9-Bacterial Genetics Given Out

Bacterial Genetics
Genetics is the study of heredity and how genes are regulated

and their effects on the structure and function of bacteria.
Changes in the genes of a DNA molecule are referred to as
mutations. Genes are responsible for producing the proteins and
enzymes necessary for the chemical activities of the cell. A
change in the amino acid sequence of a protein or enzyme may result
in a nonfunctional protein-or enzyme.
Genetic Recombination
Genetic recombination is the transfer of genetic material from
one cell, which is called the donor cell, to another cell called
the recipient cell. It results in the exchange of genes to form
new combinations of genes on a chromosome. Genetic recombination
greatly increases the genetic diversity of microorganisms. When
microoorganisms are subjected to changing environmental conditions,
genetic diversity increases the likelihood that some microorganisms
will adapt.
There are three types of genetic recombination:
i. conju~ation - It is very common in Gram-negative bacteria
and it is the major mechanism for the transfer of drug resistance
in Gram-negative bacteria. Conjugation is the direct transfer of
DNA from a donor bacterial cell to a recipient bacterial cell. The
main type of conjugation involves cells of different mating types
and the transfer of the ~ plasmid (fertility factor). Cells which
contain the F plasmid are the donor cells and are referred to as F+
cells. Recipient cells do not contain the F plasmid and are
referred to as Y cells. The F+ cell forms a sex pilus which
attaches to the F" cell. Once contact is made, the F plasmid
replicates and one strand passes through the sex pilus to the F"
cell. The F" cell becomes an F+ cell and can conjugate with an F"
cell.
Some cells that contain the F plasmid incorporate it into
their bacterial chromosome and the resulting cell is referred to as
a ~ frequency o__f recombination or Hfr cell. Part of the
bacterial chromosome and F plasmid are transferred to the F" cell
and incorporated into its bacterial chromosome. It remains an F"
cell because it does not have an F plasmid.
In other cases, the entire F plasmid and part of the bacterial
chromosome is transferred to the F" cell and remains separate from
the F" cells" bacterial chromosome. The cell is referred to as an
F_~" (prime) cell.
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2. transduction - It is the transfer of DNA from a donor
bacterial cell to a recipient bacterial cell by a bacteriophaqe.
There are three major types of transduction:
a. Iysoqeny - The bacteriophage is specifically called a
temperate Dha~e. It injects its DNA into a bacterial cell and it
is incorporated into the bacterial chromosome. The viral DNA that
is incorporated into the bacterial DNA is referred to as a
prophaqe. The prophage produces a repressor substance that
prevents destruction of the bacterial chromosome and the integrated
viral DNA is duplicated along w~th the bacterial chromosome during
cell division. The viral DNA may become active again and viral
replication occurs. The process is referred to as induction.
b. ~eneralized transduction - During the maturation stage of
viral replication within a bacterial cell, part of the bacterial
chromosome may accidentally be assembled with a capsid instead of
the viral DNA. When the virus is released and attaches to another
bacterial cell, the bacterial DNA is injected into the cell and may
combine with the bacterial chromosome of that cell.
c. specialized transduction - Only specific genes are
transferred by the bacteriophage. The bacteriophage injects its
DNA into a bacterial cell and it becomes incorporated into the
bacterial chromosome. The prophage is removed from the bacterial
chromosome and takes a gene or genes from the bacterial chromosome
with it. The virus reproduces and they are released. They infect
new cells and the DNA is incorporated into the bacterial chromosome
of another cell. The genes from the previous host bacterial cell
become active.
3. transformation - Transformation occurs in less than 1% of

bacteria. They include Bacillus, Haemophilus, Neisseria, and
Streptococcus. When bacteria die, their DNA is released and it is
referred to as naked DNA. Fragments ~f the naked DNA are taken in
through the cell wall of another bacterial cell and incorporated
into its chromosome.
Antibiotic Resistance
Resistance to antibiotics may be passed between closely
related species of bacteria through plasmids called ~ (resistance)
factors.. Most transfers occur by transduction and some occur by
conjugation. R factors may contain a gene that produces an enzyme
which inactivates one type of antibiotic or they may contain
several genes which produce enzymes that inactivate several
antibiotics.
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Bacterial Transposons "jumping genes"
Transposons are small segments of DNA which may move from the
bacterial chromosome to the plasmid, the plasmid to the bacterial
chromosome, from one area of the bacterial chromosome to another
area on the bacterial chromosome, or from one area of the plasmid
to another area of the plasmid. Transposons may contain genes for
antibiotic resistance, the production of toxins, or for metabolic
processes. They may be transferred from one bacterial cell to
another by conjugation, transformation, or transduction.
Genetic Enqineerinq
Genetic enqineerinq is the manipulation of genetic material in
order to alter the characteristics of an organism in a desired way.
The methods used in genetic engineering are referred to as
recombinant DNA technoloc~! or ~ene splicinq. The result is a DNA
molecule that contains genes from two different species or
organisms. Bacterial enzymes called restriction endonucleases are
used to cut the isolated DNA into pieces at specific base pair
sequences every time they occur in the DNA molecule. The specific
sequence is then fused with other sequences of DNA to produce a
recombinant DNA molecule. The process of transformation is then
used to incorporate the recombinant DNA into another species. The
recipient cell then produces a genetically identical cell.
Bacterial reproduction continues producing a clone of identical
cells.
Genetic engineering is used in the production of several
substances including:
htunan insulin
2. human growth hormone
3. a vaccine for hepatitis B
4. tissue plasminogen activator to dissolve blood clots
5. interferon which fights against viruses and some cancers
6. blood coagulation proteins for people with hemophilia
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9-Bacterial Genetics Given Out

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Bacterial Genetics

Genetics is the study of heredity and how genes are regulated

3. transformation - Transformation occurs in less than 1% of

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