communism
(Koster 1996:111).
 Nussbaum (2003:2) views it as the capacity in African culture to express
companion, reciprocity, dignity, harmony and humanity in the interest of
building and maintaining community with justice and mutual caring.
“Personhood is the central theme of Ubuntu.
 It is based on the Zulu proverb”Umuntu ngumuntu ngabantu,” meaning a
person is a person through other people.

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  This Ubuntu affirms the humanity of one person being directly related to
next person‟s humanity.
 Archbishop Tutu (199:34-35) characterises a person with Ubuntu as “ one
who is open and available to others, affirming, does not feel threatened that
others are able and good, for he\ she has a proper self assurance that he or
she belongs in a greater whole is diminished when others are humiliated,
when others are tortured or treated as if they were less than who they are
from the foregoing, it is clear that ubuntu is characterised by human dignity,
respect, interdependence, compassion, solidarity and taking care of your
own.
 Tambalusi and Kayuni(2005:147-161) presuppose that there is no reason for
one to grab other‟s property, get forced gifts from fellow human beings in
whatever form. In this view, there is no justification for extortion,
demanding bribes or extortion for service delivery areas in Zimbabwe.

 In view of the above , prostitution; immoral dress such as miniskirts, tight

fitting clothing; murder; rape; robbery; burglary, drug abuse; alcoholism;
abusive language; lack of respect of senior citizens; corruption; dishonesty,
gay movement(homosexuality and lesbianism), among others, are all
characteristics of lack of ubuntu.

 The point in this case is that as Zimbabweans we must cherish our

ubuntu principles in our social, political, economic, and professional
settings or lives for the good of our country

 Lack of ubuntu can be observed in most Government departments such as

the police, mining, city councils, immigration, among others, where
corruption, mismanagement or any other form of malpractices such as
demanding bribes and extortion are rampant.

 From another view point, Mandela (1994) captures the essence of ubuntu in
the following quotation; “I am not truly free if I am taking away someone‟s
freedom or rights just as truly when my freedom is taken away .” The point
in this case is that as Zimbabweans we must cherish our ubuntu
principles in our social, political, economic, and professional settings
or lives

3.3.2 Ubuntu and Leadership

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 As Zimbabwean citizens, we are leaders in various capacities such as at
family, group, community, occupational and national levels and we are
expected to be role models in terms of our moral values(ubuntu/unhu)
 Leadership is the process of directing and influencing the task related
activities of group members (Stoner et al, 1995: 470).
 Leaders use powers and influence to get the activities effectively performed
by followers.
 Whereas power is defined as the ability to exert influence, that is to change
attitudes or behaviour of individuals or groups; influence refers to any
actions or examples of behaviour that cause a change in attitude or
behaviour of another person or group.

 It must, therefore, be pointed out that leadership is about values.

 According to James McGregor Burns (cited in Stoner et al, 1995: 470), the
leader who ignores the moral components of leadership may well go down
in history as a worse.
 Thus, moral leadership concerns values and requires that followers be given
enough knowledge of alternatives to make intelligent choices when it comes
time to respond to a leader‟s proposal to lead.

 As noted by ethicist Michael Josephson (quoted in Stoner et al, 1995:470),

followers or employees do not learn ethics from people who sermonize or
moralise or try to preach to them about ethics, but learn ethics from the
people whom they admire and respect, who have power over them and those
are the right people or teachers of ethics.
 It is, therefore, important to reinforce ideals if they are sincere.

 It is also very important for leaders and role models, whether they be sports
figures, politicians / rulers or Senior Government Officials to make positive
statements of ethics, if they say (Stoner et al 1995: 470). If leaders are not
hypocritical, they can account for their actions.

 The ideas articulated in this case by Stoner et al (1995), squarely matches

the concept of “Ubuntu in(Zulu/ Ndebele and Unhu in Shona)” Ubuntu
refers to love for God, love for one another, and bringing to ourselves
and the rest of the world music, sport, arts and other forms of
expression which bring out the best of the human spirit and connects
people across the boundaries of material life (Rukuni,2007:450). Given
the poor service delivery and corruption which characterize various sectors

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 of Zimbabwe, what ethics/values or Ubuntu/Unhu do some of our fellow
citizens portray to the society?
 Van der Colff (2003) points out that Ubuntu calls for leadership which
espouses the values of leadership legitimacy, communal enterprise
and value sharing. She argues that these values are vital for
establishing an enabling culture and a set of skills and competencies
valued in most leadership situations.
 Historically, African leadership is based on participation, responsibility
and spiritual authority. According to Lessen and Nussbaum (1996),
African leadership calls for transparency, accountability and
legitimacy. On the contrary; Van der Colff (2003) contends that
leadership legitimacy can only be promoted by being role models for
their followers through their actions and sticking to values and
goals. Thus leaders must be of integrity before expecting the same
for followers.
 Furthermore, a leader with Ubuntu values must create an enabling
environment for their followers. He / She must be fair, helpful and
considerate and support followers in their legitimate requests..
 Karsten and IIIa( 2005) highlight that Ubuntu decision making is
characterised by consultation, communal participation and open
conversation. Evidently, Ubuntu leadership entails a critical discourse
since voices of all participants in organisations or groups are involved
and emphasis is on consensus building.
 This is strikingly similar to indigenous African political systems whose
story telling, inclusive decision making and participatory community
meetings were key. Coercive powers were generally not used to
achieve a common goal. Rather, consensus was the means. ―Majority

PAGE 49
 of opinion did not count; unanimity was the rule (Ayittey 1991:100).
As a result, communal meetings were not largely characterised by
haggling and debate but a search for deeper comprehension of
issues and a spontaneous emergency of solutions.

 The key issue here is the ―value system‖ that guides and controls
behaviour. According to Tambulasi and Kayuni (2005 147 – 160),
some African public officers perceive the concept of Ubuntu to be all
encompassing and its pursuance is viewed as an empowerment to
pay less attention to western derived principles of democracy and
good governance. In view of this, would the mixed-bag of western
value systems and African value systems help Zimbabwean citizen
achieve the desired results or outcomes in social ,economic and
political life? The question is ―can African feet divorce Western
shoes?‖ This follows Richard Tammbulasi and Happy Kayuni (2005)’s
quest for reality about Unbuntu/Unhu,/Butho.
3.4 Economic Heritage

National resources.

Zimbawe is endowed with many natural resources which in certain instances

places the nation on the strategic resources map of the world.
Land
Zinbabwe‟s land mass is about - million square miles and has a very conducive
climate being neither too hot nor too cold and has an average rainfall of about 1500
ml.

Minerals

Zimbabwe has the following minerals; chrome, iron, coal, gold, copper, tin,
emeralds. Diamonds, platinum nickel.

Our Chrome, platinum, nickel and coal reserves are of global strategic importance
because they are ranked in the top five in terms of quantity and quality.
Unfortunately control of these minerals is still in foreign hands and as a nation we
also are not yet adding value to them.

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Wild life
The three major game parks in Zimbabwe are second to the combined Kenyan and
Tanzanian wild life population of the Serengeti game park. The big five wild game
–elephant, buffalo, giraffe, lion and rhino are more abundant in our game parks
than in any other park in the world..
People

With a population of about 14 000 000 people Zimabwe is still sparsely populated
considering that our land mass can sustain seventy million people with optimal
economic utilization. The plus about this population is its literacy levels –about
87% and its varied skills base from which even the most advanced nations are
tapping into. Through many tricks especially after the 2000 parliamentary
elections, the Western countries have not rested in trying to spark a civil war in
Zimbabwe which they will use as a pretext to directly interfere in the politics of
this nation. Thatchell the infamous homosexual has been quoted as saying that he
is not only organizing but sponsoring a group consisting of personnel in
Zimbabwes‟ armed forces and in the diaspora to militarily bring about an end to
the Mugabe regime in Zimbabwe. The West Minister Foundation And even much
earlier the Heritage Foundation a USA right wing organization are trying and had
tried to use opposition parties in Zimbabwe to engage the Zimbabwean armed
forces . On the whole the people of this nation have refused to be used in this very
destructive and dangerous way and have democratically expressed their wishes at
the polls. The people of this nation save those who pipe and beat the drum of this
nation‟s enemies remain resolutely united in the face of an unprecedented
onslaught from Europe and the USA. .

3.5 NATIONAL SYMBOLS.

The National Anthem

Born and inspired by the war of liberation, the national anthem is as it were the
rallying point of the nation. Authored by Professor Mutsvairo, it describes and
narrates in a few words our origins, history, beliefs and aspirations.

The National Flag

The national flag represents state wood and together with the court of arms they
are the official and visible tokens of the state and its authority and existence. The
flag is also a product of the war of liberation. The red star represents our socialist
ideals and the Zimbabwe bird proudly points back to our distant origins and

PAGE 51
prowess as a people and nation in antiquity among the great civilizations of the
world. The white background on which the above two are superimposed represents
our desire for peace and tranquility within and without. The red stripes symbolize
the blood of the heroes who died liberating the country, yellow our mineral
resources, green our flora and fauna and black the indigenous African natives of
this nation. It is incumbent upon every Zimbabwean and any foreigner on our soil
to acknowledge our statehood by standing at attention when the flag is lowered
where ever and what ever one is doing. Standing at attention is not a religious act
as some over zealous and misguided so called Christians think. Kneeling or
bowing down in reverence is a religious act reserved for God that is why Shadrech
and his other two friends were thrown in a furnace. Nowhere in Christian writing
is standing erect an act of worship or homage. It would be only right and fair to
refuse to kneel to the flag for every Christian. It is only right and fair for every
Christian to stand erect in recognition not homage of those who rule them.
The Great Zimbabwe monument.

Located near Masvingo town , it represents unparalleled architectural design and

construction and stands as a direct insult to those who have ridiculed Africans of
possessing no scientific psychological make up or achievements or capability. It
was used as a palace and a temple by the kings of the great Zimbabwe period and
latter dynasties.

The Victoria Falls.

A natural geological formation from years of erosion, the feature has few rivals if
any and has water plunging a hundred meters forming thunder and mist from
which its more appropriate Tonga names is derived from –mosi a-tunya the smoke
that thunders. It is the nation‟s prime tourist resort attraction.

3.6 Activities
 Discuss the following;
i)Political Heritage
ii)Cultural Heritage
iii)Economic Heritage

 Critically analyse the concept of ubuntu/ unhu in the contemporary society

UNIT 4

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 CIVIC RESPONSIBILITIES

4.1OBJECTIVES

By the end of the unit students should be able to:

 Define civic responsibility and patriotism.

 Explain and apply civic responsibility activities in the real world.

4.2Disasters
As technology has advanced so has disasters or accidents associated with it
and at the same time what appears to be natural disasters have also increased.
Management of these disasters has become a major science and the role of each
citizen in disasters has become an imperative. Major disasters can be listed as,

-disease pandemics eg. AIDS, SARS and Ebola

-Floods as a result of unusually high rainfall due to industrialization or broken
dam walls
-Drought due to changing weather patterns as a result of industrialization.

-Accidents at the work place e.g. airplane crashes, gas leaks, nuclear
contamination,etc
-Earthquakes.

 Disease management is first and foremost an individual responsibility.

Correct dietary and sexual habits are the first front line. Each individual is a
national resource and eating junk food or recklessly imbibing in drugs or
alcohol destroys that line as much as taking irresponsible and immoral
sexual behavior like sex before marriage or infidelity within marriage. With
infectious diseases, each individual should take note and report any
suspected infections and quarantine self or the affected victim.

 Floods, earthquakes and workplace disasters require the nation to rally

behind those affected by donating food and clothes and shelter. It is also
necessary to avoid flood and quake prone areas and to take heed to quake or
flood warning.

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 Industrial accidents are a manmade problem which require social
responsibility to minimize the risks. There is no such thing as safe
technology. The issue at stake is risk minimization and management.

 Droughts have always been there before the white man‟s agriculture and
especially exotic crops such as maize. Despite droughts, Africa was not
found unpopulated as a result. A banana plant does not grow in Gokwe as
naturally as it does in Rusitu valley in as much as maize thrives in Peru but
is prone to drought in Zimbawe. Maize is a stock feed that grows well in its
homeland in South America but is prone to drought in Zimbabwe. On the
other hand small grains thrive in Zimbabwe and are highly nutritious for
humans. The paradigm shift in our dietary habits will go a long way towards
national food self sufficiency because eventually sooner rather than latter
even irrigated crops will fail when there is no flow in the dams. There is no
other credible long lasting solution to drought at the family or national level
than reverting to the small grains.

 :In defense of the Nation

 All stable nations thrive on patriotism. Patriotism relates to each citizen‟s

ability to identify with his nation by being able to distinguish between party
political issues and national issues. Sovereignty, land and defending the
nation are not party political issues but national issues to which every real
Zimbabwean must stand up in defense.

4.3 Patriotism

 Defending the nation physically and in armed combat when called upon to
do so by the authorities in power or individually when the situation so
demands like in the case of unilateral superpower attack.

 Defending the nation through positive publicity. The nation‟s greatest and
most potent enemy today is the one amongst us who agrees to spread
falsehoods about the nation‟s politics and economy. Other than the dissident
menace, Zimbabwe has been the most peaceful nation at par with countries
like Botswana and Namibia.

 Supporting the nation through correct tax payments

 Practice environmentally friendly practices e.g. avoiding littering, pollution

etc.

PAGE 54
  Preserve the national asset that is oneself by avoiding graft, crime,
corruption, greed and harmful behavior such as premarital sex, drug abuse
etc..

 Respect and tolerate other races, tribes, religions opinions and beliefs.

 Cherish unity in diversity among the various stake holders in spite of

differences in approaches.

4.4 ACTIVITIES

 Define civic responsibility and patriotism.

 Explain and apply civic responsibility activities in the real world

UNIT 5

ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL PROLEMS FACED BY ZIMBABWE SINCE

1980
5.1Objectives
By the end of the unit students should be able to:

 Discuss the problems faced by the government at and after independence

 Explain how the government solved the problems that it faced at and
after independence

5.2 ECONOMIC PROBLEMS

 Need to develop rural areas to stop rural-urban drift and to correct a hundred
years of colonial rule.

 Redirect economic priorities to serve the whole population rather than a small
white section of the population.

 Bring health. Education, and shelter to all Zimbabweans.

 Recurring drought - 1983, 1992, 1997, 2002 as it negatively affects the national
economy and agricultural production.

 Deal with unfavourable terms of trade.

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 Stop the shrinking in the economy and reverse growing unemployment.

 Resolve inflation and the Devaluation of the Zimbabwean dollar against major
international currencies

 Gradual increase in prices of basic commodities due to speculation and

profiteering.

 Falling commodity prices in the international market.

 Dis investment due to a more vigorous indegenisaion economic approach.

 Political interference in the nation‟s politics through the sponsoring and

creation of opposition parties with a foreign agenda..

 The brain drain

 Corruption

 Decline in moral values leading to AIDS

5.3 HOW THE GOVERNMENT HAS SOLVED THESE PROBLEMS

 Drought in Zimbabwe has been partly alleviated by importing grain from

abroad and construction of dams and also creating grain strategic reserves
seeds packs given to peasants to help them recover from droughts. Of major
importance has been the redistribution of land and reducing pressure in the
congested rural areas and settling people in areas with fertile soils and high
rainfall.

 The Ministry of Employment Creation and indegenisation have gone some way
in creating employment.

 Externally originated and driven economic policies have been abandoned in

favour of home grown solutions

 Profiteering and speculation which fueled inflation have been checked

gradually restoring sanity to the financial sector.

 ESAP has been abandoned by the government and attention has been redirected
to the East Asian economies to encourage investment and cooperation.

PAGE 56
 SADC and COMESA Union trade arrangements have been adopted to
encourage an increase in international trade.

 However, Zimbabwe has not managed to solve all problems.

 Cost sharing in Education and Health have been instituted to alleviate spiraling
costs..

 Indigenisation, affirmative action, creation of SEDCO, the Land bank land

redistribution etc have all gone a long way towards alleviating the
unemployment problem.

 A new monetary policy together with an anticorruption drive has seen inflation
decreasing slowly but gradually.

 Reawakening of the peoples‟ moral values and their culture as a solution to

decreasing and ultimately wiping out STDs and AIDS infection.

5.4 Activities

 Discuss the problems faced by the government at and after independence

 Explain how the government has solved the problems that it faced at and
after independence

UNIT 6
LEGAL AND PARLIAMENTARY AFFAIRS

6.0 OBJECTIVES

By the end of this unit the student should be able to:

o Define Law and state its origins and purpose
o Discuss pre-colonial legal systems and compare them to modern law.
o Explain the concept of Law enforcement justice and public order.
o Discuss the Constitutional provisions of Zimbabwe
o Analyse the rights and freedoms as enshrined in the constitution

PAGE 57
6.1 LAW
6.1.1 Definition
Can be generally defined as;
a) „rules of behavior enforced by society‟
b) “a body of established norms for the good governance of society‟
Austin defines law as,
c) “ a command set, either directly or circuitously, by a sovereign
individual and /or body, to a member or members of some
independent political society in which his authority is supreme”.
Salmond defines law as,
d) “ consisting of principles which are recognized and enforced by the
courts in the administration of justice.”
Vinshisky (a one time attorney general in Russia in the ninetieth century)
defines law as;
e) “rules and regulations put in place by those in power in order to
protect their interests.”
The major elements in Austin‟s definition are:
1) “ the command of a sovereign‟. This suggests use of force and the
right to command.
2) The definition is deficient in that it lacks such ethical elements as
justice, consistence and uniform application. In this present day and
age law is looked at as the balance and union between might and
rightness or justice and legitimacy. The definition also excludes the
law enforcement aspect – the courts.
Salmond, an English judge emphasizes the aspect of “principle” and
“recognition‟ and in typical English legal tradition leaves room and gives a
free hand to the judge to determine what is a recognized principle and what
is not. Moreover, this definition does not deal with the element of
legitimacy assuming that English political authority is right and legitimate
always and everywhere and in one statement legitimating such evils as
colonialism or wars of conquest.
A principle can be defined as “ something that can be applied over a large
range of cases resembling one another in their most essential features” and
the result or outcome is invariably the same.

Vinshisky „s definition is more behavioral in approach and scope and

explains the origins; purposes and justification of such laws as the Hut tax
the Land apportionment act and the Land Tenure act in pre-independent
Zimbabwe. It also explains the current laws being made to reverse the very
same laws e.g. the Land acquisition Act, POSA and AIPPA. Everywhere

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 even in Britain law is not made in pursuit of that elusive thing called justice
but for the protection of the interests of those in power. To a large extent this
is a Marxist definition and is precise in so far as it is realistic and not
idealistic. No law is just per se‟. All law is premised on maintaining the
status quo and the advantages - political and economic- of those in authority
or of the ruling class.

6.1.2 Purpose of Law;

 Realistically the purpose of law is to protect the interests of
those making the law.

 Idealistically the purpose of law is to bring about law and order,

predictability, stability and peace.

6.1.3 The nature of law

Man is a social animal. The term „society‟ or community suggests norms or
behavioral patterns in the society. Behavior patterns become social customs
with the passage of time, usage, and acceptance. Social customs attract
social sanctions if and when violated e.g. Labeling such as uri nzenza or
ostracism etc. Social custom evolves into legal custom once they are
enforced and accepted in the law courts e.g.. van Breda and Others vs.
Jacobs.

6.1.4 Natural law or lex Naturalis and the origins of law.

Natural law can be viewed broadly as a product of the biblical principle „ do
unto others as you would want them to do unto you‟. Evolutionists suppose
that man had to escape from a state of nature that is lawless society. In such
a society each member of society does as he pleases and is a law to himself
and does not value nor does he respect the welfare of others. Thomas
Hobbes views law as an authoritarian command, which should be
legitimated by its consistence or compliance to natural law that is one gives
as much as he is willing to receive. One enjoys unchallenged enjoyment of
staying in his house because he in turn does not threaten the undisturbed
enjoyment of other people‟s homes.
Statute law or legislation is just law if only it is an extension of natural law.
Lawmakers are therefore bound by natural law and it flows naturally from
right reason. Natural law is seen as the moral basis and norm for legislators

PAGE 59
 and governments. The state is thus a product of men or members of society
contracting to appoint a single body or will to bear or represent all of them.
Members of society therefore enter into a social contract, which is
characterized by a mutual transfer of rights. Lex naturalis proscribes man
from doing that which is destructive of his life or taking away the means of
preserving his life. Man in a state of nature has the right to everything and is
governed by his own reason and can do anything to anyone to further his
interests. Thus man should be willing if and when others are willing and in
so far as his security and peace are assured as he sees it, waive his right to
every thing and be satisfied with as much liberty against others as s he
receives from others. Every member of society should therefore surrender as
much in terms of rights as the other person is prepared or willing to
surrender. This alludes to the entering of a social contract by people whose
desire is to escape from a state of nature. All modern law is presumed to be
based on natural law.

6.1.5 The origins of law /Sources of law

 Persuasive sources of law
These are references, which the law courts resort to in order to tilt
the balance for or against a decision or controversial point of law.
These are; a) social custom, b). Legal literature by jurists, c)
Judicial precedent specifically Obiter Dicta or that part of a
judges decision in a novel case which are side statements and not
the actual principle.

 Binding sources of law

These are references, which are followed in determining what is legal,
or are not. It consists of legal principles in the following forms;
a) Legal custom; Social custom that can be enforced in the law
courts
b) Judicial precedent/common law; the legal principles established
each time a new case or situation comes before a judge. It is
based on ratio decided, that is the legal basis on which a
decision is reached.
c) Legislation; this refers to law made by the legislature or
parliament and is termed statutory law or acts of parliament.
Parliament delegates its authority to make law to such bodies as
municipalities and the law they make is termed delegated
legislation that is, statutory instruments or by laws. Where there

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 is a conflict between the various laws, the statutory law position
takes precedence and nullifies any other position.

6.1.6 Principles / characteristics of legislated law

All law, to be valid, should be seen to possess the following elements;
i) Doctrine of impartiality;
a) Equality -there should be seen to be equality in the application
of law among citizens.
b) Uniformity - there should be spatial uniformity in the
application of law.
c) Just application- law should be seen to be morally right.

ii) Authority;
a) Separation of powers – the legislature, judiciary and the
executive should be separated to ensure counterbalancing and
counterchecking the exercise of the powers of state.
b) Doctrine of ultra and intra virus- all law should be made within
the confines of the law i.e. in consistence to/with the
constitution.
iii) Certainty;
– The law should not be retroactive or ex-post-factor

6.1.7 Divisions/classification of law

LAW

National Law International Law

Criminal Law

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 Private
International
Admin Law Law
Public
International
Constitutional Law Law
Law of treaties
Civil Private Law
Law of sea
Commercial Law
Company Law

Family Law
Industrial Law

Labour Law
National law is the body of rules and regulations that govern the behavior of
citizens of and within a specific country and it is further subdivided into three
specializations. These three distinctions are not based on the type of act/omission
but on the legal action that follow.

Criminal law is where criminal proceedings are instituted against a person for
committing a crime that is an act or omission that attracts sanctions – fines or
imprisonment or both. The parties in criminal proceedings are; the State vs. the
defendant or the accused. The outcome is guilty or not guilty.

Civil law is where civil proceedings are instituted or where an individual sues
another individual in a legal suite. The parties in civil proceedings are the plaintiff
or complainant (the one suing) and the defendant (the one being sued). The result
of or sentence of the proceedings is commission of a wrong or no commission. The
sentence can be damages, compensation, restitution or performance.

Administrative law is the law that relates to the operations and functions of formal
institutions in so far as their relations with the state and their employees is
concerned.

International law is the law that regulates relations between states and is based on
conventions, custom, treaties and bi-lateral and multilateral agreements. It differs
from national law in that where as national law has a law-enforcing agency to back
it in the form of the army and police and prisons, international law has none of

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these law-enforcing agencies and relies on the goodwill of states, which in many
instances is lacking. International law can be private international law or public
international law. The former deals with disputes between citizens of two different
countries and these are mostly trade disputes. Public international law is the law
that relates to disputes between states and these are normally issues relating to
boundaries, war, or natural resources access. International law is the law that
governs the behavior of states and to a growing extent the behavior of nationals
within states e.g. War crimes, crimes against humanity and terrorism.

6.1.8 Substantive and adjectival law

This classifications cut across all the above categories.
Adjectival law can be defined as the law that relates to the enforcement of
rights and duties liberties and powers specifically the law of procedure and
evidence for an example civil and criminal pleadings. In civil procedure the
plaintiff‟s claim is termed the declaration and the defendant‟s response is
termed a traverse (countercheck quarrelsome according to Dickens).
Substantive law is that law that lays down the peoples‟ rights, duties, liberties
and powers e.g. the constitution or an act of parliament.

6.1.9 The Constitution

Most nations have a written constitution as the supreme law of the country.
The United kingdom stands out as the odd case that has no one clear
document written and termed a constitution. The UK has precedent, custom
as well as separate pieces of documents that all add up to what may be
interpreted as a constitution. A constitution is the body of rules and
regulations that sets out the authority of those in power or and the extent and
limits of the exercise of executive power. It also sets out the rights and duties
of the citizen. These two aspects are contained in the doctrine of the
separation of powers and the doctrine of intra-vires and ultra- vires.

6.2.11 THE LANCASTER AGREEMENT OF 1979

After fighting a successful protracted war of liberation, The First

Chimurenga war, the settler colonialists and Britain succumbed to the reality
of defeat and had to negotiate for peace and unlike the previous occasions
where peace talks were unsuccessful, it was imperative that a solution had to
be found to the war of liberation in Zimbabwe if the settler community and

PAGE 63
 British interests were to be safeguarded. The Frontline states were also a
major factor in the search for peace at the conference in that there were clear
signs of war weariness on their part. This scenario was ideal for the settlers
in that there was every chance of as they saw it of getting into power I they
or their stages the DNC were to get into power. The major problems
provisions of the agreement were as follows:

2.2 The Separation of Powers

The state has three arms whose functions are separate and these are;
Government/Executive
Judiciary
Legislature
The State is that intangible aspect of every nation that can be defined as the authority and
identity conferred by a people within a country to themselves and for which there is a force
in the form of an army to defend that authority. A state does not change or vanish unless
territory is annexed by another state through conquest or agreement or the population
becomes non existent and the territory becomes uninhabited that is terra nullius.
Sovereignty is therefore not conferred on a nation but it is claimed by each individual nation
people and asserted through the exercise of executive powers and the ability to enter into
diplomatic intercourse with other nations.
Whereas a nation is the peoples within a geographical entity called a country
whose aspirations, interests shall so decide the shaping of their destiny, a
country is a geographical space marked by natural or man-made
boundaries.

6.1.10 The doctrine of separation of powers.

The three arms of state are supposed to act as checks and balances on each
other so that there is no abuse of power by anyone aspect or arm of state.
This ensures that the judiciary is impartial and does not make any law. The
legislature is the supreme law making body and has no restricted
competency and can change or amend the constitution.
6.1.10.1 Ultra-vires and intra-vires doctrine
Parliament can only make law that does not violate provisions of the
constitution and the executive or government must exercise its
authority as provided for in the constitution. When the executive or
parliament acts within their powers they are acting intra-vires when
they act outside their powers as provided for by or in the constitution,
they are acting ultra vires and there is therefore no rule of law. When
parliament makes law they act intra-vires the constitution there is

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 therefore the rule of law. Any influence by foreign or illegitimate
forces in relation to constitutional uses, were national interests are
concerned; the wish of the state thru the national force (people) shall
take precedents in the interests of sovereignty.

6.1.11 Public order

Public order refers to a situation in the nation when every individual is
able to exercise his/her constitutional rights without infringing or
interfering with the rights of others or endangering state security and
national sovereignty by championing blatantly clear foreign interests
that seek to reverse the gains of independence and self rule and by so
doing compromising state national sovereignty. Democracy is
therefore a qualified and subjective term that does not give license to
any individual or group or political party the right to exploit
situational hurdles in the history of Zimbabwe to compromise national
sovereignty and the ethos of the preservation of freedom. If and when
that happens, the custodian of the nation, the army and every patriotic
Zimbabwean, should by all means available, defend the nation and
democratic rights can and should be suspended until such a time as
these are compatible with our historical aspirations. Public order
therefore entails the capability of self-censorship with respect to the
exercise of individual constitutional rights especially the rights of
expression, speech, assembly and association. In the latter case, the
constitution cannot be read to mean that belonging or associating with
a subversive organization or unpatriotic party or ill association whose
interests are to destabilize peace, order and security is a right
guaranteed by the constitution.
6.1.12 ACTIVITIES
o Define Law and state its origins and purpose
o Discuss pre-colonial legal systems and compare them to modern law.
o Explain the concept of Law enforcement justice and public order.
o Analyse the provisions of the Constitution of Zimbabwe

UNIT 7
Democracy and Governance.

7.1 OBJECTIVES

By the end of this unit the student should be able to:

PAGE 65
  Compare Western Democracy to pre-colonial governance system inclusivity,
exclusivity
 Trace and discuss major issues at all elections held in Zimbabwe.
 SADC election guidelines
 Discuss - Zimbabwe‟s electoral system and authority

INTRODUCTION
Democracy as a system of governance is of Greek origin. Its main
tenet was its attempt to bring about an inclusive rather than an
exclusive form of governance that is typical of the monarch or king. A
monarch has its merits and demerits and so does democracy.
The traditional Zimbabwean system of governance while having its
shortcomings was nevertheless superior to both the former aristocratic
European system of governance and the present form of democracy as
championed by the West especially The U.S.A. and its lackey the
U.K. Demo means people and cracy means rule. Democracy means
people rule. Democracy as a system of governance is not established
through elections only. In the traditional Shona system of governance
“ushe hwaive madzoro” first and foremost, that is there was no
permanent ruling class or family as in the present American and
European systems where the super rich and well connected and
acceptable few in terms of race and ideology qualify to rule that is the
rich Anglo Saxons. (Jews, Chinese, Hispanics and especially blacks
are excluded from the presidency on no other grounds other than that
that they are from these minority groups.
Secondly, the community was always represented at large in the kings
“dare” and this system of inclusion permeated the whole structure
from top to bottom and it was reflected in the family governance
where the family was not run by the father tyrannically but involved
and to a large extent today does involve the mother the children who
have come of age and the check and balance of the extended family
“vana tete nana babamunini”.
7.2 WHAT IS GOVERNANCE?
The term ―governance‖ refers to the process of decision-making and the
ways in which decisions are implemented (or not). In any given system, the
executive ( government) is the major actor, but others like the Judiciary and
the Legislature can influence the process. Non-state actors, such as
religious or tribal leaders, civil society, major landowners, trade unions,

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financial institutions, and community based groups can play important
roles. The following characterise a good system of governance:
• Participatory—encouraging wide citizen participation
in decision-making;
• Consensus-orientated—attempting to reach decisions
based on widespread agreement;
• Transparent—being open to scrutiny in decision making
processes;
• Responsive—listening and responding to the needs
of its citizens;
• effective and efficient—providing basic services; and
• equitable and inclusive—not excluding sectors of
the population, especially those that are more
vulnerable or marginalised.
There are many multi- and bilateral institutions that are concerned with
promoting what they have termed ―good governance‖ in post conflict and
developing countries. Each of these institutions defines good governance
slightly differently and has developed its own indicators by which it
measures and evaluates progress toward good governance. The World
Bank, for instance, has identified six indicators of good governance ―to help
countries identify areas of weakness so that capacity building and
assistance strategies are more effective.‖ The
indicators are:
• voice and accountability;
• political stability and lack of violence;
• government effectiveness;
• regulatory quality;
• rule of law; and
• control of corruption.
Democracy and Governance
Political leaders’ visions they promote and the systems and values they
bring to governing a country play a pivotal role in fostering peace and
development, promoting oppression or the resurgence of conflict. Since so
much is at stake, during peace negotiations there is often great competition
for power and the prospect of controlling a government. For countries that
have little or no experience with democratic governance, the challenges are
immense. But the post conflict environment does provide an opportunity for
countries to create new structures of government and systems of ―good
governance.‖ In situations where the international community has taken on
state-building, its institutions assume some responsibility for issues related

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to democracy and governance. It is also a time of opportunity for women. In
particular, Zimbabwe has been effective at using quotas and reserved
seats to ―ensure the presence and participation of women in justice,
governance, private sector and civil society .For example; we have a lady
Vice President, Mrs Joice Mujuru. International actors consider ―good
governance‖ to be a key for building sustainable peace and long-term
development. Progress toward good governance is increasingly used as a
requisite for the provision of aid. Despite the variations in definitions and
indicators of good governance, most institutions agree that good
governance typically includes efforts at democratization and
decentralisation, the introduction of free and fair elections, participatory
politics, the creation of an independent civil society, guarantee of a
free and independent press and respect for the rule of law. Each of
these topics, among others, is discussed below.

7.3 WHAT ARE THE KEY COMPONENTS

OF “GOOD GOVERNANCE”?
In countries involved in peace processes, questions relating to governance
often consume a significant portion of the discussions; typically demands
for democratisation, including elections and timeframes for transition, are
addressed. Other related elements include discussions surrounding the
nature of political
participation, electoral systems, issues of transparency and separation of
powers, as discussed below.

7.4 DEMOCRACY
Democracy is a system of government in which power is vested in the
people (the population) and exercised through representatives chosen in
free and
fair elections. But a democracy does not just mean that ―the majority rules.‖
A democracy also includes and protects the human rights of minorities and
respects multiple or ―plural‖ views and opinions. In a democracy people
have rights as citizens, but they also have responsibilities to participate in
the
governance system. There are many versions of democracies around the
world (e.g. electoral, consultative) and ongoing debates about the extent to
which ―one size fits all‖ with regard to democracy. The process a country
goes through in attempting to become more democratic is referred to as
democratisation. In order for a country to be truly democratic, all of its

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citizens—men and women—must be empowered to participate fully in the
governance process (as citizens, voters, advocates, civil servants, judges,
elected officials, etc.).

7.5 FREE AND FAIR ELECTIONS

An election is the procedure by which citizens of a country choose their
representatives and leaders and assign authority. Elections must be held
regularly so that elected officials remain accountable to the
population; if they do not uphold their responsibilities to the electorate, they
can be voted out of office in the next election. Elections must be
held within a period of time that is prescribed in the constitution, or
fundamental law. For an election to be truly democratic, it must be:
• universal—All citizens of a country must have the right to vote and to be
elected, without discrimination based on sex, race, language, religion or
political affiliation. In Zimbabwe as elsewhere in the world there is no
discrimination in voting processes.
• equal—The value of each vote must be the same.
• secret—The balloting must be private so that citizens can participate
without being afraid; only the voter must know for whom she or he votes.
• direct—The voters must be able to choose their own leaders without an
intermediary.
• wide choice—The voters must have the opportunity to choose from
among several available candidates.

7.6 DECENTRALISATION
An increasingly important component of democratisation in many parts of
the world is decentralisation. Decentralisation is the process of
transferring authority and responsibility from the central government to
provincial and local levels. Countries pursue decentralisation for a variety of
reasons, including a desire to make the government more receptive and
accountable to the needs of its population and/or to respond to pressure
from donors to ―downsize‖ central government budgets. Decentralisation is
based upon the notion that
various levels of the government have different expertise and abilities to
address problems. For example, national defence and monetary policy are
clearly best set at the national level, but policies concerning schools, local
police protection and some public services are often better determined at
the local level with community input. Critics of decentralisation, however,
charge that it weakens parts of the state that, for the sake of peace building

PAGE 69
and human security, need to be strengthened. There are three types of
decentralisation: political, administrative and fiscal. Political decentralization
involves the election of local-level leaders. Administrative decentralisation
occurs when some of the government’s decision-making is managed at the
local level. And fiscal decentralisation refers to the national government
sharing budgetary responsibility for collecting revenues and making
expenditures with local government representatives. Decentralisation
processes often include local-level
elections.

7.7 PARTICIPATORY POLITICS AND POLITICAL PARTIES

The concept of ―participatory politics‖ refers to the involvement of all
citizens in politics and policymaking. This requires a relationship between
the government and society in which the participation of citizens and a
plurality of views are
encouraged. This can be supported by strengthening political parties;
encouraging the participation of marginalised groups, such as women and
youth; and by strengthening civil society (described below). The right to
convene and articulate political views is a key principle of good governance
and democratisation. Political parties are one of the cornerstones of a
democratic political system. Parties are critical because they provide a
structure for
political participation for people with similar beliefs and interests. By joining
together, individuals, who would otherwise not be influential, can make their
voices heard in the political process through their support of a political
party. Political parties also provide leaders with a space in which to learn
the
skills needed for governing a society. A democracy must have more than
one major, viable party so that a single group does not dominate the
government
and voters have a choice. This principle is called multipartyism.
Membership in political parties must be voluntary. It can be difficult for
women to achieve leadership positions within political parties and to be
selected as candidates because, in many countries, parties operate or
govern themselves without written party rules or transparent procedures.
Such lack of openness allows patronage systems and ―old boys’ networks‖
to flourish, effectively excluding women from decision-making positions and
candidate lists. In some countries, political parties have adopted internal
quotas for women’s participation to ensure that they always put forward a
certain number of women’s candidates. In Zimbabwe as in Argentina,

PAGE 70
Botswana and France, among others, all political parties encourage
participation of women in politics. For example, the political parties in
Zimbabwe have Women’s Leagues in their structures and both the major
political parties in Zimbabwe have ladies as their Vice Presidents. An
important advocacy strategy for women is to work with political parties to
make sure that the party platform, the formal declaration of the principles
and positions that the party supports, describes its positions on issues
important to women.
7.8 ACTIVITIES
 Compare Western Democracy to pre-colonial governance system inclusivity,
exclusivity
 Trace and discuss major issues at all elections held in Zimbabwe.
 SADC election guidelines
 Discuss - Zimbabwe‟s electoral system and authority

UNIT 8

The Constitution of Zimbabwe

8.1 OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit the student should be able to:
 Discuss The Lancaster House Agreement
 State the major provisions of the Lancaster Agreement
 Explain the provisions of the Constitution of Zimbabwe in relation to :
- Republican Destiny and National Political and Economic
Sovereignty
- Citizenship
- Declaration of Rights and Freedoms of Individuals
- Constitutional amendments
- Elections – parliamentary gubernatorial, presidential and
local government

The constitution is the supreme law in Zimbabwe. No law is above the

constitution of the republic of Zimbabwe in determining what is legal
and what is illegal in Zimbabwe. This law (constitution) is drawn and
revised to protect and safeguard the interests of the citizens of this
country. Some countries especially the European nations and the
U.S.A. want to introduce laws that they term international norms or
laws acceptable in international law.

PAGE 71
 This is in a way an attempt to change the laws of other countries in
such a way as to have their interests protected. The majority of these
laws are designed to protect subversive or perverted elements within
other societies or nations for an example perverts (Gays and lesbians)
or puppet political and economic groups within smaller nations for an
example secessionist and tribal minorities.

8.2 The constitutional Provisions

 Republican Destiny
The constitution of Zimbabwe begins with the declaration that
Zimbabwe is a sovereign state and so shall decide its destiny. The
republican destiny is outlined in conjunction with national interests as
represented by the public seal which shall be kept by the president as
the head of state and whose authority protects national interests and
aspirations.
 Citizenship
- Can be by birth, except if the parents have diplomatic
immunity, are not citizens, or the parents are enemy aliens or an
illegal residents
- Can be by descent that is he is born outside the country but his
parents are or were Zimbabwean citizens.
- Can be by registration that is by application to the minister of
Home affairs.
Dual citizenship.

No person having other citizenship can be a Zimbabwean citizen

unless he/she renounces that other citizenship. In many precedents law
tends to favour descent than any other citizenship status on enjoyment
of privileges.

 Declaration of rights
Every citizen irrespective of color race religion etc. is entitled to the
basic and fundamental rights of the individual provided that when
enjoying such rights or freedoms he/she does not infringe on the
peaceable enjoyment of the rights of others or does not endanger the
public interest that is state security and public order. Such freedoms
are as follows:
a) The right to life except where the state is duly carrying out a death
sentence, or where there is need to defend property or in repelling

PAGE 72
 violence, or effecting lawful arrest or preventing someone from
escaping from lawful custody, or in suppressing a riot, insurrection
and unlawful gathering, or in preventing the commission of a crime or
if the cause of death is a lawful act of war.
b) Right to Personal liberty
Such a right can be exercised by any citizen excerpt where; the person
is sentenced to a prison term by a court of law for a criminal offence
or for contempt of a court of law or in a civil suit or where a parent or
guardian so requests the court for the welfare or education of an
individual between 21 and 23 years old or in order to prevent the
spread of a disease or if the person is of an unsound mind, is a drug
addict an alcoholic or is an illegal immigrant or subject of an
extradition process.
Any person so detained is entitled to legal representation and should
be charged within a reasonable period and where a person is unlawful
detained the detainee is entitled to compensation from that person or
authority detaining him/her.

c) Protection from slavery and forced labour

Excerpt where such labour is in compliance with a court sentence or is
necessary for hygiene and the maintenance of the places of lawful
detention or is a requirement by a parent for purposes of parental
discipline or labour required by virtue of belonging to a uniformed
service or required of any citizen during an emergency.

d) Protection from inhuman treatment;

Such as torture or other degrading punishment. Where as reasonable
force or corporal punishment is acceptable in effecting an arrest or for
a parent or anyone in loco parentis over a person eighteen years and
below and under his custody.

e) Protection From deprivation of property

Every Zimbabwean citizen shall not be compulsorily deprived

of his/her property or right therein excerpt;
When legally required by law in the case of land for the utilization of
such land for purposes of agricultural settlement or other use or for

PAGE 73
 land reorganization such as forestry and game parks or for purposes of
relocation of persons affected in the former cases, or for purposes of
public defense, public order and safety, morality, health, town and
country planning, or for any other public good.Where such land is
thus acquired it will be done according to the law in force at that time
allowing for reasonable notice and fair compensation.

f) PROTECTION from arbitrary search and entry of the person or his

property Except where the person so searching is parent, or for
purposes of the defense and security of the state, public health,
morality or town and country planning or in the enforcement of the
law where there are reasonable grounds of suspicion of the existence
of a crime.

g) Provision to secure protection of the law

All citizens are entitled to the protection of the law. Where a person
is charged with a criminal offence that person should; be brought
before an independent and impartial court within reasonable time, is
innocent until proved otherwise, is entitled to legal representation and
to defend and cross examine witnesses and no person is guilty of an
offense post facto.

h) Protection of freedom of conscience

Every citizen except for minors or with his/her own consent has
a right to freedom of thought, religion (belonging or changing),
freedom to individually or severally in public or private to
propagate/ manifest his/her religion through worship teaching
practice and observance. No person attending an educational
institution shall be compelled to receive religious instruction
contrary to his/ her religion, unless in the interest of group
discipline.
Any community is entitled to provide religious instruction to its
members at its educational institutions. Provisions on guardianship
powers may limit freedom of conscience.

i) Protection of freedom of expression

Every citizen save for minors or with one‟s own consent is entitled to
hold his her own opinions on any issue and receive and impart such
opinions or information without interference Excerpt where, The law

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 makes provisions for the sake of the defense of the nation, public
safety and order, economic interests of the state, public morality and
public health to;
Protect reputations privacy, and rights of others, Maintain
confidentiality, protect parliament, the courts and tribunals, and
regulate technical aspects of telecommunications and the electronic
media and preventing any unlawful communication. Freedom of
expression is exercised within the parameters of justification, fair
comment and qualified or absolute privilege.

J) Protection of freedom of assembly and association

With the excerption of minors or through his own consent every

citizen is entitled to assemble and associate and belong to or
not to be compelled to assemble or associate with any group,
political party, union for purposes of protecting and propagating
his/her interests. Excerpt where the law makes provisions
for the sake of public order, safety morality, health, security and
defense and the regulation of companies or other business
enterprises. The associations whose interests are known to
comprise security and order shall be diffused under the
prohibition from commitment of crime.

k) Protection from discrimination on the grounds of;

Race, religion, ethnicity, gender, political affiliation, place of origin
tribe, etc. No law or practice shall be deemed lawful if it violates this
provision excerpt in the cases of adoption, marriage divorce, burial
devolution of property or any matter pertaining to personal law or
relating to immigration status, qualifications for purposes of
employment not relating to any of the above.

l) Enforcement of rights
Where an individual feels that his her rights are violated the said
person shall appeal to the supreme court which alone has the
prerogative to hear and deliberate on all matters relating to the
constitutional provisions on the fundamental freedoms.

 The Executive
Executive Powers and Authority

PAGE 75
 The Executive Authority of the Inclusive Government shall
vest in, and be shared among the President, the Prime
Minister and the Cabinet, as provided for in the
Constitution and legislation.
The President of the Republic shall exercise executive
authority subject to the Constitution and the law.
The Prime Minister of the Republic shall exercise
executive authority subject to the Constitution and the
law.
The Cabinet of the Republic shall exercise executive
authority subject to the Constitution and the law.
In the exercise of executive authority, the President, Vice
Presidents, the Prime Minister, the Deputy Prime
Ministers, Ministers and Deputy Ministers must have
regard to the principles and spirit underlying the formation
of the Inclusive Government and accordingly act in a
manner that seeks to promote cohesion both inside and
outside government.
 The Cabinet
(a) shall have the responsibility to evaluate and adopt all
government policies and the consequential programmes;
(b) shall, subject to approval by Parliament, allocate the
financial resources for the implementation of such policies
and programmes;
(c) shall have the responsibility to prepare and present to
Parliament, all such legislation and other instruments
as may be necessary to implement the policies and
programmes of the National Executive;
(d) shall, except where the Constitution requires
ratification by Parliament, or action by the President,
approve all international agreements;
(e) shall ensure that the state organs, including the
Ministries and Departments, have sufficient financial and

PAGE 76
 other resources and appropriate operational capacity to
carry out their functions effectively; and
(f) shall take decisions by consensus, and take collective
responsibility for all Cabinet decisions, including those
originally initiated individually by any member of Cabinet.
(g) The President and the Prime Minister will agree on the
allocation of Ministries between them for the purpose of
day-to-day supervision.
 The President
(a) chairs Cabinet;
(b) exercises executive authority;
(c) shall exercise his/her powers subject to the provisions
of the Constitution;
(d) can, subject to the Constitution, declare war and make
peace;
(e) can, subject to the Constitution, proclaim and
terminate martial law;
(f) confers honours and precedence, on the advice of
Cabinet;
(g) grants pardons, respites, substitutes less severe
punishment and suspends or remits sentences, on the
advice of Cabinet;
(h) chairs the National Security Council;
(i) formally appoints the Vice Presidents;
(j) shall, pursuant to this Agreement, appoint the Prime
Minister pending the enactment of the Constitution of
Zimbabwe Amendment no.19 as agreed by the
Parties;
(k) formally appoints Deputy Prime Ministers, Ministers
and Deputy Ministers in accordance with this agreement;

PAGE 77
 (l) after consultation with the Vice Presidents, the Prime
Minister and the Deputy Prime Ministers, allocates
Ministerial portfolios in accordance with this Agreement;
(m) accredits, receives and recognizes diplomatic agents
and consular officers;
(n) appoints independent Constitutional Commissions in
terms of the Constitution;
(o) appoints service/executive Commissions in terms of
the Constitution and in consultation with the Prime
Minister;
(p) in consultation with the Prime Minister, makes key
appointments the President is required to make under
and in terms of the Constitution or any Act of Parliament;
(q) may, acting in consultation with the Prime Minister,
dissolve Parliament;
(r) must be kept fully informed by the Prime Minister on
the general conduct of the government business and;
(s) shall be furnished with such information as he/she
may request in respect of any particular matter relating to
the government, and may advise the Prime Minister and
Cabinet in this regard.
 The Prime Minister
(a) chairs the Council of Ministers and is the Deputy
Chairperson of Cabinet;
(b) exercises executive authority;
(c) shall oversee the formulation of government policies by the
Cabinet;
(d) shall ensure that the policies so formulated ar€ implemented
by the entirety of government;
(e)shall ensure that the Ministers develop appropriate
implementation plans to give effect to the policies decided by

PAGE 78
Cabinet: in this regard, the Ministers will report to the Prime Minister on
all issues relating to the implementation of such policies and plans;
(f)shall ensure that the legislation necessary to enable the
government to carry out its functions is in place: in this regard,
he/she shall have the" responsibility to discharge the functions of the
Leader of Government Business in Parliament;
(g) shall be a member of the National Security Council;
(h) may be assigned such additional functions as are necessary
further to enhance the work of the Inclusive Government;
(i) shall, to ensure the effective execution of these tasks, be
assisted by Deputy Prime Ministers; and
(j) shall report regularly to the President and Parliament.
 Council of Ministers
To ensure that the Prime Minister properly discharges his
responsibility to oversee the implementation of the work of
government, there shall be a Council of Ministers consisting of all
the Cabinet Ministers, chaired by the Prime Minister, whose
functions shall be:
(a) to assess the implementation of Cabinet decisions;
(b) to assist the Prime Minister to attend to matters of
coordination in the government;
(c) to enable the Prime Minister to receive briefings from the
CabinetCommittees;
(d) to make progress reports to Cabinet on matters of
implementation of Cabinet decisions;
(e) to receive and consider reports from the Committee responsible
for the periodic review mechanism; and
(f) to make progress reports to Cabinet on matters related to the
periodic review mechanism.
 Composition of the Executive

PAGE 79
 (1) There shall be a President, which Office shall continue to be
occupied by President Robert Gabriel Mugabe.
(2) There shall be two (2) Vice Presidents, who will be nominated
by the President and/or Zanu PF.
(3) There shall be a Prime Minister, which Office shall be occupied
by Mr Morgan Tsvangirai.
(4) There shall be two (2) Deputy Prime Ministers, one (1) from
MDC-T and one (1) from the MDC-M.
(5) There shall be thirty-one (31) Ministers, with fifteen (15)
nominated by Zanu PF, thirteen (13) by MDC-T and three (3) by
MDC-M. Of the 31 Ministers, three (3) one each appointed
shall become members of the House of Assembly and shall have
the right to sit, speak and debate in Parliament, but shall not be
entitled to vote.
(6) There shall be fifteen (15) Deputy Ministers, with (eight) 8
nominated by Zanu PF, six (6) by MDC-T and one (1) by MDC- M.
(7) Ministers and Deputy Ministers may be relieved of their
duties only after consultation among the leaders of all the political
parties participating in the Inclusive Government.
 Senate
(a) The President shall, in his discretion, appoint five (5) persons to
the existing positions of Presidential senatorial appointments.
(b) There shall be created an additional nine (9) appointed
senatorial posts, which shall be filled by persons appointed by
the President, of whom, 3 will be nominated by Zanu PF, 3 by
MDC-T and 3 by MDC-M.
 Filling of vacancies
a) In the event of any vacancy arising in respect of council and
cabinet posts such vacancies shall be filled by a nominee of the
Party which held that position prior to the vacancy arising.
The executive arm of the state consists of the Head of State ,the
president, the Vice presidents,the Prime Minister, the Deputy Prime

PAGE 80
 Ministers, the Cabinet, the ministries or/and the civil service, the
Security agencies that is, the Zimbabwe Defense Forces, the
Zimbabwe Republic Police, The Prison Service, and the Central
Intelligence Service.

a) The President
i) Is the head of state, is the executive head of government, and is
the commander in chief of the Defense Forces. Is the Pre-
eminent person in the Nation.
ii) Qualification.
Should be a citizen of Zimbabwe by birth, or descent, should be
forty years and above, is ordinarily resident in Zimbabwe.
(NB. To be read into the constitution although the document is
silent is that the presidential aspirant should espouse and uphold
the aspirations of the nation, derived from assertions leading to
the war of liberation in the preservation of freedom,
independence and national interests uphold Zimbabwe‟s
ENDURING POLITICAL TRADITION as represented by the
values of the War of liberation.) Should hold no criminal
record.
iii) Election.
Is an elected by voter on the common roll and within ninety
days before the expiry of the presidential term and in the case of
death, incapacity or impeachment the Vice president shall act as
president for ninety days during which period fresh elections
should be held.
iv) Tenure (duration in office)
Shall be in office for six years and until the next person elected
take office
v) Removal from office
- Can leave office through resignation by letter to the
speaker of parliament.
- Can leave office on parliamentary recommendation
following a request of not less than a third of members of
parliament alleging willful violation of the constitution,
or incapacity to carry his duties/functions or gross
misconduct and when two thirds or more of members
support the motion to impeach the president.
vi) Functions of the President.

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 a) Has and exercises all executive authority of the state that is
the
government of the country or the enforcement of law, the
defense of the nation translation of political policy into
government programs and their implementation by the civil
service.
b) To uphold the constitution
c) To exercise the prerogatives of head of state that is: -
 Enter into treaties and international agreements.
 Proclaim and terminate martial law
 To declare war and make peace.
 To confer honors and precedence
 Appoint and accredit diplomats
d) To act on advice of the cabinet excerpt on: -
 Matters relating to dissolution of parliament
 Appointment and removal of governors
 Duties of the Vice presidents or any other person
appointed by the president.
e) To exercise the prerogative of mercy that is: -
 Grant pardon to felons
 Declare a stay of execution of a felon
 Vary/substitute prison terms
 Suspend or remit a sentence
 Declare public emergencies
 Which shall be approved by parliament within
fourteen days failing which the declaration becomes
void.
The declaration lasts for a specified period or for a period not
exceeding six months subject to any extension of such a period
by the president. The effect of such a declaration is to allow the
direction of funds to that emergency and where necessary the
suspension of civil liberties.
 The Public service
The constitution provides that a public service be established
for the administration of the country. This consists of all the
ministries and other institutions through which government
implements its programs.
Members of the Public service are appointed on merit and have
security of tenure, are not political appointees and at most are
not expected to engage in active politics.

PAGE 82
 The affairs of the Public service are managed by a commission,
which consists of a chairperson and not less than two and no
not more than seven members. The president appoints the
members.
 The Attorney General
Is the principal legal adviser to government, holds a public
office but is not a part of the public service.
The president appoints him after consultations with the judicial
services commission. Only persons suitable for appointment as
judges are qualified to be A.Gs. The A.G. is an ex-officio
member of the cabinet and his main functions are to institute
criminal proceedings, and to prosecute or defend an appeal
from all criminal proceedings.
 The Police Force
The police force is provided for in the constitution with the
specific task of preserving the internal security in the country
and the maintenance of law and order.

A police commissioner appointed by the president

heads the ZRP.A Police commission headed by a
chairperson who is the Chairperson of the Public
service commission manages the affairs of the Police
force.
 The Zimbabwe Defence forces
To defend the territorial integrity of the nation, the constitution
provides for the establishment of an army consisting of an Air
force, and an Army – ground troops and any other
specializations deemed necessary for the defence of the nation
and provided for through an act of parliament. The commander
in chief of the defence forces shall be the President.
The affairs of the army are managed by the defence forces
commission consisting of a chairperson (the Public service
chairperson) and not less than two and no more than seven
other members.
 The Prison service

Tasked with the responsibility of protecting society from criminals

by incarcerating them and rehabilitating and reintegrating them into
society.The prison service is headed by a Prison service commissioner

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and the affairs of the service are managed by a Prison service
commission headed a chairperson (the head of the public service
commission) and between two and seven other members.

 The Intelligence service

Provided for by the constitution as part of the office the President with the
specific task of providing, through conventional and unconventional means,
information of any type necessary for the protection of the nation‟s economic,
political, social or cultural and other interests. A Director General appointed by
the President heads the service.

 The Ombudsman

Holds public office but is not a member of the public service. He

is tasked with the responsibility of receiving any complaint
from members of the public on the function or lack of it of
member of the civil service.
 The Comptroller and Auditor General

Holds a public office but is not a member of the Public service.

His/her main functions are to examine or audit at least once a year all
ministries or persons or institutions entrusted with the receipt or the
use of public funds, that is, monies from the consolidated revenue
fund. (C.R.F). The president appoints him after consulting the Public
service commission.

The C.R.F.

All monies collected for and on behalf of government as taxes, fees,

fines, profit etc. are deposited into the CRF and used or withdrawn
from that account as allocated funds under respective ministerial
budgets excerpt where the authority is allowed to retain the monies so
collected and for use to defray their expenses as provided for through
an act of parliament. The allocation shall be made through the
Budget process in Parliament as votes to Ministries and
government departments.

 THE LEGISLATURE
Parliament has the supreme authority to make law in and for Zimbabwe. No
law made elsewhere is binding or legal unless Government accedes to or

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 ratifies such law through parliament. International law or other legal
protocols are binding only if and when parliament ratifies such directly or
through an act of parliament. Parliament can delegate it authority to make
law to other bodies such as local government authorities or parastatals.

The law making process in parliament

The process of making law in parliament is open to any member of society.
Most of the law ,however, comes in the form of bills or proposals from
concerned ministries and not as private members‟ bills. The stages in the law
making process are as follows;
3.1.1 Proposals- anyone can make law proposals.
3.1.2 Expert/legal input- relevant ministry or and Attorney general‟s
office.
3.1.3 Presentation to the Cabinet Legal Committee
3.1.4 Presentation to the Government Gazette for publication to get
public input
3.1.5 First reading – notification in parliament; no responses from
MPs.
3.1.6 Second reading- responses from MPs.
3.1.7 Committee stage
3.1.8 Report stage – responses and inputs from MPs.
3.1.9 Third reading – responses from MPs and voting for or against
the bill.
3.1.10 Presentation to the Senate
3.1.11 Presidential assent
3.1.12 Presentation to the Government Gazette(for promulgation).
At each stage of the readings, reference is made to the Parliamentary
Legal Committee, which shall consider inputs from MPs from a legal
point of view and produce adverse or non-adverse reports where
necessary.
 Composition consists of: -
- The President
- One hundred fifty members of parliament elected appointed and
nominated as follows;
- 120 elected by voters on the common roll and representing 120
constituencies
- 8 provincial governors appointed by the president
- 10 chiefs elected according to the electoral law
- 12 members appointed by the president.
 Non-voting members of parliament

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 - The president
- Vice presidents and ministers if not members of parliament and the
AG.
- The Speaker and Deputy Speaker
The speaker is the presiding officer whose function is to facilitate the
process of legislation by ensuring that debate and voting and al other
procedures related to legislation are conducted in the manner
prescribed by the standing rules of the house. The speaker is elected
from persons who have been members of parliament before and his
tenure of office lasts a full parliamentary term unless he/she resigns or
becomes a minister or vice president while his/her term has not
expired
Or becomes an MP.

 Administrative staff of parliament

- Secretary to Parliament
Appointed by the committee on standing rules and orders and is the
pre-eminent administrative officer of parliament. Holds a public office
but is not in the public service.
- Clerk to parliament

He is the chief administrative officer and holds a public office

and supervises all other supporting staff like clerks,
stenographers accountants etc.

- Sergeant at Arms
He holds a public office and is a member of the police force and
ensures that order is enforced in the legislative assembly.

 Parliamentary Legal committee

The committee consisting of not less than three and is appointed by the
parliamentary committee on standing rules and orders at the beginning of
each parliamentary term. The members of the committee shall in the
majority be legally qualified.

 The functions of the committee: -

- Examine every bill other than constitutional bills
- Examine every statutory instrument.

 Tenure of Members of Parliament

Shall last the full term of parliament or until parliament is dissolved

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 Membership shall also laps: -
- If member dies before dissolution of parliament
- On resignation by letter to the speaker
- Is absent for twenty one consecutive sittings/days in one session of
parliament
- Ceases to be a member of his political party
- Becomes speaker or president or provincial governor or assumes any
public office.
- Is placed under a curator bonis
- Is mentally or physically unfit
- Is incarcerated for more than six months

 Parliamentary privilege and immunity

These are fixed through an act of parliament but broadly no member of
parliament is criminally or civilly liable in any act or utterance while
performing his/her parliamentary functions.

 Legislative function of MPs

By/through bills passed by parliament and assented to by the president
within twenty-one days of being passed by parliament
A bill becomes law if MPs present vote with a simple majority provided that
members present a re a quorum that is not less than twenty-five.

 Constitutional amendment
Parliament has the power to amend change or repeal the constitution through
an affirmative vote of not less than two thirds of members of parliament.

 Parliamentary elections
Elections are held not more than four months after a dissolution of
parliament or as by election in the event that a seat becomes vacant. For
elections to be held the following shall be done as provided for in the
constitution.
a) By election: conducted in the event of the death or resignation of a
member of parliament.
b) General election: conducted at prescribed times as laid out in the
supreme law of the country
 Commissions

 Delimitation commission
- Is appointed by the president

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 - Consists of a chairman – chief justice or other judge of the supreme or
high court and three other members
- Functions for five years.
- Functions shall be to determine the boundaries of the -constituencies
taking cognisance of such features as geography, ethnicity and
communication etc.

 Electoral Supervisory commission

- Appointed by the president
- Consists of a chairman and four other members –two appointed by the
president after consulting the judiciary service commission and
two after consulting the speaker.
- Functions are to supervise voter registration, and conduct/run
elections.
- Consider proposed bill or other law relating to elections.

The constitution also provides for the formation of the Public Service
Commission, the Judiciary Commission, and the Police Commission
etc.Contemporary issues and New dimension in law
a) Rule of law – upholding of the law in a scenario where no one is above
the law
b) Prerogative – discretional prerogatives have made law to be applied
based on certain trivial relative issues
c) Political willpower – those in power or those wielding the axe make the
most decisions and tailor-make law to protect their interests
d) Human rights – the emergence and definition of human rights has led to
commitment of crime and subsequent ignorance of the rule of law even
when certain behaviours become immoral e.g. the gays and lesbian case
e) Christian balance – as Christian values shape most legal frameworks, the
same have been used in negotiations although in many cases equality is
not achieved in Christian balances. The „coveter‟ and the converted are
two different entities.

8.3 ACTIVITIES
 Discuss The Lancaster House Agreement
 State the major provisions of the Lancaster Agreement
 Explain the provisions of the Constitution of Zimbabwe in relation to :
- Republican Destiny and National Political and Economic
Sovereignty
- Citizenship

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 - Declaration of Rights and Freedoms of Individuals
- Constitutional amendments
- Elections – parliamentary gubernatorial, presidential and
local government

UNIT 9

Regional and International Relations

9.1 OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit the student should be able to:
o Define International Relations
o Explain the three Cs of International relations – Conflict, Co-
operation and Competition
o Explain the Multi-polar, Bi-polar global power balances
o Critique International law, the community of nations and identify and
explain the types and functions of diplomatic missions.
9.2 Definitions;
- International relations; The interaction of nation -states
- Nation; The people within a country
- Country; Geographical territory in which a specific people live in
- State; the permanent power or authority which is sovereign and represented by
the arms of state, that is, government, judiciary and the legislature and which is
normally embodied in the constitution as the right of a group of people to self-
determination.
- Government; the arm of state which is tasked with ruling or exercising the executive powers
of the state that is, representing the nation at international fora, defending and keeping law and
order in the nation, implementing political, economic, and social policy of the ruling political
party. Government is formed by the winner at general elections and therefore comes and goes
where as the state is permanent except where the country is annexed, secedes or the people
become extinct.
9.3 The practice of International relations
9.3.1 Society
People within a nation are a society or societies of people. To become a nation
therefore the people should have similar political aspirations or interests. The term
“society” supposes the existence of common norms or behavioural patterns within
that society. Such norms determine relations among the members of the society in
terms of political structures or governance; this determines in turn distribution of
resources. Political structure presupposes a hierarchy and hence classes within
society. Classes in turn infer inequalities among the people. In international

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relations instead of people forming the society or community we have nations
being the members of the international society or community and hence the
existence also of norms or political behaviour, international political hierarchy and
classes, distribution of resources by the international ruling class and hence the
existence of international inequalities. This will be dealt with in full under
international capital below.

9.3.2.International Society.
The international society as we know it today is a recent development in the
world‟s history. Vast empires, fiefdoms or localized chiefdoms have always been
the general picture of politics at the global level. Sovereign nation – states appear
on the global scene about five hundred years ago and evolve and only become the
norm in the 16th. century as principles that govern their conduct take a definitive
shape. Before the development of rules that govern relations between areas or
regions or states, relations between different political entities were characterized by
internecine warfare. It was more a state of nature or survival of the fittest. With the
advent of Christianity and its growth, war and its limitation, conduct and
justification became necessary and the notion of the just war was developed. In his
work, “The Summa Theologica,” St. Thomas Aquinas argued the case for a just
war as consisting of;-It had to have the backing of the king
- The reason or cause for going to war had to be just
- Those to be attacked had to be guilty of some grave evil
- The attackers had to have the right intention – to promote good or
the avoidance or prevention of evil
Many unfair wars and untold evil were perpetrated under the guise of the just war
and by about 1490 Honore Bonet stated “ soldiers were the flail of God who by his
permission make wars upon sinners and sin and make havoc among them in this
world as the devils of hell do in the next”. Not surprising therefore that at about
that time the Aztec civilization was destroyed by Spanish conquistadors and Africa
and many parts of the world seen as containing sinners were subjected to the most
cruel and inhuman plunder and decimation by the European powers. In the same
vein Gorge Bush‟s “axis of evil” position hundreds of years latter fits squarely in
the Aquinian doctrine. Bush argues that the war on Iraq - weapons of mass
destruction aside - was a just war because that nation is evil. Who defines evil and
by what standard is evil determined? As a result of this doctrine in international
relations it was not possible to develop or for there to evolve rules that could
govern relations between states. Similarly, because of a reversion to the same old
position by the Bush administration, the whole fabric of international law is
strained to breaking point. “Evil” is a value laden term which is highly
subjective.Being a fundamentalist Moslem is interpreted as being evil by Bush and

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 his company whether one is a suicide bomber or not and no law therefore can
restrict regime change in any nation perceived to be evil. Such international
behaviour not only drags the world backwards but also creates a very dangerous
environment in which every nation and individual takes unilateral action to redress
grievances and institutionalise suicidal tendencies and solutions even at state level
like in the case of North Korea. In 1654, in his treatise, “De Jure Belli et pacis”,
Hugo Grotius”, a Dutch jurist wrote principles that were supposed to govern
warfare and this became the basis for our modern international law.

9.3.3 Approaches in the study of international relations

The study of relations between nations is a recent and evolving science. The main
approaches are as follows;

A: Traditional Approaches
1.The classical approach
2.The Idealist approach
3.The Realist and or Rational approach
B: Modern approaches
1.The Strategic approach
2.The billiard ball approach
3.The Cobweb approach
C: The Behavioural approach
1.The global approach or model
2.The regional approach or model
9.3.3.1 The Traditional Approaches
 .The Classical approach;
The proponents of this approach are to a large extent social contract theorists.
Thomas Hobbes sees the state, as arising out of the need to escape from a state of
nature where there is anarchy and life is insecure, short, nasty and brutal. A state of
nature presupposes the non-existence of society and therefore the non-existence of
law. In such a lawless state everyone does as he pleases and those with more clout
survive. In other words the law of the jungle that is “might is right” and “survival
of the fittest” rules supreme. In another sense this approach is also evolutionist or
Darwinian. It infers natural selection that favours the stronger species‟ survival and
continuity. To escape from this state of nature at the national or state level people
had to agree to surrender some of their rights to each other and appoint a sovereign
authority as guarantor and arbitrator for and in this social contract. The same
arrangement could be said to hold true within the community of nations or the
global society. However as nation states developed in Europe a state of nature

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more or less developed in that these states resorted to war wily nily on the basis of
each state‟s prerogative of national sovereignty to wage war. All wars were
therefore justifiable. Jean Jacques Rousseau and others saw relations among states
as possessing potential for peace as long as members of a society were willing to
enter a clear contract. The Machiavellian argument was closely echoed by
Immanuel Kant and Carl von Clausewittz in his book “On War,” argues that power
is at the heart of interstate relations in that each state seeks to increase its power at
the expense of other states. Alliances, wars and the arms race were the result of this
argument and Europe was plunged into the First World War.

 The Idealist Approach.

The First World War shocked non-belligerents as well as the belligerents in so far
the toll in human and material loss were concerned. This led people to treat peace
as something they should deliberately seek and sought to engineer global society in
such a way as to not only create peacefully conditions but also prevent war. This
approach was thus normative prescriptive and pro active. Woodrow Wilson the
USA president at the time and others thus pursued this logic and it resulted in the
creation of the LEAGUE OF NATIONS in 1918. The USA refused to join the
league in spite of championing it. Through covenants or a body of rules collective
security it was thought could thus be assured in the community of nations. This
body of thinking or ideology failed to bring about peaceful coexistence among
states and soon after the formation of the League of Nations after 1927 Italy and
Germany went on the warpath and soon after the world was in another global war.
Idealism sought to affect the thinking of global society but this proved to be a futile
exercise.

 The Realist or Rational approach.

Between the two world wars thinking on international relations shifted from
idealism to rationalism or realism. This means people began to look at the actual
practice of relations among states and sought to explain their behavior rather than
to change their behavior. In a way this approach was a throw back to the classical
approach. Hans Morgen Thau a major proponent of this approach argued that
power and self-interest were at the heart of state behavior. To legitimate pursuit of
power and self-interest nations cake iced and disguised their otherwise
questionable and illegitimate behavior moral hyperbole and legalistic arguments.
This fits squarely in the George Bush Jr.s‟ conduct of the war in Iraq. Saddam was
said to be evil but that had never been justification for war in modern society. To
legalize action against Sadam, the latter had to possess weapons of mass

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 destruction and that became the legal basis for war. Having e failed to provide the
evidence of WMDs Bush back tracked to the moral position, that is, Sadam is evil
anyway. War thus is not only inevitable, but also desirable in certain instances and
the issue at stake is not its prevention or avoidance, but its control to achieve
desired outcomes. This approach is thus to a large extent descriptive.
9.3.3.2 The Modern Approaches
 The billiard ball model.
This model builds on the realist approach in that it recognizes states as individual
entities which when and if one entity or ball picks motion naturally on contact with
others produces motion in other balls or states. The internal dynamics of each
entity or ball are seen having no effect on the relative position of the entities.
 The Cob web model
John Burton sees international relations as existing within a complex web or
matrix in which each state is linked to the other directly and indirectly and where
motion in or between components impacts on the rest. This approach is very close
to reality in that the operations of global commerce and industry is such that events
in any state immediately impacts on events in all or in other states. More over
cyberspace and efficient transport communications is threatening to produce a
global super culture.
 The Strategic Approach
The proponents of this approach believed and believe in power politics. They
strategize or scheme situations in the global arena that best suit the pursuit of their
self-interests. Former USA secretary of state Henry Kissinger Herman Khan and
others emphasized the use of mathematical models and games theories policy
options ranging from total surrender graduated severity warfare to total
annihilation. Policy options according to the strategists are rationally made on the
basis of comparisons of outcomes. The probability of a favorable outcome was
seen as the deciding factor in the action of any state. Deterrence through such
policies as mutual assured destruction (MAD) became major policy positions of
the USA as a result of this approach.
9.3.3.3 The Behavioral Approach
This approach makes a methodological departure from previous approaches and
denounces the strategic approach as war mongering immoral and a threat to world
peace and security. Behaviouralists incorporate all social sciences techniques and
conclude that the danger to peaceful co-existence may result from unintentional
war due to misinformation or miscalculation or both. There is an element of correct
prognosis in the approach considering the furor over the role of intelligence over
Iraq in assessing the nature and extant of threat posed by Saddam Hussein. The war
in Viet Nam and Iraq are classical examples of miscalculation and misinformation.
 The global approach

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 Some behaviouralists believe that the best way forward is a centralized one-world
government with the nation state disappearing.
 The Non-global Approach.
In this model it is envisaged that authority should be decentralized and the state
dispensed with and authority devolved to lower tier structures below the present
state level or tier.
9.3.3.4 The Subject matter or issues in International relations
All the above approaches look at relations between nations in one or more of the
following areas;
1. Conflict
2. Cooperation
3. Competition
These are termed the three Cs of international relations. At each moment in time all
nations are relating to each other in so far as one or all of the three aspects are
concerned.

 Conflict
Conflict is the most pronounced element in that the state system is almost
synonymous with war. World history is the story of when and with whom nations
have fought from time immemorial to date.

 Cooperation
When states are not fighting each other they are cooperating in maintaining peace
and in dealing with the challenges and problems that mankind faces for example
diseases such as AIDS or disasters such as earth quakes. Cooperation is highly
visible and pronounced even among nations that appear to have no love lost
between them in that the UN and many other world fora provide an avenue for all
nations to cooperate in one way or another.
 Competition
Competition among or between nations exists in the form of normal trade or
commerce and can manifest itself in the form of alliances and treaties.

9.3.3.5 The global power Balance.

9.3.3.5.1 Power blocs
International relations are therefore about competition, conflict or cooperation
among states. The three Cs produce a global political picture, which is either
dominated by one super power or a group of states that become a super power bloc
or a scenario where power is evenly distributed between two or more blocs or
centres. When the Roman empire of the Caesers came into being by about 160 BC
there was no power on earth strong enough to challenge its hegemony for almost

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six hundred years up to about 530 AD. Global Power was concentrated in that one
super state and it was a uni-polar global power arrangement. When pagan Rome
collapsed the world stage was again dominated by Papal power the so called Holy
Roman Empire for almost 1300 years up to 1789. Papal power was however
effectively challenged by Frances‟ Napoleon Bonarparte and from that time to the
end of the second world war power concentration was widely dispersed among
European and Asian nations and no one state or group of states had monopoly over
global power. This was a multi polar global power balance. With the end of the
Second World War the world was split between two power blocs with the Soviet
Union leading the eastern or Warsaw Pact bloc or what is wrongly termed by the
west the communist bloc and the USA leading the NATO or western bloc nations.
After decolonisation of most African and Asian nations from about 1947 the
former colonies formed so-called non- aligned nations. Global politics never the
less remained polarised between the two major blocs and up until the collapse of
the War Saw Pact bloc by about 1985. During that period the world was in a
nuclear stand off between the two major powers where each bloc had sufficient
nuclear weapons to annihilate the whole world. The periods‟ relations are
characterised by what is termed the cold war. The cold war was in fact a very live
and hot war in which the two major blocs sponsored opposing groups in civil wars
in countries termed the Non Aligned nations. The period was marked by bloody
wars in Vietnam, Nicaragua, Angola, Mozambique and many other nations in
Africa and South America. The politics of the period were based on the philosophy
and ideology of the Strategic school of thought who argued that nuclear deterrence
that is; “having so many nuclear bombs and an unstoppable delivery system which
would render an attack by any one of the two opposing sides simple suicide
because the other side would retaliate in an equally overwhelming response and
bring about a mutually assured destruction (MAD)”. To weaken the other side, the
1970s and early 1980s were marked by a runaway arms race as the two blocs tried
to gain the upper hand. The arms race proved too expensive for the Soviet Union
and following the introduction of the Glasnost policy by Michael Gorbachev the
Soviet President then, the whole War Saw pact military and economic system
collapsed and the USA emerged as the unchallenged global superpower from the
1990s onwards. Global power politics has thus become uni-polar and the USA has
assumed the role of global policeman or and corrector of all rogue states so called.
Other terminology has also begun to be used in global politics for an example
“rogue state” meaning a nation that is ultra nationalistic and refuses to kow tow to
USA bullying, “regime change” meaning the forcible removal from power of state
leaders who are not supportive of American policies, “axis of evil” referring to
those countries opposed to American style of governance. The period also saw a

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 marked increase in unilateral action by the USA outsides the mechanism of
recognised international fora such as the UN.
9.3.3.5.2 International Terrorism
The period of USA unilateralism has seen a marked increase in terrorism.
Terrorism can be defined as indiscriminate acts of violence against soft targets for
an example non-military installations and un armed civilians. The USA has
declared war on global terror but this terror in the first place appears to have been
prompted by USA partiality in dealing with global problems like in the handling of
the Palestinian issue or dealing with undemocratic as if dealing with democratic
states for an example Uganda under Museveni a non democratically elected
government while making lots of fuss about lack of democracy in Libya and more
blatantly parochial the alleged lack of democracy in Zimbabwe. In any case there
is no international that makes it mandatory for any state to adopt American style
democracy. The latter is not holy writ nor is it fool proof neither fair nor just.
Terrorism is bound to grow as the USA leaves groups and individuals with no
other options in redressing their grievances. Terrorism has become the preferred
tool of many marginalized groups as they desperately seek for justice in the
resolution of their grievances. Global power balances are important in that it is
within the framework of this arrangement that state inter action takes place. As
shown above, the multilateral power structure between 1800 and 1945 produced or
created a very unsafe world and led to two catastrophic wars. The bipolar global
power balance between 1945 and 1985 and the resultant rivalry and arms race of
that period saw many developing countries falling victim to the politics of the day.
After 1985 increasing USA unilateralism has bred a new global scourge called
terror. The USA has itself become a terror to many states small and big if they dare
assert their nationalism hence the growth in terrorism. Terrorism is inherently evil
and un acceptable as much as the bellicose attitudes by stronger states that drive
weaker groups to resort to terror tactics.

9.4 International Law.

All states are members of the global community, which has codes of conduct or
behaviour expectations for its members. These behaviour expectations arise out of
custom or agreements. There is there for such a thing as international law. (NB.
See International Law in Module 2. Legal and Parliamentary affairs.) The major
deficiency in international law has been its lack of a force back up mechanism that
is an army or police force. Of late there has been attempts to make international
more meaningful by extending its jurisdiction to individual and to the actions of
states as it relates to its citizens.

9.4.1 Jurisdiction of international law.

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In its current mould international law affects those countries that are signatories to
conventions and agree to be bound by the provisions of such agreements. The
signatories are also left with the option to accept the conclusions of the
International Court Of Justice or simply to ignore them. The ICJ was formed in
1945 as an organ of the UN and is based at The Hague in the Netherlands. The
disputes that are taken to the courts are mutually agreed upon and relate to trade or
boundary disputes between states. The action of states against other states is a
hardly ever the subject matter of international Law. Criminal acts by individuals or
states have traditionally fallen outside the scope and jurisdiction of international
law. Increasingly however there is a trend toward making international law more
encompassing by the introduction of crimes that can be defined as acts against
humanity e.g. genocide. This has led to the establishment of many international
Tribunals like the Nuremberg war crimes tribunal set up to try NAZI Germany war
criminal after WW2. Other special international tribunals have also been set to deal
the Balkans crisis and the Rwanda genocide of 1991. The UN has also set up as of
2003 the International Criminal Court and many countries have ratified the treaty.
The USA however has refused to ratify the agreement and has gone on a bullying
campaign coercing small nations to agree not to send USA nationals to the court.
In the meantime The USA is making a lot of noise about sending Charles Taylor to
the Special War crimes Tribunal in Sierra Leone.

9.5 Activities
o Define International Relations
o Explain the three Cs of International relations – Conflict, Co-
operation and Competition
o Explain the Multi-polar, Bi-polar global power balances
o Critique International law, the community of nations and identify and
explain the types and functions of diplomatic mission

UNIT 10
DIPLOMACY
10.1 OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit the student should be able to:
 Define democracy
 Discuss the foreign policy of Zimbabwe after independence
 Apply the following in the context of Zimbabwe:

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 i) Core interests
ii) Objective interests
iii) Subjective interests
 Discuss the types and various functions of the diplomatic missions
and their immunity.
Diplomacy can be defined as “ the application of intelligence and tact to the
conduct of official relations between the governments of independent states.”
Formal contact between nations in the global community takes place through the
medium of diplomacy and the interaction of diplomats. Diplomats are the
emissaries or representatives of their governments in other countries and are the
direct contact between different governments. The ministries of foreign affairs in
all states have the responsibility for the deployment of diplomats and the carrying
out of the foreign policy of each respective country.
10.2 Foreign policy
Foreign policy is the position of each government on various issues on world
affairs.Foreign policy is determined by each state‟s National Interest. The National
interest can be defined as the common interests of all the citizens of a nation. The
national interest arises from the values and aspirations and history of a nation and
these are at variance with the national interests of other nations because of the
competitive nature of inter state relations. Foreign policy objectives relate to power
or sovereignty, profit and prestige. These objectives can be classified as: a) Core
interests, b) Objective interests, and c) Subjective interests.

 Core interests
These are goals for which most people are willing to pay the ultimate sacrifice and
relate to self preservation as a nation and revolve round defending the nation and
the perpetuation of a particular social cultural and economic way of life.

 Objective interests
These are permanent interests of the state irrespective of institutional changes within the state that
is even when governments come and go objective interests remain unchanged. In Zimbabwe this
may be related to our sovereignty or the right to access land by the natives of this country.
 Subjective interests.
To determine whether an issue is a national interest in this instance will depend
upon the values and subjective assessment of those making a decision and the
issue at stake does not relate to self-preservation or perpetuation as a state.
Example would be the decision on whether Zimbabwe remains a member of the

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 Commonwealth or not.It is around the interests of a state that diplomacy is
conducted. This suggests or presupposes therefore that all diplomats are conversant
with the interests of the state that they represent and will be defending and
promoting.

10.3 Zimbabwean Foreign Policy

During the hey day of Soviet and American rivalry Zimbabwe‟s foreign policy was
unequivocally non-aligned. This does not amount to saying Zimbabwe was a
neutral state. Zimbabwe, guided by its policy of non-alignment has from
independence sought to establish close relations with states pursuing a socialist
ideology. This approach allowed Zimbabwe to articulate its national interests from
a firm ideological base.
 Objective Interests in Zimbabwe‟s Foreign Policy
- Preservation of national sovereignty. In pursuit of the same quit the Common
wealth and believes in the democratic right without interference from outside to
self-determination.
- Being an equal and active partner in regional and international fora. Is a
member of SADC, COMESA, AU and the UN.
- A strong Pan Africanism arising from the continent‟s history of slavery,
colonialism neo colonialism and the war against these three evil crimes against
humanity. In pursuit of the same fought against banditry and imperial de-
stabilization in Mozambique against RENAMO and in the DRC against
imperial sponsored regime change of the Kabila administration through
Uganda, Rwanda and Burundi.

 Core Interests
- That the native Zimbabwean has an inalienable right to land to own it and to
share it equally with other Zimbabweans of all races without discrimination.
 Subjective Interests
- To determine the most suitable international economic relations.

10.4 The origins of diplomacy

Diplomacy is as old as human society. In Shona culture a wise saying states that
“nhume/mutumwa haana mbonje” This statement also underlies one of the major
elements of diplomacy namely the inviolability of the diplomatic person and his
possessions. Diplomacy was thus well established in early European states as well
as in all the pre-colonial Zimbabwean states. In Europe diplomacy almost suffered

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 a fatal blow during the so-called Holy Roman Empire. These were the dark ages of
human civilization.
It was only in the fourteenth century that transient diplomacy is replaced with
permanent embassies or missions as city-states take root in Italy. By the
seventeenth century diplomacy is governed by disjointed rules in Europe and the
disputes that arose over diplomatic precedence and protocol were such that war
was always narrowly averted. In 1815 The Congress of Vienna and the Congress
of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1818 formalised diplomatic rules and procedure. It was only
in 1961 that eighty-one states at the Vienna Conference on Diplomatic Intercourse
And Immunities that The Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations was ratified.
The document covers all aspects of diplomatic activity in terms of types of
missions‟ functions and immunities and privileges of diplomatic personnel
10.4 Setting up diplomatic relations and missions
Diplomatic relations are established through mutual consent. It is assumed that all
diplomats posted are acceptable to the receiving state and the host state issues a
document called the agre‟ment to indicate their acceptance of the proposed head of
mission. The latter document can be withheld without explanation. The head of
mission to be becomes official after the presentation of credentials at the ceremony
where he meets the head of state of the host county and presents his letter of
credence.
10.5 Types of diplomatic missions and representation
Diplomatic representation is divided into three groups namely:
- Ambassadors and Ministers; these present credentials to the hosting head of state
- Charge‟d‟ affaires present credentials to the minister of foreign affairs of the host
state.
- Former British colonies‟ heads of mission are termed High commissioners and
heads of mission between non-former British colonies are termed ambassadors
extraordinary and plenipotentiary.
10.6 Privileges and immunities of diplomats
All accredited diplomats are immune from criminal and civil jurisdiction in the
host state and exempt from all taxation. Diplomats are subject to the host state‟s
laws where they enter into private business. Action incompatible with the status of
the diplomats may lead the host state to request their removal.
Diplomatic missions are immune from searches and any other intrusive acts by the
host state.
10.7 Functions of diplomatic missions.
The major activities of diplomatic missions can be classified as a) non substantive
and substantive routine work and b) non routine work.
10.7.1 Non-Substantive routine functions

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 Attending social and ceremonial functions in the host state e.g. receptions or
cocktail parties, luncheons honour giving ceremonies, parades etc.
NB. The following are sometimes treated as consular functions; Registration of
births deaths marriages of citizens from their country residing in the host state
issuing, validating and replacing passports. Dealing with extradition cases and
looking after the interests of citizens from their country in the host state.
(Consular issues proper are not diplomatic functions although these may be
carried out in the diplomatic premises. These include, the processing and issuing
of visas, certificates e.g. certificate of origin and the facilitation of any other
commercial activities. )
10.7.2 Substantive Routine work
This work relates mostly to reporting and intelligence gathering. Intelligence
gathering is not an official or declared function of diplomatic missions but they are
never the less used extensively as cover for these nefarious activities. Where the
host state observes abnormally high and audacious levels of espionage they
demand the immediate withdrawal of such personnel and this normally prompts
retaliatory action. Reporting is normally on economic, political, military and social
issues. In certain instances it might be necessary to engage specialized diplomats
called Attaches‟ in the areas of information military and economic affairs.
10.7.3 Non-Routine Functions
This function relates to negotiating. This relates to the transmission of messages
and attending to direct talks at various levels with the authorities of the host state.

10.8 Activities
 Define democracy
 Discuss the foreign policy of Zimbabwe after independence
 Apply the following in the context of Zimbabwe:
i) core interests
ii) objective interests
iii) subjective interests
 Discuss the types and various functions of the diplomatic missions
and their immunity.

UNIT 11

INTERNATIONAL CAPITAL AND IMPERIALISM.

11.0 Objectives
By the end of this unit students should be able to:

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  Define international capital and imperialism
 Discuss the elements of imperialism
 Discuss the various stages in the development of international capital
11.1 Introduction.
The current stage in global politics and relations is characterized by a high level of
dominance relations between the weak and the powerful states. Such domination
has been the major feature in relations between sates and within states since time
immemorial and arises out of the structured nature of society national or global.
The term society suggests classes and classes suggest inequalities in the
distribution of resources in that society. Inequalities also suggest contradictions
and contradictions suggest motion that is politics. Thus it can be argued from the
outset that the major characteristic of global relations has been the phenomenon of
imperialism.
The study of class formation in societies is termed historical materialism. On the
other hand the study of motion that results from class contradictions is termed
dialectical materialism. “It is the study of society in their essentially contradictory
movement.”
Class contradictions arise out of the inequalities or unfair sharing of the resources
within society or exploitation. This sharing is what can be termed political
economy. Political economy of any society therefore reveals the extent and level of
exploitation in that society and the level of dynamics or contradictions in that
society. Historical and dialectical materialism and political economy there for are
the tools that can best be used to analyze the past and present stage in global
relations.
Each stage in the evolution of production and exchange has a specific class
structure, which determines relations in the society.
11.2 Stages in the development of Capital
Imperialism can be defined as, “the general tendency of states or groups within
states to exploit other states or groups through relations brought about by force or
other subtle means and to the detriment of the exploited group and the advantage
of the dominant group or state.” Such exploitation becomes manifestly visible
through exchange and production relationships.
Production and exchange have over time evolved through various stages and at
each stage the major feature has been the existence of dominance relationships that
is an exploited class and an exploiting class. At each stage imperialism can be seen
to be mutating or changing until it reaches its present and highest stage as
International or Global Capital. The stages through which capital has evolved are
as follows;
1. the Hunter gatherer or communal stage
2. Feudalism

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 3. Mercantile capital
4. Competitive capital
5. Monopoly capital
6. Finance capital
Capital can be loosely defined as wealth in the form of land, finance or
technology depending on the stage of development of that society which at most is
either scarce or monopolized by a small group within a particular society.While
Capital and its monopolization can be traced to the Feudal mode of production or
stage, it can be seen that its nonexistence in the first mode of production namely
the hunter-gatherer stage, was due to the class nature of that society.

11.2.1 DEVELOPMENT OF CAPITAL IN EUROPE

MODE OF CLASS STRUCTURE CONTRADICTIONS POLITICAL ECONOMY

PRODUCTION DIALECTICS
1. Non-existent Class contradictions Free for all economic
Hunter Gather (4000 BC – Non-existent Survival of specialisation hunting and
1500 BC) the fittest in a state of gathering No ownership
native gave rise to the
need for society
2. 1. Aristocracy Exploitation of slave Aristocracy owned means
Slave Society (1500 BC to 2. Soldier e.t.c labour leading to of production land and
500 AD) 3. Slaves and latter rebellion against the workers-slaves non paid
colonii ruling elite
3. 1. Aristocratic Exploitation of serfs ledBarter trade Natural
Feudalism (500 AD to soldiers elite to friction between serfseconomy. Extraction of
1700AD) 2. Serfs=half slave and landlords surplus through free labour
half worker and rent in kind=produce
3. Clergy and latter money. Land
owned by landlords
4. 1. Aristocracy Workers=Craftsmen Monopolisation of markets
Mercantile Capital (1700 2. Merchants exploitation by by merchants. Surplus
to 1800) 3. Clergy Merchants and landlords. value extracted through

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 4. Craftsman Concentration of capital under paid worker and high
5. Labourer/worker and formation of joint profit mark up on goods at
stock company led to home and abroad. Means
globalisation of trade and of production owned by
slavery and colonialism merchants and land
owners=land + money
5. 1. Industrialist David Hume, Adam Free trade based on
Competitive Capital 1800 2. Worker Smith against merchant international division of
to 1900 3. Peasant/leman monopoly of capital and labour. Exploitation of
markets. Industrialists + workers by industry.
bankers exploit workers Monopoly of machines
and bankers=former money and land
merchants exploit
industrialists
6. Monopoly Capital 1900 1. Bankers Worker‟s labour under Extraction of surplus value
to 1945 2. Industrialists valued leading to acute through lending is paying
3. Workers concentration of capital for workers needs not for
4. Peasants value of labour. Monopoly
ownership of capital-land,
money and machines
7. Finance Capital 1945 to 1. Finance institutions Buyers determine prices Selling of Money Export of
present 2. Borrowers Money Monopoly
ownership
Of Capital by banks

During the hunter-gatherer mode of production there was no society and no

classes. Extraction of surplus value or exploitation of one class by another class
was not possible. The situation was a free for all and this made life difficult on a
state of nature. With the development of Roman slave society classes developed as
well as conflicts as well. The landowners had slaves who resented being owned
and forced to work. The colonii or freed former slaves and peasants were also
exploited by the landowners who made them pay rent in kind or in cash. These
conflicts eventually led to the collapse of the system and it was replaced by
Feudalism. Feudalism as a mode of production was based on a highly stratified
society where extraction of surplus value by those who owned and monopolised
the means of production was for long sustained through force. The serfs or
landless peasants were made to work and pay part of their produce to the landlords
who owned all the land. The major features of all successive modes of production
develop at this stage except the global element, which exists in the last stage or
mode of production. It is this global aspect namely the extraction of surplus value
or exploitation from other countries through the exportation or selling of finance
capital that imperialism reaches its highest and most developed stage.

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11.3 Major elements of imperialism
The features that exist in all modes of production except the hunter gather modes
are as follows: -
1. Class formation or Societal stratification. This is along the lines of
a) those who own and monopolise the means of production and,
b) those who are exploited or from whom surplus value is extracted.
2. Class Antagonism or Conflict due to exploitation.
3. Collapse of the previous mode of production due to contradiction and;

4. Emergence of another mode of production with different classes and

different contradictions but with exploitation or surplus value extraction
being the ever-unchanging feature.
The current phase or mode of production that is the finance capital mode, is
globalised in that those who own and monopolise the means of production, have
been able to mortgage all economic activity in their home countries and abroad to
money that these financial institutions lend locally in export abroad. The result in
the global economy has been there for marked by:

a) Concentration/monopolisation of capital in global or multilateral financial

institutions.
b) Formation of a class of super rich money owners who extract surplus value
or exploit the world economy through interest on money loaned through
such banks as the IMF the World Bank etc.
c) International division of labour. This has led to other countries being pushed
into being producers of raw materials while others have become producers
of manufactured goods. Producers of raw materials as a global class have
contradictions with those who monopolise finance capital and those who buy
their raw materials at cheap prices determined by the buyer who then
manufactures goods to sell to producers of raw materials. This is
exploitation of man by man at its highest level and is no different from
exploitation by force under slavery or colonialism hence the term neo-
colonialism to describe the economic and political relations between
producers of finished goods the develop0ed countries and producers of raw
materials under developed countries or the third world.
11.4 International Economic Relations
The Second Word War marks the beginning point of the present global economic
arrangement. The idealism of the immediate post world war two period led to
massive government led initiatives to bring the shattered economy of the world
back to its feet. By 1979 however this role of government in economic activity
was under attack and has to a large extent been abandoned altogether. The social

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welfare state has become a thing of the past and a new ideology emphasising the
role of the market in determining all economic as well as social and political
decisions has been adopted.In the current economic thinking, cooperation‟s or
business have total freedom and collective bargaining and trade unionism and the
consumer and citizen in general have found themselves at the receiving end of the
new international economic order. This new international economic order had by
the middle 1990s assumed a new form and characteristic namely globalisation.The
IMF World Bank and oil Breton Woods financial institutions were formed for the
specific purpose of preventing future conflicts by dealing or removing those
economic and social issues that had led and that might lead to new war. The
mandate of these financial institutions was to provide lending for reconstruction
and for short-term balance of payment support. These institutions after 1979 have
increasingly taken over individual governments, economic policies and intervene
in national policy will beyond the scope of their mandate. The post 1945 period
saw a massive realignment of global economic relations with Europe being
mortgaged to the U.S.A. under the Marshall Plan which saw infusion of capital
into Europe from the U.S.A. and newly created Breton Woods financial
institutions. The U.S.A. insisted on decolonisation as a condition of giving
financial support to Europe and declared the end to empire. Thus the U.S.A.
gained the empires that Europe lost through decolonisation as it gained
unprecedented control of former colonies through new economic relations
specifically the supply of manufactured goods and the provision of finance capital.
Debt becomes the primary form of survival technique for all former colonies and
the supply of new materials from former colonies was accelerated in order to raise
money to pay off the debt. By the end of the 1970s the so called debt crisis had
developed with a new economic global structure which split the world into
producers of raw materials and importers of finance capital and finished goods and
producers of finished goods and exporters of finance capital. This relationship was
marked or characterised by a high level injustice in the form of unequal
exchange.The former colonies in America, Africa and Asia were selling raw
materials with little value added to them at prices set by the buyer that is the
developed countries. The latter sell manufactured goods to the developing
countries at high profit margins and over and above this drain of resources from
the south servicing the loans obtained from the north compounds or increases the
flow of resources to the south.

Debt servicing, cheap raw

materials. Imports of finished NORTH
goods and services
Loans And

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 SOUTH Good Service

The flow of wealth from the South to the North through debt servicing and unequal
exchange is further increased with the insistence on structural adjustment
programmes in the south by the so called donor community that is western
governments and the Breton Woods financial institutions or the North. The catch
word on economic structures adjustment programmes forced on the South are
similar to the free market economic policies instituted on the domestic economics
of the North which resulted in nett gains for the super rich and nett loss for the
average worker. Average income in the 1980s of the top 10% of American
families increased by 16%, “the top 5% increased by 23%, the top 1% got 50%.
The bottom 10% of Americans lost 15% during the same period.” The same
policies during the same period applied to global policies saw an increase in nett
flows of income to the North and a decrease in income to the South with the result
that IMF policies have led to increased poverty in the South. These policies are
what can be termed globalisation and are hinged upon: -
a) free trade in goods and services between countries through the
removal of trade barriers.
b) free circulation of capital
c) freedom and protection of investments
d) reduction of government expenditure and government interference in the
economy.
e) privatisation of parastatals
These points have become the conditionalities for receiving or disbursement
of aid by the North. The result in all instances was that the forced
privatisation saw corporations in the North buying up all privatised
companies in the South so privatised.
Closely related to these policies has been the creation of the UN – World
Trade Organisation (UN – WTO) in 1995. The liberalisation of world trade
under the current requirements is reducing developing countries to
primitive economies as industries close under pressure from unregulated
competition from the North. The North in the meantime is not removing trade
restrictions, which remain in the form of quarters or strict health
requirements in agricultural products. Moreover subsidies maintained by
both the U.S.A. and Europe on agricultural production is seeing many
countries in the South collapsing economically.
11.5 International Division Of Labour
The global economic arrangement between the South and North has structural
linkages, which perpetuate the inequalities that exist in global economic relations.
The North or developed economies can thus be termed the centre of global

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 economic activity and the South or developing countries the periphery of economic
activity at the international level. These relations can be diagrammatically
represented as follows: -

Centre

Periphery Periphery
Periphery Centre

Centre Centre Disharmony of

interests
Periphery Centre Periphery

Harmony of interests
between periphery centre
and centre is the centre.

11.6 Centre Periphery Relations

The centre has those who own and run the economy and the governments. They
also have a periphery that is the workers and the unemployed. The same can be
said of both. The centre in the centre has to have harmony of interests with the
centre in the periphery because both these groups are the beneficiaries in the world
economic arrangement. The peripheries in both divisions have disharmony of
interests with the centres because they are the victims of the system. This
relationship demonstrates why it is difficult for the developing countries to get out
of their current position because of the collaboration between their political
leadership with the leadership in the North. It also explains why the North seeks to

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influence the selection of leaders in the South and talk about regime change when
they fail to control the electoral processes the South.

11.7 Activities
 Discuss the elements of imperialism
 Discuss the various stages in the development of international capital
 Finance capital has done more harm than good how accurate is this
assessment of policies of the WORLD BANK and IMF

UNIT 12
Development Strategies

12.1 Objectives
By the end of this unit students should be able to:
o Discuss the development strategies that can be used by nations for
economic development and growth
o Explain how developing nations can make use of appropriate
technology to tap their resources for economic development and
growth

In a world where there are structural linkages between the North and South that
thrive on the allocation of unequal roles based on historically and political derived
positions development in the South is only a myth.
It is not possible to envisage a situation where the North will allow economic
conditions in the South to develop to such a level or extent or to undermine the
supply of their raw material resources or the continued existence of markets for
their goods. Development has remained elusive in the South especially as long as
the North subverts or influences the political process in the South. Development
refers to a situation where the majority of the people have sufficient levels of
literacy, access to education, food, shelter and health care. Bustling metropolis are
not proof of development. Highly segmented society where a few people enjoy
privileged economic advantages while the rest of the population languish in
squalor and poverty in illiteracy and in slums with no access to health care are
clear examples of endemic under development. This scenario is true for many of
Zimbabwe‟s neighbours and especially when one compares the health education
and infrastructure in the region. Structural dependence linkages, which create,
sustain and perpetuate the existence of dual economics, are short-term gains that
will in the long term create catastrophic situations. Development approaches have

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 to be long term in nature and have to take cognisance of the realities in which
nations exist as members of the global community. It has already been
demonstrated that former colonies are structurally dependent and linked to the
former colonies through new forms of linkages, which prohibit development in this
neo-colonial relationship.The problem countries like Zimbabwe face is dependence
which perpetuates the traditional role and position of supplier of raw materials with
the result of creating a dual economy – an affluent metropolis and a poor
peasantry. Development therefore can be viewed from the following angles.

12.2 Interdependence
“This is inevitable in this heterogeneous planet: resources, including fertile land,
fresh water, deposits of minerals and sources of energy are dispersed unevenly
over its surface. In simpler times, populations were concentrated mainly in areas
of plentiful resources and especially those propitious for the growing of food.
Such societies could therefore become more or less self-sufficient and international
trade gradually developed mainly to provide exotic products, which were initially,
luxuries but which little by little improved the general material standard of life.
With the impact of technological development, a vastly greater range of materials
was required. The present industrialized economies, which arose as a consequence
of the industrial revolution, were initially based on local deposits of coal and iron
ore. but, as these economies became more sophisticated, their industries called for
a wide variety of materials, many of which had to be imported from distant lands
and this had many consequences including colonization.
Interdependence,then,became an important reality but was seldom recognize
politically.Little by little, within this system human skills and
knowledge(especially those of science and technology) became the most important
of all national resources and we have now reached a situation in which successful
and innovative economies can be created”
12.3 Self Reliance
“Interdependence appears, therefore, to have become a central feature of the
contemporary world. However, it is inevitable that the most powerful of the
nations are the most capable of exploiting it to their own advantage; at least
as the‟re short-term vision seems to indicate. Such a situation tends to make
the rich richer and the poor relatively poorer, increasing disharmony, which
must in the end imperil the rich as well as the poor. For the establishment of
a stable world order, therefore, interdependence has to be complemented by
self-reliance, which means, essentially, the capacity to manage
interdependence. Without such a capacity, interdependence can only mean
dependence on the part of the many, a continuing economic and
technological colonialism, or just plain poverty.There are many ingredients

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 within the concept of self-reliance. It is necessary for instance to have a
stable and intelligent government, with partners who may be well trained
and able to command skills in negotiation with partners who may be
stronger. Likewise it is necessary to attain a national competence in science
and technology to provide a sound basis for industrialization and to ensure
that imported technologies are well chosen, intelligently assimilated and
assist in providing the skills which will make possible indigenous
innovations and development. It necessitates also a good level of education
and training as well as the acquisition of management capacities. Self-
reliance is thus a very different concept from that of self-sufficiency; it
entails the building up of a capacity, both institutional and in terms of human
skills which enables a country to manage its resources and affairs effectively
so as to benefit to the maximum from interdependence, rather than to be its
passive victim”.
12.4ACTIVITIES
o Discuss the development strategies that can be used by nations for
economic development and growth
o Explain how developing nations can make use of appropriate
technology to tap their resources for economic development and
growth

UNIT 13
Regionalism

13.1 OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit the student should be able to:
o Outline the logic and development of regionalism.
o Outline the composition purpose, and functions of major regional
organisations (SADC, COMESA, PTA, ECOWAS, AU, EU, ASEAN,
NAFTA).
o Critically analyse the purpose role, structure and functions of the
United Nations and trace its origins successes and failures.
o Assess the functions and structure of the major UN agencies –
UNESCO, UNHCR, WHO, UNDP, UNICEF
o Evaluate the role played by governmental aid agencies – Usaid,
Norad, Cida, Sida etc.

13.2 Introduction

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Economic and Political integration among Third World countries is normally on a
regional or sub-regional basis. Before taking the merits and demerits of such
integration it is necessary to define first what we mean or what is meant by
“region” and “integration”. The term region will be defined first and integration
will be defined latter. By region is meant:

- “an area of contiguous countries defined usually by geography or by a

common cultural heritage, shared political philosophy or mutual economic
interest”.
- Such integration can be seen as falling under: -
i) “Multifunctional geographically comprehensive organisations such as
the Organisation of American States (O.A.S), the Organisation of
Africa‟s Unity (O.AU) and the League of Arab States (LAS).
ii) Cooperative or integration-oriented and geographically limited (sub-
regional) organisations such as the European Economic Community
(EEC) and the Economic Community for West African States
(ECOWAS).
iii) Technical or otherwise narrowly functional organisations such as the
Colombo plan for economic cooperative development.
iv) Economic Commissioners falling under the United Nations such as
the Economic Commission for Africa (ECA). Economic Commission
for Latin America (ECLA), Economic Commission for Western Asia
(ECWA), and the Economic Commission for South Asia and the
Pacific (ECSAP).
To these can be added in a sub global sense of regional integration regional bodies
such as the British Common Wealth, the Organisation of the Conference of Islamic
States and Africa-Caribbean and Pacific group that falls under the Lome
Conventions 1 and 11. These organisations usually double as loose association
with political as well as economic undertones. It is possible to make further
extensions to include the ideological divide, which form the End-West
confrontation, but a broad assumption will be made that developing countries do
not fall under these groupings. The North-South dialogue can also be seen as
being trans regional.
The logic behind regionalism therefore is economics of scale in production and
trade at the economic level and shared cultural and social values at the political
level. The formation of regional organisation is therefore a logical imperative and
answer to the common problems facing mankind. When the UN was formed
article 52(1) of the Charter provided that:
“Nothing on the present Charter precludes the existence of regional arrangements
or agencies for dealing with such matters relating to the maintenance of

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international peace and security as are appropriate for regional action provided that
such arrangements or agencies and their activities are consistent with the purposes
and principles of the United Nations”
Student Exercise
Using the following table fill in the necessary information on or about the
following regional organisations, SADC, COMESA, ECOWAS, AU, SACU, EU.

NAME OF YEAR OF PURPOSE OF MEMBERSHIP

ORGANISATIO FORMATION ORGANISATIO
N N

13.3 Public International Organisation

Public International Organisation refers to multilateral institutions formed by states
for the purposes of facilitating inter stake cooperation in economic political social
and cultural issues. These organisations arise out of the need to regulate
intercourse In relations between states. The consul and diplomatic mission were
the first examples of formal institutions in relations between states. The existence
of problems, which could not be dealt with by or through the diplomatic mission,
gave rise to the development of the international conference consisting of
representatives from various states. The conference of Vienna (1815), The Paris
conference of 1919 etc were ad-hoc conferences of this nature, which discussed
each unique problem as it arose. Associations and unions had developed by the
nineteenth century to replace the mechanism of the conferences. These unions and
associations were either private or public international organisations such as the
International Law Association and the Universal Postal Union respectively. After
World War 2 the idealism of the period resulted in the formation of the League of
Nations, which became the precursor to the United Nations. International
Organisations can be classified according to function as follows: -
a) Administrative organisations e.g. international Postal Union.
b) Political Organisation e.g. the UN.
c) Judicial Organisations e.g. the International court of justice.
Or classified according to extent or geographical space as follows: -
a) Global
b) Regional

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13.4 Structure of the UN

General Assembly Secretariat Security Council

U.N.O Disarmament
Commission
UNWTO
Committees
UNILO Committee of
Expects
ICAO
Committee No. 1
Political & Security IBRD Military Staff
Committee
IFC
Special Political
Committee IDA
Ad Hoc Bodies
IMF
Committee No. 2
Economic & Financial FAO International
Atomic Agency
UNESCO
Committee No. 3
Social Humanitarian WHO

UPU
Committee No. 4
Trusteeship Council ITU

WMO
Committee No. 5
Administrative & WIPO
Budgetary
UNIDO

Legal Committee No. 6 IFA

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The UNWTO was formed in 1995 as the successor organisation to the General
Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) the objective to enable states to agree
among themselves to reduce and remove or eliminate restrictions on trade. Of all
UN organs the WTO has been cited as the most negative in its operations for an
example: -
1. Undermines democracy in the developing World.
2. Perpetuates underdevelopment by exposing weak economies to unfair
competition.
3. WTO regulates and promotes World trade through rules that undermine
commerce and industry in the developing nations etc.

13.5 ACTIVITIES

 Write in full the abbreviated names of the UN organs

 Critically analyse the purpose role, structure and functions of the United
Nations and trace its origins successes and failures.
 Assess the functions and structure of the major UN agencies –
UNESCO, UNHCR, WHO, UNDP, UNICEF
 Evaluate the role played by governmental aid agencies – Usaid, Norad,
Cida, Sida etc.

UNIT 14

NON-GOVERNMENTAL ORGANISATIONS(NGOs)
14.1 OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit the student should be able to:
o Identify major NGOs in Zimbabwe and State their functions, purposes
and their relationships with the host Government.
o Critically analyse the role of NGOs ass lobby groups in home
countries and as front organisations in host countries.
o Assess the effect of NGOs and their contribution in development;
cultural imperialism and the dependency syndrome.
Non-governmental organisations have become a major feature in international
relations for two reasons: -
a) They are used directly and indirectly by their home states as front
organisations.
b) Impact of their activities can be far reaching.

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 NGOs are formal organisations formed by private individuals for the specific
purpose of articulating concerns, raising awareness and lobbying governments for
legislative or other political action and soliciting for resources.NGOs can be
classified according to their area of concern or operations namely: -
a) Developmental NGOs
b) Advocacy NGOs
c) Relief NGOs
Developmental NGOs are involved in raising resources human or material for use
in alleviating poverty or suffering.
Advocacy NGOs raise awareness in an existing problem and lobby governments to
take specific action to deal with that type of problems. Relief NGOs solicit for
financial and material resources for use where natural disasters and earthquakes
occur.

14.2 The Impact of NGOs’ Activity in Zimbabwe

Developmental NGOs have contributed substantially in the construction of
infrastructure in the rural areas in Zimbabwe. Plan International has together with
the ministry of local government been putting up shallow and deep wells. Other
organisations have been involved in the provision of equipment, construction of
clinics and dams. The work of these organisations while laudable in the short term
has produced and fostered a culture of dependence among Zimbabweans. People
who receive these handouts have no sense of ownership of the items donated and
are not only reckless in the use of donated equipment but abandon such equipment
sooner rather than latter. Most wells have been abandoned in the rural areas
because the pumps have broken and no one has bothered to repair them.
Advocacy NGOs have been the most prolific in Zimbabwe.These organisations
have raised awareness on such issues as women‟s rights, the girl child, human
rights democracy and many other areas. These organisations have produced less
positive contribution than the other organisations. It is also these organisations that
have been used by western governments to subvert and undermine the democratic
process in Zimbabwe. These organisation have been highly disruptive of African
or local culture assuming western or foreign values to be superior over local
culture.

Relief NGOs provide assistance such as food during droughts in Zimbabwe; such
assistance while it averts starvation in the short term has been extremely
detrimental in long-term food security in the country. Instead of coming up with
solutions to recurring drought, people in Zimbabwe look for external assistance.
Adopting wrong grains for food worsens drought effects. Local small grains like
sorghum and millet have been safe food security reserves in the past but the use of

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an exotic and foreign grain like maize not suited to our climate has produced a
crisis in food security. The overall picture or effect is that NGOs have contributed
more negatively than positively to Zimbabwe‟s welfare.
Front organisations are organisations that are used as cover for some other
purposes or activity. These front organisations have been used to subvert the
political process in Zimbabwe. The Zimbabwe Democracy Trust is sponsored by
white Rhodesians to create an environment that undermines black interests and
gains. MISA –Media Institute for Southern Africa promotes, funds and where
necessary encourages the creation of media that is friendly to western interests.
One of MISA‟s subsidiaries, the Southern African Media Development Fund has
been active in promoting media hostile to the Zimbabwe government. The U.S.
Agency for International Aid, of a USA, government department, funds more than
fifteen NGOs in Zimbabwe with the specific objective of undermining the
Zimbabwe government. The US Aid subsidiary Office of Transition Initiatives is
funding a hostile and subversive radio station SW radio advocating political
uprising in Zimbabwe. The Communication Assistance Foundation of the
Netherlands reportedly seeks to “influence policy formulation” in Zimbabwe and
supports activities of the “Zimbabwe Civil Society”, that is, groups seeking to
overthrow the Zimbabwean government. The Westminster Foundation, a United
Kingdom organisation has been active in supporting all activities aimed at
undermining the Zimbabwean government.

14.3 ACTIVITIES
o Identify major NGOs in Zimbabwe and State their functions, purposes
and their relationships with the host Government.
o Critically analyse the role of NGOs ass lobby groups in home
countries and as front organisations in host countries.
o Assess the effect of NGOs and their contribution in development;
cultural imperialism and the dependency syndrome.

UNIT 15

THE MEDIA
15.1 OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit the student should be able to:

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  Define Media and explain its role and functions
 Critically analyse the following :
 Freedom of Expression
 Freedom of Association within the context of Media Freedom
 Discuss and explain self censorship of the media and compare the behaviour
of Zimbabwe‟s media to that of other countries
 Assess the role of the foreign media in shaping perceptions and influencing
political processes in modern politics
 Define the term “perceptions” and critically relate it to the adage “the battle
is not lost on the battlefield but in the mind”.
 Discuss and analyse the role of the media in modern welfare and trade.
 Media definition, roles and functions
15.2 Definition
Media can be defined as a channel through which one communicates. Mass media
refers to the channel through which one or a group of people communicates to a
large audience. It can be print, electronic or digital.
15.3 Roles
It plays 3 primary roles i.e entertains, educates and informs.
15.4 Functions
The media have become one of the central elements of modern societies with some
theorists calling it the FOURTH ESTATE or fourth arm of the state, whose
primarily function is to be a watchdog.The media is the major ideological
apparatus of any state. Nation states use the media to maintain peace, order,
national values, heritage as well as the sovereignty and territorial integrity.

State

Ideological state apparatus Repressive State

Apparatus
Media police
Education army

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 Religion state security

The Rambai Makashinga jingle for instance successfully entrenched the spirit of
resilience in the hearts and minds of the ordinary Zimbabweans suffering from the
negative effects of successive droughts and sanctions on the economy.

15.5 The media and Identity

Identity: is simply our understanding of who we are. An individual may have
multiple identities & at times it leads to an identity crisis. By belonging to various
communities one can have multiple identities e.g. (A Dynamos Supporter, can be a
Christian, a Polytechnic Student, a Ndebele.) However, every nation has to
promote its own uniqueness and cultural diversity from other nationalities and
cultures. Nonetheless, the greatest threat to such cultural preservation is the work
of media products (cultural products) that transcend national and geographic
boundaries to cultivate western cultures to locals in what has come to be known as
cultural imperialism.Noteworthy is the glamorization of homosexuality in the
entertainment media with countries like Zimbabwe against such practices labeled
as Abusers of Human Rights. Hence, in the best interests of the preservation of
local culture & identity, nations should fight against the global media influence
which is increasingly defining the world for us. Radio channels on short- wave
frequency (which has the widest reach) such as Channel Africa & Voice of
Zimbabwe try to counter that influence and promote an Afro centric ideology and
give the true African view.

15.6 The Media: nation & nationalism

Nation- is a political community sharing cultural background and aspirations. The
era of national galas promoted a national togetherness and the use of national
colors (eg Zimbabwe Independence Silver Jubilee T-shirts & flags) in supporting
national causes even in sports, promotes nationalism. A more localized
programming creates a national ideology against foreign ones (eg the 75% local
content policy in Zimbabwe, with some Moslem states totally disregarding any
foreign media content).

15.7 Freedom of Expression and self sensorship

Journalists the world over clamor for media freedom, as they claim it is one of the
basic requirements in any independent nation-state. The current Zimbabwean
constitution guarantees the freedom of Expression in section 20 (5). However,
journalists have more often than not abused their freedom of expression, leading to
jeopardization of state security at times and in other instances disturbing of peace
and creating public despondency through the writing of alarmist

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stories.Understanding that media messages have economic, political, social, and
aesthetic purposes (e.g., to make money, to gain power or authority over others, to
present ideas about how people should think or behave, to experiment with
different kinds of symbolic forms or ideas) help us to understand why all
governments provide relative and never absolute freedom as this will inevitably
lead to anarchy. The Oxford Concise dictionary 10 th edition defines anarchy as the
state of disorder due to lack of government control).The media has influence on
society as a whole (e.g., influence in shaping various governmental, social, and
cultural norms; influence on the democratic process; influence on beliefs,
lifestyles, and understanding of relationships and culture; how it shapes viewer's
perceptions of reality; the various consequences in society of ideas and images in
media)The media has the ability to influence social and cultural issues (e.g.,
creating or promoting causes: U.N. military action, election of political parties; use
of media to achieve governmental, societal, and cultural goals)This is the reason
why the Zimbabwean government enacted laws which makes it a criminal offense
to publish falsehoods, write anything that creates public alarm and despondence or
anything prejudicial to the state, president or his office. The government of
Zimbabwe also recently allowed for the self censorship of journalists through their
self appointed regulatory board known as the Voluntary Media Council. It is
however essential to note that the media framework cannot work in an unregulated
fraternity.

15.8 Freedom of Association within the context of Media Freedom

The right to freedom of assembly and association in Zimbabwe is guaranteed under
Article 21 ofthe Constitution of Zimbabwe. Commenting on this provision and
Article 20 on freedom of expression, in re Munhumeso &Ors, the Supreme Court
of Zimbabwe emphasized that:
"the importance attaching to the exercise of the right to freedom of expression and
assembly must never be underestimated. They lie at the foundation of a democratic
society and are one of the basic conditions for its progress and for the development
of every man.”These two essential provisions i.e freedom of expression and
assembly have to be well monitored and governed by the state in the best interests
of public safety and public order to an extent which is reasonably justifiable in a
democratic society.In Zimbabwe just like in Britain, any organization that intends
to gather for whatever reason has to seek police clearing for the maintenance of
peace, order and tranquility.
15.9 Comparing the behavior of Zimbabwean media to that of other countries
United States has the largest number of media organizations in the world however
the media is owned and controlled by a few individuals. This makes the media

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environment in the US to be plural (many newspapers & tv stations) but definitely
not diverse(as all the media organizations are singing from the same hymnbook).
Researchers at Sonoma State University in the US looked up the names of the 155
people who served on the boards of directors of the eleven media companies that
dominated the U.S. media market.
Who are these 155 media elites-directors of the largest combined media news
systems in the world? They include men like: Frank Carlucci, who sits on the
board of directors of Westinghouse (CBS), and was former deputy director of the
CIA and later Secretary of Defense under President Bush. This doesn‟t come as a
surprise that the Bush administration like any other government in the world
desires to effectively control the media so that it perpetrates its ideologies and
policies.The U.S. media has lost its diversity and its ability to present different
points of view. Instead, there is homogeneity of news stories and the major media
tend to look alike.
The media in the U.S. has created, to use Neil Postman's words, the "best
entertained, least informed society in the world." Americans are ignorant about
international affairs and alienated from their own social issues.

15.10 Assess the role of the foreign media in shaping perceptions and
influencing political processes in modern politics The ever widening reach of the
global media has created a relatively unified international view of the world.
According to the Agenda Setting theory, “the media may not be successful much
of the time in telling people what to think, but it is stunningly successful in telling
its readers what to think about.” Bernard C Cohen (1963).The seemingly plural
global media has formed a cartel that owns newspapers, magazines, book
publishers, motion picture studios, radio and TV stations globally. Time Warner,
Walt Disney, News Corporation, Viacom and Bertelsmann control almost all
global media of influence and they are also under one controlling hand, hence all
the news and entertainment enjoyed the world over come from one controlling
stake.
Realizing the power of the media in controlling the thinking of man, imperialists
have hijacked and manipulated the global media from its educative, informative
and entertaining role to being the major apparatus in the creation and perpetuation
of the Anglo-American hegemony agenda globally. It therefore doesn‟t come as a
surprise that a successful land reform program may be called “chaotic”, an
economy under sanctions named “mismanaged and in meltdown”, a homegrown
legislation called “draconian”, by almost if not all of these media houses who are
perpetrating an ideology of their paymasters (He who pays the piper calls the
tune).

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Through their ill gotten wealth (slavery & colonialism, and other neo-colonial and imperialist
injustices they continue to commit) the imperialists promote their capitalist system as the only
hope for ailing developing economies so that through their set financial institutions (IMF, World
Bank) they continue to exploit the rich human and natural resources of African economies.
Frantz Fanon noted that “the last battle of the colonised against the coloniser will often be the
fight of the colonised against each other”. The words are very linked to the Zimbabwean
scenario and relates to what other sections of the Zimbabwean media community are doing to
destroy Zimbabwe in the name of freedom of the media. For example, the private media, which
are usually anti-establishment, refer to the sanctions that have led to the economic downturn and
suffering of the ordinary Zimbabweans as targeted and claim they are not affecting trade in the
country. However, the public media in Zimbabwe has always maintained that sanctions in Africa
in general and Zimbabwe in particular hurt masses not the government in power because there is
no middle class like in countries of Europe who can effect regime change.
15.11 The role of the media in modern welfare and trade.
The building and maintenance of public support is essential in modern warfare due
to the increasing politicization of warfare, where losses and gains are measured in
political rather than military terms. And if progress cannot be demonstrated during
a war, then by default one is assumed to be losing. Thus, the adage “the battle is
not lost on the battlefield but in the mind,” is very true.This explains why the
American war against terror is glamorized in Western media though it has led to
the indiscriminate killing thousands of innocent civilians which include defenseless
women and children in countries like Afghanistan and Iraq. War on Terror has
been interpreted as an assault on democracy and freedom by Islamic
fundamentalists and has been heavily criticized for the death of innocent souls the
world over though it is positively portrayed in the media. The media onslaught
against Zimbabwean policies is part of the Anglo American warfare strategy that
involves the control of the minds of people and the media support of any of their
policies though they may lead to untold suffering to other people. The third world
Pan- African states, like other developed states also use their indigenous media to
counter the global media positive coverage of Anglo-American policies. With the
growth of global media, the third world countries are creating less of their culture
and buying more of it from the media, hence the continued loss of African culture.
Thus, Africans in general, and Zimbabweans in particular should work together in
the fight against western ideals which are proclaimed in foreign media.

15.12 ACTIVITIES

o Define Media and explain its role and functions

o Critically analyse the following :
o Freedom of Expression
o Freedom of Association within the context of Media Freedom

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 o Discuss and explain self censorship of the media and compare the
behaviour of Zimbabwe‟s media to that of other countries
o Assess the role of the foreign media in shaping perceptions and
influencing political processes in modern politics
o Define the term “perceptions” and critically relate it to the adage “the
battle is not lost on the battlefield but in the mind”.
o Discuss and analyse the role of the media in modern welfare and
trade.

References
Moyana H (2001) African Heritage .1st Edition. Zimbabwe Publishing House
:Harare
Moyana H & Sibanda M (2001) African Heritage Revised Edition. Zimbabwe
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Moyana T (1989) Education Liberation. 1st Edition Fay Chung : Harare
Mudenge S G (1988) A Political History of Munhumutapa -1400-1902.
Zimbabwe Publishing House: Harare
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Prew M et al(2002) People Making History Book 4 Zimbabwe Publishing House:
Harare
Beach D N (1986) War and Politics in Zimbabwe 1840-1900. Mambo Press:
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Mandaza I(1980) Zimbabwe: The Political Economy of Transition1980-
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Implications for the 3rd World Countries.

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 Sapes: Harare
Todaro M P(2000)Economic Development 7th Edition Addison Wersley:
London
Stiglitz,J.(2002) Globalization and its discontents. Penguin: London
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Richard Tambulasi and Happy Kayuni (2005: 147-161) Nordic Journal of
African Studies 14(2).Can African Feet Divorce
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Democratic Good Governance in Malawi
University of Malawi, Zomba
Nussbaum,B. (2003) African culture and Ubuntu; Reflections of a South
African in America. World Business Academy 17(1).
Stoner J.A.F; Freeman. R.E. and Gilbert.D.R.JR(1995)
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International Englewood Cliffs. New Jersey.
Rukuni.M (2007) Being Afrikan. Rediscovering the Traditional
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NATIONAL & STRATEGIC STUDIES

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 NATIONAL & STRATEGIC STUDIES
DIVISION

KWEKWE POLYTECHNIC PRODUCTION

2011

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