2

SECOND YEAR BOTANY – CHAPTER WEIGHTAGE

UNIT CHAPTER SCORE WEIGHT

VI 2 SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN FLOWERING PLANTS 8

11 BIOTECHNOLOGY : PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 8

IX

12 BIOTECHNOLOGY AND ITS APPLICATIONS 8

13 ORGANISMS AND POPULATIONS 8

14 ECOSYSTEM 7

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Chapter – 1
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN FLOWERING PLANTS

Structure of microsporangium:
Each microsporangium surrounded by four wall layers
➢ Epidermis – Outermost layer provide protection.
➢ Endothecium:
contains radially elongated, compactly arranged hygroscopic cells which helps in the
protection and dehiscence of anther.
➢ Middle layer – multilayered and provide protection.
➢ Tapetum.
The innermost layer is tapetum which is multinucleated, with dense cytoplasm; it nourishes
the developing pollen grains.
The centers of each microsporangium contain homogenous cells called sporogenous tissues.

Pollen grain:
• Pollen grain represents the male gametophytes.
• It is spherical and measuring about 25-50 micrometer in
diameter.
• It is covered by two layers.
• The hard outer layer called the exine is made up of
sporopollenin, which is the most resistant organic material. It
can withstand high temperature and strong acids and alkali. No
enzyme can degrade sporopollenin.
• The exine has prominent apertures called germ pore where sporopollenin is absent.
• The inner wall of pollen grain is called intine. It is thin and continuous layer made up of cellulose
and pectin.
• On maturity, the pollen grain contains two cells, the vegetative cell and generative cell.
• The vegetative cell is bigger, has abundant food reserve and a large irregularly shaped nucleus.
• The generative cell is small and floats in the cytoplasm of vegetative cell.
• In 60% of angiosperms, pollen grains are shed at this 2-celled stage.
• In others the generative cell divides mitotically to form two male gametes and pollen grain are
usually shed 3-celled stage.

The Megasporangium (Ovule):

• Ovule is a small structure attached to the placenta of locule with a stalk called funicle.
• The body of the ovule fused with the funicle in the region called hilum.
• Hilum is the junction between the funicle and ovule.
• Each ovule has one or two protective envelops called integuments.

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• Integument covered the ovule except an opening at the tip

called micropyle.
• Opposite of the micropylar end, is the chalaza,
representing the basal part of the ovule.

Megasporogenesis:
• The process of formation of megaspores from the megaspore
mother cell (MMC) is called megasporogenesis.
• In the center of the ovule there is a mass of tissue called
nucellus.
• Cells of nucellus have abundant reserve food materials.
• One cell of the nucellus towards micropylar end differentiated into megaspore mother cell (MMC).
• It is a large diploid cell, dense cytoplasm with prominent nucleus.
• The MMC undergo meiotic division resulting four haploid megaspores.
Female gametophyte:
• Out of four megaspores, one megaspore is functional and other three degenerates.
• The functional megaspore developed into the female gametophyte.
• Female gametophyte is known as the embryo sac.
• Development of embryo sac from a single megaspore is called as monosporic development.
• The nucleus of the functional megaspore divided by mitotic division to form two nuclei which move
to the opposite poles, 2-nucleated embryo sac.
• Two successive mitotic division leads to formation of 4-nucleate and later 8-nucleate stages of the
embryo sac.
• All mitotic divisions are free nuclear type; karyokinesis is not followed by cytokinesis.
• Six of the eight nuclei are surrounded by cell walls and organized into cells.
• Three cells are grouped together at the micropylar end, constitute the egg apparatus.
• The egg apparatus, in turn consists of two synergids and one egg cell.
• Synergids have special filiform apparatus, which play an important role in guiding the entry of
pollen tube into the synergids.
• Three cells arranged towards chalazal end are called antipodal cells.
• The large central cell has two polar nuclei.
• A typical angiosperm embryo sac at maturity is 8- nucleated and 7-celled.
Pollination:
• Transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of a pistil is termed as pollination.
• Both male and female gametes are non-motile.
Kinds of pollination:
1. Autogamy:
Pollination within same flower.
In open and exposed anthers and stigma autogamy is rare.
Viola, Oxalis and Commelina produce two types of flowers:
• Chasmogamous: Flowers with exposed anther and stigma.
• Cleistogamous: Flowers with enclosed anther and stigma.
Cleistogamous flower is invariably autogamous and assured seed set even in the absence
of the pollinator.

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2. Geitonogamy:
Pollination between two flowers of the same plant.
Pollinating agents helps to effect pollination.
Genetically similar to the autogamy.
3. Xenogamy:
Transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of different plant.
It is commonly called as cross-pollination.
It brings genetically different pollen to stigma.
Agents of pollination:
Plant use abiotic agents (wind and water) and biotic agents (animals) for pollination.
Majority of plants use biotic agents for pollination.
Adaptations for Anemophily (Pollinating agent is wind) :-.
• Plants produces enormous amount of pollen.
• Flowers with well exposed stamens.
• Large feathery stigma to trap air-borne pollen grains.
• Most wind pollinated flowers contain single ovule in one ovary and numerous flowers packed
into an inflorescence e.g. corn cob.
• Pollen grains are light and non-sticky.
Adaptations for Hydrophily (Pollination by abiotic agent like water) :-
This type of pollination is very rare, about 30 genera, mostly monocot.
Vallisneria, Hydrilla and Zostera are the common example for Hydrophily.
All aquatic plants doesn’t show Hydrophily.
• in Vallisneria pollen grains released into the surface of water and carried to the stigma by air
current.
• In sea grass the flowers remains submerged.
• Pollen grains are long, ribbon like and carried passively inside the water
• Pollen grains are protected from wetting by mucilaginous covering.
Adaptations for Pollination by animals
Bees are the dominant biotic agents for pollination.
• Insect pollinating flowers are very large, colorful, fragrant and rich in nectar.
• Small flowers present in cluster to make them conspicuous.
• Flower pollinated by flies and beetles secrete foul odour.
• Nectar and pollen grains are the usual floral rewards for insects.
• In some species, flower provide floral rewards by providing safe places to lay eggs: e.g.
Amorphophallus.
A species of moth and Yucca plant cannot complete their life cycle without each other.
The moth deposits its eggs in the locule of the ovary and the flower in turn get pollinated by the moth.
Many insects may consume pollen or nectar without bring about pollination. Such floral visitors are
referred as pollen/nectar robbers.

Artificial hybridization:
One of the major approaches of crop improvement programme.
Only desired pollen grain used for pollination.
Stigma is protected from contamination (from unwanted pollen grain).
Removal of anthers from the flower bud before the anther dehisces is called emasculation.

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Emasculated flowers covered by bag generally made up of butter paper, to prevent contamination.
This step is called bagging.
Pollen grains collected from desired male parent are dusted after the stigma of emasculated flower
attain receptivity. This step is called artificial pollination.
After artificial pollination female flower is rebagged.
Double fertilization:
After entering one of the synergids, the pollen tube releases two male gametes into the cytoplasm of
the synergids.
Syngamy: One of the male gamete fused with egg cell, to form a diploid zygote.
Triple fusion: Two polar nuclei of central cell fused to form a diploid secondary nucleus.
The second male gamete fused with the secondary nucleus to form a triploid primary endosperm
nucleus (PEN).
Since syngamy and triple fusion take place in the embryo sac, the phenomenon is termed as double
fertilization.
The central cell after triple fusion becomes primary endosperm cell and developed into the
endosperm.
The zygote developed into an embryo.
Embryo:
Zygote formed and placed at the micropylar end of the embryo sac.
Zygote starts its development only after some amount of endosperm formed.
Embryo development takes place in following stages:
• Proembryo
• Globular embryo
• Heart embryo
• Matured embryo
Dicot embryo:
• A typical dicotyledonous embryo consists of an embryonal axis and two cotyledons.
• Embryonal axis above the cotyledon is the epicotyls.
• Terminal part of the epicotyls is the plumule (gives rise to the shoot).
• Embryonal axis below the cotyledon is the hypocotyl.
• The terminal part of the hypocotyl is called the radicle gives rise to the root system).
• The root tip is covered by the root cap.
Monocot embryo:
• Possesses only one cotyledon
• Single large cotyledon is called Scutellum.
• Scutellum situated towards one side of the embryonal axis.
• Radicle and the root cap enclosed by a sheath called Coleorhiza.
• The portion of the embryonal axis above level of attachment of scutellum is called Epicotyls.
• Epicotyl has the shoot apex or plumule enclosed by hollow foliar structure called Coleoptile.
Fruit developed from the ovary is called true fruit.
In apple, strawberry, cashew, the thalamus contributes in the fruit formation and such fruits are called
False fruit.
Fruit developed without fertilization is called parthenocarpic fruits.
Eg :- Pineapple, banana, cucumber, grape, watermelon, orange, grapefruit, pear.

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CHAPTER – 2
BIOTECHNOLOGY: PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES

Biotechnology is the application of technology in living organisms to produce or modify a product or a process
useful to mankind.
Concepts
➢ Tools of rDNA technology
➢ Processes of rDNA technology
Tools of rDNA technology
1. ENZYMES
2. CLONING VECTOR
3. COMPETENT HOST
1. ENZYMES

Types of enzyme Example Function

Exonucleases Cut off nucleotide from the terminal end of DNA
Endonucleases Make cuts at specific position of single strand within the DNA
Cleaving Enzymes
Restriction
Make cut on both strand at specific position of DNA.
Endonucleases
Joining Enzyme DNA Ligases Used to join (Ligation) cut ends of double stranded DNA.
Lysozyme Break the cell wall of bacteria
Cellulase Break the cell wall of plant cell
Lysing Enzyme Chitinase Break the cell wall of fungus
Protease Break down of protein in the cell
Ribonuclease Break down the RNA in the cell
Restriction Endonucleases
• First isolated and characterised restriction endonuclease is Hind II
• They cut at specific nucleotide base pair sequence (4-6 bp) of double stranded DNA called recognition
sequence.
• Recognition sequence of endonuclease enzymes is called palindromic nucleotide sequence.
• palindromic nucleotide sequence :- Complementary DNA sequences that are same when each strand
is read in same direction (5’-3’) are called palindromic nucleotide.
Eg:- 5’ -------GAATTC ------ 3’
3’ -------CTTAAG -------5’ ACTIVITY OF EcoR
• Rule for naming of Restriction Endonuclease Enzyme
 Ist letter - First letter in the genus of the bacteria
from which the enzyme is derived.
 II & III letters
nd rd
- First two letters from the species of the
organism.
 IV letter
th
- First letter of the strain of bacteria.
 Roman number - Order of isolation.
EG:- EcoRI - derived from Escherichia coli RY 13 and it is Ist to be isolated.
E - Escherichia co - coli R- RY 13 strain I- First order of isolation
• The overhanging stretch of DNA produced on the palindromic sequence by endonuclease activity
is called sticky ends.

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Processes of rDNA technology

▪ Isolation of DNA.
▪ Fragmentation of DNA using restriction endonucleases.
▪ Separation & Isolation of desired gene by Gel Electrophoresis.
▪ Amplification of desired gene using Polymerase Chain
Reaction (PCR).
▪ Ligation of the DNA fragment into a vector.
▪ Transferring the recombinant DNA into the host.
▪ Large scale aseptic culture of transformed cell.
▪ Downstream processing.

Gel Electrophoresis
▪ Gel Electrophoresis is used for the isolation and separation of DNA
fragment.
▪ DNA fragments are negatively charged, hence it move towards the
positively charged anode through a matrix/medium.
▪ Most commonly used matrix or medium is AGAROSE.
▪ DNA fragment separate according to its charge and size.
▪ Separated fragment can be visualised as orange coloured band by
exposing to UV light after staining with Ethydium Bromide.
▪ Separated DNA fragments are cut out from the gel and extracted.
This step is called elution.

Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)

▪ In-vitro amplification of desired gene is done by the

technique namely PCR.
▪ Amplification is the process artificial synthesis of
multiple copies of desired gene.
Steps in PCR
A. Denaturation
Separation of complimentary strand of DNA at high
temperature.
B. Annealing
Pairing of primer to the separated DNA strand is
called annealing.
C. Extension
Addition of complimentary nucleotides to ends of
primer with the help of Taq polymerase is called
extension.
Taq Polymerase : heat stable (thermostable) DNA
polymerase enzyme isolated from thermophilic
bacterium, Thermus aquaticus.
Primers : Artificially synthesised oligonucleotide
sequence complimentary to the regions of DNA.

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Obtaining the Foreign Gene Product

• The ultimate aim of recombinant DNA technology is to produce a desirable product.

• After cloning the gene of interest, the conditions are optimized to produce the product/protein from
the gene.
• Recombinant Protein :- If any protein encoding gene is expressed in a heterologous host is called
recombinant protein.
• Two types of aseptic culture are maintained in order to produce the recombinant product.
• Small Scale Culture.
• Continuous Culture System.
Small Scale Culture.
• Small Scale Culture are employed in laboratory.
• It provide less yield of products compared to continuous culture.
• The product is purified using different extraction techniques.

Continuous Culture System.

• The large scale production of recombinant product can be obtained through continuous culture.
• In Continuous Culture, used medium can be drained out from one side while fresh medium is added
from other side.
• Cells are always maintained in log/exponential phase of growth.
• It provide high yield of products compared to small scale culture.
• Bioreactors are commonly used for continuous culture.
• Bioreactor provide optimal condition for large scale production of products.

Bioreactors
They are used for large scale production of products by continuous culture method.
It is a large vessel in which raw materials are converted biologically into specific product.
Components of Bioreactor
1. Agitator system,
2. Oxygen delivery system
3. Foam control system
4. Temperature and PH control system
5. Sampling port.
Two type of bioreactors are,
Simple stirred tank bioreactor in which a flat bladed stirrer mixes the oxygen throughout the reactor.
Sparged stirred tank bioreactor in which air is bubbled so that it increases the oxygen transfer area.

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CHAPTER – 3
BIOTECHNOLOGY AND ITS APPLICATIONS

The application of biotechnology for the welfare of man include

1. Therapeutics 2. Diagnostics
3. Genetically modified crops 3. Processed Food
4. Bioremediation 5. Waste management
5. Energy production
Application of Biotechnology

Application in agriculture Application in Medicine Transgenic Animals

1. Bt Cotton 1. Genetically Engineered Insulin
2. Pest Resistant Plant 2. Gene Therapy
3. Molecular Diagnosis
Genetically Modified Organism (GMO)
An organism (bacteria, fungi, plants or animals) whose genetic material is altered is called Genetically
Modified Organism.
Application of Biotechnology in Agriculture
Genetically engineered crop plants revolutionized present day agriculture.
Importance of GM plant in agriculture are,
o Made crops tolerant to abiotic stress (cold, drought, salt & temperature).
o Develop pest resistance.
o Helped to produce reduce post-harvest losses.
o Enhanced nutritional value of food. Eg :- Vitamin ‘A’ enriched rice
o Increased efficiency of mineral usage by plants.
Bt COTTON
Bt Cotton:- a genetically modified cotton plant with insecticidal protein producing gene from the
bacteria Bacillus thuringiensis.
Bt represent Bacillus thuringiensis.
cry gene :- insecticidal protein of the Bacillus thuringiensis is coded by the gene namely cry gene.
cry toxin :- Insecticidal crystalline toxic protein produced by the ‘cry gene’ of B. thuringiensis.
The toxin is also known as Bt toxin.
Activity of Bt Toxin
The Bt toxin is produced by the bacteria as inactive protoxin.
The inactive protoxin is converted into active toxin when ingested by the insect.
This conversion is mediated by the alkaline PH of insects gut.
Active Bt toxin binds to the gut epithelium and causes cell lysis leading to insect’s death.
Inactive Protoxin Alkaline PH of Insects gut active toxin gut epithelial cell lysis lead to insect death
Type of cry gene
cryAb gene - control corn borer.
cryAc gene & cryAb gene - control cotton bollworms.

 Applications of Biotechnology in Medicine

rDNA technology revolutionized the health care by producing safe and effective drugs.

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Recombinant drugs are free from side effects compared to animal derived products.
a. Genetically Engineered Insulin (Humulin)
Insulin is a protein hormone secreted by pancreas to control glucose level in blood.
Deficiency of insulin leads to diabetes mellitus.
Insulin Injection is used for the treatment of Diabetic patient.
 Oral administration of insulin is not advised, since
insulin is a protein it should be digested by the enzymes
of alimentary canal.
 In human body Insulin is produced as inactive Pro-
insulin or pro-hormone.
 The pro-insulin contain three polypeptide chain; A
chain, B chain and C chain.
 In active insulin C chain is removed and A and B chain
are linked by disulphide linkage.
 Insulin from an animal sources may cause allergy in some patients.
 The major challenge for the production of Human insulin by rDNA technology was assemble the
A and B polypeptide.
 Human insulin by rDNA technology was first prepared by an American company Eli Lilly in 1983.
Steps in the preparation of Human Insulin (rDNA technology)
1. Eli Lilly Company prepared DNA sequences corresponding to A and B chain of insulin.
2. A and B Chain DNA were introduced in plasmid of E.coli to produce the A and B chains.
3. Chain A and B were produced separately.
4. Chain A and B were extracted and combined by creating disulphide bonds
b. Gene Therapy
Collection of methods that allow correction of a defective gene diagnosed in human is called gene
therapy.
ADA deficiency
▪ Adenosine DeAaminase – is an important enzyme involved in the functioning and
maintenance of immune system.
▪ First clinical gene therapy was given in 1990 to a 4 year old girl with ADA deficiency.
▪ ADA deficiency is due to deletion of gene for adenosine deaminase enzyme.
▪ ADA deficiency can be treated by 3 methods
1. Enzyme replacement therapy. 2. Bone marrow transplantation. 3. Gene therapy.
Treatment by enzyme replacement and bone marrow transplantation are not completely curative.
Steps involved in Gene therapy Treatment of ADA deficiency
➢ Lymphocytes from the patients were isolated.
➢ In vitro culturing of isolated lymphocytes.
➢ Using retroviral vector cDNA (complimentary DNA) of functional ADA gene was introduced into the
lymphocyte.
➢ Lymphocyte with functional ADA gene was returned to patient’s blood.
➢ Periodic infusions of genetically engineered lymphocyte into patient since the cells are mortal.
ADA deficiency can be completely cured if ADA producing gene isolated from bone marrow cells is
introduced into cells at early embryonic stage.

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CHAPTER – 4
ORGANISMS AND POPULATIONS

Ecology is basically concerned with four levels of biological organization-organisms, populations,

communities and biomes.

POPULATIONS :- is a group of individuals of same species sharing similar resources.

population attributes - birth rates and death rates, sex ratio, Population size, age distribution.
1. Birth and death rates In a population birth and death rates refer to per capita births and deaths,
respectively.
2. Sex ratio. A population have characteristic ratio of male and females. If the age distribution is plotted
for the population, the resulting structure is called an age pyramid The shape of the pyramids reflects
the growth status of the population - (a) whether it is growing, (b) stable or (c) declining.
3. Population size- Population size or population density is the size of a population for any species. It is
not a static. It keeps changing in time. The density of a population in a given habitat during a given
period fluctuates due to changes in four basic processes, natality and immigration contribute an
increase in population density and mortality and emigration decrease the population size.
Natality refers to the number of births, Mortality is the number of deaths ,Immigration is the number
of individuals of the same species that come into the habitat from other population., Emigration is the
number of individuals of the population who left the habitat .
So, if N is the population density at time t, then its density at time t + 1 is
Nt+1 = Nt + [(B + I) – (D + E)]
Population density will increase if the number of births plus the number of immigrants (B + I) is more
than the number of deaths plus the number of emigrants (D + E).
AGE PYRAMIDS FACTORS AFFECTING POPULATION DENSITY

Growth Models

Exponential or geometric growth :-The population grows in an exponential or geometric growth pattern
of a population results in a J-shaped curve . Any species growing exponentially under unlimited resource
conditions can reach enormous population densities in a short time.

Growth rate of an exponential growth is dN/dt = (b-d)N

Let (b-d) = r , then the equation becomes, dN/dt = rN / Nt = Noert
r = intrinsic rate of natural increase.

2. Logistic growth (Verhulst-Pearl Logistic growth or Sigmoid Growth)

In nature, a given habitat has enough resources to support a maximum possible number, beyond which
no further growth is possible. Let us call this limit as nature’s carrying capacity (K) for that species in
that habitat. A population growing in a habitat with limited resources show initially a lag phase, followed
by phases of acceleration and deceleration and finally an asymptote, when the population density
reaches the carrying capacity.

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Growth rate of an exponential growth is

𝐊−𝑵
dN/dt = rN [ ]
𝐊
N = Population density at time t, r = intrinsic rate of natural increase, K = Carrying capacity.
Population Interaction

Species A Species B Name of Interaction Feature

+ + MUTUALISM Both species gets benefited
– – COMPETITION Both species are harmed
+ – PREDATION One species get benefited (Predator) other harmed (Prey).
+ – PARASITISM One species get benefited (Parasite) other harmed (Host).
+ 0 COMMENSALISM One species get benefited other neither benefited nor harmed.
– 0 AMMENSALISM One species get harmed other neither benefited nor harmed.
Parasitism:
Many parasites have to be host-specific in such a way that both host and parasite tend to co evolve.
Special adaptations of parasites-
• The loss of unnecessary sense organs, presence of adhesive organs or suckers to cling on to
the host, Loss of digestive system and high reproductive capacity.
• The life cycles of parasites are often complex, involving one or two intermediate hosts or
vectors to facilitate parasitisation of its primary host.

1. Ectoparasites- Parasites that feed on the external surface of the host organism are called
ectoparasites. Eg- lice on humans and ticks on dogs. Many marine fish are infested with
ectoparasitic copepods. Cuscuta , a parasitic plant that lost its chlorophyll .
2. Endoparasites -are those that live inside the host body at different sites (liver, kidney, lungs, red
blood cells, etc.). Life cycle is more complex. Morphological and anatomical features are greatly
simplified. Highly developed reproductive system.
3. Brood parasitism - In which the parasitic bird lays its eggs in the nest of its host and lets the host
incubate them.
Commensalism: One species benefits and the other is neither harmed nor benefited.
Eg :- 1. An orchid growing as an epiphyte on a mango tree.
2. barnacles growing on the back of a whale.
3. The cattle-egret and grazing cattle in close association.
4. The interaction between sea anemone and the clown fish.
Mutualism: (++) Eg.1. Lichens- It is interaction between a fungus and photosynthesizing algae or
cyanobacteria.2. Mycorrhizae are associations between fungi and the roots of higher plants. 3.
Plant-animal relationships -. Plants need the help of animals for pollinating their flowers and
dispersing their seeds. Plants offer rewards or fees in the form of pollen and nectar and juicy and
nutritious fruits .
Co-evolution- the evolutions of the flower and its pollinator species are tightly linked with one another.
A fig species can be pollinated only by its ‘partner’ wasp species. The female wasp uses the fruit not
only as an ovipositor (egg-laying) site but uses the developing seeds within the fruit for nourishing
its larvae. In tern the wasp pollinates the fig inflorescence. Orchids show diversity of floral patterns
many of which have evolved to attract the right pollinator insect.
Sexual deceit:- orchid Ophrys employs ‘sexual deceit’. Petal of the flower resembles the female bee. The
male bee attracted to what it perceives as a female, pseudo copulates with another flower.
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CHAPTER – 5

ECOSYSTEM

Ecosystem is a functional unit of nature, where living and nonliving components interact together.
Ecosystem have structural and functional components.
Types of Ecosystems
ECOSYSTEM

Natural Man-made (Artificial)

Terrestrial Aquatic Eg :- 1. Crop field

Eg :- 1. Forest 1. Pond 2. Aquarium
2. Grassland 2. Lake
3. Deserts 3. Wetland
Components of the ecosystem

(i) Productivity; (ii) Decomposition; (iii) Energy flow; and (iv) Nutrient cycling.

1. PRODUCTIVITY :-
Primary productivity :- The rate of biomass or organic matter produced per unit area over a time
period by plants during photosynthesis is called primary productivity. It is expressed in weight
(gm/m–2) or energy (kcal m-2).
Primary productivity divided into
Gross primary productivity – The rate of total production of organic matter during photosynthesis by
plants.
Net primary productivity - Gross primary productivity minus respiration losses (R) is the net primary
productivity.
Secondary productivity - rate of formation of new organic matter by consumers.
Annual net primary productivity of whole biosphere is about 170 billion tons (dry weight) of organic
matter and primary productivity of the oceans are only 55 billion tons.
GPP – R = NPP
Factors affecting primary productivity
1. The plant species inhabiting an area. 2. Environmental factors. 3. Availability of nutrients.
4. Photosynthetic capacity of plants.

2. DECOMPOSITION :-
It is the breakdown of complex organic matter by decomposers into inorganic substances like CO2,
water and nutrients. It is largely an oxygen-requiring process.
The important steps of decomposition are fragmentation, leaching, catabolism, Humification and
mineralization.
1. Fragmentation : Break down of detritus into smaller particles by detritivores (earthworm).
2. Leaching: Water soluble inorganic nutrients go down into the soil horizon and get precipitated as
unavailable salts.
3. Catabolism : Bacterial and fungal enzymes degrade detritus into simple inorganic substances.
4. Humification : Accumulation of dark colored amorphous substances called humus is formed in this
stage.

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Importance of humus: It is highly resistance to microbial action. It undergo decomposition at an

extremely slow rate. Being colloidal in nature, it serves as reservoir for nutrients.
5. Mineralization : The humus is further degraded by some microbes and release of inorganic nutrients.

Factors affecting decomposition – 1. Oxygen-requiring process. 2. Controlled by chemical composition

of detritus 3. climatic factors.
Decomposition rate is slower if rich in lignin and chitin, and quicker, if rich in nitrogen and water-soluble
substances like sugars. Temperature and soil moisture are most important climatic factor that regulate
decomposition Warm and moist environment favor decomposition.

3. ENERGY FLOW
Sun is the only source of energy for all ecosystems on Earth. Less than 50% of incident solar
radiation is photo synthetically active radiations (PAR). Plants capture only 2-10 per cent of the
PAR. Energy transfer is not absolute, and spontaneous, unless energy is degraded it cannot be
transfer. When energy transferred from one trophic level to another, lot of energy lost in the form
of heat to the environment.
Law of 10 percentage :- Only 10% of energy is transferred from one trophic level to other.
Flows of solar energy through different organisms in an ecosystem- Unidirectional flow of energy
from the sun to producers and then to consumers.

Food chains
The transfer of energy through a series of organisms linked by the process of eating and being
eaten is known as the food chain.
Types of food chain

1. Gracing food chain (GFC) —Starts with producers (green plants) Eg. Grass→Goat→Man
2. Detritus food chain (DFC) —Starts with detritus Eg. Detritus→Detritivores

Consumers / Heterotrophs
Starting from the plants, (producers) food chains are formed in order to transfer energy. All animals
depend on plants (directly or indirectly) for their food needs. They are hence called consumers and
are heterotrophs.
Primary consumers
If they feed on the producers, the plants, they are
called primary consumers.
Secondary consumers
If the animals eat herbivores are called secondary
consumers.
Trophic level
Based on the source of their nutrition or food,
organisms occupy a specific place in the food chain
that is known as their trophic level.
Producers belong to the first trophic level,
herbivores to the second trophic level and carnivores to the third trophic level. The amount of
energy decreases at successive trophic levels.

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Food Web
Several food chains are interconnected to form a network called food web.

Ecological Pyramid
It is the graphical representation of ecological parameters like number of organisms, biomass
and energy at different trophic levels in a food chain.
The base of the pyramid represents producers/first trophic level where as the top of the pyramid
represents top level consumers.
An ecological pyramid may be Upright or Inverted.
Pyramid of Number :-
Ecological pyramid based on the number of organism in each
trophic level.
Pyramid of number is upright for grass land ecosystem but
inverted for single tree ecosystem.

Pyramid of Biomass:-

Ecological pyramid based on the biomass of organism in

each trophic level.
Pyramid of biomass is upright for grass land ecosystem
but inverted for sea ecosystem.

Pyramid of Energy :-
Ecological pyramid based on the amount of energy in each trophic
level.
It is always upright. Because, when energy flows from one trophic
level to the next level some energy is lost as heat at each step. It
always follow law of 10%.

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