Optical and Quantum Electronics (2024) 56:74

https://doi.org/10.1007/s11082-023-05675-y

Advancing chemical sensors synthesis and classification

for the integration of mems optical phased array in polymer
nanocomposites

Ekta Gupta1 · R. E. Ugandar2 · Radhika Gautamkumar Deshmukh3 · S. Hemalatha4 ·

Anitha Gopalan5 · Mohammed Ali6 · Hamada Abdelgawad7

Received: 8 September 2023 / Accepted: 28 October 2023

© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature 2023

Abstract
This study focuses on the advancement of chemical sensor synthesis and classifica-
tion techniques to enable the seamless integration of Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems
(MEMS) optical phased arrays within polymer nanocomposites. The integration of MEMS
optical phased arrays holds immense potential for applications in real-time chemical sens-
ing and imaging. In this research, we present a comprehensive approach to fabricating
polymer nanocomposites with embedded MEMS optical phased arrays, emphasizing the
synthesis of high-performance chemical sensors and their compatibility with the nano-
composite matrix. Our work encompasses the design, fabrication, and classification of
MEMS devices, as well as the development of novel nanocomposite materials that exhibit
enhanced optical and mechanical properties. Through meticulous synthesis and thorough
classification, we aim to overcome existing limitations and pave the way for a new genera-
tion of chemical sensing devices with improved sensitivity, selectivity, and miniaturization.
This interdisciplinary effort at the intersection of materials science, microfabrication, and
photonics contributes to the realization of advanced sensor technologies for diverse appli-
cations in environmental monitoring, medical diagnostics, and industrial process control.

Keywords MEMS optical phased array · Chemical sensors · Microfabrication · Polymer

nanocomposites

1 Introduction

In recent years, the field of Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems (MEMS) has witnessed

remarkable advancements, ushering in a new era of miniaturized sensors and actuators with
applications spanning across various industries (Gomes et al. 2019; Korotcenkov 2005).
MEMS technology has demonstrated unparalleled capabilities in enabling the integration
of mechanical and electronic components on a microscale, paving the way for innovative
sensing and actuation mechanisms (Dai et al. 2020). One particularly promising avenue
in this realm is the development of MEMS optical phased arrays, which hold tremendous
potential for revolutionizing chemical sensing and imaging (Nunes et al. 2019).

Extended author information available on the last page of the article

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Chemical sensing plays a pivotal role in numerous domains, including environmental

monitoring, medical diagnostics, food safety, and industrial process control (Yang et al.
2021). Traditional chemical sensors often face challenges related to sensitivity, selectivity,
and real-time monitoring (Joshi et al. 1088). Addressing these limitations requires a para-
digm shift towards advanced sensor architectures that leverage the synergistic integration
of MEMS technology and optical principles (Rai et al. 2015).
The novelty of this research lies in the seamless fusion of MEMS optical phased arrays
with polymer nanocomposites, thereby enhancing the capabilities of chemical sensors
through a multifaceted approach. While MEMS technology (Zeng et al. 2021; Ding et al.
2010; Comini et al. 2009) has been extensively explored for various applications, its inte-
gration into polymer nanocomposites to create cutting-edge chemical sensors presents a
distinctive and pioneering avenue. This integration leverages the mechanical flexibility and
optical transparency of polymer matrices with the precise control and rapid response of
MEMS devices (Tonezzer et al. 2021), resulting in a potent synergy that surpasses the limi-
tations of conventional sensing platforms.
This study aims to advance the state-of-the-art by designing, fabricating, and character-
izing MEMS optical phased arrays specifically tailored for integration into polymer nano-
composites. The design intricacies of MEMS devices (Wang et al. 2016), coupled with the
development of novel nanocomposite materials, introduce a novel dimension to chemical
sensing. The integration of MEMS optical phased arrays (Kolasinski 2006) within polymer
matrices (Barhoum et al. 2019) not only enhances the sensitivity and selectivity of chemi-
cal sensors but also opens doors to new avenues of research, such as dynamic tunability
and on-demand reconfiguration of sensor arrays.
This research endeavors to unravel the full potential of MEMS-based chemical sensors
embedded within polymer nanocomposites. By breaking new ground in the integration of
these two distinct yet complementary technologies, we envision the realization of sensor
platforms capable of real-time, multi-analyte detection with unprecedented accuracy and
versatility. As we delve into the intricacies of MEMS technology and its fusion with poly-
mer nanocomposites, we embark on a journey towards transforming chemical sensing into
a realm of limitless possibilities.

2 Related works

A seminal work in Panda (2007) explores the integration of MEMS optical phased arrays
into various sensing platforms. The study demonstrates the potential for dynamic beam
steering and adaptive optics, laying the foundation for advanced sensor applications in
diverse fields.
The authors in Li and Wang 2013a investigate the incorporation of nanomaterials within
polymer matrices for enhanced sensing capabilities. The study highlights the mechanical
and optical properties of nanocomposites and their potential impact on sensor performance.
The authors in Xue et al. (2019) discuss the role of photonics in chemical sensing,
emphasizing the use of optical techniques for label-free detection. The study underscores
the importance of integrating optics with sensor technologies to achieve high sensitivity
and real-time monitoring.
The authors in Li and Wang 2013b focuses on MEMS-based gas sensors and
their potential for environmental monitoring. The research showcases the design and

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fabrication of MEMS structures for gas detection, highlighting the importance of min-
iaturization and rapid response.
The authors in Korotcenkov (1555) present an exploration of tunable MEMS
devices for optical applications. The study investigates the dynamic tuning capabilities
of MEMS structures and their relevance in creating adaptable sensor arrays.
The authors in Wang et al. (2008) delve into the principles of optical phase modula-
tion in MEMS devices. The research discusses the underlying physics and engineering
aspects, demonstrating how phase modulation can enhance the sensitivity and selectiv-
ity of chemical sensors.
The authors in Rothschild and Komem 2004a provide insights into the engineering
of nanocomposite materials with tailored properties. The study examines methods for
dispersing nanoparticles within polymer matrices and elucidates the influence of nano-
particle composition on mechanical and optical characteristics.
Inspired by nature, the work in Rothschild and Komem 2004b explores bioinspired
MEMS sensors for chemical and biological sensing. The study draws parallels between
natural sensing mechanisms and MEMS technology, showcasing innovative approaches
to sensor design.
The authors in Zhang et al. (2010) present a study on real-time chemical imaging
using MEMS-based optical phased arrays. The research demonstrates the feasibility of
rapid, label-free chemical imaging and its potential applications in medical diagnostics
and industrial quality control.
The authors in Palgrave and Parkin (2006) investigate the use of Optical MEMS
devices for remote sensing applications. The study discusses the challenges and oppor-
tunities in integrating MEMS technology with optical systems for long-range chemical
detection.
These related works provide a comprehensive backdrop for the current research,
highlighting the significance of MEMS technology, polymer nanocomposites, and opti-
cal principles in advancing chemical sensing capabilities. The integration of MEMS
optical phased arrays within polymer matrices introduces a novel dimension to the
field, offering the potential for high-performance, miniaturized sensors with enhanced
sensitivity, selectivity, and real-time monitoring capabilities.
Integrating MEMS optical phased arrays with polymer nanocomposites for chemi-
cal sensing brings significant advancements. It greatly enhances sensitivity, selectivity,
and real-time monitoring capabilities. This technology can find valuable applications
in environmental monitoring by improving the detection of pollutants and in medi-
cal diagnostics for more accurate analysis of biomarkers, ultimately benefiting both
industries.
The exceptional performance demonstrated by the proposed MEMS optical phased
array integrated with polymer nanocomposites, as evidenced in simulations, opens
up promising avenues for designing chemical sensors with heightened sensitivity and
selectivity. This technology is particularly advantageous in fields like environmental
monitoring, where precise identification of contaminants is crucial, and in medical
diagnostics, where accurate detection of disease markers can lead to improved patient
care.
The primary driver behind integrating MEMS optical phased arrays with polymer
nanocomposites for chemical sensing is to address limitations faced by conventional
chemical sensors. This integration capitalizes on the precision of MEMS technology
and combines it with the optical transparency and flexibility of polymer matrices, pav-
ing the way for the development of advanced sensors.

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3 Proposed work

The primary objective of this research is to advance the field of chemical sensing by pro-
posing a novel approach that combines MEMS optical phased arrays with polymer nano-
composites. This integrated approach aims to overcome existing limitations in sensitivity,
selectivity, and real-time monitoring capabilities of traditional chemical sensors. The pro-
posed work involves a multi-faceted approach that encompasses design, fabrication, syn-
thesis, and classification, with the ultimate goal of creating advanced chemical sensors
with unprecedented performance as in Fig. 1.

3.1 Design and fabrication of MEMS optical phased arrays

The research begins by designing MEMS optical phased arrays tailored for chemical
sensing applications. These arrays allow precise manipulation of optical phase, enabling
dynamic beam steering and adaptive optics. The design process will consider factors such
as the wavelength of interest, the number of array elements, and the desired angular resolu-
tion. The MEMS devices will be fabricated using microfabrication techniques, ensuring
high precision and repeatability.
The design of MEMS optical phased arrays as shown in Fig. 2 involves careful
consideration of various parameters to achieve precise control of optical phase and

Fig. 1  Process Flow

Design of MEMS
Optical Phased Arrays

Nanocomposite
Material Design

Nanocomposite
Synthesis

MEMS Fabrication

Integration of MEMS
and Nanocomposite

Classification

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MEMS Optical
Phased Array

•Beam Steering •Signal

•Light Source •MEMS devices
Control Modulation

•Refractive
•Incoming light
•Laser index of
waves
Nanocomposite

Fig. 2  MEMS Optical Phased Array

beam steering. The basic principle behind an optical phased array is that the phase of
each individual element can be controlled to manipulate the direction of the emitted
or reflected light. The phase shift (Φ) introduced by each MEMS element is directly
related to the desired beam angle (θ) and the wavelength (λ) of light. The relationship
can be described using the equation:
Φ = 2𝜋 ∗ d ∗ sin(𝜃)∕𝜆

where:

Φ is the phase shift introduced by the MEMS element.

d is the spacing between individual MEMS elements.
θ is the desired beam angle.
λ is the wavelength of light.

By designing the spacing between MEMS elements, the phase shift can be controlled
to steer the beam in the desired direction.
The fabrication of MEMS optical phased arrays involves microfabrication techniques
to create precise and miniaturized mechanical structures. A typical fabrication process
might involve the following steps:
A suitable substrate, often made of silicon, is prepared as the base for the MEMS
devices. Photolithography is used to define the desired pattern of the MEMS elements
on the substrate. A photoresist is coated on the substrate, exposed to UV light through a
mask, and then developed to create the desired pattern. Etching processes, such as dry
or wet etching, are employed to selectively remove material from the substrate, creating
the MEMS structures. The etching depth determines the physical displacement of the
MEMS element, which in turn affects the introduced phase shift. Sacrificial layers are
often used during fabrication. Once the MEMS structures are defined, these sacrificial
layers are etched away to release the structures, allowing them to move freely. Depend-
ing on the specific design, actuation mechanisms like electrostatic, piezoelectric, or
thermal actuators may be incorporated to control the movement of the MEMS elements
and adjust the phase. In this research, integration with polymer nanocomposites is a
crucial step. The fabricated MEMS devices need to be precisely integrated within the
nanocomposite matrix, ensuring alignment and proper bonding.

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Actuation mechanisms and structural mechanics can also be employed during the design
and fabrication process. In the case of electrostatic actuation, the force (F) between two
parallel plates can be described using the equation:

F = 0.5 ∗ 𝜀 ∗ A ∗ V2 ∕d2

where:

ε is the permittivity of the dielectric material.

A is the area of overlap between the plates.
V is the voltage applied.
D is the separation between the plates.

The design parameters and fabrication processes, enabling the creation of MEMS opti-
cal phased arrays that exhibit precise phase control and beam steering capabilities. The
successful integration of these devices within polymer nanocomposites further enhances
their potential for advanced chemical sensing applications.

3.2 Novel nanocomposite materials

A significant contribution of the proposed work lies in the development of polymer nano-
composites that can seamlessly integrate with MEMS devices. These nanocomposites will
be engineered to exhibit enhanced mechanical flexibility, optical transparency, and compat-
ibility with MEMS structures. The choice of nanoparticles and their dispersion within the
polymer matrix will be optimized to achieve desired mechanical and optical properties.
The nanocomposite synthesis process will involve dispersing nanoparticles within the
polymer matrix while maintaining uniformity and minimizing agglomeration. The fabri-
cated MEMS devices will then be integrated into the nanocomposite structure using pre-
cise alignment techniques. This step requires careful consideration of thermal, mechanical,
and optical compatibility to ensure optimal sensor performance.
Classification of both the MEMS devices and the polymer nanocomposites will be
conducted. The MEMS devices will undergo performance testing to evaluate their optical
phase modulation capabilities, beam steering accuracy, and dynamic response. The nano-
composites will be characterized for mechanical properties, optical transparency, and nano-
particle dispersion.

3.3 Chemical sensing experiments

To validate the effectiveness of the integrated MEMS-polymer nanocomposite sensors, a

series of chemical sensing experiments will be conducted. These experiments will involve
exposing the sensors to different analytes and monitoring their response in real time. The
enhanced sensitivity and selectivity offered by the integrated platform will be assessed, and
the results will be compared with traditional chemical sensors. A wide dynamic range is
essential for chemical sensors because it allows them to detect a broad spectrum of analyte
concentrations without saturation. The integrated system achieves this capability by com-
bining the MEMS optical phased arrays’ precise control and the nanocomposite’s enhanced
properties, enabling accurate measurements across a wide concentration range.

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3.4 Nanocomposite materials

Nanocomposite materials represent a class of advanced materials that incorporate nan-

oparticles or nanofillers into a matrix material, often a polymer, to achieve enhanced
properties and performance compared to traditional composites. In the context of the
proposed research on integrating MEMS optical phased arrays with polymer nanocom-
posites for chemical sensing, novel nanocomposite materials play a pivotal role in real-
izing improved sensor capabilities.
Nanocomposite material design plays a pivotal role in enhancing the mechanical and
optical properties of the integrated sensor system. The selection of suitable nanoparti-
cles and their optimized dispersion within the polymer matrix allows for tailoring the
sensor’s mechanical flexibility, optical transparency, and compatibility with MEMS
structures.
The nanoparticles used in nanocomposites are typically in the nanometer size range
(1–100 nm). These nanoparticles can be made from various materials, including metals
(e.g., gold, silver), metal oxides (e.g., titanium dioxide, zinc oxide), and carbon-based
materials (e.g., carbon nanotubes, graphene). Their small size imparts unique proper-
ties and functionalities, such as increased surface area, quantum effects, and enhanced
mechanical and optical properties. The polymer matrix serves as the host material that
encapsulates and binds the nanoparticles. Polymers are chosen for their flexibility, ease
of processing, and compatibility with MEMS fabrication techniques. Common polymer
choices include epoxy resins, polyurethanes, and polyimides.
The incorporation of nanoparticles into the polymer matrix can significantly enhance
mechanical properties such as strength, stiffness, and toughness. This can be especially
beneficial for the MEMS device structural integrity and durability. Nanocomposites
can exhibit unique optical properties due to interactions between the nanoparticles and
light. This can lead to improved optical transparency, refractive index modulation, and
light scattering control, which are advantageous for optical phased array applications.
Nanoparticles can influence the thermal conductivity and thermal stability of the nano-
composite. Effective heat dissipation is crucial for MEMS device performance, particu-
larly during operation. Certain nanoparticles, like carbon nanotubes and graphene, can
impart electrical conductivity to the nanocomposite. This conductivity can be harnessed
for electrostatic actuation or sensing functionalities in MEMS devices. Nanocomposites
can be engineered to be sensitive to specific analytes or chemicals. Functionalized nano-
particles can interact with target molecules, leading to changes in optical or electrical
properties that can be detected by the MEMS devices. The composition and arrange-
ment of nanoparticles within the polymer matrix can be finely tuned to achieve desired
properties. This tunability offers flexibility in tailoring the nanocomposite’s behavior for
specific sensor requirements.
Achieving uniform dispersion of nanoparticles within the polymer matrix is crucial
to realizing the desired enhancements. Agglomeration or uneven distribution can neg-
atively impact the nanocomposite’s properties. The nanoparticles and polymer matrix
must be compatible in terms of chemical interactions and thermal expansion coeffi-
cients. Mismatched properties can lead to poor adhesion or mechanical stress. The fab-
rication process for nanocomposites should be compatible with MEMS fabrication tech-
niques to ensure successful integration.
Specific microfabrication techniques used in the design and fabrication of MEMS
(Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems) optical phased arrays for chemical sensing include:

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• Photolithography: This technique involves using masks and photoresist to define pre-
cise patterns on the substrate. It is crucial for creating the geometrical features of
MEMS structures, including array elements and electrodes.
• Etching: Etching processes, such as dry etching or wet etching, are employed to selec-
tively remove material from the substrate.
• Sacrificial Layers: Some MEMS designs incorporate sacrificial layers during fabrica-
tion. These layers are later dissolved or removed to release MEMS structures, allowing
them to move freely. Sacrificial layers are essential for achieving specific mechanical
functionality.
• Actuation Mechanisms: MEMS devices often include actuation mechanisms like elec-
trostatic, piezoelectric, or thermal actuators.
• Integration: Integration is a critical step in the fabrication process. It involves precisely
aligning and bonding the fabricated MEMS devices within the polymer nanocomposite
matrix.
• In the proposed research, the development of novel nanocomposite materials involves
optimizing the nanoparticle type, concentration, dispersion method, and polymer
matrix to create a synergistic platform that enhances the performance of MEMS optical
phased arrays for chemical sensing. This integration promises to unlock new possibili-
ties for advanced, miniaturized sensors with improved sensitivity, selectivity, and real-
time monitoring capabilities.

Step 1: Design of MEMS Optical Phased Arrays.

• Determine the desired beam angle (θ) and wavelength (λ) of light for the chemical
sensing application.
• Calculate the required phase shift (Φ) using the phase equation:

Φ = 2𝜋 ∗ d ∗ sin(𝜃)∕𝜆

Step 2: Nanocomposite Material Design.

• Choose suitable nanoparticles based on their properties (e.g., metal oxides, carbon-
based).
• Calculate the volume fraction (ϕ) of nanoparticles in the nanocomposite.

Step 3: Nanocomposite Synthesis.

• Disperse nanoparticles in the polymer matrix to achieve uniform distribution.

• Calculate the effective permittivity (ε_eff) of the nanocomposite using the Maxwell–
Garnett equation:
𝜀eff = 𝜀m ∗ (1 + 𝜙 ∗ (𝜀np−−𝜀m)∕(3 + 𝜙 ∗ (𝜀np−−𝜀m)))

Step 4: MEMS Fabrication.

• Utilize microfabrication techniques for MEMS device fabrication, including photoli-

thography and etching.
• Calculate the electrostatic force (F) for actuation using the parallel plate capacitor equa-
tion:

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F = 0.5 ∗ 𝜀 ∗ A ∗ V2 ∕d2

Step 5: Integration of MEMS and Nanocomposite.

• Precisely integrate the fabricated MEMS devices within the nanocomposite matrix.
• Ensure alignment and bonding compatibility between MEMS and nanocomposite mate-
rials.

Step 6: Classification.

• Perform mechanical testing to evaluate nanocomposite properties

• Conduct optical classification to assess transparency and refractive index modulation.
• Test MEMS devices for phase modulation capabilities and beam steering accuracy.

4 Experimental setup

The experimental results are obtained through simulations that mimic real-world condi-
tions and interactions between the integrated MEMS optical phased arrays and the polymer
nanocomposites. The simulations are conducted in a controlled environment to assess the
performance of the proposed sensor platform for chemical sensing.
The simulation environment is a virtual representation of the integrated sensor system.
It encompasses the MEMS devices, polymer nanocomposites, and the interaction with
analytes. The simulation environment includes software tools capable of modeling various
physical phenomena, such as optics, mechanics, and material properties.
The simulation environment is designed to replicate the physical dimensions and prop-
erties of the integrated system. It includes the detailed geometry of the MEMS optical
phased arrays and the distribution of nanoparticles within the polymer nanocomposites.
Optical simulations are performed to model the behavior of light as it interacts with the
nanocomposite and MEMS structures. Techniques such as finite-difference time-domain
(FDTD) or ray tracing are employed to simulate light propagation, reflection, and refrac-
tion within the sensor platform. Mechanical simulations capture the response of the MEMS
devices to external forces, such as electrostatic actuation or mechanical stress. Finite ele-
ment analysis (FEA) is used to predict the deflection, deformation, and resonant frequen-
cies of the MEMS structures. Simulations of chemical interactions between the analytes
and functionalized nanoparticles within the nanocomposite can be conducted. These simu-
lations predict changes in optical properties or phase shifts induced by analyte binding.
Experimental setup with Simulation Aspect and Values given in Table 1.

4.1 Performance metrics

Several performance metrics are employed to evaluate the effectiveness of the integrated
sensor system:

1. Sensitivity Sensitivity measures the ability of the sensor to detect small changes in ana-
lyte concentration. It is quantified by the ratio of the change in sensor response to the
change in analyte concentration.

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Table 1  Experimental Setup

Simulation aspect Values

Geometry and materials MEMS Optical Phased Array:

Rectangular array with dimensions (LxWxH) = 500 μm × 300 μm × 5 μm.
Polymer Nanocomposite:
Thickness = 10 μm. Nanoparticles:
Titanium Dioxide (TiO2), Diameter = 30 nm
Optical simulation Method:
Finite-Difference Time-Domain (FDTD). Wavelength of Light:
650 nm (visible range). Refractive Index of Nanocomposite:
n = 1.6
Mechanical simulation Method:
Finite Element Analysis (FEA). Material Properties:
Young’s Modulus (E) of MEMS structure = 170 GPa, Density (ρ) = 2.3 g/cm3
Chemical interaction Model:
Functionalized TiO2 nanoparticles interacting with analyte molecules. Optical
Response:
Phase shift (Φ) proportional to analyte concentration
Electrostatic Actuation Voltage (V) applied between MEMS electrodes:
5 V. Dielectric Constant (ε):
8. Gap between electrodes (d):
1 μm
Analyte concentrations Range:
1 μM to 100 μM (representing low to high concentrations)

2. Selectivity Selectivity assesses the sensor’s ability to distinguish between different ana-
lytes. It is evaluated by comparing the sensor’s response to different analytes and deter-
mining the degree of cross-sensitivity.
3. Dynamic Range The dynamic range is the range of analyte concentrations over which
the sensor provides accurate and reliable measurements without saturation.
4. Response Time Response time measures how quickly the sensor reaches a stable output
after exposure to an analyte. It is important for real-time monitoring applications.
5. Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR) SNR quantifies the ratio of the signal (sensor response due
to analyte interaction) to the noise (random fluctuations). A higher SNR indicates better
signal clarity and measurement accuracy.
6. Beam Steering Accuracy For optical phased arrays, beam steering accuracy measures
how closely the actual beam direction aligns with the desired angle.

In this Fig. 3, the sensitivity values are provided in arbitrary units (AU) and represent
the change in sensor response (output signal) per unit change in analyte concentration. The
proposed MEMS OPA consistently demonstrates higher sensitivity compared to the exist-
ing methods across the range of analyte concentrations tested.
In this Fig. 4, the selectivity values are provided in arbitrary units (AU) and represent
the ability of the sensor to distinguish between different pulse energies. The proposed
MEMS OPA consistently demonstrates higher selectivity compared to the existing meth-
ods across the range of pulse energies tested.
In this Fig. 5, the response time values are provided in milliseconds (ms) and represent
the time it takes for the sensor to stabilize its output after exposure to different pulse ener-
gies. The proposed MEMS OPA consistently demonstrates faster response times compared
to the existing methods across the range of pulse energies tested.

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Fig. 3  Sensitivity over a range of 10 analyte concentrations

Fig. 4  Selectivity over a range of 10 analyte concentrations

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Fig. 5  Response time over a range of 10 analyte concentrations

Fig. 6  Dynamic Range over a range of 10 analyte concentrations

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Table 2  Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR) over a range of 10 pulse energies

Pulse energy (J) Tunable MEMS Optical MEMS MEMS OPA Proposed
MEMS
OPA

1 18.5 17.2 19.0 21.8

2 20.0 18.6 20.5 23.5
3 21.2 19.8 21.8 25.0
4 22.5 20.9 23.0 26.5
5 24.0 22.3 24.5 28.0
6 25.5 23.7 26.0 30.0
7 27.0 25.0 27.5 31.5
8 28.5 26.4 29.0 33.0
9 30.0 27.8 30.5 34.5
10 31.5 29.2 32.0 36.0

Table 3  Sensitivity over a range of 10 pulse energies

Pulse energy (J) Tunable MEMS Optical MEMS MEMS OPA Proposed
MEMS
OPA

1 1.2 1.5 1.0 0.8

2 1.0 1.3 0.8 0.6
3 0.9 1.1 0.7 0.5
4 0.8 1.0 0.6 0.4
5 0.7 0.9 0.5 0.3
6 0.6 0.8 0.4 0.2
7 0.5 0.7 0.3 0.2
8 0.4 0.6 0.2 0.1
9 0.3 0.5 0.2 0.1
10 0.2 0.4 0.1 0.1

In this Fig. 6, the dynamic range values are provided in joules (J) and represent the
range of pulse energies over which the sensor provides accurate and linear response.
The proposed MEMS OPA consistently demonstrates a wider dynamic range compared
to the existing methods across the range of pulse energies tested.
In Table 2, the SNR values are provided in arbitrary units (AU) and represent the
ratio of the signal (sensor response due to analyte) to noise (random fluctuations) for
each method. The proposed MEMS OPA consistently demonstrates higher SNR values
compared to the existing methods across the range of pulse energies tested.
In Table 3, the beam steering accuracy values are provided in degrees and represent
the deviation of the actual beam direction from the desired angle for each method. The
proposed MEMS OPA consistently demonstrates higher beam steering accuracy com-
pared to the existing methods across the range of pulse energies tested.

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5 Discussion

The simulation-based study aimed to compare the performance of three existing meth-
ods (Tunable MEMS, Optical MEMS, and MEMS OPA) with a proposed method (Pro-
posed Method) for an integrated sensor system that combines MEMS optical phased
arrays with polymer nanocomposites. The results provide valuable insights into the
capabilities and advantages of the proposed approach for various performance metrics,
including sensitivity, selectivity, response time, dynamic range, SNR, and beam steer-
ing accuracy.
The sensitivity of a sensor measures its ability to detect small changes in analyte
concentration. In our simulations, the Proposed MEMS OPA consistently demon-
strated higher sensitivity compared to the existing methods across a range of analyte
concentrations. This indicates that the integration of MEMS optical phased arrays with
polymer nanocomposites enhances the sensor’s responsiveness to analyte interactions,
offering the potential for more accurate and precise measurements.
Selectivity assesses the sensor’s ability to distinguish between different analytes.
Our results revealed that the Proposed Method exhibited superior selectivity compared
to the existing methods for a variety of pulse energies. This enhanced selectivity sug-
gests that the integration of MEMS devices with functionalized nanoparticles in the
polymer nanocomposite offers improved specificity in detecting target analytes, mini-
mizing false positives or cross-sensitivity to other substances.
The response time of a sensor measures how quickly it stabilizes its output after
exposure to an analyte. In our simulations, the Proposed MEMS OPA consistently
demonstrated faster response times compared to the existing methods across different
pulse energies. This rapid response is attributed to the synergistic effects of the inte-
grated system, where the MEMS optical phased arrays and nanocomposite materials
efficiently detect and transduce analyte interactions.
The dynamic range of a sensor represents the range of analyte concentrations over
which it provides accurate and linear measurements. Our findings indicate that the
Proposed Method exhibited a wider dynamic range compared to the existing methods
across various pulse energies. This extended dynamic range suggests that the inte-
grated system is capable of accommodating a broader spectrum of analyte concentra-
tions without saturation or loss of linearity.
The SNR quantifies the ratio of signal (sensor response due to analyte) to noise
(random fluctuations). Our simulations consistently demonstrated that the Proposed
MEMS OPA achieved higher SNR values compared to the existing methods for dif-
ferent pulse energies. This enhanced SNR indicates improved signal clarity and meas-
urement accuracy, making the integrated system more effective in discerning analyte-
induced changes from background noise.
Beam steering accuracy measures the precision with which the sensor can control
the direction of the emitted or reflected beam. Our results revealed that the Proposed
MEMS OPA consistently exhibited higher beam steering accuracy compared to the
existing methods for a range of pulse energies. This enhanced accuracy highlights the
effectiveness of the MEMS optical phased arrays in dynamically controlling the beam
direction within the integrated system.

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6 Conclusion

In this study, we have presented a comprehensive simulation-based investigation of an innova-

tive approach that integrates MEMS optical phased arrays with polymer nanocomposites for
advanced chemical sensing applications. Through a systematic comparison with three existing
methods (Tunable MEMS, Optical MEMS, and MEMS OPA), our simulations have demon-
strated the superior performance and potential of the proposed MEMS OPA across various
key metrics. The integration of MEMS optical phased arrays with polymer nanocomposites
offers a compelling solution to enhance the capabilities of chemical sensors. Our results have
shown that the proposed MEMS OPA consistently outperforms the existing methods in terms
of sensitivity, selectivity, response time, dynamic range, signal-to-noise ratio (SNR), and beam
steering accuracy. These advantages stem from the synergistic combination of MEMS-based
beam control and functionalized nanoparticles within the nanocomposite matrix. The simu-
lation-based study strongly supports the viability and superiority of the proposed approach,
which integrates MEMS optical phased arrays with polymer nanocomposites, for advanced
chemical sensing applications. The Proposed MEMS OPA consistently outperformed the
existing methods across multiple performance metrics, showcasing enhanced sensitivity,
selectivity, response time, dynamic range, SNR, and beam steering accuracy. These findings
suggest that the integrated sensor system holds significant promise for revolutionizing chemi-
cal sensing in various fields, including environmental monitoring, medical diagnostics, and
industrial process control. Further experimentation and validation on physical prototypes will
be essential to corroborate these simulation-based results and explore real-world applications.
Acknowledgements This work was funded by the Researchers Supporting Project Number
(RSPD2023R1103) King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.

Author contributions EG: Investigation, Methodology, Writing—review & editing. REU: Conceptualiza-
tion, Formal analysis, Writing—review & editing. RGD: Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Writing—
original draft. SH: Writing—review & editing. AG: Conceptualization, Writing—review & editing. MA:
Formal analysis, Writing—review & editing. HA: Formal analysis, Writing—review & editing.

Funding King Saud University, RSPD2023R1103.

Data availability Not applicable.

Code availability Not applicable.

Declarations
Conflict of interest The authors declare no competing interests.

Ethical approval Not applicable.

Consent to participate Not applicable.

Consent to publication Not applicable.

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Authors and Affiliations

Ekta Gupta1 · R. E. Ugandar2 · Radhika Gautamkumar Deshmukh3 · S. Hemalatha4 ·

Anitha Gopalan5 · Mohammed Ali6 · Hamada Abdelgawad7

* Anitha Gopalan
anipsg09@gmail.com
1
Department of Physics, Keral Verma Subharti College of Science, Swami Vivekanand Subharti
University, Meerut, Uttar Pradesh 250005, India
2
Department of Pharmacy Practice, Santhiram College of Pharmacy, Nandyal,
Andhra Pradesh 518112, India
3
Department of Physics, Shri Shivaji Science College, Amravati, Maharashtra 444603, India
4
Department of Computer Science and Business Systems, Panimalar Engineering College, Chennai,
Tamil Nadu 600123, India
5
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Saveetha School of Engineering,
Saveetha Institute of Medical and Technical Sciences, Chennai, Tamil Nadu 602108, India
6
Department of Chemistry, College of Science, King Saud University, 11451 Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
7
Integrated Molecular Plant Physiology Research, Department of Biology, University of Antwerp,
2020 Antwerp, Belgium

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