Byju'S Ias: Mains Test Series

BYJU’S IAS
MAINS TEST SERIES

2021
`
ANTHROPOLOGY (MTS-ANT-01) EXPLANATION
SECTION – A
1. Write short notes on the following questions in not more than 150 words each.
1. (a) Relationship between anthropology and behavioral sciences

(10 Marks)
Approach:
The question asks you to answer how behavioral sciences as a subject is linked to
anthropology as a subject. In this, you have to mention both similarities and differences
between these two. Further, try to incorporate how both have influenced and enriched each
other.
Part 1 Define anthropology and behavioral science
Part 2 Similarities between anthropology and behavioral science
Part 3 Difference between these two
Part 4 Influence of each on others
Introduction:
Anthropology has been defined by M. Jacobs and B. J. Stern, in their book “General
Anthropology” as “Anthropology is the scientific study of the physical, social and cultural
development and behavior of human beings since their appearance on earth”.
Thus, anthropology is a holistic science and has become broad-based study over a period of
time. Anthropology is much more than other scientific disciplines which focus on particular
subjects. Anthropology now comprises concepts and practices of both natural science and
social science.
One of such sciences is behavioral science. Behavior science explores interaction of behaviors
among organisms. It not only explores cognitive processes within organisms but also
provides systematic analysis of human behavior.
Main Test Series (MTS-ANT-01) 1

`
Body:
Due to overlap between behavioral sciences and anthropology, both of these have some
commonalities which are as follows:
• Behavioral sciences explore how the cultural environment influences human behavior.
Psychological anthropology also tries to understand the same.
• The techniques, survey methods of psychology are borrowed by anthropologists to
understand their subjects.
• Behavioral science tries to understand the cognitive aspect of human personality.
Similarly cognitive anthropologists strive to understand the cognitive structure behind
actions of humans.
• Cross -cultural psychologists draw from immense knowledge acquired by
anthropologists to understand unique aspects of culture. Similarly, the knowledge gained
by behavioral scientists helps anthropologists in understanding man, culture, religion
etc.
• Behavioral scientists' approach of comparative study of societies has helped
anthropologists immensely.
Therefore, both anthropology and behavioral science overlap and influence each other.
However, anthropology has more scope than behavioral science because

• Anthropology tries to study both simple and complex societies while psychology lays
more emphasis on complex and modern societies.
• Anthropology comprises unique techniques such as ethnographic studies, participant
observations, field work and so on. But, psychology uses survey and sampling,
psychometric tests primarily to understand the cognitive aspect of humans.
Apart from above, anthropology and behavioral sciences differ from each other because:
• Social anthropology tries to examine cognitive patterns of group while psychology lays
emphasis on an individual.
• Social anthropologists specialize in social structure or culture while psychologists
specialize in the personality system, and in mental process such as cognition, perception,
and learning, and emotions and motives.
• Social anthropologists take personality system as constant and look for variation in the
social structure as the basis of their investigations whereas, psychologists accept the
social structure as constant and look for variations in the personality system as the basis
of their analysis.
Conclusion
Thus, there is a close relationship between anthropology and behavioral sciences. Both have
borrowed various elements from each other, and in doing so, they have enriched both of
these disciplines.

`
1. (b) Linguistic anthropology

(10 Marks)
Approach:
In this question, you have to demonstrate holistic understanding of linguistic anthropology in
brief. You can start the answer with a definition followed by objectives of linguistic
anthropology. Then, you are supposed to mention sub-branches of it.
Part 1 Define linguistic anthropology and its evolution in brief
Part 2 Philosophy behind this field of anthropology
Part 3 Sub-branches of linguistic anthropology
Part 4 Conclusion signifying importance of this field in overall anthropology as a

subject
Introduction:
Linguistic anthropology is a branch of anthropology which strives to study the relationship
between language and culture. In broad sense, linguistic anthropology helps us understand
evolution, variation, structure and meaning of language from anthropological point of view.
Body:
Evolution of Linguistic anthropology

• It is considered to have originated in the metaphysical writings of the 17th or 18th
century period.
• However, a real breakthrough in the development of this branch occurred when Tyler
published his work “Research into the early history of mankind”. In his work, Tyler
voiced for empirical and scientific study of language.
Following are broad themes which are covered by linguistic anthropology:

1. How language is learned
2. Language in cultural context. For example, societies assign similar kin terms to many
members of family, indicating equal importance of these relations to ego. However, many
societies assign different terms to different relations, hence assigning different
importance to these relations in social life.
3. How languages change over period of time
4. Structure and pattern of languages
5. How language is used as power.
6. How language defines social relations in society especially in context of kinship
terminology and behavior. For example, ‘mama’ refers to maternal uncle in some Indian
societies. ‘mama’ is considered synonymous to ‘mother-like’ due to close relations
between ‘mama’ and ‘bhaanja’.

`
The branch of linguistic anthropology can be divided into following sub-branches:
1. Structural Linguistics: explores differences between contemporary languages from the

point of view of their structures and constructions. In addition, it compares grammatical
patterns or other elements of various languages.
2. Sociolinguist: tries to explore the interrelation between language and social contexts. It is
interested in identifying how language enables communication in social groups and how
it drives social institutions.
3. Historical linguistics: studies the origin of language, changes in language over a period
of time, relationships among the languages etc.
Conclusion:
Linguistic anthropology has been an important branch which continues to provide significant
inputs to other branches such as physical anthropology, archeological anthropology and
cultural anthropology. It has enabled anthropologists to understand prehistoric as well
contemporary societies through study of language, an essential element of culture.

`
1. (c) Bands
(10 Marks)
Approach:
It is a straightforward question which demands description of band as a political
organization. In this question, you need to define the band in the introduction. Thereafter,
you need to mention characteristics of the band.
Part 1 Define Band as a political organization.
Part 2 Write characteristics of band
Part 3 Summarize the above discussion
Introduction:
Bands are one of the many forms of stateless societies. Bands are the simplest form of political
organization. Bands have been found among foragers, hunting gathering communities
primarily.
Body:
Characteristics of bands are as follows:
1. Size: Bands usually comprise of six to ten families, hence average number of members
are generally 30-60.
2. Possession: Bands are mobile in nature and they do not carry many possessions with
them. For example a hunting gathering band carries probably a bow, arrows and basket
etc.
3. Uncentralized: Bands are stateless societies and hence they do not have centralized
political leadership. In bands, power is diffused among the members of the bands.
Though, sometimes situational leadership can be witnessed in bands.

`
4. Egalitarianism: there is a horizontal power structure in bands and every member is

considered equal in band organizations. They are more or less equal as far as community
decision making is concerned.
However, some individuals in a band may stand out for their skills and knowledge. The
people who are best hunters, or having best visions can be chosen as informal leaders.
5. Aim of band as a political organization: AIm of band is to ensure that people get along
with each other. As band is a very small unit, any conflict in band may result in
disintegration of the band and may cause extinction of band members either by attack of
another band or attack by wild animals.
6. Dispute settlement: there is no designated authority for dispute settlement in bands. In
bands all community members come together and make decisions based on consensus
only.
7. Economy: Bands are usually hunting gathering, pastoralist herders economies with
primitive means of production.
8. Conflict resolution: Bands rarely witness conflict due to their egalitarian nature and their
small size. However, in case conflict occurs, unique practices such as abuse, song duel are
followed by bands.
Conclusion:
Therefore, bands are the simplest form of political organization Band organizations could be
witnessed till the last half of 19th century in Siberia, Sahara Desert, some parts of central and
south America. However, in present times, no band level societies survive with their
traditional forms intact. Rather, complex form of political organizations such as tribe,
chiefdom, and state have emerged.

`
1. (d) Non-verbal communication

(10 Marks)
Approach:
This question seeks basic concepts of non-verbal communication. One needs to describe
various types of non-verbal communication and importance of non-verbal communication
with examples.
Part 1 Define Non-verbal communication. Highlight the importance of this in brief.
Part 2 Mention various types of non-verbal communications. Try to put examples in

these types
Part 3 Summarize the above discussion which should comprise of its significance in
communication as a whole
Introduction:
Non-verbal communication is nonlinguistic transmission of information through visual,

auditory, tactile and physical mediums.
Non-verbal communication is an integral part of overall communication. It is considered to

be more important than verbal communication by many scholars as it accounts for more than
60 percent of human communication.
Like in verbal communication, Non-verbal communication also involves decoding and

encoding of information. However, as compared to verbal communication, here decoding
part is difficult and is significantly influenced by social and cultural context.
Body:
Following are major types of non-verbal communication:

1. Facial expression:
Facial expressions are a very important part of non-verbal communication. These
expressions convey anger, sadness, fear, sorrow etc. For effective communication, it is
important that facial expressions and verbal communication are in synchronisation.
2. Paralinguistics:
Paralinguistics are those vocal communications which are separated from actual
language. For instance, paralinguistics include loudness, voice, tone and pitch. A
powerful tone of a leader influences the audience easily. A cold tone may suggest lack of
interest or enthusiasm on part of the speaker.
3. Body language and posture:
Various researches on body language have shown that body language communication a
lot about personality and thoughts of a person. For example, leg-crossing, arm-crossing
indicate feeling and attitude of secrecy, introversion.
4. Proxemics:
Proxemics is the study of how communication is influenced by distance and space. It has
been observed that space influences how people communicate and behave. In many
societies, unexpected breach of private space is considered negative. Many researches
have shown that excessive crowding may result into criminal behavior.
5. Chronemics:
Chronemics refers to the study of how communication is affected by time. Here, time can
be classified into many categories as following:

`
Biological time refers to rhythms of living beings. We humans follow a circadian rhythm
as we sleep, eat, wake. One needs to keep in mind the time while communicating.
Personal time refers to the ways in which individuals experience time. People who have
past-time orientation talk more about their past experiences, putting considerable amount
of time into preserving memories. On the other hand, people who have future-time
orientation will focus a lot on future plans, careers plans while communicating.
Physical time refers to the fixed cycles of days, years and seasons. It has been studied that
physical time influences our psychological state. In medical sciences studies it has been
found that some people experience emotional distress in change of seasons.
Cultural time refers to how a group of people views time. There are generally two types
of groups. Monochronic people schedule their time more rigidly and hence it affects their
communication aspect. On the other hand, polychronic people are flexible in nature.
6. Haptics: it refers to touch. The touch transmits specific information. A touch of
grandparents on head communicates warmth. Similarly, touch may operate at other
levels such as professional level, friendship level, love-intimacy level.
7. Personal presentation and environment: Both personal appearances and environment
are considered a means of communication. It has been proven that different colors evoke
different moods.
Further, dresses also communicate certain information. For example, a suit in an
interview communicates professionalism.
Conclusion:
Thus, nonverbal communication plays a very important role in transmission of information to
others. These nonverbal mediums help us also understand the social and cultural context of a
particular person or a group.

`
1. (e) Unilinear evolution

(10 Marks)
Approach:
In this question, the concept of evolution and cultural evolution needs to be discussed in brief
in introductory lines. Names of anthropologists belonging to this school of thought need to be
mentioned. Thereafter, explain the assumptions, postulates of this approach in detail. Provide
a brief outline of various contributions of anthropologists in postulating the evolutionary
path of religion, technology etc.
Part 1 Define evolution, cultural evolution and unilinear evolution
Part 2 Describe assumptions and postulates of unilinear evolutions
Part 3 Discuss various evolutionary paths suggested by anthropologists such as

Tylor, Frazer and so on
Part 4 Summarize the above discussion by outlining the significance of this

approach.
Introduction:
Evolution may be defined as a process in which different forms are produced or developed
orderly in a system. This principle of evolution is also applicable to cultural spheres.
Cultural evolution is a process by which different successive forms in socio-cultural

institutions or culture of mankind as a whole are developed and accumulated to constitute
the growth of culture over different periods of time, but in continuity.
Some of the famous proponents of the unilinear evolutionary scheme were E.B. Tylor, Maine,
Frazer, Maine, Morgan, Bachofen, and Bastian.
Body:
The concept of unilinear evolution was given by 19th century classic evolutionists. In this
evolutionary scheme it is postulated that cultures of the world pass through different,
successive developmental stages in continuity. As a result of which simple forms changes into
complex ones, homogeneity moves towards heterogeneity and state of uncertainty goes
towards certainty
Classical evolutionists compared the early stage of primitive people with civilized ones.
These scholars assumed that primitive people were a reflection of early conditions of the
latter. They compared material and nonmaterial survivals to establish a sequence of
development from simple to complex.
To explain the similarities in cultural traits, cultural complexes and cultural patterns of the
people of the world without known historical connection, they developed the concept of
Psychic unity of mankind. The psychic unity of mankind refers to a similar mental framework
of human being to think and react similarly in similar environmental situations at a particular
period of time.
According to these unilinear evolutionary schemes, human beings inhabited at different

places of the world passed through similar stages of savagery, barbarism and civilisation. In
addition, differences in ecology, environment and situations cause diversities in traits,
complexes and patterns.

`
Thus, as per unilinear evolutionism, in the beginning all cultures possessed similar and
simple cultural traits. However, due to cultural development they gradually developed into
complex forms or patterns.
Unilinear evolutionism such as Tylor established a historical sequence of religion on the basis
of this scheme. According to him, religion evolved from animism. His evolutionary scheme of
religion is as following:
Similarly, a unilinear evolutionary scheme was applied to demonstrate historical sequences of

economic organizations, technology and art. According to A.C. Haddon, there are three
successive stages of development which are realistic, symbolic and geometric.
According to Frazer, magic is a feature of primitive societies while science is a feature of

developed societies. According to him, developmental sequence is as follows:
Conclusion:
Unilinear evolutionary scheme was the first and foremost scientific approach towards
understanding the culture. It is considered a foundation stone of anthropological thoughts
which gave way to further research and theories. In later years, unilinear evolution faced
criticism from multilinear and universal evolutionists, diffusionists and functionalists.

`
2. (a) “Industrialization has impacted family as an institution”. Critically analyze.

(20 Marks)
Approach:
In the answer, one needs to first elaborate the statement. Further, this statement needs to be
evaluated on various parameters. Such evaluation should provide points which lead to the
conclusion that industrialization has indeed impacted family. Also, certain points need to be
provided to demonstrate another side of the story where family still has maintained its
essentialities.
Part 1 Family needs to be defined in anthropological terms. Briefly touch the

statement given in the question
Part 2 In the body part, elaborate the statement. Evaluate this statement from various
angles. Mention, how industrialization has changed family as an institution.
Part 3 Also discuss how family as an institution has retained its core features despite
the industrialization
Part 4 Provide a balanced conclusion at the end
Introduction:
Family has been one of the most important institutions in human society. Family was defined
by Murdock as 'A social group characterised by common residence, economic cooperation
and reproduction. It includes adults of both sexes, at least two of whom maintain a socially
approved sexual relationship, and one or more children, own or adopted, of the sexually
cohabiting adults.'
Like other institutions, Family also has been witnessing changes due to forces of
industrialization especially after the 18th century.
Body
The impacts caused by industrialization can be described as following:

1. Transition from Joint family to Nuclear family:
Due to industrialization, members of the family have to move to cities for work. Apart
from this, cities have a huge cost of living. Hence, a transition from joint family to nuclear
family is witnessed.
2. Residence rule
Earlier there were patrilocal rules prevalent where the bride moved to the house of the
groom and his kin group after marriage. Nowadays, the bride moves to the groom only
which is situated in cities.
3. Social Bonding
Due to industrialization, social bonding among members of family has gone down. It is
due to new residence rules and transition to nuclear families.
Due to industrialization, social bonding between husband-wife increased, however, social
bonding between other relations has dwindled.
4. Decision making role
In Pre-industrialization societies, all major decisions of the family were taken by the
eldest member of the family. However, after industrialization, the structure of the family
has changed. Hence, major decisions are taken by husband and wife together.
5. Norm centric to Children Centric
Families were earlier emphasized a lot on norms, customs, faiths etc. With
industrialization, members of societies have come in contact with new knowledge and
information. Now families are more focussed on welfare and the future of children such
as education.

`
6. Sense of mistrust and independence

Industrialization has imbibed a sense of independence among females of families. Now,
females are also earning members of families. Such sense of independence has started
conflicting with the patriarchal attitude of society. These conflicts are leading to frequent
divorces, breaking the family as an institution.
Conclusion:
Therefore, industrialization has impacted families in significant manner. Despite the changes,
four major functions of family given by Murdock are still relevant.
Family as an institution ensures socialization of children and provides emotional support to

members. Psychological satisfaction and social respect earned through marriage and family is
considered unparalleled in terms of quality.

`
2. (b) Differentiate between culture and civilization. What are the attributes of civilization?
(15 Marks)
Approach:
The questions has two parts. To answer the first part, a brief introduction of culture and
civilization is to be provided. Further, differences between two can be answered in tabular
format or point-wise manner. To answer the second part, list down attributes of civilization.
Conclude the answer by summarizing the above.
Part 1 Introduction of culture and civilization either through definition or by

mentioning the facts that though these two are interchangeably used, they are
different.
Part 2 Differences between culture and civilization
Part 3 Interrelation between culture and civilization
Part 4 Mention attributes of civilization with brief description of each
Part 5 Conclusion (summarize the above discussed points in body)
Introduction:
Early scholars such as Goldenweisse considered culture and civilization the same. However,
later scholars such as Tyler, Morgan clearly differentiated between these two.
Culture is defined by Herskovitz as “the artificial environment created by man around

himself”. According to Tylor, ‘culture is a complex whole which includes knowledge, belief,
art, law, morals, customs and all other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member
of society'.
Whereas civilization is defined by A.W. Green as “ a culture becomes civilization only when
it possesses written language, science, philosophy as specialized division of labor and a
complex technology and political system.”
Body 1:
Culture and civilization can be differentiated as following:
Parameters Civilization Culture
1. Measurement Civilization has a clear and However, culture cannot be

precise standard of measured.
measurement
2. Comparison within By comparing products of It is not possible to

civilization, one can compare different cultures
establish superiority of because different ages,
one’s civilization over different groups have their
others own standards of
judgement
3. External/internal It is external and It is internal and organic in

mechanical. For instance, nature. For instance, norms,
buildings, equipment etc. belief etc.

`
4. Characteristics Culture is characterised by It is not possible to

customs, morals, norms, compare different cultures
faith, art etc because different ages,
different groups have their
own standards of
judgement.
5. Borrowing its elements Civilization is borrowed Culture is intrinsic in

without much change or nature, borrowing of which
loss. Elements of civilization requires significant time
diffuse in the world in a and effort.
short time with available
means of communication.
6. Advancing in nature Civilization is advancing in On the other hand, culture

nature. It is considered to be advances slowly and
unilinear and cumulative. sometimes is subjected to
For instance, with retrogression. Hence,
advancement of technology, culture is not unilinear in
civilization gets refined nature.
7. Passing on Civilization is passed on to Passing on cultural

newer generations without elements is difficult.
efforts. Further, culture is
transferred to certain
members of society, family
or other kin groups.
Body 2:
Following are attributes of civilization:

1. Social system: civilization has defined social stratification based on hierarchy which may
be defined by various factors such as power, money, ritual status etc.
2. Political system: Government, Defense, administrative institutions are attributes of a
civilization.
3. Art: Artistic activities such as music, painting are considered hallmark of civilization.
4. Technology: advancement in technology such as automobiles, electricity, modern means
of communication.
5. Written language: almost all civilizations are centered around written language which
drives economic, social and political activities. For example, Indus valley civilization has
its own script to enable trade.
6. Urban development: urban settlements are another important attribute of civilizations.
For instance, well-planned cities were important attributes of Harappan civilization.
Conclusion:
Despite the above differentiation and specific attributes, culture and civilization are not only
interactive but interdependent. The articles of civilization i.e. artefacts are influenced by
culture called mentifacts.
Example 1: tools of primitive communities are not just mere tools, rather they are reflection of
their culture.
Example 2: Laws against incest taboo indicate that society has culture in which incest taboo is
considered a sin.
Hence, though culture and civilization are different but influence each other too in significant
manner.

`
2. (c) What is incest taboo? Describe various theories behind incest taboo.
(15 Marks)
Approach:
The question demands you to define incest taboo clearly. One needs to provide characteristics
of incest taboo. Then, enlist theories behind incest taboo as provided by various
anthropologists. Conclude the answer by changes happening in this concept.
Part 1 Break the word and define them. Then, explain the concept of incest taboo
Part 2 Describe various theories in detail. Provide limitations of these theories too.
Part 3 In conclusion, summarize the above discussion and include changes happening
in this concept.
Introduction:
Incest taboo is considered to be a universal cultural practice which prohibits sexual relations
between certain members of same group. Such groups may be family, lineage, clan, band,
village etc.
Therefore, incest taboo prohibits sexual relations not only between biologically connected
individual but also between people who are not biologically connected such as in clans.
However, concept of incest taboo varies from society to society. In hindu societies, sexual
relations between cousins can be considered as incest taboo, however, in Islamic societies, it is
not considered incest taboo.
Body:
Various theories have been hypothesized by anthropologists behind incest taboo. These are as
follows:
1. Psychoanalytic theory
This theory was given by Sigmond Freud. According to him, incest taboo originated as a
reaction to natural tendencies in boys and girls. Boys in younger ages are attracted to
their mother, however, due to fear of his father, he doesn’t involve in incest.
Various surveys and studies reveal that some children exhibit this tendency however, it
cannot be generalized. Also, it has been found even in those families in which father dies
at young age, do not show incest relations.
2. Family disruption theory:
Malinowski denied psychoanalytic theory to be basis for incest taboo. He propounded
that incest taboo came into existence because sexual competition among family members
could seriously jeopardize the survival of family as an institution. It threatens the
bonding among family members and creates role confusion and role conflict among
members.
According to him, incest taboo prevents all such problems from happening. However,
there is a limitation to this theory too as it has not been able to explain why in royal
societies of Europe brother and sister had sexual relations.

`
3. Family cooperation theory:

This theory was given by Tyler. According to him, cooperation among members of family
is key to survival of family as a whole. Incest taboo has been practiced to promote such
cooperation and to strengthen bonding within society.
However, this theory has its own limitation as it cannot prove why only incest taboo as a
law could lead to cooperative among members.
Conclusion:
Hence, it can be observed that no theory has been able to explain the origin of incest taboo
with certainty. At present, incest taboo is practised in more than 98% of societies across the
world. But, in contemporary times, incest taboo is losing its prevalent as incest between
father-daughter is becoming common in a few societies.

`
3. (a) Explain the process of distribution of goods and services in the Kula system and Potlatch
system.
(20 Marks)
Approach:
The question has two parts: in the first part one needs to explain in detail about the Kula
system and in the second part, the same is to be done for the Potlatch system.
Part 1 In the first part, explain the Kula system by covering dimensions such as process
of Kula, importance of Kula system etc.
Part 2 In the second part, potlatch systems need to be described. Cover process of
Potlatch and rationale behind potlatch system.
Part 3 Provide a conclusion about these two systems in brief.
Introduction:
Kula and potlatch are classic case studies which demonstrate the unique process of
distribution of goods and services in traditional societies.
Body 1:
Kula system or Kula exchange:

The Kula system was studied by Malinowski in detail. Kula is a ceremonial exchange among
Trobriand islanders of New Guinea.
Kula is a system of exchange with people of other islands which involves following
elements:
• a system of visits
• exchange of ornaments of two kinds
• Trading of food, commodities
According to Malinowski, the Kula system was devised because each island has different
natural resources and can produce only specialized items or commodities. Therefore, an
island depends significantly on other islands for other items. In addition, trading involves
dangerous sailing in the sea. Hence, Trobriand islanders devised Kula for a safe and secure
trade by establishing trade partnerships. This partnership gets strengthened by means of
exchanging ornaments, gift giving etc.
There are two types of Kula exchange:

1. Soulava exchange: Soulava is shell-disc necklaces which is traded in clockwise direction.
Soulava is given with the left hand.
2. Mwali exchange: Mwali are shell armbands that are traded in counter-clock direction.
Mwali is given with the right hand.

`
Figure: Kula exhange

Source: https://www2.palomar.edu/anthro/economy/econ_3.htm
Further, If the opening gift was an armband then the closing gift must be a necklace and vice
versa. These exchanges take place in ceremonial ambience for the purpose of strengthening
mutual trust, enhancing trade and providing respect and prestige in reciprocal manner.
Kula exchange has another aspect too. These ornaments are not valuable as such, however,
these ornaments are value loaded i.e. various myths, rituals are associated with these
ornaments. Therefore, these ornaments are handled with respect and enthusiasm. Exchange
of these ornaments promote trade between islands which is essential for their survival.
Body 2:
Potlach:
This distribution system is prevalent among American Indian groups of Northwest Coast.
Potlatch basically is an elaborate feast in which a huge amount of food and other valuable
goods are distributed to the guests. The purpose of this distribution is to humiliate guests and
to gain prestige for the host.
Potlatches are organized by wealthy individuals such as village chiefs. Here, the chief of a
village invites the neighboring village for potlatch. Later, these guests invite the hosts to their
feasts. On these feasts, gifts are distributed in a competitive manner.
Potlatches are examples of balanced reciprocity as food and gifts get equally distributed
among various villages in the long run. It is to be noted that potlatches are prevalent in those
societies.
Conclusion:
From these two exchanges, it is evident that economic organizations are influenced by
geographical, cultural and social factors. Hence, economic systems of societies cannot be
understood without understanding all elements composing the societies.

`
3. (b) “Primitive society is governed by customary laws.” In the light of the statement describe the
nature of primitive laws in these societies.
(15 Marks)
Approach:
This question demands expansion of the statement given in the question. While expanding
you may provide origin of laws in these societies. Thereafter, one needs to enlist the nature of
primitive laws in the societies. In conclusion, you may summarize the discussion above and
highlight the changes happening in these customary laws.
Part 1 Explain the origin of laws in simple societies. Explain why only legal laws don’t
exist in these societies.
Part 2 Explain the nature of the these customary laws
Part 4 Summarize the above discussion. You can highlight the changes in the legal
framework of simple societies.
Introduction:
Laws are the system of rules which a particular country or community recognizes as
regulating the actions of its members and which it may enforce by the imposition of penalties.
It can be observed that formal laws don’t apply in primitive societies as we find no
authorities such as policemen, magistrate in these societies. However, ethnographic surveys
have revealed that these societies have their own set of laws which they have been following
since ages. Due to these laws, these societies have been able to maintain social order as such
order cannot be operated by itself.
Body:
In primitive society, the laws have developed not through formal process, rather it has been
spontaneous and slow. The nature of these primitive laws can be depicted as following:

`
1. Kinship oriented
In simple societies, kinship bonds are main integrating forces and all external socio-
political organizations are conceived through the angle of kinship. Due to kinship
orientation, clan elders play roles of decision-makers in many tribal societies.
2. Backed by public opinions
In primitive societies, public opinion has a very powerful influence in the life of the
members. Since, the number of people constituting primitive society are generally small,
everyone is known to everyone else. Therefore, life of an individual is affected a lot by the
opinions of others.
It has been seen that these public opinions are based on certain sentiments shared by all
members of the society. Hence, if someone does not abide by these sentiments, then
he/she has to face the fury of members of society.
In addition, another reason for strong influence of public opinion is that in primitive
societies, the individual’s dependence on the group is absolute. Hence, an individual is
extremely affected by the opinions of others.
3. Breach of moral laws
In primitive societies, laws are often synonymous to ethical norms and moral norms. A
breach of moral laws amounts to a sin. These sins are viewed seriously in primitive
societies because it is believed that sins of individuals will bring down supernatural
punishment on the community as a whole.
Thus, there are strong punishment against the breach of moral laws such as incest,
witchcraft etc.
4. Limited civil laws
It has been found by various studies that primitive laws have less emphasis on civil laws,
and more focus on criminal laws. The reason is that for long these primitive societies
have been characterized by violence, anarchy and chaos. Thus, criminal laws are far more
in numbers.
In these societies, civil laws are limited because inheritance of property is well-defined.
Further, a smaller number of people in society help resolve the disputes at earlier stages.
Apart from this, it has been found that modern societies have more civil laws because
there is more pressure on land. However, pressure of law is usually absent in simple
societies.
5. Intention has no importance
Modern societies consider intention an important factor in determining the legality or
illegality of a person's actions. But primitive laws consider intention as irrelevant because
of supernatural punishment which may come as a visitation on the whole group.
Hence, in primitive societies, the result of an action is far more important than the
intention behind that action.
6. Not difference between crime and torts
There is no difference between private wrongs (torts) and public wrongs (crime) as even
private wrongs have potential to bring calamity to the whole group. Hence, every
adverse action even in private space is viewed seriously by the members of society,
Conclusion
Therefore, it can be seen that primitive laws have different nature than those of modern laws.
It is because of the compulsiveness of public opinion, fear of supernatural forces, these
primitive laws are followed strictly by members of society.
However, in modern times, many of these primitive laws have been replaced by modern legal
frameworks, handled by administrators, police and other functionaries.

`
3. (c) What is totem? Explain individual totemism and group totemism with suitable examples.
(15 Marks)
Approach:
The question has two parts. In the first part, one needs to explain the basic concept of totem.
In the second part, both individual totemism and group totemism need to be explained in
detail providing examples of each. In conclusion, provide a gist of overall discussion on
totem.
Part 1 Define religion and totem and explain the concept in 4-5 lines
Part 2 Define totemism. Discuss individual totemism with examples
Part 3 Discuss group totemism with examples
Part 4 Summarize the concept of totemism. You can highlight the limitations of
totemism theory.
Introduction:
Totemism is one of the most discussed forms of religion. Religion has been defined by
Clifford Geertz as “a system of symbols which acts to establish powerful, pervasive, and
long-lasting moods and motivations in men by formulating conceptions of a general order of
existence and clothing these conceptions with such an aura of factuality that the moods and
motivations seem uniquely realistic.”
Among these systems of symbols, totem holds a significant place in many societies.
Body 1:
Concept of totem was first given by Durkheim after studying Australian natives. There he
found that every society is divided into clans and every clan has a ‘totem’.
The word ‘totem ‘is derived from the Ojibwa word Ototeman meaning ‘one’s brother-sister
kin’. ‘Ote’ is a root word which means a blood relationship between brothers and sisters.
Durkheim observed that a totem is any living or non-living object or symbol which has a
social-like relationship with the members of the social group (clan or tribe). He said that
‘totem is the flag of the clan’.
Further, totem is at the center of myths, rituals and other religious practices of the clan. Thus,
it is a symbol of both clan and clan spirits. In view of Durkheim, natural objects are more
considered to be totem because these can be easily apprehended and represented.

`
Figure. Totem symbols in native American societies

Source: https://in.pinterest.com/pin/308215168245457000/
Body 2:
Totemism can be defined as ‘a belief in relationship substituting between a clan or any other
social group and a species of a plant or bird or animal supported by regulations and rituals
setting out the belief’.
In the case of Australian native tribes, totemism is the belief that links an animal species with
a descent group in such a way that animal species protect the members of one descent group.
In return, the descent group vows to protect animal species from harm. Thus, the descent
group neither kills nor eats the animal species.
Durkheim considered Totemism to be the most elementary form of religion because
Australian natives had one of the most elementary social organizations. According to him,
totemism gave rise to polytheism and monotheism in later stages of development.
Figure: Evolution of religion by Durkheim

`
Totemism are of two types: Individual totemism and Group totemism
Individual Totemism:
• In individual totemism, there is an intimate relationship between a person and a totem i.e.
animal or plant or any other object
• Totem grants special power to the individual.
• It is considered that there exists a simultaneous existence between the totem and the
individual. Hence, if there is an injury to an animal or plant, then there will be injuries to
the person too and vice-versa.
• Individual totemism is widely prevalent and is found among hunting-gathering, pastoral
and herder societies.
• Individual totems are especially popular among Australian native tribes and American
Indian tribes.
Group totemism:
• Group totemism involves mystic and close association between a totem and a social
group. This group can be lineage, clan, tribe, phratry, moieties.
• All rituals and myths of the group are derived from the group totem.
• Group totemism also lay down the rules of marriage, succession, exchange etc.
• Group totemism is more prevalent than individual totemism in the world. It is most
common among peoples in Africa, India, Oceania, native Australians.
Conclusion:
The concept of totemism has significantly contributed towards understanding of myths,
rituals, religious practices and other social practices of a social group. Though totemism as an
elementary form of religion is still doubted by many scholars, it is still an important belief
widely practiced in societies across the world.

`
4. (a) Discuss contribution of Harold C. Conklin to Cognitive approach in anthropology.

(20 Marks)
Approach:
In this question, one should first explain cognitive anthropology followed by the contribution
of Conklin on a broader level. Then, one should explain how Conklin understood and
analyzed culture. Further, his experiment of Hanunoo color should be explained in brief.
Part 1 Define cognitive anthropology. Mention contribution of Conklin in brief.
Part 2 Explain how Conklin viewed culture. Mention ideas and assumptions of Conklin.
Part 3 Describe his experiment on Hanunoo. Explain its significance for cognitive
anthropology.
Part 4 Highlight the significance of Conklin’s work for anthropology in brief.
Introduction:
Cognitive anthropology is a subfield within cultural anthropology which strives to
understand and explain patterns of shared belief, knowledge, cultural innovations over time
and space using the methods and techniques of cognitive science.
Harold Conklin contributed significantly to cognitive anthropology. He extensively worked
on ethnographic study of the cognitive system. His most famous work was among Hanunoo
people in the Philippines where he analysed how these people classified plants.
Body:
Conklin defined culture from a cognitive perspective. According to him, culture is an

ideational system i.e. a system of knowledge. It shows how people organize their experiences
conceptually so that it can be transmitted as knowledge from person to person and from
generation to generation.
Therefore, Conklin was of firm belief that culture is not made up of things, people, behaviors
or emotions themselves, rather it is made up of forms or organizations of these things in the
minds of people. Therefore, culture is a cognitive pattern, a system of knowledge.
He postulated that in every society, people construct their world in terms of their own
cultures. With the help of culture, people differentiate between significant and insignificant,
anticipate the event, take decisions and so on.
Conklin used Sapir and Whorf Hypothesis that has to do with the relationship of language
and thought. Conklin said that the culture as a cognitive system can be understood by
examining the interrelationships of language and culture. If language is conceptual code
underlying speech, then culture is the conceptual code underlying social behavior. According
to him, distinction between culture and social behavior is similar to distinction between
language and speech.
In his experiment of Hanunoo people of the Philippines, Conklin used linguistic methods
because he believed that a vocabulary strongly influences the classification of colors.
In addition to recording how the Hanunóo described colors of their natural and artificial
surroundings, Conklin showed them painted cards, dyed fabrics, and many other colored
materials. As a result, he found that the Hanunóo group colors at the following two levels-

`
The first level is general level, where four terms of colors: darkness, lightness, redness, and
greenness are there. These colors are distinct from each other and people always used the
same color name to describe a certain color sample.
The second level is specific because it has hundreds of color names. As many color names
overlap, people did not necessarily agree with each other when they classified colors in this
level.
Conklin also concluded that Hanunóo pay attention to moisture, texture and shine of objects
and give different color names according to these criteria. Therefore, it can be said that the
Hanunóo color classification system is based on lightness, darkness, wetness, and dryness. It
is to be noted that these color criteria are different from the American color classification
system, where moisture, texture and shine of objects are not considered.
Through this experiment, Conkling established the fact that different people conceptualize
the world around them in their own cultural terms.
Conclusion:
Therefore, it can be said that Conklin helped understand the culture from a cognitive
perspective which was neglected for long by anthropologists. His work on the Hanunoo color
category is still considered a masterpiece as it provided new insight about understanding
culture to researchers.

`
4. (b) How Levi-strauss analyzed myths? Elaborate with suitable examples.

(15 Marks)
Approach:
The question demands an elaborate explanation of the structuralist approach of Levi-Strauss
to understand myth. First, myth should be defined. Then, the basic idea of Levi-strauss
should be written down. Thereafter, the whole assumptions, postulates of Levis Stauss
should be explained in detail with examples.
Part 1 Define myth. Explain the basic idea of Levis Strauss behind understanding of
myth
Part 2 Explain in detail the assumptions, beliefs and observations of Levis strauss.
Part 3 Provide examples from his work to explain the culture-nature dichotomy.
Part 4 Summarize the above discussion in 3-4 lines.
Introduction:
Myth is derived from a Greek word ‘mythos’ which means story or word. Myths are symbolic
tales of the distant path that concern cosmology, may be connected to belief systems or rituals
and may serve to direct social action and values.
Myths have been understood and explained by various anthropologists using different
approaches. Levi-Strauss used a structuralist approach to analyze myths. According to him,
Myth is language and hence myth can be approached the same way as language can be
approached by the same structuralist methods used to understand language.
Body:
Levis Strauss studied the myths because he wanted to understand the unconscious mind.
According to him, myth-making is closest to unconscious because myths are not constrained
by social life. Even kinship systems, marriage rules and village organizations are partially
influenced by social life. Therefore, a myth-making mind is influenced only by its own
inherent principles and not by any social utility.
Levis Strauss explained the myth in his work ‘The Structural Study of Myth (1963)’. He
believed that in order to understand myth one has to break it down into its basic constituents
i.e. mythemes and interrelationships between mythemes. Thus, myths should not be read as
stories.
In his later works, he analysed several South American myths and Indian myths. According
to Levis-Strauss, these myths appear different from each other but their underlying structure
has significant similarity. He gave an analogy of Orchestral Score, where each instrument
sounds something different but the nature of sound produced is part of a structural whole. ‘
His discussion on myths revolves around following key points:
• Myth is like a language which is formed of various components.
• However, mythic units are of higher or complex level as compared to language.
• If we desire to find meaning in mythology, it cannot be found in its isolated elements.
Rather, it is to be found in the way those elements are integrated together.
According to him, myths are based on nature-culture dichotomy. In his work ‘The Raw & the
Cooked (1969)’, he explained this concept with an example. Honey is always consumed raw
therefore it represents nature. Also, honey is enticing and seductive, therefore, all myths
dealing with seduction stand in the same structural position as honey.

`
On the other hand, Ashes are produced by fire. Fire is considered to be one of the earliest
inventions. Hence, both ashes and fire denote culture. Tobacco needs fire for its consumption.
Similarly cooking the meat requires fire. Thus, myths dealing with tobacco or with the origin
of wild pigs are related to those dealing with fire, ashes, cooking, smoke and burning.
Figure: Culture-nature dichotomy
Conclusion:
Among various analyses of myth, Levis-Strauss structuralist approach holds a significant
place in anthropology. It provided a scientific perspective to understand the myths. Also, his
approach tried to provide a theoretical framework to understand myths.He suggested that
the structuralism approach is founded upon scientific analysis, which seeks to break down
complex phenomena into its constituents and then analyze the interrelations between them.
The structuralist approach to myth is precisely the same scientific method, and as a method
this can be readily applied to literature.

`
4. (c) What is ‘Kulture-Kreise’? Explain the contribution of Fritz Graebner to the diffusionist
approach.
(15 Marks)
Approach:
In this question, firstly you have to explain the concept of Kulturkreise. Then, you have to
describe the ideas of Graebner as a part of German diffusionism. You have to describe
successive stages envisaged by him in his study of Oceania.
Part 1 Define Kulturkreise. Discuss this concept and explain how this concept came
into existence
Part 2 Explain assumptions and postulates of Graebner. Mention how he criticised

evolutionists and British diffusionists.
Part 3 Mention the various stages of Kulturkreise by Graeber in his study of Oceanic
societies.
Part 4 Summarize the significance of his work in 3-4 lines
Introduction:
‘Kulturkreise’ is a German word which means culture circle or culture field. The concept of
‘KulturKreise’ was developed by German Diffusionists Fritz Graebner, Father William
Schmidt and Leo Frobenius.
According to these anthropologists, Kulturkreise are those locations from where ideas and
technology and other elements of development diffused over other parts of the world.
According to Frobenius,, these are the totality of organically interrelated cultural traits.
Body:
Graebner was the leading figure of Kulturkreise school. He published methodological aspect
of this school in his work ‘Method der Ethnologie (1911)”.
According to Graeber, early man invented the basics of culture such as language, tool
making, irrigation etc. But, soon they formed a number of small bands which later became
isolated. Each of these bands developed their own characteristic culture. Graebner called
these bands as “Urkulturen”, means primeval cultures.
Later, members of these small bands spread out in other directions and populated different
continents. According to him, the primary task of culture historians is to reconstruct these
various Kreise.
He criticized postulates and assumptions of evolutionists. According to him, development in

the universe was not uniform. This is the reason why a group of people with simple
technology may have an advanced social structure.
He also criticized British Diffusionists because of their insistence on Egypt as the only culture
center in the world. Unlike British counterparts, Graebner established a multiple
development of culture.
Graebner extensively studied Malenesian culture. According to him, several Kulturkreisse

came into existence in succession in different parts of the Melanesia. In Oceania, he envisaged
six successive Kulturkreise.

`
According to Graebner, Tasmanian culture is the ancient culture while Polynesian culture is
the most recent. Tasmanian culture originated in Tasmania. Its characteristics were food
gathering, band exogamy, egalitarianism etc.
Old Australian Kulturkreise appeared in Australia and its major characteristics were hunting
and food gathering, using stone and wood tools, using grinding stones for crushing seeds and
nuts, spear throwing etc.
Totemic Kulturkreise was prevalent in the central and eastern part of Australia. Some of its
features were totemism, making canoes, patrilineal hordes, sun mythology, spear throwing,
hut making etc.
Moiety Kulturkreise originated in Melanesia and Australia. Its characteristics were

cultivation, sawing techniques, matrilineal moieties, myths and rituals associated with the
moon etc.
Polynesian Kulturkreise was the most recent kulturkreise. It had features of large families,
cultivation, high population density, political personnel, hereditary, local or regional
exchanges, ranks and classes etc.
Conclusion:
Therefore, Graebner extensively studied Kulturkreise in Oceania. This school posed a tough
challenge to earlier school of thoughts such as evolutionary school of thought and British
diffusionism theoretically and empirically. His work later provided a foundation to American
school of Diffusionism.

`
SECTION- B
5 Write short notes on the following questions in not more than 150 words each.
5. (a) Tribal market

(10 Marks)
Approach:
In the question, one needs to explain the concept of market in brief in the introduction.
Thereafter, the tribal market needs to be defined, highlighting its unique character. Then,
characteristics of tribal markets need to be discussed. Further, the importance of tribal
markets are to be outlined. Provide a concise and crisp summary at the end to conclude the
answer.
Part 1 Defne markets. Explain tribal market and mention their unique character
Part 2 Enumerate characteristics of tribal markets in brief.
Part 3 Highlight the importance of tribal markets from social, economic, cultural
angles
Part 4 Summarize the above discussion in 4-5 lines
Introduction:
Markets are forms of exchange systems which are rationalized by price systems. In markets,
these prices are self-regulated by forces of demand and supply and through interaction of
buyers and sellers who operate impersonally.
Tribal markets are generally small scale exchange places where tribal communities trade
goods and services with each other.
These are special exchanges where social fabric penetrates through the economic system of
tribal society. Therefore, tribal markets are considered networks which hold societies
together.
Body:
Following are major characteristics of tribal markets:

1. Since most of the agricultural produce gets consumed by producers themselves, hence a
large proportion of producers do not find its way to the marketplace.
2. The market systems exist alongside pre-station systems and may be interlinked with
them.
3. Though tribal markets are part of the national system,they are still separated from them
due to remote geographies and nature of products.
4. In these marketplaces, trading of small lots or quantities is predominant.
5. Tribal Marketplaces store surplus so as to use them during crises.
6. In many tribal societies, markets are not permanent. Rather, markets are held periodically
i.e. weekly or monthly which are locally known as Bazar, Haat. In these markets, people of
different tribes and castes come together and conduct their business transaction.
7. It is often seen that native(locally produced) goods such as food grains, local hand woven
clothes, baskets, etc. are exchanged in the barter mode while money is used in the
transactions of non-native(produced outside tribal area) goods such as salt, mill cloths,
readymade clothes, cosmetics, soaps etc.

`
Importance of tribal markets can be described in following manner:

1. Tribal markets have a significant impact on the socio-economic and cultural life of tribals.
These markets facilitate cultural interaction among people of caste and tribes
2. In addition, these markets enhance interaction of tribal economies with the national and
global economy.
3. These markets promote innovations, monetization of tribal economies which otherwise
work on principles of reciprocity.
4. These markets serve as a centre of redistribution for resources and material goods of
occupationally diverse communities in the region
5. These markets act as a place where members of tribes come together regularly. Hence,
these markets increase social solidarity among members.
Conclusion
Tribal market is an important economic institution of tribal societies that regulates as well as
facilitates distribution of goods and services among the people. Apart from economic
functions, the markets play very important social and cultural functions.
With the advent of globalization, these tribal markets are changing in their characteristics.
How, use of money is more prevalent in these markets and these markets are now getting
more connected with the national and state level markets.

`
5. (b) Characteristics of language

(10 Marks)
Approach:
It is a straightforward question where you first need to define and describe language. Then,
you need to enumerate and describe characteristics of languages to complete the answer.
Part 1 Define language. Explain background, importance of language in brief.
Part 2 Enumerate characteristics of language with description of each
Part 3 In conclusion, summarize the above discussion in 4-5 lines.
Introduction:
Language is an essential element of human society. It is the language due to which human
civilization has been possible. Language has helped humanity immensely to come out of the
stone age and helped develop complex things such as science, art and technology.
Language can defined as following:

• “A language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols by means of which a social group
cooperates.”
• Language is the expression of ideas by means of speech-sounds combined into words.
Words are combined into sentences, this combination answering to that of ideas into
thoughts”.
Body:
Due to its complex nature, language has many characteristics. Among these, major ones
can be depicted as following:

`
1. Symbolic characteristics of language:

Language comprises different sound images and their graphological partners that are
utilized to indicate a few articles, events or significance. These images are subjectively
picked and routinely acknowledged and utilized. Words in a language are not simple
signs or figures, however images of importance. The coherence of a language relies upon
a right understanding of these images.
Figure. Symbolic nature of language

Source:https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Symbolic-communication-A-modified-version-
of-Buehlers-model-of-language-broken-lines_fig1_327828788
2. Language is systematic:
Although language is symbolic, yet its symbols are arranged in a particular system. It can
be seen that all languages have their own system of arrangements.
In addition, every language is a system of systems. All languages have phonological and
grammatical systems, and within a system there are several subsystems.
For example, within the grammatical system we have morphological and syntactic
systems, and within these two subsystems we have systems such as those of plural, of
mood, of aspect, of tense, etc.
3. Language is innovative, creative and productive:
One of the important characteristics of language is its creativity and productivity. It is
evident from that fact that the structural elements of human language can be combined to
produce new utterances, which neither the speaker nor his hearers may ever have made
or heard before any listener, yet which both sides understand without difficulty. We have
seen how Language changes according to the needs of society.
4. Language is Non-instinctive, Conventional:
Language is the result of evolution and conventions over the period of time. Thus, it can
be observed that no language was made in a day out of a commonly established
procedure by a gathering of people.
Language is non-instinctive because it is learnt by individuals. Nobody inherits language
like DNA and genes, he gains it since he has a natural capacity.
5. Language is Vocal:
Language is primarily composed of vocal sounds which are produced by a physiological
articulatory mechanism in the human body. In the beginning, it appeared as vocal sounds
only.
Writing evolved in later stages in an effort to use language in multifunctional ways.
It intelligently attempted to represent vocal sounds. In this way, Writing is only the
graphic representation of the sounds of the language. Hence, the linguists believe that
language is primarily vocal.

`
6. Language is social:
Language is a set of communicative signals or symbols used by humans for
communication in a community. Therefore, language is a possession of a social group,
comprising an established set of principles which allows its members to interact and
cooperate with each other. Thus it can be termed as a social institution which helps in
developing culture and strengthening human relations.
7. Language is Arbitrary:
Since there is no inherent relation between the words of a language and their meanings or
the ideas conveyed by them, the language is considered of arbitrary nature.
For example, there is no logic why an elephant is called an elephant in English, Hathi in
Hindi, Gaj in Sanskrit.
Therefore the choice of a word selected to mean a particular thing or idea is purely
arbitrary but once a word is selected for a particular referent, it is followed perpetually.
Please note that there would have been only one language in the world if language would
not have characteristics of arbitrariness.
Conclusion:
Language is an inseparable part of the lives of humans, without which communication would
have been ineffective and inefficient. Above discussed characteristics set human language
apart from animal communication. Though some of these characteristics may form part of
animal languages, however, they do not form part of it in totality. .

`
5. (c) Kinship behavior

(10 Marks)
Approach:
In this question, one needs to explain the concept of kinship behavior in the introduction.
Thereafter, various types of kinship behaviors prevalent in societies need to be explained
briefly. One needs to provide suitable examples while discussing these.
Part 1 Define kinship behavior and explain the concept in brief.
Part 2 Mention various types of kinship behaviors.
Part 3 Briefly explain each of these. Include, why such behavior is followed in these
societies.
Part 4 Conclude the answer by specifying the importance of analyzing kinship

behavior in overall kinship study.
Introduction:
Kinship behavior can be defined as “definite and relatively permanent patterns of behaviors
between different members of society”.
Analysis of kinship behavior helps anthropologist analyze various socio-cultural phenomena
of these societies.
Body:
1. Avoidance:
• Avoidance is considered to be prevalent in almost all societies in some forms.
• In this behavior, members of group avoid each other deliberately.
• In Indian societies, mutual avoidance between daughter-in-law and father-in-law is
common.
• Further, son-in-law and mother-in-law avoidance in more common in matrilineal
societies of Africa. In these societies, it is considered that this affinal relation is very
sensitive and requires careful handling which is possible through avoidance
behavior.
2. Joking relationships:
• Joking relationships are opposite to avoidance relations.
• In these relations, members of social group are free to exchange communication.
Even, jokes and abuses can be exchanged.
• For instance, joking relationships are prevalent in Indian societies in form of Jija-Sali,
Devar-Bhabhi etc.
• People involved in such relationships should be ready to bear all kinds of insults and
has rights to counter-attack in reciprocal manners.
3. Teknonymy:
• In this, two relations do not address each other directly, rather through a third person
or a symbol.
• In Indian societies, wives do not call their husbands and elderly people directly.
Rather, they use their children relations to call their husbands. For example, If
X(male) and Y(female) are married and have a son named Z. Then Y will call X as ‘Z’s
father’.

`
4. Couvade
• When a husband imitates the behavior of his wife during pregnancy or delivery, then
such behavior is termed as couvade.
• This behavior is prevalent in Maler, Khasi and Todas of India.
• This behavior ensures that husband understands the pain of her wife during such
times. Thus, this behavior is symbolic of strong bond between husband and wife.
5. Avenculate and Amitate
• Avenculate behaviors are usually found in those matrilineal societies where mother’s
brother has a permanent place in the family.
• Hence, in such societies relationship between maternal uncle and nephew is forms an
important unit of family.
• For example, among Nyoro, all non-sense activities of sister’s son are ignored or
handled with utmost patience.
• Amitate relations are features of some patrilineal societies where father’s sister plays
an important role in the family.
Conclusion:
Kinship behaviors are important tools to understand the kinship structure of a society. These
behaviors help researchers predict status-role, expected behavior of members of societies
towards each other.

`
5. (d) Acculturation and contra-acculturation

(10 Marks)
Approach:
These are the concepts pertaining to the Culture Chapter. These concepts need to be first
defined and then discussed with sufficient depth and suitable examples. One has to delve
into recent happenings where these concepts can be observed.
Part 1 Define these two concepts in introductory lines.
Part 2 Describe the factors which cause acculturation and contra-culturation
Part 3 Conclude the answer by discussing any events which demonstrate these
concepts
Introduction:
Acculturation and contra-acculturation are two important concepts which explain changing
dynamics of society. These concepts help explain the changes happening in cultural traits or
complexes or patterns with time.
Body:
Acculturation:
When the whole system of life in a culture begins to change under the influence of any other
culture, it is called the process of acculturation. The concept of acculturation was first
developed by Redfield and Linton.
According to them, acculturation refers to those phenomena which results when groups of
individuals having different cultures come into first hand contact, with subsequent changes
in original cultural pattern of either on both groups.
Acculturation results either due to self-interest or due to pressure. Many causes like pressure
of ruler, adoption of modernity, rise in status, advantage for the group lead to acculturation.
Acculturation is not always advantageous. Sometimes it brings adverse effects when common
agreement is not reached between the cultural norms and group values.
Example – North east tribes underwent acculturation under Christian missionaries.
Contra-acculturation:
Acculturation under pressure has devastating effects and in this situation split is evident.
When one group develops hate, jealousy, rivalry against another group, the process is known
as Contra Culturation.
Example- amongst the tribals of Chotanagpur, individuality has ended at first under the
exploitation and poverty in which they lived for centuries, but when the country became
independent, their insistence of cultural, social, political freedom developed in them in the
shape of Jharkhand movement.
Conclusion:
Therefore, acculturation and contra-acculturation are important factors behind changes in
cultural elements. An anthropologist or researcher has to carefully consider these processes to
completely understand a society.

`
5. (e) Questionnaire
(10 Marks)
Approach:
In the question, the questionnaire needs to be defined in the introduction. Then, one needs to
explain types of questions within a questionnaire with suitable examples. Thereafter, one
needs to explain various types of questionnaires with their usage and importance. At last,
provide a brief conclusion highlighting its usefulness in gathering social facts.
Part 1 Define questionnaire. Explain its usage in gathering various types of data.
Part 2 Explain various types of questions with examples.
Part 3 Describe structured and unstructured types of questionnaire.
Part 4 Conclude by summarizing the above discussion and highlighting its

usefulness.
Introduction:
Questionnaire is a widely used tool to gather social facts by researchers. It has been the main
technique of data collection used in survey methods.
A questionnaire consists of a set of questions in particular order or form. These questions can
be factual or opinion based questions.
Body:
The questionnaires can gather data from large, diverse and scattered groups of people. These
can be used to gather information such as personal preferences, social attitude, beliefs,
opinions, habits and so on.
The questionnaire is generally sent through mail to respondents. These respondents then
have to answer in a specified manner to these questions.
There can be various types of questions in a questionnaire:

• Open ended questions: these questions are not followed by any specific options. The
respondents are allowed to write any answer they feel. One of the principal values of the
open ended question is its use as an exploratory tool before opinion has been solidified or
before the research objective has been clearly defined.
For example: An open ended question would be “what is your opinion on dowry?”
• Close ended questions: In such types of questions, respondents are asked to select the
response from options given. These types of questions are used when categorized data is
required by the researcher.
For example:
Q. Do you think Dowry practices should be banned?
Option (a): Yes, it should be banned.
Option (b): No, it should not be banned.

`
• Contingency question: these are special types of close-ended questions. These questions
need to be answered only when the respondent provides a particular response to a
question prior to them.
Example:
Q. Do you think we should donate blood?
(a) Yes (b) No
Q. If yes, how often should we donate in a year?

(a) 1 time (b) 2 times (c) 3 times (d) 4 times
Questionnaires can be broadly classified into two categories: Structured and Unstructured
questionnaires
1. Structured questionnaire:
• Those questionnaires which pose definite, concrete and preordained questions are
called structured questionnaires.
• These questions are prepared in advance and not drafted during the time of
questioning the respondents.
• Additional questions are only asked to clarify doubts over other questions or when
more details are needed to answer a particular question.
• These are used in a wide range of surveys. It can be used to initiate a formal inquiry,
and can be used to supplement and check data which was previously accumulated.
2. Unstructured questionnaire:
• In these questionnaires, questions are not arranged in advance.
• The interviewer is free within certain limits to arrange the form and timing of
questions.
• Unstructured questionnaires provide flexibility to the researcher.
• It is designed to obtain viewpoints, opinions, attitudes and to show interrelations
between data which might escape notice under more mechanical types of
interrogation.
• Hence, its objective is to provide respondents the maximum opportunity to disclose
their experiences.
• Unstructured questionnaires solicit free responses which are used for intensive
studies but for a limited number of selected cases.
Conclusion:
Questionnaires have gained much significance now for gathering social facts. Its use has
further increased due to increased emphasis by social scientists on quantitative measurement.
Due to its lesser cost, time and effort, questionnaires are the favorite research tools to gather
data over scattered groups.

`
6. (a) “Religion has been studied through various anthropological approaches”. Explain these
approaches to the study of religion.
(20 Marks)
Approach:
In this question, the given statement needs to be elaborated by mentioning various types of
approaches. Thereafter, these approaches need to be discussed in detail one by one. While
detailing these approaches, various schools of thought need to be mentioned.
Part 1 Describe various approaches in brief.
Part 2 Explain all three approach by specifying basic philosophy behind it, mention
key schools of these approaches
Part 3 summarize the above discussion in concluding paragraphs.
Introduction:
The concept of religion is extremely complex and full of contradictions. Therefore, a number
of approaches have been given by anthropological researchers to explain the phenomenon of
religion. The major approaches are depicted below:
Body 1:
Brief description of these approaches is as below:

1. Evolutionary approach:
This approach was adopted by many anthropologists to explain the origin and evolution
of religion. In this approach, various scholars have conceptualized that religion has
originated either from Animism or Animatism or Totemism etc. Some of the famous
scholars belonging to this approach are Tylor, Herber Spencer, James Frazer.
Some of the most famous theories of this approach are as follows:

(a) Natural Myth School:
According to scholars of this school, all significant symbols in the religion as
personification of natural phenomena such as Sun, Moon, Stars etc. Therefore, it can
be said that all primitive religious practices, myths, rituals had a very close
relationship with nature. Therefore, it was naturism which led to further
development of religion.
(b) Animism:
This school was propounded by Tylor. He believed that all religions originated from
the concept of soul which he called as Anima. According to him, belief in the soul is
the most primitive form of religion across the societies.
(c) Ancestor worship:
The famous scholar belonging to this school was Herbert Spencer. He traced the
origin of religion to the respect one gives to his ancestors combined with beliefs in life
after death. According to him, the belief in the existence of ancestors even after their
death extended to the belief in the existence of the Gods.

`
(d) Auguste Comte school

According to him, there are three stages in the evolution of human thinking. These
three stages are as follows:
Theological stage is the primary stage of human thinking where the level of human
thinking is equivalent to that of children. Hence, in this level, there is no scientific
outlook. As per him, theological thinking implies belief in a supernatural world
wherein divine forces control the events of the world. He further divided these stages
into three substages:
Fetishism
it is the primary stage wherein there is an undue attachment to a particular object. This
leads to a belief that inanimate objects also possess spirits. Hence, objects are not lifeless,
rather possessed by living spirits.
Polytheism
As per Comte, change in cognitive factors led to development of a more evolved kind of
fetishism. At this stage, man classified Gods as well as natural and human forces. Each
natural force had a presiding deity and each deity performs some special functions or
tasks.
Monotheism
Monotheism is the last developed stage of Theological stage. At this stage, belief in
polytheism is replaced by belief in one single God. Hence, it was believed in this stage
that God is one and God is supreme.

`
2. Psychological approach:
In this approach, researchers viewed religion as an emotional response to various aspects
which are usually characterized by emotional overtones. These emotional aspects act as
an anchor in giving religion a rationale for its existence. Some of the scholars belonging to
this approach are Wilhelm Wundt, William James and Sigmond Frued. These emotional
aspects according to these scholars are as follows:
(a) Fear:
Scholars such as Wilhelm Wundt believed that religion is a projection of fear into the
environment. Thus, there must be a psychological explanation to the origin of
religion.
Further, Otto believed that religion is identical to numinous feeling i.e. the feeling
pertaining to divinity. The sense of mystery and fear attached to religion is usually
numinous emotion.
(b) Animatism:
The most famous scholar of this school was Marett. According to him, animatism was
the most primitive form of religion from which other forms originated and
developed. It is the concept of supernatural as a raw impersonal power that
influences the human but can be controlled under some circumstances.
(c) Sigmund Frued approach:
According to him, religion originated because man attempted to project into the
universe to give him the support he once had from his biological father.
He traced the origin of religion to a family where a child is seeking adequate
relationships with his parents. A child regards his father as a symbol of absolute
power. But as the child grows, supremacy of the father becomes disputed. At this
time, religion fills the vacuum created by displacement of the father.
(d) Unspecified emotions:
According to James, religion cannot be attributed to a specific emotion. Hence,
religion is projection of unspecified emotions of human.
3. Functional approach:
In this approach, religion has been understood by anthropologists to explain the role
played by religion in daily lives of individuals and society. Famous scholars of this
approach were Durkheim, Talcott Parson and Malinowski.
Emile Durkheim in his work of Native Australians defined the religion as “a unified
system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things, that is to say things set apart and
forbidden- beliefs and practices which unite into one single moral community called a
church, all those who adhere to them”.
According to Durkheim, religion and social context cannot exist separately. Religious
beliefs are an expression of the way a society orders its life. Further, society seeks the
justification of existing social order through religion.
According to Malinowski, religion is a principal means to cope with tension, anxiety.
Apart from this, in everyday lives, so many experiences occur which have no
explanations. These experiences start cumulative up as days pass by. This causes a lot of
anxiety in the minds of people. In such times, religion explains the unexplainable to keep
people stabilized and healthy.
However, this approach has its own limitations. According to Redcliff Brown,
Malinowski emphasized more on individual experiences while explaining religion.
However, religion is a group phenomenon. Apart from this, Malinowski totally ignored
the social function of religion which was covered by Durkheim.
Conclusion:
Therefore, various scholars have various interpretations to the concept of religion as it is a
complex subject to deal with. All these three approaches have provided valuable insights
behind origination, existence and development of religion as an institution.

`
6. (b) Differentiate between primitive economy and modern Industrial economy.

(15 Marks)
Approach:
In the questions, a brief description of economic models to be provided in the beginning.
Thereafter, primitive economy and modern industrial economy are to be differentiated on
major factors. In conclusion, explain the basic nature of these kinds of economies. Explain
how the differences between them are becoming irrelevant.
Part 1 Introduce with a brief background of economic models across the world
Part 2 Explain the differences between primitive and industrial economies from
production, exchange and marketplace point of view.
Part 3 In first part of conclusion, mention the philosophy of primitive economies and
modern industrial economies
Part 4 Finally conclude by highlighting how primitive economies are transforming into
modern industrial economies.
Introduction:
The economic models across the societies are not homogenous, they differ due to the varied
nature of societies. Primitive economy and modern industrial economy have significant
differences since the social, cultural and political structure of society has changed a lot over
the years.
Body
The economies of primitive societies and modern industrial societies differ with respect to
production, distribution and market exchanges.
From the production point of view, it can be observed that primitive economies subsist at
primary level. Hence, they are based on direct exploitation of nature without significant
modification to the product. However, in modern economies, products are modified a lot
hence secondary production activities are in abundance here.
Secondly, in a primitive economy, means of production are also primitive in nature. For
instance, a hunter-gatherer society will have a bow, arrow and baskets as means of
production. However, in industrial economies, means of production are highly organized and
sophisticated for instance, machines, robots, organized labor forces.
From the exchange point of view, it has been observed that primitive economies lack
exchange of money. Here, reciprocity is the main exchange medium which happens through
barter exchange, silent barter etc.
Secondly, in primitive economies exchange has social value apart from the economic value.
These exchanges are informal in nature and based on face to face interaction. On the other
hand, there is more emphasis on monetary transactions in industrial economies.
From a marketplace point of view, we can find that primitive economies do not have
permanent marketplaces like in industrial economies. In primitive economies, periodical
markets exist which help not just in economic transactions but also in social interactions.

`
Conclusion:
Therefore, it can be concluded that in simple societies, social ends are more important than
the economic bargains. However, there is more emphasis on economic benefits in industrial
economies.
However, it is also to be noted that economic institutions are dynamic in nature. They keep
changing with new experiences, circumstances and stresses. Today, we see increasing cultural
contact between simple economies and industrial economies due to globalization. Due to
which, simple economies are facing onslaught of market forces. It is evident that primitive
economies are now witnessing money exchanges, new consumer products, integration of
tribal markets with national markets.
Therefore, simple economies, though retaining some of their characteristics, are transforming
into modern economies with time.

`
6. (c) Explain the concept of ‘blood feud’ in lineage based societies. Discuss the role of ‘Leopard
skin chief’ in such societies.
(15 Marks)
Approach:
The question demands explanation of conflict resolution mechanism in lineage based
societies. Before, explaining these mechanisms, discuss in brief about conflict resolutions and
social order in a broad manner. Then define lineage based societies. Now, elaborate concepts
of blood feud followed the role of leopard skin chief. Provide a concise and crisp conclusion
which should incorporate the changes happening in these mechanisms.
Part 1 Discuss conflict resolution in state and stateless societies. Define lineage based
societies.
Part 2 Explain the concept of blood feud. Mention how does it happen, how it helps
maintain social order
Part 3 Describe the role of leopard skin chief
Part 4 Provide a summary of the above discussion. Highlight the changes in laws of
stateless societies.
Introduction:
Every society has its own methods and ways to resolve conflicts so as to ensure social order
which is essential for their survival. In state societies, these methods are formal in nature,
however, in stateless societies such as bands, tribes, these are informal in nature and are
devised by the societies.
Lineage based societies are one of the forms of tribal political organization. These societies are
divided into several patrilineages or matrilineages and are hostile towards each other.
Therefore, there are a lot of conflicts between these lineages over matters such as territory,
theft, killing etc.
Body:
Concept of Blood feud:
Blood feud is the anthropological term to describe the relations between mutually antagonistic
lineages. For example, Classic Nuers are divided into many lineages and are hostile to each
other.
In blood feud, the principle is ‘tit for tat but with a difference’. If a member of one lineage has
killed a member of another lineage, then the other lineage has the right to kill a man from the
lineage the member of which committed the act first.
It is to be noted that blood feud does not symbolize revenge, rather it is considered to be a
balancing act. It is believed that the first killing caused imbalance in society which is restored
by second killing from another lineage.
Generally, the one who initiates blood feud, hides himself till the time someone from his
lineage has been killed. Here, often the father or brother or kin of the accused offer
himself/herself to be killed in return.

`
This practice ensures that a member of society thinks before committing murder that he/she
will put lives of his/her kins in danger. Therefore, social order is maintained in lineage based
societies by practice of blood feud.
Role of Leopard Skin Chief:
In lineage based societies, one of the mechanisms to resolve the conflict between lineages is:
mediation by Leopard Skin Chief.
Leopard Skin Chief is the person who belongs to a neutral lineage (other than the patrilineages
which are in conflict with each other). This chief plays a major role in mediation between
these patrilineages.
The chief investigates the case thoroughly, identifies the problems and decides the fines or
compensations.
Traditionally, the leopard skin chief is a powerful position which commands respect and
authority from members of tribal society. Such power and authority is vested in him to
maintain the social order.
Conclusion
Therefore, it can be seen that lineage based societies have devised mechanisms to resolve
conflict and maintain social order. However, with changing times, the lineage based societies
are undergoing changes from social, economic and politico-legal point of view. Thus, it is
natural that the traditional mechanisms of conflict resolution are being replaced with modern
legal frameworks.

`
7 (a) Universality of family has been a disputed topic in anthropology. Elaborate.

(20 Marks)
Approach:
The concept of universality of family is to be discussed in the question on various parameters.
In the answer, one needs to explain why family is not considered a universal institution. In
the end, a balanced conclusion needs to be written so as to not undermine the significance of
family as an institution.
Part 1 Start answering with the definition of family. Further, briefly introduce the
genesis of this dispute.
Part 2 Evaluate the statement on various parameters. Provide points due to which
family is not considered a universal institution.
Part 3 Balanced conclusion incorporating both points of views of anthropologists and

briefly emphasizing the role of family as an institution and changes occurring in
its role.
Introduction:
Family is considered to be one of the oldest institutions in the evolution of human society.
However, universality of family has always been contested. Some anthropologists such as
Murdock consider it as a universal institution, but others do not consider it as a universal
institution.
Body
Family was defined by Murdock as 'A social group characterised by common residence,
economic cooperation and reproduction. It includes adults of both sexes, at least two of
whom maintain a socially approved sexual relationship, and one or more children, own or
adopted, of the sexually cohabiting adults.'
On the basis of a sample of 250 societies, Murdock observed that the nuclear family is a
universal institution which forms the most basic unit from which other complex forms of
family arise.
Further, Murdock posits that the nuclear family performs ‘four functions’ which are
fundamental to human social life. These functions are universally performed by the nuclear
family.

`
Figure: four functions of family by Murdock
However, many scholars argue that these functions are not necessarily performed by
family in all societies. Following are objections with respect to each of these functions:
1. Sexual functions:
In Nuers of South Sudan, women to women marriage are prevalent. Further, ghost
marriages are prevalent in British Columbia. Similarly Nayars of Malabar is an example
of society where these functions are not primary to the institution of family as these
functions can be fulfilled by outside the marriage too.
2. Reproductive functions:
In societies such as Azande where man-man marriages are prevalent, reproductive
functions are not fulfilled by family.
3. Economic functions:
Family is considered to fulfill economic functions as it allows gender division of labor.
However, in modern states economic functions have been taken over by states. For
example- Kibbutz system of Israel where economic functions are never fulfilled by the
family.
4. Educational functions/ Socialization functions:
Anthropologists contest the claim of Murdock that the nuclear family is the primary
institution to impart education to children. However, examples of traditional Chinese
families contradict this claim because in these families, children are socialized in terms of
patrilineal extended family and within this unit, the nuclear family does not hold
significant value from a socialization point of view.
Conclusion:
Therefore, anthropologists such as Kathreen Gough are of view that family is not a universal
institution neither structurally nor functionally. The only thing which is universal is the
mother-child unit, the only universal function of which is to socialize the offspring.

`
7. (b) Define social stratification. Describe various types of social stratification across the world.
(15 Marks)
Approach:
This question has two parts hence both of these parts need to be answered with sufficient
depth. First, social stratification needs to be defined in clear words. Thereafter, you need to
enumerate types of social stratification with suitable examples. You can conclude social
stratification by summarizing your discussion or you can provide a future prospect of social
stratification.
Part 1 Start with definition of social stratification in your own words
Part 2 Types of social stratification and briefly give description of each with suitable
examples
Part 3 Summarize the above discussion in 3-4 lines
Introduction:
Social stratification can be defined as “ways to categorize members of society into various
groups or sections based on socioeconomic factors.”
Most of the societies today have various systems to classify and rank the members of society
into categories. These categories are often arranged in hierarchical order of superiority and
inferiority.

`
Body:
Following are various types of social stratification across the world:

1. Caste:
• A caste system is a closed system with a sole emphasis on the ascriptive status of a
person.
• In the caste system, whole society is divided into hierarchical arranged groups,
membership of which is determined by birth.
• This type of stratification is usually found in Indian subcontinent. In India, members
of society were originally arranged in 4 varnas- Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaisya and
Sudras. However, over a period of time these four varnas have been divided into
many castes.
• Caste systems are often considered to be rigid systems with no scope of mobility.
However, Sanskritization and westernization have caused caste mobility.
2. Class:
• This social stratification is based on economic status primarily. A social class may be
defined as a category of individuals having similar economic status.
• Status ranking of class within a society is however based on subjective criterias. These
criterias may range from education, technical profession, ownership of land,
ownership of cattle etc.
• Example: In ancient India, cattle wealth was defining criteria for determining class.
3. Estate:
• This type of stratification involves determination of status by birth, land and physical
force.
• It is equivalent to the feudal system. In such a system, there are three groups
primarily: clergy, aristocracy and commoners.
• It was prevalent in medieval times in Europe wherein aristocrat achieved its status
through ownership of huge amounts of land while clergy achieved its status through
religious doctrine.
4. Slavery:
• It is based on the economic might of members. In slavery, every slave had his master
to whom he was subjected. The master’s power over the slave was unlimited.
• This system was prevalent in ancient and medieval times. Now, universal laws have
considered this system illegal.
Conclusion:
Therefore, Social stratification is a process by which individuals or groups are ranked in
hierarchy of status. Some of these are disintegrating such as Estate, slavery with time. Some
of them are changing such as Caste but stratification as a whole remains a universal feature of
every society.

`
7. (c) Differentiate between lineage and clan. Provide suitable examples of each.
(15 Marks)
Approach:
In this question, you have to enlist concrete differences between lineage and clan. Then, you
need to provide some examples of lineage and clan.
Part 1 Start the answer with the brief introduction of lineage and clan.
Part 2 Differences between these two can be provided from multiple angles such as
size, kinship bond etc.
Part 3 Examples of lineage and clan from Indian tribes should be provided with brief
description.
Part 4 Conclude significance of clan and lineage in tribe kinship.
Introduction:
In most horticulturist and pastoralist societies, a unilineal descent system is followed. In these
societies, maintenance of social order is essential for survival of society. This social order can
be driven by various groupings amongst which lineage and clans are important.
Lineage is a unilineal descent group which is composed of individuals who trace their
descent from true, common ancestors. It is to be noted that in lineage, all genealogical links
between ancestor and ego are known.
While clan is a unilineal descent group in which individuals trace their descent from a
comparatively remote ancestor which may be true or mythical. Here, all genealogical links
between ancestor and ego cannot be traced with certainty.
Body:
Lineage and clan can be differentiated as follows:
Parameters Lineage Clan
1. Size of unit Lineage is the smallest unit of Clan is a bigger unit than
unilineal descent group. lineage. A clan may comprise of
many lineages.
2. Ancestor Members of lineage trace Members of the clan may trace

descent to a true ancestor. descent to not just a true
ancestor but mythical ancestor
too.
3. Tracing ancestry All Members can clearly trace All genealogical links from
their descent to common ancestor to the ego cannot be
ancestor with all links traced with certainty.
known.
4. Exogamy/endogamy Excluding muslim Clan may or may not be

communities, lineage is exogamous.
always exogamous
5. No. of generations Lineage generally extends up Clan extends more generations

to 5th or 6th generations than that of lineage.

`
6. Territorial grouping There are territorial grouping Territorial groupings are

in lineage uncommon in clan.
7. Kinship bonding Lineage is a smaller group In clan, social bonding among

hence social bonding is much members are less strong due to
stronger the large number of members.
Examples of Lineage and clan:

The Taraos tribe of Manipur are divided into four exogamous clans. These clans are Khulpu,
Katrimse, Tianqsa and Cahnasa. The Khulpu clan has only one lineage called Khulpulen.
Katrimsa has four lineages which are Tollekshanei, Saloi- Shanei, Lunglaan and
Tulaithmlaang.
Conclusion:
Lineage and clans are types of unilineal descent groups which provide a kinship structure to
society. These descent groups help members in transferring rights and obligations from
generations to generations.

`
8. (a) Discuss Victor Turner’s contribution to symbolic and interpretive anthropology.

(20 Marks)
Approach:
In this question, one needs to discuss the work of Turner on a broader level first.Thereafter,
one needs to elaborate on his ideas on symbolic aspects of culture with a clear example.
Further, you need to briefly touch upon the concept of social drama discussed by Turner. In
the end, one needs to summarize the above discussion in 3-4 lines.
Part 1 Discuss Victor Turner as a symbolic and interpretive anthropologist.
Part 2 Discuss his work among Ndembu. Explain how he observed symbols and
assigned them meaning.
Part 3 Describe his social drama concept among Ndembu.
Part 4 Conclude the answer by summarizing his concepts such as social drama,
communitas etc.
Introduction:
Victor Turner is one of the most important anthropologists that has contributed significantly
towards understanding culture and various institutions from a symbolic and interpretive
perspective. Some of his notable works are Schism & Continuity in an African Society (1957),
The Forest of Symbols: Aspects of Ndembu Ritual (1967), The Drums of Affliction: A Study of
Religious Processes Among the Ndembu of Zambia (1968) etc.
Body:
He adopted a transformational approach to analyse the symbols of a culture. His most
notable work was among the Ndembu of Zambia. In his work, he showed how symbols
reflect the culture as a whole.
He proposed that in Ndembu culture, each object, action or institution can serve as a symbol
for another. The Ndembu society has incorporated a series of symbols into their cultures in
such a way that each of the objects, actions act as a symbol for another. He gave an example
to prove his point. The tangible things symbolize an action which in turns leads to a more
complex symbol such as social institution.
In Ndembu tribe, after the birth of the child, people take the child to a tree. Then these people
scratch the thin bark of the tree through which white sap oozes out. This white sap is then
given to the child as milk. For these people, this white sap has a lot of importance. This
symbolism can be interpreted as following:
• White sap is a symbol of milk.
• Tree bark is symbol of breasts through which sap oozes out
• Drinking the milk by newborn symbolizes mother-child bond.
• Mother-child bond symbolizes the institution of family.
• The family symbolizes the formation of a society.

`
It can be seen that the breast symbolizes an action i.e. caring for a baby, which may then lead
to a more abstract symbol such as family or society.
Victor Turner gave the concept of “social drama” through his work among Ndembu. He
described social drama as “public episodes of tensional eruption”. According to Turner, these
social dramas represent windows into social values and social organizations. These episodes
cause tension in social fabric though these are recurring in nature.
He said that social drama has four phases:
In first phase Breach, there is a rupture in social relations which may be consequences of
certain events.
In the second phase Crisis, these social relations are in a phase where they cannot be handled
by normal strategies.
In the third phase, Redressive action, people involved in social tension seek to remedy the
initial problem and redress the problem.
In the last phase, there are two possibilities. Either there is permanent rupture or alteration in
social arrangement or there is reintegration in which social arrangements return to their
status quo.
Conclusion:
From the above discussion, it can be clearly seen that Victor Turner has developed key
concepts such as Social Drama, Rites of Passage, Communitas and many more to analyse the
culture from symbolic point of view. His in-depth studies, observations and theories have
significantly contributed towards the development of symbolic approach to anthropology.

`
8. (b) Explain Frazer’s views on magic, religion and science.

(15 Marks)
Approach:
It is a straightforward question where you need to elaborate on Frazer’s evolutionary scheme.
First, one should discuss the unilineal evolution approach which was supported by Frazer.
Then, one needs to discuss all three stages in detail with suitable examples. In conclusion,
highlight the limitations of Frazer’s work.
Part 1 Explain the approach of Frazer from the evolutionist angle. Describe his ideas
on a broader level.
Part 2 Describe all three stages of magic, religion and science
Part 3 Conclude the answer by mentioning the limitations or criticism of his

evolutionary scheme.
Introduction:
James Frazer was a British Classical evolutionist who believed in unilineal evolutionism of
culture. He was influenced by Tylor’s work on the evolution of culture. He also followed
comparative methods to collect and examine evidence from all parts of the world, at all levels
of development and in all cultures.
Through his studies, he found that human societies develop from primitive to complex
societies through a fixed line of evolution. In his work “Golden Bough”, he concluded that
man has passed through successive stages of Magic, Religion and Science.
Body:
1. Magic stage
According to Frazer, early men did not know about science at all. Therefore, they had a
completely wrong idea of the natural causes of events surrounding them. These men
lived primarily by two erroneous principles of magic which were:
1. Law of Similarity
2. Law of Contact
Law of similarity states that “like produces like”. Therefore, people believed that one can
control nature by imitating it. The magic which was associated with this principle is
termed as Imitative magic.
For example, if early men wanted rain they used to go up the hills and play drums and
pour water. It was believed to have caused thunder and rain.
The second principle, law of contact presumes that “once in contact, always in contact”.
This law says that once a connection is made between object and person or between those
persons, then that connection remains enforced even after separation. The magic
associated with this law was termed as contagious magic.
For example, a magician could cause harm to a person whose nail or hair was in possession of
a magician. Because despite of separation, the hair or nail is still considered a part of the
person.

`
2. Religion stage
According to Frazer, when the human mind progressed, men could realize that their
magic was not leading to desirous results for them. They felt helpless as their laws failed
them and they could not control nature. Then, humans reached to a conclusion that there
was a higher supernatural power which governed the universe. Hence, religion was born
which led to the transformation of magicians into religious practitioners.
These religious practitioners were considered as a mediator between supernatural power
and human beings. Gradually, there developed a concept of a divine king whose
departed souls were worshipped as Gods.
3. Science stage
It was the stage with the highest development of the human mind. Here, people knew
about the causes of various natural phenomena. Also, men were now equipped with
correct laws.
Conclusion:
Therefore, Frazer depicted early men or contemporary primitives as irrational human beings
as they did not have capabilities to ascertain causes to natural phenomena. According to him,
modern societies are rational and logical. However, his assumption was criticized by scholars
such as Malinowski who proved that even Trobriand Islanders were rational. Apart from this,
Frazer was termed armchair anthropologists as his work did not involve any fieldwork.

`
8. (c). “Function of an institution is to satisfy human needs”. In the light of the statement, discuss
functional analysis of Malinowski.
(15 Marks)
Approach:
In this question the given statement can be explained by discussing the functional approach
of Malinowski. One has to describe various types of needs as categorized by Malinowski
along with cultural response so as to prove that every cultural trait exists to satisfy needs. In
conclusion, the summary of above discussion can be provided.
Part 1 Discuss the concept of functionalism.
Part 2 Explain three types of needs given by Malinowski. Also give suitable examples
of needs and associated cultural responses
Part 3 Establish how institutions fulfill the needs of humans. Discuss how their
interlinkages form the culture as a whole.
Introduction:
Malinowski is the founder of cultural functionalism. According to him, each and every trait of
culture exists in order to serve the needs of an individual in a society. Hence, he concludes
that function of culture is to satisfy the needs of humans.
The functionalist approach rejected the earlier principles of reconstruction of the past, concept
of survivals, psychic unity of mankind given by evolutionists. Functionalism attempts to
analyse culture from a utility point of view. It attempts to find out the correlation between
needs of a man and cultural response.
Body:
Malinowski postulated that the function of any institution is to satisfy the needs of
humans. In this regard, he classified the needs in following manner:

`
1. Basic needs: These are the most primary needs which arise due to the biological makeup
of human beings. For instance, metabolism, hunger, bodily comfort, reproduction, sex etc.
are basic needs.
Malinowski also correlated these needs with cultural responses:
Basic need Cultural response
Metabolism Commensality
Bodily comforts Shelter
Safety Protection
Movement Activities
Growth Training
Health Hygiene
2. Secondary needs: These needs are also known as derived needs since they emerge from
primary needs. Some of the derived needs are transmission of culture, communication,
social control, organization of collective activities.
For secondary needs, he mentioned following cultural responses:
Secondary need Cultural response
Communication Language
Social control Social sanctions, laws, norms, customs
Organization of collective activity Leadership, cooperation
Transmission of culture Education, enculturation activities
3. Integrative needs: These needs arise because human beings are part of a society which is
characterized by cooperation and interdependence. These needs emerge from the
necessity of origin on the social, ideological and aesthetic levels.
Cultural responses from integrative needs can be described as following:
Tertiary need Cultural response
Relaxation, aesthetic experiences Recreational activities, ceremonial activities
Confidence, feeling of togetherness Magic, religion, rituals

`
Conclusion:
Therefore, one can observe that Malinowski always believed that there was a relationship
between a cultural response and a human need whether it is basic, derived or integrated.
According to him, function cannot be defined in any other way than the satisfaction of a need
by a cultural response.
He believes that a unit of human organization is an institution. The satisfaction of human

need is at the core of these institutions. Each institution does not only fulfill certain needs but
in combination with other institutions, it fulfills other needs too. In this way, a whole culture
develops with the inter-linkages of institutions.

BYJU’S students in UPSC CSE 2020
Congratulations to our toppers
02 Ranks in
Top 10 06 Ranks in
Top 25 18 Ranks in
Top 50 36 Ranks in
Top 100
RANK 02 RANK 08 RANK 13 RANK 14

Jagrati Kartik Gaurav Karishma
Awasthi Jivani Budania Nair
Incredible results year after year!

Selected candidates from BYJU'S
2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020

62 out of 82 out of 162 out of 215 out of 236 out of 183 out of 165 out of 281 out of
1228 vacancies 1364 vacancies 1164 vacancies 1209 vacancies 1058 vacancies 812 vacancies 829 vacancies 761 vacancies
To book a FREE COUNSELLING SESSION with our IAS Mentors call: 9241333666
Visit https://byjus.com/ias/ for more details
byjus.com
Awards
VCCIRCLE
AWA R D S
Education Company Business Standard Google Play’s ‘Best Self Improvement’

Of The Year 2016, 2018 Start-up of the year 2017 App in India – 2016
Google Design Deloitte Technology Fast 50 India

Award 2018 and Fast 500 Asia Award Year
NASSCOM Design4India Design
Award 2018 for the ‘Best Design’
2012, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016, Express IT Awards for IT newsmaker
Mobile Category – 2018
2017 of the year 2017

Byju'S Ias: Mains Test Series

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Byju'S Ias: Mains Test Series

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Byju'S Ias: Mains Test Series

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

BYJU’S IAS

MAINS TEST SERIES

ANTHROPOLOGY (MTS-ANT-01) EXPLANATION

1. (a) Relationship between anthropology and behavioral sciences

Part 1 Define anthropology and behavioral science

Part 2 Similarities between anthropology and behavioral science

Part 3 Difference between these two

Part 4 Influence of each on others

Main Test Series (MTS-ANT-01) 1

However, anthropology has more scope than behavioral science because

Main Test Series (MTS-ANT-01) 2

1. (b) Linguistic anthropology

Part 1 Define linguistic anthropology and its evolution in brief

Part 2 Philosophy behind this field of anthropology

Part 3 Sub-branches of linguistic anthropology

Part 4 Conclusion signifying importance of this field in overall anthropology as a

Evolution of Linguistic anthropology

Following are broad themes which are covered by linguistic anthropology:

Main Test Series (MTS-ANT-01) 3

The branch of linguistic anthropology can be divided into following sub-branches:

1. Structural Linguistics: explores differences between contemporary languages from the

Main Test Series (MTS-ANT-01) 4

Part 1 Define Band as a political organization.

Part 2 Write characteristics of band

Part 3 Summarize the above discussion

Characteristics of bands are as follows:

Main Test Series (MTS-ANT-01) 5

4. Egalitarianism: there is a horizontal power structure in bands and every member is

Main Test Series (MTS-ANT-01) 6

1. (d) Non-verbal communication

Part 1 Define Non-verbal communication. Highlight the importance of this in brief.

Part 2 Mention various types of non-verbal communications. Try to put examples in

Non-verbal communication is nonlinguistic transmission of information through visual,

Non-verbal communication is an integral part of overall communication. It is considered to

Like in verbal communication, Non-verbal communication also involves decoding and

Following are major types of non-verbal communication:

Main Test Series (MTS-ANT-01) 7

Main Test Series (MTS-ANT-01) 8

1. (e) Unilinear evolution

Part 1 Define evolution, cultural evolution and unilinear evolution

Part 2 Describe assumptions and postulates of unilinear evolutions

Part 3 Discuss various evolutionary paths suggested by anthropologists such as

Part 4 Summarize the above discussion by outlining the significance of this

Cultural evolution is a process by which different successive forms in socio-cultural

According to these unilinear evolutionary schemes, human beings inhabited at different

Main Test Series (MTS-ANT-01) 9

Similarly, a unilinear evolutionary scheme was applied to demonstrate historical sequences of

According to Frazer, magic is a feature of primitive societies while science is a feature of

Main Test Series (MTS-ANT-01) 10

2. (a) “Industrialization has impacted family as an institution”. Critically analyze.

Part 1 Family needs to be defined in anthropological terms. Briefly touch the

Part 4 Provide a balanced conclusion at the end

The impacts caused by industrialization can be described as following:

Main Test Series (MTS-ANT-01) 11

6. Sense of mistrust and independence

Family as an institution ensures socialization of children and provides emotional support to

Main Test Series (MTS-ANT-01) 12

Part 1 Introduction of culture and civilization either through definition or by

Part 2 Differences between culture and civilization