Indian Society - Mains Bosster 2024-25

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
1 SALIENT FEATURES OF INDIAN SOCIETY 3-21
1.1 CHARACTERISTICS OF INDIAN SOCIETY
1.2 FEATURES OF INDIAN SOCIETY
1.2.1 CASTE SYSTEM
1.2.2 RELIGIOUS DIVERSITY IN INDIA
1.2.3 LINGUISTIC DIVERSITY
1.2.4 UNITY IN DIVERSITY
1.2.5 KINSHIP
1.3 SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS
1.4 TRIBES
UPSC PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS (PYQs)
2 POPULATION AND ASSOCIATED ISSUES 22-26

2.1 FACTORS INFLUENCING THE DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION
2.2 INDIA-DEMOGRAPHIC DATA
2.3 ADVANTAGES AND CHALLENGES OF DEMOGRAPHIC DIVIDEND
2.4 CONSEQUENCES OF OVERPOPULATION
2.5 PLANNING IN INDIA ASSOCIATED WITH POPULATION
2.6 ETHICAL CONSIDERATION FOR POPULATION CONTROL
2.7 STEPS BEING TAKEN BY THE GOVERNMENT FOR POPULATION CONTROL
3 ROLE OF WOMEN AND WOMEN’S ORGANIZATION 27-37

3.1 STATUS OF WOMEN IN INDIA
3.1.1 CURRENT CONTEXT REGARDING WOMEN’S EMPOWERMENT
3.1.2 SOCIAL STRUCTURE AND WOMEN IN INDIA
3.1.3 LEGAL PROTECTION FOR WOMEN IN INDIA
3.1.4 RIGHT TO SAFE AND LEGAL ABORTION
3.1.5 SURROGACY
3.1.6 SPECIAL MARRIAGE ACT
3.1.7 SOLUTIONS TO THE CHALLENGES FACED BY WOMEN
3.1.8 GOVERNMENT OF INDIA’S WOMEN EMPOWERMENT PROGRAMS/SCHEMES
3.2 EVOLUTION OF WOMEN’S ORGANIZATION IN INDIA
4 POVERTY 38-42
4.1 FACTS AND DEFINITION
4.2 TYPES, ISSUES, CAUSES & CHALLENGES WITH POVERTY
4.3 FEMINIZATION OF POVERTY
4.4 POVERTY ALLEVIATION PROGRAMS IN INDIA
4.5 WAYS TO END POVERTY
5 HUNGER 43-45
5.1 INTRODUCTION
5.2 HUNGER IN INDIA: DATA FACTS
5.3 CAUSES OF HUNGER
5.4 GOVERNMENT INITIATIVES TO TACKLE HUNGER ISSUE
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5.5 WAY AHEAD
6 INEQUALITY 46-48
6.1 IMPORTANT STATISTICS
6.2 DIMENSIONS OF INEQUALITY
6.3 IMPACT OF INEQUALITY IN INDIA
6.4 MEASURES TO REDUCE INEQUALITY
6.5 INITIATIVES
7 URBANIZATION 49-55
7.1 INTRODUCTION
7.2 FACTORS LEADING TO URBANIZATION
7.3 CHALLENGES WITH URBANIZATION
7.4 IMPACT OF URBANIZATION ON RURAL AREAS
7.5 BEST PRACTICES FOR URBAN DEVELOPMENT/GOVERNANCE
7.6 URBAN GOVERNANCE
7.7 SLUMS
7.8 WAY FORWARD: SUSTAINABLE URBANISATION
8 GLOBALIZATION 56-61
8.1 INTRODUCTION
8.2 FACTORS AFFECTING GLOBALIZATION IN INDIA
8.3 IMPACTS OF GLOBALIZATION ON INDIAN CULTURE
8.4 IMPACTS OF GLOBALIZATION ON WOMEN
8.5 IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION ON FAMILY
8.6 IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION ON OTHER SECTIONS OF SOCIETY
8.7 GLOCALIZATION
8.8 THE PHENOMENON OF ANTI-GLOBALIZATION
9 SOCIAL EMPOWERMENT: MEANING, NEED AND INITIATIVES 62-75

9.1 INTRODUCTION
9.2 KEY CONCEPTS RELATED WITH SOCIAL EMPOWERMENT
9.3 MEANING OF VULNERABLE SECTION
9.4 CHALLENGES FACED BY SOCIALLY DISADVANTAGED GROUPS
9.5 NEED FOR SOCIAL EMPOWERMENT
9.6 SCHEDULE CASTES
9.7 MINORITIES
9.8 SENIOR CITIZENS
9.9 PERSONS WITH DISABILITY
9.10 LGBTQ+ COMMUNITY
9.11 CHILDREN
10 COMMUNALISM 76-78
10.1 INTRODUCTION/FEATURES OF COMMUNALISM
10.2 THREE STAGES OF COMMUNALISM IN INDIA
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10.3 TYPES OF COMMUNALISM
10.4 FACTORS LEADING TO THE RISE OF COMMUNALISM IN INDIA
11 REGIONALISM 79-82
11.1 INTRODUCTION
11.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF REGIONALISM
11.3 TYPES OF REGIONALISM
11.4 TYPES OF REGIONAL MOVEMENTS
11.5 FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR RISE OF REGIONALISM
11.6 IMPACT OF REGIONALISM IN INDIA
11.7 REGIONALISM AND THREAT TO NATIONAL INTEGRATION
12 SECULARISM 83-87
12.1 INTRODUCTION
12.2 COMPARISN OF INDIAN SECULARISM VS WESTERN SECULARISM
12.3 CONSTITUTIONAL AND JUDICIAL PROVISION ON SECULARISM IN INDIA
12.4 CONSTITUTIONAL SECULARISM AND PARTY-POLITICAL SECULARISM
12.5 POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE SECULARISM
12.6 THE NEED FOR SECULARISM TO PRESERVE DIVERSITY IN INDIA
12.7 POSITIVE ASPECTS OF SECULARISM IN INDIA
12.8 CHALLENGES TO SECULARISM
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AAKRITI SETHI (IAS) TOPPERS' HANDWRITTEN ANSWERS
1 SALIENT FEATURES OF INDIAN SOCIETY

Related Keywords
• Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam, Ek Bharat, Shreshtha Bharat, Unity in Diversity, Samrasta (diversity) and Swavlamban
(self-reliance), Essential fabrics of India, Creating a thread of (commonness/fraternity/tolerance etc.), From
Cultural Disdain to Cultural Empathy, Unifying thread of the nation (Diversity, tolerance and acceptance etc.).
“India is the cradle of the human race, the birthplace of human speech, mother of history, the grandmother of
legend, & great grandmother of tradition. Our most valuable & most instructive materials in the history of man are
treasured up in India only.” - Mark Twain
India, known for its rich cultural heritage and diversity, embodies the concept of "Unity in Diversity." This unique
characteristic has been a defining feature of Indian society, showcasing a harmonious coexistence of various cultures,
languages, religions, and traditions. The essence of unity amidst diversity has been a unifying force, shaping the social
fabric of the nation.
1.1 CHARACTERISTICS OF INDIAN SOCIETY
•India has diverse cultures, religions, languages, and traditions, making it a unique
Cultural diversity blend of various ethnic groups. It recognizes 22 official languages and has over 19,500
dialects and sub-languages.
•Indian society has a hierarchical structure with various social classes or castes,
Social
although the caste system officially abolished, still influences social interactions to
stratification
some extent.
Spirituality and
•India has a rich heritage of spiritual and philosophical traditions including vedas,
Philosophical
upanishads, shaping the worldview and values of Indian society.
Traditions
Respect for
•Indian culture reveres nature, as seen in festivals like Pongal and Makar Sankranti,
Nature and
emphasizing harmony with nature.
Environment
Strong family
•Indian society values strong family bonds, joint family system and close-knit
and community
communities, relying on them for emotional support and social connections.
ties
•Traditionally, Indian society has been patriarchal, with men holding dominant roles
Patriarchal
in decision-making, but women are breaking barriers and achieving significant
society
progress.
•India is deeply religious, with Hinduism, Islam, Christianity, Sikhism, Buddhism, and
Religiosity
Jainism being major religions.
Festivals and •India is known for its vibrant festivals like Diwali, Holi, Eid, Christmas, and Navratri,
celebrations which bring people together in joyous celebrations.
Traditional
•Respect for elders, hospitality, humility, duty, and honor are integral values passed
values and
down through generations.
customs
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1.2 FEATURES OF INDIAN SOCIETY
Indian society is characterized by a unique blend of diverse features that make it distinct from other societies around
the world.
1.2.1 CASTE SYSTEM

The caste system is a social hierarchy prevalent in India, categorizing individuals into hierarchical groups based on their
birth, occupation, and social status. The term ‘Caste’ comes from the Portuguese word ‘Casta’ which means race,
breed, or group.
1.2.1.1 FEATURES OF THE CASTE SYSTEM

• Origin: The caste system has ancient origins, with its roots in the Vedic period. Initially, it was based on the
concept of 'Varna’.
• Hierarchical Structure: The caste system is divided into a strict hierarchical order. Brahmins are placed at the
top of the hierarchy, followed by the Kshatriyas, the Vaishyas, and the Shudras.
• Endogamy: Endogamy is a key feature of the caste system, where marriage within the same caste is
encouraged and often enforced.
• Vertical and horizontal classification involving different groups.
• Untouchability: Based on the concept of purity and pollution, people outside the varna system influencing
social interactions and occupational roles.
• Social and religious privileges: Higher castes enjoy certain privileges, such as access to temples, and religious
ceremonies, which are often denied to lower castes.
• Hereditary occupations: Each caste traditionally had specific occupations. This practice, linked professional
roles to social status and family lineage.
• Social segregation: Castes live in separate quarters or villages, with limited social interaction between castes,
reinforcing caste identities. For example, caste-based colony.
• Rigidity and immobility: A person's caste is determined by birth and remains unchanged throughout their life.
1.2.1.2 ROLE OF THE CASTE SYSTEM

The role of caste in Indian politics is multifaceted and influences various aspects of the political landscape. Here are
some key points about the role of caste in different aspects:
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Social Role
•It offers a sense of identity and belonging to individuals, as caste-based communities often provide a strong
support system for their members in times of need.
•The practice of marrying within one’s caste has helped maintain caste boundaries and social order, but also
perpetuated social divisions and inequalities.
•The concepts of purity and pollution have regulated social interactions, impacting dietary practices, marriage,
and daily activities.
Economic Role
•The caste system-based division of labor ensured the functioning of traditional village economies but also
restricted economic mobility.
•Lower castes, especially Dalits, were often relegated to menial and demeaning jobs, leading to their economic
exploitation and poverty.
•Higher castes enjoyed economic privileges and access to resources, reinforcing socio-economic disparities.
Political Role
•Castes have become significant political entities, with caste-based parties and movements advocating for the
rights and interests of specific groups.
•Political leaders often mobilize support along caste lines, impacting electoral outcomes and policy decisions.
•The government has implemented affirmative action policies, reserving seats in education, employment, and
political institutions to address historical injustices and promote social and economic upliftment of
marginalized communities.
Cultural Role
•Each caste traditionally had specific occupations and skills associated with it. This specialization has led to the
preservation of unique crafts, arts, and knowledge within these communities.
•Each caste has its own customs, traditions, rituals, and practices that have enriched the cultural tapestry of
the country.
•Caste panchayats (local councils) have enforced social norms and ensured adherence to caste rules and
customs.
1.2.1.3 TRANSFORMATION/WEAKNING OF THE CASTE SYSTEM

Social Causes:
• Decline in supremacy of brahmins: Due to
secularization, modernization, and the development Other
Important
of scientific temper. Their exclusive control over
Changes
religious and educational fields has weakened.
• Inter-caste marriages: Marriages between different
castes have become more common, especially in
cities. Economic
Idea of purity Decline in
• Increased social mobility: Lower castes can improve geographical
status
has become
their social status through a process called replaced
impractical isolation
Sanskritization, where they adopt the practices of caste status
higher castes. For example, religious practices,
vegetarianism, etc.
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Political Causes:
• Abolition of Untouchability: Article 17 of the Constitution of India prohibits the practice.
- Other constitutional Articles like 14, 15, 16 and 18 also promotes equality among people of India and
disregard discrimination.
• Legal reforms: Like - Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribe (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989 and 2015
Amendment, Provision of reservation in educational institutions, for employment opportunities etc.
- Establishing social welfare departments and national commissions (NCSC, NCST & NCBC) for the welfare
of scheduled castes and tribes.
- Govt schemes: Ex: - Dr Ambedkar Scheme for social integration by incentivizing inter-caste marriages.
• Caste-Based Political Mobilization: Organized groups has led to a more diverse representation in politics. For
example: Bahujan samaj party, Republican party of India etc.
Other Factors:
• Socio-economic movements against caste: Self-respect Movement, Temple Entry Movement, Justice
Movement, Dalit Panthers movement etc.
• Urbanization and Migration: The movement of people to cities for work and education has led to a mixing of
castes. In urban areas, caste identity is less pronounced compared to rural areas.
• Impact of Globalization: Exposure to global ideas, values, and cultures through globalization has slowly eroded
the traditional caste system, promoting more egalitarian views.
1.2.1.4 FACTORS THAT CONSERVE CASTE SYSTEM

• Social factors: Endogamy (intra-caste marriages), patriarchal
mindset, caste-based biases and prejudices etc.
• Economic factors: The distribution of material opportunity or life
chances (caste-based occupations/occupational divisions like
safai karmacharis), are the sources of enduring inequalities and
hence caste system.
• Political mobilization: Even though caste politics is now far more
disaggregated, caste-based mobilization, parties and voting
system still strengthen the caste system in India.
- Caste based affirmative actions: Like caste-based
reservation in jobs and education, etc.
• Caste based community and collective mobilization: Caste
based civil societies, groups, mobilizing and collectively
demanding equality and non- discrimination continues to be a
form of factors offering a sense of kinship, belonging, and
identity.
RECENT INCIDENCES/DATA OF ALLEGED CASTE-BASED DISCRIMINATION

• According to National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB) latest data, about 158 daily crimes cases against
scheduled castes (SC) were reported in 2022, increased by about 35% between 2018 and 2022.
- Only six states account for over 76% of all caste-related crimes. They are Uttar Pradesh (UP), Rajasthan,
Madhya Pradesh (MP), Bihar, Odisha and Maharashtra each.
• In February 2023, a Dalit student at the Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay (IIT Bombay) died by committing
suicide allegedly after suffering caste discrimination on the campus.
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The caste system in India has undergone significant changes due to various factors. These changes have led to a decline
in the rigidness of the system, increased social mobility, and a shift towards more inclusive social norms. Efforts to
address caste-based discrimination and promote social justice continue to be essential for building a more equitable
society in India.
1.2.1.5 CASTE BASED-RESERVATION IN INDIA

• Reservations aim to rectify historical injustices, ensure equal representation, provide an equal platform for all,
and promote and advance historically disadvantaged classes. The system is a tool against social oppression
and injustice.
• It includes reserved seats in education, employment, and politics, but
faces debates and challenges.
• Ongoing evaluation and focus on socio-economic development and equal
opportunities are crucial for its effectiveness.
• Constitutional Provisions:
- Article 15(4) capacitates the State to create special arrangements for
promoting the interests and welfare of socially and educationally backward classes of society.
- Article 16(4) empowers the state to provide reservations in public employment for SCs, STs, and OBCs to
ensure their representation in government jobs.
- Article 330 and Article 332 of the Indian Constitution provides for reservation of seats for Scheduled
Castes (SCs) and Scheduled Tribes (STs) in both the Lok Sabha (House of the People) and the State
Legislative Assemblies.
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1.2.1.6 FIGHTING CASTE-BASED DISCRIMINATION
CURRENT CONNECT
Caste Census: A caste census is the process of collecting and analyzing demographic, economic, and social data of all
persons in a country, including information on their caste affiliations. There have been renewed calls for a caste census
in recent years, particularly from the opposition parties.
Significance of Caste Census:

• Addressing social inequality: A caste census can help identify disadvantaged groups and bring them to the
forefront of policy-making, addressing social inequality and uplifting marginalized communities.
• Monitoring affirmative action policies: A caste census can help monitor the effectiveness of affirmative action
policies, such as reservations for OBCs and other groups, enabling policymakers to make informed decisions.
• Ensuring equitable distribution of resources: Accurate data on OBCs and other groups is necessary to ensure
equitable distribution of resources. A caste census can provide insights into the socio-economic conditions and
needs of different caste groups, guiding policymakers in formulating inclusive policies.
• Constitutional mandate: Article 340 mandates the appointment of a commission to investigate the conditions
of socially and educationally backward classes and makes recommendations for their overall growth.
• Comprehensive picture of Indian society: A caste census can provide a comprehensive picture of the diversity of
Indian society, shedding light on social dynamics and the interplay between different caste groups.
Challenges and Criticisms

• Reinforcing the Caste System: Opponents argue that a caste census reinforces the caste system and can lead to
further social divisions.
• Practical Difficulties: Conducting a caste census can be challenging due to the complexity of caste categories and
the need to ensure confidentiality of personal information.
• Error-Ridden Data: The 2011 Socio-Economic and Caste Census (SECC) had significant errors, with 14.57 million
errors yet to be rectified.
Recent Developments
• Bihar Caste Survey: The Bihar government recently released the results of its caste survey, which found that OBCs
and Extremely Backward Classes (EBCs) constitute more than 63% of the population.
- On the same line, other states like Andhra and Telangana have started demand of conducting caste-based
survey.
• SECC 2011: The SECC 2011 was conducted by the Registrar General of India and included data on 46.73 million
categories of caste, sub-caste, synonyms, and other caste-related information. However, the data had significant
errors, and the process of rectifying these errors is ongoing.
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Caste based reservation in education and issue of meritocracy

• The Supreme Court (SC) while upholding reservation for OBCs, held that “scores in entrance tests do not reflect
the social, economic and cultural advantage that accrues to certain classes and contributes to their success in
such examinations”.
• “High scores in an exam are not a proxy for merit. Merit should be socially contextualized (historical
disadvantage or injustice, lack of economic means like coaching institutes etc.) as an instrument that advances
social goods like equality.
1.2.1.8 CONCLUSION
The caste system in India, a complex and multifaceted social hierarchy, continues to perpetuate significant social and
economic inequalities. Despite efforts to address its negative impacts, the system remains a formidable barrier to
achieving greater social and economic equality in India, underscoring the need for sustained and comprehensive
reforms to promote a more inclusive and equitable society.
1.2.2 RELIGIOUS DIVERSITY IN INDIA
“India is a country in which every great religion finds a home.” Annie Besant
Religious diversity in India is a unique aspect of the country's cultural and

social fabric. India is home to a diverse range of religious beliefs, with
Hinduism, Islam, Christianity, Sikhism, Buddhism, and Jainism being the
most widely practiced religions. It is often referred to as the "Land of
Spirituality and Philosophy" due to its rich religious heritage
• Hinduism is the largest religion and consists of many sub-groups
i.e., Vaishnavas, Shaivites, Shaktas, and Smartas.
• Islam is the second largest religion and includes sub-groups like
Shias, Sunnis, Ahmadis, etc.
• Many tribal groups follow animistic and naturistic
religions.
• Every religion has diverse beliefs, customs, and
festivals associated with it.
• Such diversity has contributed to a unique blend of
beliefs and practices that are distinct from other
parts of the world.
1.2.2.1 CHALLENGES WITH RELIGIOUS DIVERSITY

The challenges with religious diversity in India are
multifaceted and complex. Despite the benefits of religious
diversity, several challenges arise from the coexistence of
different religious beliefs and practices.
1.2.2.2 WAY AHEAD TO MAINTAIN RELIGIOUS HARMONY

• Legal Framework: Strengthening laws against religious discrimination and hate speech (e.g., IPC Sections
153A, 295A).
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• Education: Including education about different religions in school curricula to promote understanding and
respect.
• Interfaith Dialogues: Encouraging regular dialogues between people of different religions to discuss common
values.
• Media Representation: Encouraging the media to portray religious diversity positively and accurately.
• Cultural Exchange Programs: Promoting programs that celebrate diverse religious traditions.
• Leadership Role: Empowering religious leaders to promote peace and unity among their followers.
• Conflict Resolution Mechanisms: Establishing effective mechanisms for peaceful resolution of religious
conflicts.
• Constitutional Safeguards: Guaranteeing freedom of religion (Article 25-28) and protecting the rights of
religious minorities (Article 29, 30).
• Equal Opportunities: Ensuring equal rights and opportunities for all religious communities.
1.2.3 LINGUISTIC DIVERSITY

India is known for its rich variety of languages, spoken by over 1.3 billion people. With more than 22 official languages,
India's linguistic diversity is fascinating. This diversity has been shaped by centuries of history, including migrations,
trade, conquests, and colonial rule. These languages are not just a way of communication; they are deeply woven into
India's identity, influencing its culture, politics, and society.
• According to census data, more than 19,500 languages and dialects are spoken as the mother tongue in India.
• There are 22 scheduled languages mentioned in the constitution of India and according to the census 2011,
96.71% of the population of the country uses one of these 22 scheduled languages as their mother tongue.
• As per census data, 121 languages have more than 10000 speakers each.
1.2.3.1 ISSUES WITH LINGUISTIC DIVERSITY
1.2.3.2 WAY FORWARD

• Three Language Formula: This plan, proposed by the Kothari Commission, promotes learning one regional
language along with Hindi and English. This approach helps bridge linguistic gaps while preserving regional
languages and cultures.
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• Use of technology: Technology can provide online resources in regional languages and offer translation
services. For example, the e-Bhasin app, and OTT platforms support and promote regional content.
• Preserving endangered languages: There is a need to preserve and protect endangered languages like the
great Andamanese, Asur, and Balti.
• Monitoring and Evaluation: Effective use of the Language Bureau of the Ministry of Education to implement
and monitor the language policy.
• Importance to Mother Tongue: UNESCO has recommended the use of the mother tongue in the early years
of schooling to improve cognitive skills. This is also reflected in the NEP 2020.
• Awareness campaigns: to promote the feeling of unity and integrity, to curb linguistic discrimination, etc.
1.2.4 UNITY IN DIVERSITY

India is known for its rich cultural heritage and diversity, with a myriad of languages, religions, traditions, and
ethnicities coexisting harmoniously. The concept of 'Unity in Diversity' reflects the idea that despite the differences,
there is a sense of unity that binds the people of India together.
“If God had so wished, he would have made all Indians speak with one language ... the unity of India has been and
shall always be a unity in diversity.” Rabindranath Tagore
1.2.4.1 FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR ‘UNITY IN DIVERSITY’
•Single Constitution: India follows one Constitution for all states and union territories,
ensuring common laws and rights for all citizens.
Constitutional •Federalism: India has a federal system where power is divided between the center and
Provisions states, allowing regional autonomy within a unified framework.
•Secularism: India is a secular country with no official state religion, guaranteeing
freedom to practice any religion equally.
•Religious Co-existence: India is known for religious tolerance, allowing different faiths to
peacefully coexist.
Societal •Shared Historical Narratives: Common historical experiences and cultural assimilation have
Factors fostered a sense of unity among diverse people.
•Fairs and Festivals: Festivals celebrate diversity and promote togetherness.
•Economic Integration: The Constitution allows free trade and the GST has facilitated
economic integration, creating a unified market.
Economic •Inter-State Mobility: People can move freely across India, promoting unity.
Factors •Economic Interdependence: Economic ties among states and regions create a shared
stake in prosperity, fostering solidarity.
•Inter-State Councils: Resolve disputes and promote cooperation among states.

Institutional •National Integration Council: Works towards harmony and unity.
Mechanisms •Ek Bharat Shreshtha Bharat: Promotes interaction and mutual understanding between
people of different states.
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1.2.4.2 THREAT TO INDIA’S DIVERSITY
1.2.4.3 WAY FORWARD

• Balanced regional growth: Identify and target underdeveloped areas in the country. E.g. Aspirational Districts
Program.
• Equal Representation: Ensure all communities, including minorities and marginalized groups, are represented
in governance structures and decision-making processes.
• Promote nationalism and patriotism: The feeling of nationalism and patriotism should be instilled to tackle
regionalism. For Example, the Delhi government announced introducing the 'Deshbhakti' curriculum in schools
to induce patriotism among kids.
• Federal Cooperation: Foster cooperation and dialogue between the central and state governments to resolve
conflicts and manage diversity.
• Promote religious tolerance: Inter-religious harmony and tolerance should be promoted in order to curb
communalism.
• Improved Connectivity: The connectivity and transportation to remote areas need to be improved so that
anti-social elements cannot exploit geographical isolation against national interest.
• Socio-economic Equality: There is a need to tackle growing inequalities using various social welfare and
educational measures.
• Media and Arts: Utilize media, cinema, and the arts to highlight stories and perspectives from different
communities, promoting a sense of shared identity.
1.2.5 KINSHIP
“Kinship system refers to a set of persons recognised as relatives either by virtue of a blood relationship or by virtue
of a marriage relationship.”
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• Kinship is a social and cultural construct that shapes our identities within the social fabric and establishes a
network of obligations, roles, and responsibilities. It encompasses the bonds that tie us together through
blood, marriage, or adoption and defines and organizes relationships within a family unit.
1.2.5.1 TYPES OF KINSHIP
TYPES OF KINSHIP
Consanguineal: It involves Affinal: It is based on the bond of Social: It is based on factors

blood relatives like parents, marriage and involves relations with other than blood or marriage
children, and siblings etc. spouse and their family. e.g., religion, community, etc.
1.2.5.2 FUNCTIONS OF KINSHIP
1.3 SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS

A social institution is a group or organization that has specific roles, norms, and expectations, which function to meet
the social needs of society. For example, Family, Religion, Government, etc. are social institutions.
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1.3.1 FUNCTIONS OF FAMILY
Family is a basic social unit consisting of parents and their children, considered as a group. It is the immediate
environment for a child where he learns basic behavioral patterns, language, prejudice, and customs.
1.3.1.1 CLASSIFICATION OF FAMILY
1.3.1.2 CHANGES IN INDIAN FAMILY SYSTEM

• Shift from Joint to Nuclear Families: The nuclear families are replacing the age-old joint families. Although the
existence of the nuclear family is circumstantial.
• Transition from Patriarchy: The families in India are no longer truly patriarchal and there is enough scope for
individual autonomy especially in urban areas.
• Empowerment of Women: The women are no longer confined to homes. They are getting higher education
and participating in the job market.
• Changing Marriage Patterns: The age of marriage has gone up and instances of child marriage are declining,
rising trend of live-in etc.
• Emergence of Neo-Local Residence: As a result of industrialization and urbanization more and more young
married couples set up their residence in the place of their work. Neo-local residence is, therefore, coming
into existence more and more.
• Influence of Western values: Values relating to modern science, rationalism, individualism, equality, free life,
democracy, freedom of women, etc. have exerted a tremendous change on the joint family system in India.
• Rise of Consumerism and Materialism: There is a growing emphasis on material possessions and consumerist
culture, influencing family dynamics and priorities, often leading to a shift in traditional value systems.
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• Impact of Technology and Globalization: Technological advancements and globalization have brought about
significant changes in communication, lifestyle, and outlook
1.3.1.3 FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR CHANGES IN THE FAMILY SYSTEM
1.3.2 INSTITUTION OF MARRIAGE

“Marriage is not a mere convention, but an implicit condition of human society.” Dr Radhakrishnan
Marriage is a social institution that unites two individuals, in a legally recognized and socially accepted relationship. It
is accomplished by different rituals and ceremonies
1.3.2.1 TYPES OF MARRIAGE

• Monogamy: In most societies, monogamy is the only form of marriage where a man marries one woman. They
raise children together and perform all marital rites.
• Polygamy: Polygamy involves one person marrying multiple spouses simultaneously. It has two main forms:
- Polygyny: One man is married to several women.
- Polyandry: One woman is married to several men.
• Levirate: In Levirate marriage, a widow marries her late husband's younger brother.
1.3.2.2 CHANGES IN THE INSTITUTION OF MARRIAGE

• Age at Marriage: The age at marriage has increased significantly over the years, with more women marrying
later in life.
• Education: Education has played a significant role in delaying marriages, as women are now more likely to
pursue higher education and career goals before getting married.
15
• Economic Independence: Economic independence has also contributed to the delay in marriages, as women
are now more likely to support themselves financially before getting married.
• Inter-Caste Marriage: Inter-caste marriages have become more common, with more people marrying outside
their caste or religion.
• Changing Purpose of Marriage: The purpose of marriage has shifted from primarily being a religious or social
obligation to being a more personal and emotional choice.
• Changing Process of Mate Selection: The process of mate selection has also changed, with more people
choosing their partners and less reliance on arranged marriages.
• Changing Economic Aspects of Marriage: The economic aspects of marriage have also changed, with more
emphasis on mutual support and less on dowry and other traditional practices
1.3.2.3 CHALLENGES TO INSTITUTION OF MARRIAGES
Child Dowry
marriage system
Increased Marital
Divorce Rates abuse
Discrimina
tion Forced
Challenges
Against marriages
Women
1.3.2.4 RECOGNITION OF SAME-SEX MARRIAGE
• Supreme Court (SC) verdict in Supriyo Chakraborty V Union of India

(2023): SC recently delivered a verdict, rejecting petitions to legalize Global status of same sex marriage
• Only 35 countries worldwide
same-sex marriage under the Special Marriage Act, 1954➔ No
have legalised same-sex
fundamental right to marry under the Constitution➔ Queer couples
marriages so far, the latest
do not have the right to adopt➔ Couples do not enjoy a right to a civil being Andorra (in February
union. 2023) and Nepal (in June 2023).
• The court stopped short of allowing equal marriage but recognized the • The Netherlands was the first
rights of gay couples to engage in same-sex relationships (Legalized in country to legalise same-sex
Navtej Singh Johar case-2018). marriages in 2001.
• United States: 2015.
• The ruling has sparked hope for further rights for LGBTQ+ individuals,
including the right to adopt and raise children.
CURRENT CONNECT
• Delhi high court rejected a challenge to the constitutionality of Section 5(v) of the Hindu Marriage Act, 1955
(HMA), which prohibits marriage between two Hindus if they are “sapindas” of each other, “unless the custom
or usage governing each of them permits of a marriage between the two”.
• Recently, Supreme Court has held that customary rituals and ceremonies prescribed under the Hindu Marriage
Act must be assiduously, strictly and religiously followed, failing which a marriage would be declared invalid
even after it has been registered.
16
1.4 TRIBES
Tribes are social groups typically united by common descent, language, culture, and/or territory, often considered
indigenous or native to a particular region. The term "tribe" originated in ancient Rome, where it denoted a division
within the state. The tribal communities in India have been recognized by the Indian Constitution under ‘Schedule 5’
of the constitution. Hence the tribes recognized by the Constitution are known as ‘Scheduled Tribes’.
1.4.1 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF TRIBES
1.4.2 LEGAL PROVISIONS FOR TRIBES

• Protection of Civil Rights Act, 1955.
Tribal Statistics
• Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of • According to the 2011 census, tribals
Atrocities) Act, 1989: To prevent the atrocities against the make up 8.6% of India's population.
members of the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes. • There are 75 Particularly Vulnerable
• Provisions of the Panchayats (Extension to the Scheduled Tribal Groups (PVTGs) in India.
Areas) Act, 1996: Extension of the provisions relating to the • The largest number of tribal
Panchayats to the Scheduled Areas. communities (62) are found in Odisha.
• Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers
(Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006: To recognize and vest the forest rights and occupation in forest land
in forest dwelling scheduled tribes and other traditional forest dwellers.
The government of India follows the following criteria for identification of PVTGs:
• Pre-agricultural level of technology
• Low level of literacy
• Economic backwardness
• A declining or stagnant population
1.4.3 COMMITTEES RELATED TO TRIBES

• Kaka Kalelkar Commission, 1953: Appointed under Article 340, defined Scheduled Tribes as “They lead a
separate exclusive existence and are not fully assimilated in the main body of the people. They may belong to
any religion.”
17
• Elwin Committee (1959): To examine the functioning of Multi-Purpose Development Blocks, the basic
administrative unit for all tribal development programs.
• U.N. Dhebar Commission (1960): To address the overall situation of tribal groups, including the issue of land
alienation in tribal areas.
• The Lokur Committee (1965): To look into criteria for defining Schedule Tribes.
• The Bhuria Committee (1991): Recommendations paved the way for the enactment of the PESA Act, 1996.
• Xaxa Committee: To examine the socio-economic, educational, and health status of tribal communities and
recommend appropriate interventional measures to improve the same.
1.4.4 CHANGES IN THE TRIBAL SOCIETY

• From Traditional to Modern: Tribes have adopted modern practices and technologies, leading to changes in
their traditional ways of life
- E.g., the Study of the Baiga tribe by R. Joshi (1984) observed the transition of the fun-loving Baiga tribe
to a stressful modern lifestyle.
• Economic Development: Has also impacted tribal society, with many tribes engaging in cash-based economies
and adopting new livelihoods such as agriculture and mining. Ex: Plant based oil selling in e-commerce sites.
• Tribal Autonomy: The Indian government has also recognized the importance of tribal autonomy, with many
tribes being granted self-governance and the right to manage their affairs.
• From Isolation to Interaction: Tribes have moved from a state of isolation to increased interaction with the
larger society and civilization.
• From Static to Dynamic: Tribal society has transitioned from being static to dynamic, with changes in culture,
economy, and politics.
• Changes in Lifestyle: Particularly in those tribes living in or near the Urban areas.
• Loss of Languages: Many of the tribal languages are on the verge of extinction due to migration, globalization,
and urban-centric economic growth.
- E.g., the death of Boa language in Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
• Decline of Egalitarian values in Tribal societies and the emergence of economic classes. Such changes are
more visible in tribal people from Chotanagpur working as laborers in tea gardens of Assam and North
Bengal.
1.4.5 TRIBAL ISSUES

• Land Rights: Tribal communities often face land alienation, displacement, and loss of traditional territories
due to developmental projects, mining activities, and encroachment.
• Livelihood and Poverty: Many tribal communities struggle with poverty, limited access to livelihood
opportunities, and lack of infrastructure. They often rely on subsistence agriculture, forest resources, and
traditional occupations for their sustenance.
• Displacement and Rehabilitation: The displacement of tribal populations due to industrial projects and other
development initiatives often leads to inadequate rehabilitation and lack of access to basic services.
• Education and Healthcare: Access to quality education and healthcare facilities remains limited in tribal areas.
High dropout rates, lack of schools, and inadequate healthcare infrastructure contribute to disparities in tribal
communities.
• Forest Rights and Conservation: Many tribal communities have a deep connection with forests and depend
on them for their livelihoods. Balancing conservation efforts with the rights of tribal communities is essential
to ensure sustainable development.
18
• Social Discrimination: Tribal communities often face social discrimination, stigmatization, and marginalization.
Caste-based discrimination, prejudice, and lack of awareness about their rights exacerbate their vulnerability.
• Lack of Representation: Tribals often lack representation in government and decision-making processes,
leading to a lack of voice and influence in policy-making.
CURRENT CONNECT
Polavaram Dam Conflict: Tribal communities, such as the Koya and Kondh tribes, in Andhra Pradesh oppose the
construction of the Polavaram dam due to violations of their land rights, inadequate compensation, and
displacement without proper rehabilitation.
• The conflict highlights the challenge of balancing development projects with the protection of tribal rights and
cultural heritage.
Forest Rights Act (FRA) Violation:

• The Forest (Conservation) Amendment Act (FCAA) of 2023 discards the need to obtain consent from habitation
level gram sabhas before final forest clearance. It violates FRA 2006, which designated forest dwellers and gram
sabhas as the statutory protectors of forest. Wildlife and biodiversity.
- The Amendment Act does not recognise “deemed forests” as land subject to the provisions of the FCA.
Consequently, forest land classified as “deemed forests” can be diverted without the consent of the Gram
Sabhas.
• The National Commission for Scheduled Tribes (NCST) invoked its power to requisition FRA implementation
reports, leading to a dispute with the Union Environment Ministry over potential violations of tribal rights.
A report Status of Adivasi Livelihoods (SAL) Report, 2022, released by the non-profit organization PRADAN
highlights that Food subsidy through Public Distribution System (PDS) has reduced the stress that Adivasi
households would have faced due to lower income.
1.4.6 INITIATIVES FOR TRIBAL WELFARE

• Eklavya Model Residential Schools (EMRS): Established to provide quality education to ST students (Class VI-
XII), with more than one lakh students enrolled in 392 EMRS currently.
• Pradhan Mantri Vanbandhu Vikas Yojana: A venture capital fund set up to promote entrepreneurship and
start-up projects by ST youth.
• Minimum Support Price (MSP) for Minor Forest Produce: Ensuring MSP and marketing support for tribal
products through the Pradhan Mantri Jan Jatiya Vikas Mission.
• Van Dhan Yojana (VDY): Has over nine lakh beneficiaries in 340 districts across the country, supporting retail
marketing for livelihood development among tribals.
• Van Dhan Vikas Kendra (2018): Provides skill upgradation, capacity building, training, and sets up primary
processing and value addition facilities.
• Pradhan Mantri Adi Adarsh Gram Yojana (PMAAGY): Aims to provide basic infrastructure in villages with a
significant tribal population.
• National Health Mission (NHM): Relaxed norms for setting up health facilities in tribal areas, with 256 High
Priority Districts (HPDs) including tribal districts identified.
• PM Janjatiya Vikas Scheme (2021): Aims for tribal development in five years through Van Dhan group
formation.
• Marketing And Logistics Development for Promotion of Tribal Products from North Eastern Region (PTP-
NER) (2023): Aims to transform the tribal ecosystem in the Northeast by strengthening livelihood
opportunities for tribal artisans through improved procurement, logistics, and marketing.
19
1.4.7 WAY FORWARD
• Holistic Development Approach: Adopt a comprehensive data-driven digital governance model to reach
diverse tribal populations and cover critical sectors like education, health, livelihood, water, and village
development.
• Improving Access to Basic
Services: Strengthen Sub-
Centres, Primary Health
Centres, and Community
Health Centres with relaxed
population norms for setting
up health facilities in tribal
areas.
• Empowering Tribal Panchayati
Raj Institutions: By enhancing
their decision-making
capabilities at the local level.
• Improving Livelihoods and
Food Security.
• Effectively implement the Public Distribution System (PDS): To minimize the stress of low income and food
insecurity among tribal households.
Conclusion:
Indian society demonstrates resilience, unity in diversity, and inclusivity. It has achieved remarkable progress in
education, technology, arts, and sports, producing globally recognized individuals. To sustain this growth, it must
promote tolerance, acceptance, and respect for diversity. Education, awareness, and social reforms are vital for
creating a more equitable, harmonious, and progressive nation.

1. Why is caste identity in India both fluid and static? (2023, 15 marks)
2. Explore and evaluate the impact of ‘Work from Home’ on family relationships. (2022, 10 Marks)
3. Analyse the salience of ‘sect’ in Indian society vis-a-vis caste, region and religion. (2022, 15 Marks)
4. Has caste lost its relevance in understanding the multi-cultural Indian Society? Elaborate your answer with
illustrations (2020, 10 Marks)
5. The caste system is assuming new identities and associational forms. Hence, caste system cannot be eradicated
in India. Comment. (2018, 10 marks)
6. In the context of the diversity of India, can it be said that the regions form cultural units rather than the States?
Give reasons with examples for your view point (2017, 10 Marks)
7. What are the two major legal initiatives by the State since Independence addressing discrimination against
Scheduled Tribes (STs)? (2017, 10 Marks)
8. Distinguish between religiousness/religiosity and communalism giving one example of how the former has got
transformed into the latter in independent India. (2017, 10 marks)
9. Has the formation of linguistic States strengthened the cause of Indian unity? (2016, 15 marks)
10. Why are the tribals in India referred to as ‘the Scheduled Tribes’? Indicate the major provisions enshrined in the
Constitution of India for their upliftment (2016, 12.5 Marks)
20
11. Debate the issue of whether and how contemporary movements for assertion of Dalit identity work towards
the annihilation of caste. (2015, 12.5 marks)
12. How do you explain the statistics that show that the sex ratio in Tribes in India is more favorable to women than
the sex ratio among Scheduled Castes? (2015, 12.5 Marks)
13. Describe any four cultural elements of diversity in India and rate their relative significance in building a national
identity. (2015, 12.5 Marks)
14. The life cycle of a joint family depends on economic factors rather than social values. Discuss. (2014, 10 marks)
========================================================================================
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2 POPULATION AND ASSOCIATED ISSUES

Related Keywords
• Demographic Dividend, Demographic disaster, Inclusive growth, Up-skilling, Digital divide, Digital inequality; 5Cs
for Financial Literacy (Content + Capacity + Community + Communication + Collaboration), Silver generation of
India, Youth: Warriors to shape India’s destiny/Greatest force in democracy, Viksit Yuva, Vikshit Bharat.
“Population is the strong driver of the economy as well as the quality of the labor force.” Ali Babcan
Recent Context:
• Recently published State of World Population Report According to the State of World Population Report:
2023, the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) • 68% of India’s population: Between the ages of
predicts that by the middle of 2023, India will surpass 15 and 64 years (working population).
China as the world's most populated nation. • About 25%: Between 0-14 years;
• The Report on World Population Prospects, 2022 • About 18%: Between 10 and 19 years,
said the global population is growing at its slowest • About 26%: Between 10 and 24 years, and
rate since 1950, having fallen under 1% in 2020. • About 7%: Above 65 years.
2.1 FACTORS INFLUENCING THE DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION
Physical Factor
Climate • Low population density in extreme weather areas
Landform • Preference for flat plains and gentle slopes
• Inhibition of population concentration due to frequent storms, earthquakes, floods, and
Natural Disasters
wildfires
Socio-economic -cultural Factors
Industrialization • Industrial belts attracting large populations, like the Kobe-Osaka region of Japan
Urbanization • Cities offering better economic possibilities, educational and medical resources
Social
• Promotion of migration and settlement in new regions through community networks
Organization
Demographic Factors
• Migration influenced by push factors (negative circumstances) at the place of origin and
Migration
better opportunities in distant lands
Political Factors
• Negative impact on population growth due to conflicts between political parties or persons
Political turmoil
of different religious beliefs
• Negative impact on population growth due to prejudice or discrimination
Prejudice
• E.g., Delhi Riots 2020, Manipur Riots 2023, etc.
22
India’s Demographic Dividend:
• Demographic dividend: It refers to the growth in an economy that is the result of a change in the age structure
of a country’s population.
• India has 68% of its population in the age group of 15-64 years.
• According to the Economic Survey 2018-19, India’s Demographic Dividend will peak around 2041.
Interesting Facts: India surpassed China as the world’s most populous country in 2023 with India catching up with
China’s population of 1,426 million.
2.2 INDIA-DEMOGRAPHIC DATA

• Total Population: 1.22 billion (2011 Census) (17.71.% of World Population). India will be the most populous
country by 2100.
- Rural Population: 68.84 % (Census, 2011)
- Urban Population: 31.16% (Census, 2011)
• Working Population: Working adults (20-64 years) will reduce from around 762 million in 2017 to around 578
million in 2100
• Total Fertility Rate: Reduce to 1.29 by 2100 from 2.1 in 2019
• Immigration: India will be the second-largest net immigration in 2100
2.3 ADVANTAGES AND CHALLENGES OF DEMOGRAPHIC DIVIDEND
Advantages Challenges
Increased Labour Force: India's working-age population Low literacy and poor skill development
(15-64 years) is expected to increase to 65% by 2030
Low Human Development: India ranks 134

Capital Formation: Increasing saving rate indicating the out of 193 countries in the Human
potential for higher capital formation and investment. Development Index.
Job Creation: India needs to create around

Female Human Capital: Improved female education and 8-10 million jobs annually to absorb the
health can lead to a potential increase in WLFPR. increasing working-age population.
Economic Growth: The demographic dividend could add

2% to India's annual GDP growth rate over the next two Informal Economy: The informal sector in
decades.(UNFPA) India employs around 80% of the workforce.
Infrastructure: With a growing working-age population,

there is an opportunity to invest in infrastructure Poor labor force participation rate: It was
development. 50% in 2022-23(PLFS).
Skilled Workforce: With the potential to drive growth in Missing Women From Workforce: WLFPR
sectors like IT, healthcare, and manufacturing. remains at just 37% in 2022-2023.(PLFS)
23
2.4 CONSEQUENCES OF OVERPOPULATION
1. Unemployment: Generating jobs for a large population in a country like India is extremely challenging. Each
year, the number of illiterate people increases due to various factors such as lack of education, limited resources,
outdated technologies, low investment, and more.
2. Underutilization of Manpower: India's economic slowdown and sluggish business growth have led to a rise in
unemployment, with many skilled individuals remaining underemployed or unemployed.
3. Infrastructure Strain: The rapid population growth has outpaced infrastructure development, resulting in
inadequate transportation, communication, housing, education, and healthcare facilities.
4. Resource Depletion: Natural resources like forests, water, and land are being overexploited, leading to
environmental degradation and resource scarcity.
5. Decreased Efficiency and Rising Costs: The increased demand due to overpopulation has led to higher
production costs, especially in agriculture, contributing to inflation and reduced output.
6. Income Inequality: With a growing population, there is a widening gap in income distribution, exacerbating
social and economic inequalities within the country.
CURRENT CONNECT
The Earth4All Initiative (People and Planet report) presents two scenarios for future population growth.
• In the "Too Little, Too Late" scenario, the world's population is predicted to peak at 8.6 billion in 2050 and then
decline to 7 billion by 2100, assuming current economic development trends continue.
• In the "The Giant Leap" scenario, the population is expected to peak at 8.5 billion by 2040 and then rapidly
decline to around 6 billion by 2100. This decline is attributed to investments in poverty alleviation, gender
equity, education, health, and addressing inequality, as well as ensuring food and energy security.
2.5 PLANNING IN INDIA ASSOCIATED WITH POPULATION

• First Five-Year Plan: In 1952, India launched its population control program.
• Third Five-Year Plan: In 1965, sterilization for both men and women was introduced. An independent Family
Planning Department was established.
• Fourth Five-Year Plan: Emphasized the promotion of birth control measures.
• Fifth Five-Year Plan: On April 16, 1976, the National Population Policy was announced, raising the minimum
marriage age from 18 to 21 for boys and from 14 to 18 for girls.
• Sixth, Seventh, and Eighth Plans: These plans focused on long-term strategies for controlling the population
to achieve demographic advantages.
Population Control Bill Introduced in Lok Sabha:

• In December 2022, two Members of Parliament of the Bharatiya Janata Party, Ravi Kishan and Nishikant Dubey,
introduced in the Lok Sabha a private members’ Bill aimed at population control in India.
Uttar Pradesh Population Control Bill:

• The Uttar Pradesh government has released a draft population control bill that aims to bring down the gross
fertility rate and stabilize the population. The Bill has provision to debar people who have more than two
children from government schemes and perks.
2.6 ETHICAL CONSIDERATION FOR POPULATION CONTROL

• Individual Autonomy: Respect each person's right to make their own decisions about family planning without
interference.
24
• Informed Consent: Provide accurate information and ensure individuals can make informed choices about
family planning.
• Voluntary Participation: Encourage people to participate in population control measures voluntarily, without
coercion.
• Non-Discrimination: Ensure that population control measures do not discriminate based on gender, caste,
religion, or socio-economic status.
• Reproductive Health Services: Offer comprehensive reproductive healthcare and family planning services to
everyone.
• Sustainable Development: Integrate population control efforts with goals for environmental sustainability
and the well-being of future generations.
2.7 STEPS BEING TAKEN BY THE GOVERNMENT FOR POPULATION CONTROL

• Mission Parivar Vikas: This initiative aims to accelerate family planning efforts in India.
- The goal is to reduce the Total Fertility
Rate (TFR) to 2.1 by 2025 in seven
high-population states: Madhya
Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Assam,
Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, and
Rajasthan.
• Compensation Scheme for Sterilization
Acceptors: The Ministry of Health and
Family Welfare (MoHFW) provides
compensation for the loss of wages to
beneficiaries who undergo sterilization.
- Compensation is also provided to the
service providers and their teams for
performing sterilizations.
• Clinical Outreach Teams (COT) Scheme:
This scheme operates in 146 Mission
Parivar Vikas districts.
- It provides family planning services through mobile teams from accredited organizations, especially in
remote, underserved, and geographically challenging areas.
• Scheme for ASHAs to Ensure Spacing in Births: This scheme utilizes Accredited Social Health Activists (ASHAs)
to counsel newly married couples.
- The aim is to ensure a delay of two years in childbirth after marriage and encourage a spacing of three
years between the first and second child.
• Uttar Pradesh Population Policy (2021-2030): The Government of Uttar Pradesh unveiled a draft bill of the
UP-Population Policy in 2021 to bring down the gross fertility rate and stabilize the population.
International Focus on Population

• Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 3: Ensures universal access to sexual and reproductive healthcare
services, including family planning, information, and education.
- Aims to integrate reproductive health into national strategies and programs.
• Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 10.7: Seeks to facilitate orderly, safe, regular, and responsible migration
and mobility of people ➔ Promotes the implementation of well-managed migration policies.
25
• UNFPA: Aims to end unmet need for family planning, preventable maternal deaths, and gender-based violence
and harmful practices by 2030.
Conclusion:
In conclusion, India's population landscape presents both significant opportunities and formidable challenges. A young
and dynamic population can drive innovation, economic growth, and global competitiveness. To fully leverage this
potential, it is essential to invest in quality education, vocational training, and healthcare, ensuring that the workforce
is skilled, healthy, and capable of contributing to the economy.
CURRENT CONNECT
• Recently, the working paper "Share of Religious Minorities: A Cross-Country Analysis (1950-2015)”, put out by
the Economic Advisory Council to the Prime Minister (EAC-PM) claimed that while the share in population of
Muslims increased by 43.15% in this time period, the share in population of Hindus decreased by 7.82%.
- In 1950, Hindus’ share in population was 84.68%, coming down to 78.06% in 2015. Similarly, Muslims’ share
in population had risen from 9.84% to 14.09%.
• These reports are being misinterpreted by media and politicians and being criticized on following grounds:
- Population data (number of children) a family chooses to have been influenced more by socio-economic
factors: Such as education and economic conditions than by religion. Communities with better access to
education, health care, and economic opportunities tend to have lower fertility rates.
- It often highlights the shortcomings in levels of human development.

1. Discuss the main objectives of Population Education and point out the measures to achieve them in India in
detail. (2021,15 marks)
2. Critically examine whether growing population is the cause of poverty OR poverty is the main cause of
population increase in India. (2015, 10 marks)
3. Critically examine the effects of globalization on the aged population in India. (2013, 10 marks)
========================================================================================
26
3 ROLE OF WOMEN AND WOMEN’S ORGANIZATION

Related Keywords
• From women empowerment to women led development/growth, Nari Shakti, Gender inclusive, 3Ss to women:
Suvidha, Suraksha, Samman, From “gungi gudiya” to “iron lady”, Prisoners of aspirations to Agents of change,
Catalysts of change, From labharthis (beneficiaries) to Equals, Sashakt Nari, Sashakt Bharat.
“I measure the progress of a community by the degree of progress which women have achieved.” Dr. B.R.
Ambedkar
3.1 STATUS OF WOMEN IN INDIA
KEY FACTS: WOMEN

Gender disparity:
• Skewed child sex ratio: It dropped from 927 in 2001 to 914 per 1,000 males (according to Census 2011)
• Gender Gap Index: India ranks 127 out of 146 countries. This is much less than Bangladesh (59), China (107),
Nepal (116), Sri Lanka (115) and Bhutan (103).
• Gender Inequality Index (GII) 2022: India stands at rank 108 out of 193 countries with a score of 0.437.
• Women Peace and Security Index (2023): India has been ranked 128th out of 177 countries. The report also
states that India is among the top 10 worst
countries for political violence targeting women
in 2022.
- India also accounts for 4.6 crore of the
world’s 14.26 crore “missing females”.
Women in the workforce:

• The female labour force participation (FLFPR)
rate in India for the working age group (15 years
and above) stands at 32.8%, which is below the
global average of 47% (Periodic Labour Force
Survey for 2021-22).
• The percentage of employed women who earn
27
about the same or more than their husbands has decreased from 42% (NFHS-4) to 40 per cent.
Education:
• Literacy Rate: The women's literacy rate is 77%, while India's male literacy is at 84.7% (World Bank India
report,2023).
• 33% of girls drop out of school due to domestic work (United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF)survey).
• Positive sign: India has achieved parity in enrolment across all levels of education.
Healthcare:
• Nearly 60 % of women between the 15-49 age group are anaemic compared to 25 % of men (National Family
Health Survey 5).
• India, along with Vietnam, China, and Azerbaijan, has relatively low scores on the Health and Survival sub-
index due to skewed sex ratios.
• Eight women die daily from unsafe abortions in India, making it the third leading cause of maternal deaths
in the country. (United Nations Population Fund’s State of the World Population Report, 2022).
Financial Autonomy:
28
Political Participation of Women in India
• India has a population of 662.9 million women. In India, women’s representation in the Lok Sabha (the Lower
House) has remained slightly below 15 %, whereas the global average was 26.2 %.
- Recently, Nagaland elected its first female legislator, Hekani Jakhalu. This highlights the low rate of
women's participation in politics in many states.
Crimes against women
• India registered 31,677 cases of rape in 2021 - an average of 86 daily, while nearly 49 cases of crime against
women were lodged every single hour (National Crime Records Bureau data).
• The NFHS data (2019-21) found that in India, around one-third of women have experienced physical or sexual
violence.
• 30 % of women aged 18 to 49 have experienced physical violence since age 15. 6 % have experienced sexual
violence in their lifetime.
• Domestic violence against women decreased slightly from 31.2% to 29.3%.
3.1.1 CURRENT CONTEXT REGARDING WOMEN'S EMPOWERMENT
3.1.2 SOCIAL STRUCTURE AND WOMEN IN INDIA

• Caste Structure: Women's subordination was key in developing the caste hierarchy, with higher castes
imposing stricter constraints on women. Control over female sexuality was essential to maintaining caste
purity and economic power.
29
• Institution of Family: Patrilineal descent and patrilocality are predominant, resulting in property inheritance
through male offspring and the transfer of women's residence after marriage.
- Sons are preferred, leading to daughter neglect in terms of resources and opportunities (missing
daughter, son meta-preference).
• Socialisation within the family: Socialisation perpetuates gendered roles and relationships and encourages
girls to have low self-esteem. Ex: Media, school books, and societal norms reinforce gender stereotypes.
• Class structure and women's work: Upper-caste women are often secluded and engaged in domestic
activities, while middle and lower-caste women may work in their own fields.
- In urban areas, upper-caste women from the middle class have emerged from seclusion to pursue
education and employment.
• Access to Education: Gender disparities persist in terms of enrolment rates, retention, and educational
attainment levels, particularly in rural and marginalized communities. However, the trend has somewhat
improved in recent times:
- As per the report titled ‘The Indian Economy: A review’, the female gross enrollment ratio (GER) in higher
education quadrupled from 6.7% in 2000-01 to 27.9% in 2020-21. More girls (highest girls in STEM,
around 40% in the world) are now in higher education than boys.
• Economic empowerment: They face limited access to economic opportunities, including formal employment,
equal pay, and entrepreneurship. Lack of property rights and financial inclusion further hinder their economic
empowerment.
• Reproductive Health and Rights: Limited access to healthcare services, high maternal mortality rates, and
inadequate family planning measures affect women's overall well-being and decision-making autonomy.
• Gender-based Violence: Including domestic violence, sexual harassment, dowry-related violence, and female
infanticide.
- Domestic violence and dowry deaths: Violence against women within the family was traditionally
considered a family matter rather than a crime against women, but awareness has been growing.
● Female Feticide and Infanticide: According to a survey by the British medical journal Lancet, India has
witnessed nearly 10 million female abortions in the past two decades.
● Rape, Sexual Harassment, and Abuse: These acts hinder women's freedom and reinforce the perception of
women as the weaker sex.
- The Delhi gang rape case in December 2016 triggered widespread protests, led to the establishment of
the Justice Verma panel, and facilitated fast-track judgments.
30
3.1.3 LEGAL PROTECTION FOR WOMEN IN INDIA
3.1.4 RIGHT TO SAFE AND LEGAL ABORTION

News: The Supreme Court has held that all women, irrespective of their marital status, are entitled to safe and legal
abortion till 24 weeks of pregnancy under the Medical Termination of Pregnancy (MTP) Act.
MTP Act: The Medical Termination of Pregnancy (MTP) Act, 1971, came into force on 1 April 1972, based on the report
of the Shantilal Shah Committee in India, except for the state of Jammu and Kashmir.
31
• Under the act, terminating a pregnancy between 12 to 20 weeks will require the medical advice of two doctors
on the pretext of risk of life to the woman, or risk of grave injury (Physical or mental), or a risk of a child born
being physically or mentally abnormal posing as a seriously handicapped.
• Amendment in 2021: The new amendment allows for abortions based on the advice of one doctor for
pregnancies up to 20 weeks and needs the opinion of two doctors for pregnancies between 20 and 24 weeks
under seven categories to be eligible for seeking termination under section 3B of rules prescribed under the
MTP Act.
• After 24 weeks of pregnancy, the law requires that a medical board be set up in “approved facilities”, which
may “allow or deny termination of pregnancy” only if there is substantial foetal abnormality.
• Issues with the Act: Doesn’t recognize women’s ‘bodily autonomy’ to decide on their pregnancy, does not
have any recourse for rape victims and other vulnerable pregnant women after 24 weeks, no provision of time
frame for the medical board decision, fear of criminal persecution exists among the registered medical
practitioners and low number of these medical practitioners etc.
3.1.5 SURROGACY
• Meaning: It is an arrangement in which a woman (the surrogate) agrees to carry and give birth to a child on
behalf of another person or couple (the intended parent/s). Types:
- Altruistic surrogacy: It involves no monetary compensation to the surrogate mother other than the
medical expenses and insurance coverage during the pregnancy.
- Commercial surrogacy: It includes surrogacy or its related procedures undertaken for a monetary benefit
or reward (in cash or kind) exceeding the basic medical expenses and insurance coverage.
- Gestational Surrogacy: A process where one person, who did not provide the egg used in conception,
carries a fetus through pregnancy and gives birth to a baby for another person or couple.
Surrogacy Regulation in India

• Constitutional provisions: The right of reproductive autonomy is a facet of the right to privacy guaranteed
under Article 21 of the Constitution.
• Legal provisions: Surrogacy is regulated by Assisted Reproductive Technology (Regulation) , 2021 and
Surrogacy (Regulation) , 2021.
• Surrogacy Regulation Act, 2021:
- It provided a gestation period of ten months from the date of coming into force to existing surrogate
mothers to protect their well-being.
- Only a married couple who has a medical condition necessitating gestational surrogacy can avail it.
- They must first obtain a certificate of recommendation from a District Medical Board.
- It also bans commercial surrogacy, which is punishable with a jail term of 10 years and a fine of up to Rs
10 lakhs.
• Surrogacy (Regulation) Act, 2022, introduces several key features:
- Prohibition of commercial surrogacy.
- Limitation of surrogacy to heterosexually married Indian couples with proven infertility.
- Mandatory counseling sessions for both intended couples and surrogate mothers.
- Establishment of a dedicated Surrogacy Board for oversight and regulation.
- Benefits of Altruistic Surrogacy: Altruistic surrogacy, where women carry a child for others without
financial compensation, holds significant advantages.
32
Global status on surrogacy:
Country Commercial Altruistic Gestational Donor Gametes Legal Eligibility Criteria

Surrogacy Surrogacy Surrogacy Allowed
United Allowed Allowed Allowed Yes Varies by state; may include marital
States status, sexual orientation, and age
restrictions.
India Prohibited Allowed Allowed Yes Only married couples and ever-married
single women; medical certification
required.
United Prohibited Allowed Allowed Yes, regulated Only altruistic; intended parents must
Kingdom be infertile or have a medical
condition.
Canada Prohibited Allowed Allowed Yes Altruistic; intended parents must be
infertile or have a medical condition.
3.1.6 GOVERNMENT OF INDIA'S WOMEN EMPOWERMENT PROGRAMS/SCHEMES

• Gender Budgeting: Introduced in Australia in the 1980s, India adopted it in 2005-06 to ensure a gender
perspective in policy formulation and budgetary commitments.
• Nirbhaya Fund: Established in 2013 with a corpus of Rs. 1,000 crores to promote women's safety and
empowerment.
• Maternity Benefit Act: The Maternity Benefit Act, 1961, amended in 2017, provides paid maternity leave and
crèche facility. Maternity leave increased from 12 to 26 weeks, with the option for work from home based on
mutual agreement.
• Beti Bachao, Beti Padhao: Campaign promoting awareness and enhancing welfare services for girls in India.
• Working women hostel: Aims to provide safe accommodation with daycare facilities for working women in
urban, semi-urban, and rural areas.
• Support to Training cum Employment for Women (STEP): Launched in 1986, it offers training and
employment opportunities for women below the poverty line in sectors like agriculture and animal husbandry.
• Swayamsidha: An integrated program promoting women's empowerment through awareness, economic
independence, and convergence of services like literacy and health.
• Rashtriya Mahila Kosh: A national mechanism providing micro-credit to poor and asset-less women in the
informal sector to meet their financial needs.
• Swadhar Greh: Provides support and necessities (shelter, food, clothing, and social, economic, and health
security) to marginalised women and girls facing difficult circumstances, including survivors of violence and
natural disasters.
• Other key measures:
- Institutional Measures: Union Ministry of Women and Child Development, National Commission for
Women.
- Access to Credit: NABARD-SHG Bank Linkage program, Rashtriya Mahila Kosh, Stand-up India, Mudra
yojana.
33
3.1.7 SOLUTIONS TO THE CHALLENGES FACED BY WOMEN
CURRENT CONNECT
Namo Drone Didi Scheme: Under the initiative, rural women are trained to become drone pilots for agricultural
purposes. The initiative aims to enhance economic empowerment and financial autonomy among women,
especially in rural areas.
• The initiative aims to equip 15,000 women-led Self-Help Groups (SHGs) with agricultural drones to assist in
tasks such as crop monitoring, spraying fertilisers and sowing seeds. This will also provide additional income
opportunities for many women.
Conclusion: Women's issues in India continue to pose significant challenges despite efforts towards empowerment
and gender equality. The prevalence of violence, discrimination, and limited economic opportunities hinder women's
progress. However, through comprehensive legal reforms, awareness campaigns, and targeted programs, positive
steps have been taken. Continued collective action is necessary to address deep-rooted social norms, ensure safety
and equal opportunities, and create an inclusive society where women can thrive and achieve their full potential.
“Empowerment of women leads to the development of a good family, good society and, ultimately, a good nation.
When the woman is happy, the home is happy. When the home is happy, the society is happy, and when the society
is happy, the state is happy, and when the state is happy, there will be peace in the country, and it will develop at
a greater pace.” APJ Abdul Kalam
34
3.2 EVOLUTION OF WOMEN’S ORGANIZATION IN INDIA
FIRST PHASE (1850-1915)

• Focused on reforming societal issues mainly center around Women.
• Notable Reformers: Raja Ram Mohan Roy Campaigned against ‘sati’, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar; Fought for
widow remarriage, Jyoti Rao Phule; Advocated for women's upliftment.
• Key Issues Addressed: Polygamy, Purdah (veil system), Widow remarriage, Women’s education.
SECOND PHASE (1915-1947)
• This phase saw the birth of three major Organizations formed by women between 1917 and 1927 after World
War I. Nationalism became the main cause.
- Women’s India Association (WIA): The first purely feminist organisation in India.
- National Council of Women in India (NCWI): Became the national branch of the International Council of
Women. Focused on advising the government on welfare issues rather than grassroots activism.
- All India Women’s Conference (AIWC): Focused on the upliftment of women and national service.
35
THIRD PHASE (1947 – 1975)
• Emergence of New Women’s Movement advocating for the Uniform Civil Code within the gender politics
framework.
• Key Contributions
- The National Federation of Indian Women (NFIW) was established in 1954 by leaders including Aruna
Asaf Ali.
- CPI(M) set up Shramik Mahila Sangathana in 1971 to mobilise lower-middle and working-class women.
- Anti-price rise movement (1973): United women from CPI(M), Socialist, Congress, and non-party middle-
class housewives.
1975 – PRESENT
• There has been a steady increase in the number of women’s welfare organisations. Over 100 major women's
organisations work in India.
• During this period, the Women's groups focused on providing services to enable women to gain legal
advantages.
• Important organisations
- SEWA (Self-Employed Women’s Association): Founded by Ela Bhatt, it aimed to provide full employment
and self-reliance to women.
- National Commission for Women (1992): Hears complaints and redresses grievances.
- Rashtriya Mahila Kosh
(1993): Provides financial
assistance to Self-Help
Groups (SHG) for starting
industries or
occupations.
- Balika Samriddhi Yojana
(1997): Supports poor
mothers and their girl
children.
- Swa-Shakti Project
(1998): Assists women in
starting productive work
with financial help from
the government.
36
EXAMPLES/BEST PRACTICES/CASE STUDIES
• Social Movement by women (Manipur): Women known as Meira Paibis or “women torch bearers” are loosely
organized, usually led by groups of senior women to fight alcoholism and drug abuse has now expanded to
countering human rights violations and the development of society at large.
• Women movement for their liberation and upliftment Marathwada region (Mumbai): India’s Ekal Mahila
Sangathan (Single Women’s Organisation), an NGO organized a kabaddi competition to bring out women
(widows, single women, women who are divorced and those abandoned) from their home and face social
ostracization.
• Example of inclusivity and women’s equality (Tamil Nadu): For the first time, the Tamil Nadu government has
trained three women as temple priests at an institution for the training of priests. This heralds a “new era of
inclusivity and equality” as even at a time when women were becoming pilots and astronauts, they were not
allowed to become priests in many temples. “Because it was deemed impure, even in temples for female deities.
But finally, change is here.
• Example of courage, fight for women’s right and democracy (Iranian activist Narges Mohammadi has won the
Nobel Peace Prize recently in recognition of her tireless campaigning for women’s rights and democracy, and
against the death penalty): She has kept up her activism despite numerous arrests by Iranian authorities and
spending years behind bars. She has remained a leading light for nationwide, women-led protests.
CURRENT CONNECT
• In a significant ruling, the Supreme Court of India reaffirmed the rights of married women over their streedhan.
- Streedhan refers to any asset received by a woman at any point during her lifetime. Usually, these include gifts
received by her at the time of her birth, marriage, widowhood. The SC held that a husband has no control over
his wife’s ‘streedhan’ (a woman’s property) and recognized a woman’s absolute right over her property.

1. Explain why suicide among young women is increasing in Indian society. (2023, 10 Marks)
2. Examine the role of ‘Gig Economy’ in the process of empowerment of women in India. (2021, 10 Marks)
3. What are the continued challenges for women in India against time and space? (2019, 10 Marks)
4. “Empowering women is the key to control population growth”. Discuss (2019, 10 Marks)
5. ‘Women’s movement in India has not addresses the issues of women of lower social strata.’ Substantiate your
view (2018, 15 Marks)
6. How do you explain the statistics that show that the sex ratio in Tribes in India is more favorable to women than
the sex ratio among Scheduled Castes? (2015, 12.5 Marks)
7. Discuss the various economic and socio-cultural forces that are driving increasing feminization of agriculture in
India (2014, 12.5 Marks)
8. How does patriarchy impact the position of a middle-class working woman in India? (2014, 12.5 Marks)
9. Critically examine whether growing population is the cause of poverty OR poverty is the main cause of
population increase in India. (2014, 12.5 Marks)
10. Male membership needs to be encouraged in order to make women’s organization free from gender bias.
Comment. (2013, 10 Marks)
========================================================================================
37
4 POVERTY
Related Keywords
• From the Cherry-picking approach to the Collective Development approach, Collective harm to society, Breaking
the shackles of poverty cycle, Symbiosis of two visions: Poverty elimination and shared prosperity, Poverty
induced inequality, Breaking the vicious cycle or “chakravyuh” of poverty.
“Poverty is the greatest violence. Pacifism that can see the cruelties only of occasional military warfare and is blind
to the continuous cruelties of our social system is worthless.” Mahatma Gandhi
4.1 FACTS AND DEFINITION

• Poverty: A state or condition when people
International Definition:
lack the means to satisfy their basic needs
• According to the World Bank, Poverty is “pronounced
due to inadequate financial resources and
deprivation in well-being”. The poor are those who do not
essentials for a minimum standard of
have enough income or consumption to put them above
living.
some adequate minimum threshold.
• Development: Improvement in a
• As per the updated poverty line by the World Bank,
country's economic and social conditions
people earning below $2.15 per day are extremely poor.
to create wealth and improve people’s
lives.
• According to UNDP, multi-dimensional poverty looks at how people experience poverty in multiple,
overlapping ways which compasses three dimensions of poverty i.e., health, education and standard of living.
Kay Facts:
• Multidimensional Poverty Index Report by UNDP 2023: Globally, 1.1 billion people (18% of the total
population) out of 6.1 billion people, are acutely multidimensionally poor and live in acute multidimensional
poverty across 110 countries.
• Poverty in India: India still has more than 230 million (18.7%) people who are poor. More than 410 million
Indians escaped poverty between 2005-06 and 2019-21.
4.2 TYPES, ISSUES, CAUSES & CHALLENGES WITH POVERTY

There are two types of Poverty, namely:
• Absolute Poverty: Measured by taking
into context the household income, if
it is below a necessary level to
maintain basic living standards such as
food, shelter, housing, etc.
• Relative Poverty: The percentage of
the population with income less
than some fixed proportion of
median income defining income
inequality.
38
4.2.1 ISSUES WITH POVERTY
• No Growth: Poor families experience extra stress without focusing on growth.
• Health Issues: The poor are prone to a variety of health issues, such as early adult death, mental illness, and
infant mortality.
• Child Labor: Children belonging to poor families are often associated with work from an early age.
• Persistence of Poverty: Illiteracy perpetuates the cycle of poverty for coming generations.
• Criminalization: Poor people tend to move towards crime, and they also account for the bulk of victims.
• Dimensions of poverty include: Hunger and malnutrition, Social discrimination, Social exclusion, Lack of
participation in decision-making.
4.2.2 CAUSES OF POVERTY

• Population Rise: The poverty graph (NITI Aayog) of a
region is also influenced by its population density.
When it comes to poverty, areas with a high density of
people are designated red because of resource
shortages and overcrowding.
• Socio-Political:
- Social evils: Like untouchability gender
discrimination, racism, or other forms of poverty
are directly correlated.
- Inequality of opportunities: Inequality causes the
weaker groups in society to suffer an unfair loss of
opportunity, which increases their vulnerability.
- Casteism: People from lower castes may experience
discrimination in the job market despite having
comparable qualifications, which could result in
lower-paying positions or unemployment.
- Lack of Education: Without education, poverty is
a vicious cycle that doesn’t allow people to improve
their situations.
✓ UNESCO Global Education Monitoring Report: Over 170 million people could be free of extreme
poverty if they only had basic reading skills.
39
• Lack of good/universal healthcare - Healthcare is often too expensive or inaccessible to those who need it.
If people do seek treatment, the cost often ruins their finances and pushes people into poverty. It’s a vicious
cycle.
• Geographical Factor: When the forecasted rainfall does not occur, drought or floods occurs and agricultural
production is disrupted, it can lead to inflation-related poverty.
• Informal Sector: Over 90% of the population is employed in the informal sector, which hampers job and
income security.
- Issues in governance - Problems in the implementation of programmes and policies, corruption, etc.
- Rise in the Gig economy: Food delivery apps, cab etc. which often lacks job security
4.2.3 CHALLENGES IN ESTIMATING POVERTY

• Components of PLB: Figuring out the components of the poverty line basket (PLB) is difficult because the
prices of the items that make up the basket change from state to state and from one time to the next.
• Variations across states:
- Some states, such as Odisha and West Bengal, supported the Tendulkar Poverty Line, while others, such
as Delhi, Jharkhand, Mizoram, etc., supported the Rangarajan report.
- The current official measures of poverty are based on the Tendulkar poverty line, which is fixed at a daily
expenditure of ₹27.2 in rural areas and ₹33.3 in urban areas. Many criticize this line as too low.
• Demographic and Economic Dynamics: Furthermore, when the macroeconomy and demographic change, so
do consumption patterns, nutritional needs, and component pricing.
• The problem of determining the threshold: If the poverty line is set too high, many needy people may be
excluded, while setting it too low is harmful to the government's fiscal health.
4.3 FEMINIZATION OF POVERTY

The feminisation of poverty refers to a trend of increasing inequality in living standards between men and women due
to the widening gender gap in poverty.
4.3.1 CONSEQUENCES OF THE FEMINIZATION OF POVERTY

• Limited access to resources: Women in poverty often have limited access to essential resources such as
education, healthcare, clean water, and sanitation.
- This can result in adverse health outcomes, reduced economic opportunities, and perpetuate the cycle
of poverty.
• Income disparities and economic vulnerability: Women tend to have lower incomes and face wage gaps and
unequal pay compared to men. This economic vulnerability can lead to increased financial insecurity and
limited ability to meet their own needs and those of their families.
• Limited educational opportunities: Poverty can hinder women's access to quality education, which can restrict
their potential for personal and economic advancement. Limited educational opportunities can further
perpetuate gender inequalities and reinforce the cycle of poverty across generations.
• Health risks and social exclusion: Women in poverty often face higher health risks due to inadequate
healthcare access, poor nutrition, and exposure to unsafe living conditions. They may also experience social
exclusion and marginalisation, which can have negative psychological and emotional effects.
• Increased caregiving responsibilities: Women in poverty often shoulder disproportionate caregiving
responsibilities for children, elderly family members, and the sick. These responsibilities can limit their ability
to engage in income-generating activities, further exacerbating their economic vulnerability.
40
• Gender-based violence: Poverty and gender inequality are closely intertwined, and women in poverty are
more vulnerable to various forms of gender-based violence, including domestic violence, sexual exploitation,
and trafficking.
Addressing the feminization of poverty requires comprehensive strategies that promote gender equality, women's
empowerment, and inclusive economic development.
4.4 POVERTY ALLEVIATION PROGRAMS IN INDIA

• Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP): Aiding the rural poor through subsidy and bank credit for
productive employment opportunities.
• Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana:
Affordable housing will be provided
to poor families.
• National Old Age Pension Scheme
(NOAPS): Providing pensions to
senior citizens.
• Mahatma Gandhi National Rural
Employment Guarantee Act:
Providing 100 days of assured
employment to every rural
household.
• Annapurna Scheme: Providing food
grains to senior citizens who cannot
take care of themselves.
• Deen Dayal Antyodaya Yojana:
Helping the poor by providing skill
training.
• Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Vikas Yojana: Focusing on skill development for fresh entrants to the labour market.
• Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana: Promoting financial inclusion by opening bank accounts for the unbanked
poor.
• PM KISAN (Pradhan Mantri Kisan Samman Nidhi): Providing greater access to credit to the farmers.
• Technology and digital initiatives for poverty alleviation:
- Mobile banking and digital payments: Enhancing financial inclusion.
- Aadhaar identification system: Streamlining welfare benefits.
- Jan Dhan Yojana: Promoting access to banking services.
Major committees dealing with poverty in India:

• National Committee on Rural Poverty (NCEPR): Eradicating rural poverty.
• National Committee on Urbanization (NCU): Addressing urban poverty.
• Committee on Financial Inclusion (Nachiket Mor Committee): Enhancing financial inclusion.
• High-Level Committee on Food Corporation of India (Shanta Kumar Committee): Enhancing food distribution
efficiency.
41
4.5 WAYS TO END POVERTY
Ending poverty in all its forms is the first of the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) of the 2030 Agenda for
Sustainable Development.
Conclusion:
According to the UN, India lifted around 415 million people out of multidimensional poverty in a 15-year span
between 2005-06 and 2019-21. To eradicate all forms of poverty, India needs social and administrative innovations
and decentralized planning, making it a people’s movement.

1. COVID-19 pandemic accelerated class inequalities and poverty in India. Comment. (2020, 15 marks)
2. The incidence and intensity of poverty are more important in determining poverty based on income alone”. In
this context analyze the latest United Nations Multidimensional Poverty Index Report. (2020, 15 marks)
3. ‘Despite the implementation of various programmes for the eradication of poverty by the government in India,
poverty is still existing’. Explain by giving reasons. (2018, 10 Marks)
4. “An essential condition to eradicate poverty is to liberate the poor from the process of deprivation.”
Substantiate this statement with suitable examples. (2016, 12.5 Marks)
5. Critically examine whether growing population is the cause of poverty or poverty is the main cause of population
increase in India. (2015, 12.5 Marks)
========================================================================================
42
5 HUNGER
Related Keywords
• Teething problems, Hidden hunger, Double/dual & triple burden of malnutrition (DBM), vicious cycle of poverty
and malnutrition.
“You might not feel it in the belly, but it strikes at the core of health and vitality” UNICEF
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Hunger is defined by the United Nations as the period when people experience severe food insecurity—meaning that
they go for entire days without eating due to lack of money, access to food, or other resources. Poverty and hunger
are the two sides of the same coin.
5.2 HUNGER IN INDIA: DATA FACTS

• Global Hunger Index (GHI) 2023: India ranked 111th out of 125 countries with a score of 28.7, putting it in the
"serious" category.
- India’s child wasting rate: 18.7% (worse than earlier levels recorded in 2014 (15.1%) and 2000 (17.15))
is the highest for any country in the world.
- Prevalence of undernourishment: 16.6% (State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World report 2023).
Thus, 225 million people in India are considered undernourished.
- Child stunting: Declined from 38.7% to 35.5% between 2014 and 2022.
- Under-five mortality: 3.1% (United Nations Inter-Agency Group for Child Mortality January 2023).
- State of Food Security and Nutrition Report: India's undernourished population decreased from 247.8
million in 2004-2006 to 224.3 million in 2019–21.
- It stated that the number of stunted children under the age of 5 decreased from 52.3 million in 2012 to
36.1 million in 2020, and the number of overweight children under the age of 5 decreased from 3 million
in 2012 to 2.2 million in 2020.
• Lancet Child & Adolescent Health Study: Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh (UP), Bihar, and Assam have the highest
levels of hunger and malnutrition, leading to faster deaths.
- Over and undernutrition, imbalances in energy, protein, and other nutrient intakes are common in
children.
• Sustainable Development Goal 2 is about creating a world free of hunger by 2030.
43
5.4 GOVERNMENT INITIATIVES TO TACKLE HUNGER ISSUE
Hunger Alleviation Programs in India Features
Eat Right India Movement Outreach activity by FSSAI to promote healthy eating habits.
Aims to reduce stunting, undernutrition, and anaemia among children and

POSHAN Abhiyan
women.
Improves nutritional levels among school children, promoting enrolment,
Mid-day Meal (MDM) scheme
retention, and attendance.
Pradhan Mantri Matru Vandana
Maternity benefit program for pregnant women.
Yojana
Addition of key vitamins and minerals to staple foods to enhance nutritional
Food Fortification
content.
National Food Security Act, 2013 Entitles a percentage of the population to receive subsidised food grains.
Immunisation program targeting children under 2 years and pregnant
Mission Indra Dhanush
women against 12 diseases.
Integrated Child Development Offers services to children (0-6 years), pregnant women, and lactating
Services (ICDS) Scheme mothers.
5.5 WAY AHEAD
44
Conclusion:
Even though concerted efforts are underway to fulfil SDG 2, which calls for zero hunger, a focused approach to
combating malnutrition is needed to reach the Global Nutrition targets by 2025 (WHO) and build thriving and
productive human capital.

1. Hunger and Poverty are the biggest challenges for good governance in India still today. Evaluate how far
successive governments have progressed in dealing with these humongous problems. Suggest measures for
improvement. (2017)
2. How far do you agree with the view that the focus on lack or availability of food as the main cause of hunger
takes the attention away from ineffective human development policies in India? (2018)
3. There is a growing divergence in the relationship between poverty and hunger in India. The shrinking of social
expenditure by the government is forcing the poor to spend more on non-food essential items squeezing their
food – budget. - Elucidate. (2019)
========================================================================================
45
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6 INEQUALITY
Related Keywords
• Teething problems, Inequality of opportunity, Fight inequality to safeguard ideals of democracy, From "might
is right" to equality, Justice and fairness, Expanding the economic and education pie, Capacity development.
The United Nations defines inequality as “the unequal distribution of resources, opportunities, and power that shape
well-being among individuals”.
6.1 IMPORTANT STATISTICS

• According to the World Inequality Report 2022, the top 10% and top 1% of the population hold 57% and 22%
of the total national income, respectively.
• According to the Oxfam report, the top 10% of the Indian population holds 77% of the total national wealth
and inequality in India has skyrocketed since the early 2000s.
6.2 DIMENSIONS OF INEQUALITY

Differences in income, wealth, and resources, leads to unequal access to basic
Economic Inequality
needs like food, education, and healthcare.
Unequal treatment based on gender, race, ethnicity, caste, religion, or disability,

Social Inequality
results in differences in status, power, and privileges.
Unequal influence over political processes and decision-making, often correlating

Political Inequality with socioeconomic status and other forms of inequality.
Unequal access to education, jobs, housing, and healthcare, along with systemic
Racial and Ethnic Inequality
discrimination based on race or ethnicity
Differences in educational quality, resources, and opportunities, leading to ongoing
Educational Inequality social and economic disparities.
Disparities in access to digital technologies and internet connectivity, leading to
Digital Inequality
unequal opportunities in the digital age.
Disproportionate exposure to environmental hazards and limited access to clean
Environmental Inequality
air, water, and green spaces, often affecting marginalized communities.
Issues such as unequal pay, limited access to education and healthcare for women,
Gender Inequality gender-based violence, and fewer women in leadership roles.
The impact of a person’s social and economic background on their life
Intergenerational Inequality opportunities, showing how inequality can be passed down through generations.
Differences in development and living conditions between areas, resulting in
Spatial Inequality unequal access to services and opportunities based on location.
6.3 IMPACT OF INEQUALITY IN INDIA
Poverty and The Global Multidimensional Poverty Index 2023 reported that around 16.5% of India's
Marginalization population is multi-dimensionally poor.
Political Influence Wealth concentration leads to disproportionate political influence for the rich, affecting
policy-making and perpetuating inequality.
46
6.4 MEASURES TO REDUCE INEQUALITY
6.5 INITIATIVES
• Direct Benefit Transfer (DBT): Launched to ensure subsidies reach the intended beneficiaries directly, reducing
leakages and corruption.
• Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA): Provides 100 days of guaranteed
employment to rural households, alleviating poverty and reducing economic disparities.
47
• Reservation Policies: The Indian Constitution mandates reservation of seats in educational institutions and
government jobs for SCs, STs, and Other Backward Classes (OBCs) to promote social inclusion.
• Scheduled Castes Sub-Plan (SCSP): Allocates a specific budget for developing SCs to bridge the gap in socio-
economic indicators.
• Forest Rights Act (FRA) 2006: Recognizes the rights of forest-dwelling tribal communities over land and other
resources, aiming to rectify historical injustices.
• Right to Education (RTE) Act 2009: Mandates free and compulsory education for children aged 6 to 14 years,
aiming to bridge educational disparities.
• National Nutrition Mission (Poshan Abhiyaan): Aims to reduce malnutrition among children and mothers,
addressing intergenerational health inequalities.
Conclusion:
Inequality is a critical global issue with far-reaching consequences for individuals, communities, and nations. It
manifests in various forms, including economic, social, gender, racial, and educational disparities. Addressing these
inequalities requires a concerted effort to promote inclusive growth, social justice, and equitable resource distribution,
which are essential for bridging gaps and fostering sustainable development.

1. COVID-19 pandemic accelerated class inequalities and poverty in India. Comment. (2020, 10 marks)
========================================================================================
48
7 URBANIZATION
Related Keywords
• Urbanisation as an Engine of Economic Growth, Urban centers as ‘Accelerators for social and economic
progress’, ‘Messy & Hidden’ Urbanisation, ‘Uncatered’ or ‘ignored’ urbanization, Ghettoization of ‘Urban Poor’,
Slumisation of Indian Urbanisation, Ruralisation of Urban Life, Unplanned urbanisation as a ‘Silent Crises’, Rural-
Urban continuum; Rurbanisation.
7.1 INTRODUCTION
Urbanization is a global phenomenon that has been transforming human societies for centuries. It refers to the
population shift from rural to urban areas, the corresponding decrease in the proportion of people living in rural areas,
and how societies adapt to this change.
● According to NITI Aayog, cities in India occupy only 3% of the land, but they contribute 60% of the GDP.
● India is the world's second-largest urban system, with almost 11% of the total global urban population
residing in Indian cities.
GENERAL FACTS
World
• 55% of World’s Population in urban areas (Projected to increase to 68% by 2050).
India
Urban Population • The level of urbanization in India has increased from 11.4% in 1901 to 31.16% in
[NITI Aayog + MoHUA] 2011.
• At present, about 35% of India’s Total Population in urban areas (Projected to
increase to 50% by 2050).
• India has 2nd largest urban population in the world (11% of global urban
population)
Uneven Pattern of
• Over 75% urban population in just 10 states.
Urbanisation
Economic Potential of • With just 3% of total land, Urban areas contribute 60% to India’s GDP (75% by
Urban Areas 2031 as per UN DESA).
• 17% of Urban population lives in slums (1 in 6 urban Indian lives in slums).
Slums in India • Sanitation and Hygiene (State of India’s Environment, 2019)
[Census 2011] - 35% slums in India do not have access to treated tap water.
- >60% slum households lack proper drainage connection.
Urban Poverty in India • Multidimensional Poor – Nearly 9% Urban Population (NITI Aayog, MPI)
7.2 FACTORS LEADING TO URBANIZATION

• Push factors - That drive people away from rural regions.
- Decreased agricultural productivity, decreased man-land ration, decreased employment opportunities,
poor living conditions, limited educational opportunities, insufficient economic prospects, and inadequate
healthcare facilities, primitive conditions-caste and gender discrimination etc.
49
• Pull factor - That lures people to
cities.
- Industrialization and service
sector growth and
diversified opportunities,
employment opportunities
and entrepreneurship,
better access to services
(quality education, health,
governance etc.), better
infrastructure and a vibrant
urban lifestyle.
7.3 CHALLENGES WITH URBANIZATION
Economic Challenges Social Challenges Environmental Challenges
•Income Inequality: •Social Inequality: Widening •Air Pollution: Major urban

Significant disparities gaps and segregation. centers with severe pollution.
between rich and poor.
•Health Risks: Increased •Waste Management:
•Informal Economy: High pollution and lifestyle Inadequate systems causing
reliance on insecure, low- contamination.
paying jobs. diseases.
•Water Scarcity: Strained
•Urban Poverty: Prevalent •Crime: Higher rates due to resources leading to
poverty despite economic density and exclusion. shortages.
opportunities. •Education: Unequal access to •Climate Impact: Significant
•Slum Growth: Substandard quality education. contributor to greenhouse
living conditions. emissions.
Governance Challenges Housing Challenges Infrastructure Challenges
•Fragmented Governance: •Shortages: Demand far •Inadequate Services:

Inefficiencies from multiple exceeds supply. Shortages in essential
bodies. infrastructure.
•Affordability: Limited options
•Financial Weakness: Limited for low-income groups. •Maintenance: Lack of funds
funds for infrastructure. for upkeep.
•Poor Planning: Outdated •Outdated Laws: Rent control •Transport Issues: Inefficient
frameworks hindering and building regulations. systems increasing
growth. •Slum Conditions: Poor congestion.
•Corruption: Undermines planning leads to informal •Energy Supply: Unreliable,
policy and project settlements. affecting quality of life.
effectiveness.
50
Service Delivery Challenges Financing Challenges

•Accountability: Unclear responsibilities causing •Revenue Generation: Insufficient funds for
inefficiencies. development.
•Financial Issues: Dependence on subsidies, weak •Capital Access: Limited ability to raise
cost recovery. market funds.
•Regulation: Absence of independent authorities.
•Private Investment: Difficulties in attracting
•Service Quality: Bias towards infrastructure over private capital.
sustainable services.
•Innovative Financing: Need for new
mechanisms like PPPs
7.4 IMPACT OF URBANIZATION ON RURAL AREAS
POSITIVE IMPACTS NEGATIVE IMPACTS

Infrastructure Improvement: Enhanced roads, Rural-to-Urban Migration: Decline in rural population,
electricity, and internet access in rural areas. leading to workforce shortages in agriculture and other
local industries.
Remittances: Migrants send money back home, Changes in Agriculture: Increased mechanization can
boosting the rural economy. disadvantage small farmers
Economic Diversification: New job opportunities in Urban Sprawl: Encroachment on rural lands results in the
tourism and services, reducing dependency on loss of farmland and natural habitats
agriculture.
Social Changes: Potential for increased social mobility Environmental Impact: Increased pollution, waste, and
and equity as urban values influence rural areas. deforestation due to urban expansion harm rural
environments.
Improved Connectivity: Enhanced transport links Education and Health Disparities: Persistent quality and
between rural and urban areas facilitate the flow of accessibility issues in education and healthcare facilities in
goods, services, and information. remote rural areas.
Skill Development: Exposure to urban environments Social Disruption: Tension from disrupted traditional
can lead to skill development and better job prospects social structures, such as caste and kinship lines.
for rural inhabitants.
Entrepreneurship: Urbanization encourages rural Cultural Erosion: Urban influence can lead to the erosion
entrepreneurship by providing better access to of traditional rural culture and practices.
markets and resources.
7.5 BEST PRACTICES FOR URBAN DEVELOPMENT/GOVERNANCE

NATIONAL/LOCAL INITIATIVES
• Innovative Models of Waste Management & Sustainable Urbanisation
- Panchgani, Maharashtra: Being an ‘eco-sensitive zone’, waste management practices like waste-to-
energy are prohibited in the town, so it has invested in material processing and recovery systems, using
pollution tax levied on tourists to create and operate these systems.
✓ Managed to achieve 100% source segregation due to robust IEC campaign.
- Paradeep, Odisha: Active involvement of women, third-gender groups and ragpickers associations, the
city has created a waste management model that is inclusive & economically sustainable.
51
- Bengaluru, Karnataka: Plastic for Road Construction - Plastic Bitumen Road by Bruhat Bengaluru
Mahanagara Palika + Private Partner reusing non-recyclable plastics.
• Urban forestry examples -
- Indore - By clearing out and converting huge garbage landfills.
- Delhi – Miyawaki (turning backyards into mini-forests).
- Kerala - Mandatory to plant two mango/ jackfruit trees to get house registered.
• Managing Urban Floods: Successful Urban Flooding Management by Davangere (Karnataka) and Agartala
(Tripura)
- Key measures undertaken by Local Administration
✓ Mapping of Existent Drainage Systems.
✓ Removal of Illegal Encroachments over drainage networks.
✓ Construction of storm water drains to curb water logging and ensure drainage of water after heavy
rainfall within few hours.
INTERNATIONAL INITIATIVES:
• Blue-Green Infrastructure (BGI): For Flood resilient Cities
- UK: Sustainable drainage pond in the Newcastle Great Park development site
- China: Ningbo eco-corridor, that creates a “Green Lung” for the city, providing recreation, education, and
cultural facilities for the entire city.
- USA: Bioswale in a residential area in Portland. Bioswales are vegetated, shallow, landscaped depressions
designed to capture, treat, and infiltrate stormwater runoff as it moves downstream.
- Netherlands: Green tram tracks in central Rotterdam.
• Barcelona, Spain: Developed ‘superblocks’ which restrict vehicle traffic and prioritize green spaces and
pedestrian-friendly streets.
• Water-Conscious Urban Development – Fukuoka, Japan: Fukuoka, the only major Japanese city without a
large river, is prone to water shortages. The city developed a system that can simultaneously monitor and
control the water flow and pressure to be supplied to each area of the city via special sensors.
• Urban flooding and management: Songe cities being created in China (by creating lakes, urban ponds, lakes
etc.).
7.6 URBAN GOVERNANCE
Need for Urban Governance:

• ‘Cities as engines of growth’: With 30% urban population, Indian cities contribute 60% to GDP ➔ central to
achieving National targets of $5 Trillion economy, rapid formal job growth & attracting investments.
• ‘Urban’ Transition - Nearly 50% of India's population is expected to reside in urban areas by 2050. Without
robust urban governance human settlements could become a silent crisis in motion.
• Cities as core of big-ticket infra-initiatives – Smart cities, NIP, Gati Shakti, Industrial corridors, multi modal
logistics park etc.
• Achieving India’s Global Commitments: Cities play a decisive role in achieving India’s commitments to global
agendas, such as SDG, UN-Habitat’s New Urban Agenda, 2016 and Paris Agreement etc.
• Rising Health Concerns: E.g. a majority of the uncontrolled COVID-19 spread had occurred in urban areas and
metropolitan cities, despite a better health infrastructure.
• Rising pollution in cities - 39 out of 50 cities in the list of most polluted cities are from India.
• 15th Finance Commission recommendation for enhanced focus on Urban Local Bodies.
52
While the 74th Constitutional amendment Act places Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) at the heart of participatory urban
governance, several challenges remain.
• Undermining principle of Subsidiarity: No state has devolved all functions mentioned in the Twelfth Schedule.
Restrictive regulatory control of State governments over ULBs & exclusion in urban planning.
• Stressed municipal finances: Due to limited capacity of ULBs to raise own revenues, inadequate taxation
powers, delayed & insufficient revenue devolution etc. which has led to dependence on state and central
government and poor service delivery in cities.
• Powers of elected municipal officials: Charging Commissioners with executive power dilutes the role of the
Mayors and violates the spirit of self-governance.
• Poor accountability
- Functional overlap with parastatals that leads to ambiguity, wastage of resources, and shifting of
accountability. For e.g. in case of Delhi – MCD, NDMC, PWD, Jal board etc.
- Rampant corruption – Impacting ease of living for the citizens and accelerating vices like rent seeking, illegal
construction, land grabbing, vote bank politics etc.
• Sub optimal infrastructure & basic amenities due to lack of investment in physical, social & digital infra.
• Poor urban planning capacity – Lack of awareness about modern urban & land use planning and paucity of
skilled urban planners ➔ leading to uncontrolled, unplanned growth of metro cities. For e.g.
- 3/4th of urban centres (Statutory & census towns) lack master plans to guide their spatial growth.
- Census towns governed as villages with no urban local bodies or master plans, despite rapid rise of
population in these areas.
• Lack of Inclusive approach to urban governance – exclusion of vulnerable sections ie. SC/ST/OBC, women,
children, migrants, elderly, physically challenged, etc.
• Underutilisation of Urban Land: Paradoxically land parcels of high urban densities co-exist with those which
are sub-optimally utilized due to fragmented and poorly recorded ownership of urban land.
WAY FORWARD
• Re-engineering of urban governance: bring in more institutional clarity & clear responsibility matrix, and
multi-disciplinary expertise to ensure accountability & efficiency of ULBs.
• Timely & adequate Devolution of all three Fs: Funds, functions, & functionaries under 12th schedule.
• Strengthening financial capacity of ULBs – Assigning greater powers of taxation, and experimenting with
innovative finance mechanism eg. Municipal bonds, REIT, INVIT, property tax etc
• Executive appointments: Commissioner should be recruited through a transparent search-cum-selection
process led by the Mayor. Empower Mayors with longer tenure.
• Local capacity building: Short-term training programme for city level elected officials and dedicated cadres
for city administration like IAS, lateral entry of private sector executives etc.
• Sound pool of Skilled Planning professionals: such as planners, urban designers, architects, engineers, data-
science experts, geospatial technology experts
• Boost to urban infra – effective implementation of Urban public transportation systems, Smart cities, AMRUT,
Housing for all, Rurbanisation mission etc.
• Revision of Town Planning Acts: to be reviewed and upgraded to the latest advancements in technology,
urban and regional planning approaches and policies. Land titling & record modernization.
• Regional planning in addition to city planning so that population is logically dispersed over an extended area
and flourish as centre of economic growth. Enhancing the role of private sector through PPP.
53
7.7 SLUMS
The Government of India, for purposes of the implementation of
various schemes relating to urban development, has defined a slum
area as follows:
• “A slum area means any area where such dwellings
predominate, which because of dilapidation, overcrowding,
faulty arrangement and design of buildings, narrowness and
faulty arrangement of street, lack of ventilation, lack of
sanitation facilities, inadequacy of open spaces and
community facilities or any combination of these factors, are detrimental to safety, health or morale.”
7.7.1 CHALLENGES ASSOCIATED WITH SLUMS
Living Conditions: Overcrowding, substandard housing, and lack of basic amenities like clean water and
sanitation.
Health Issues: Poor sanitation leads to diseases; limited healthcare access exacerbates the problem.
Economic Challenges: High unemployment, informal economy, and poverty.
Infrastructural Deficits: Poor transport, unreliable electricity, and water supply issues.
Social Issues: Higher crime rates, social exclusion, and gender inequality.
Governance and Policy Issues: Lack of formal recognition, insufficient interventions, and corruption.
Environmental Degradation: Pollution, hazardous locations, and lack of green spaces.
7.9 WAY FORWARD: SUSTAINABLE URBANISATION
54
WAY FORWARD: INDIA NEEDS ‘CITIES’ FOR SUSTAINABLE URBAN DEVELOPMENT

• C – Community Engagement & capacity development: Foster active community participation in urban planning,
decision-making, & governance to ensure inclusivity, transparency, & accountability.
- Capacity building of local leadership, functionaries, experts & citizens.
• I - Infrastructure: Developing robust physical (transport oriented development, power etc.), Social (housing,
health & sanitation facilities, clean water, education, recreational facilities etc.) & Digital Infrastructure.
• T – Technology: to drive efficient citizen centric urban governance and service delivery ➔ automating municipal
offices, single window system, e-delivery of services, smart cities & villages. etc.
• I - Innovation: Encouraging innovation in urban planning, design, and implementation to address specific
challenges faced by Indian cities ➔ Data driven Regional planning for balanced dispersal of urban centers.
• E - Economy: reimagining Cities as ‘engines of growth’ with focus on attracting investment and generating
employment eg. Industrial corridors, IT parks, trade centers, skill development centers, financial centers etc.
• S - Sustainability: Promoting long-term sustainability through the efficient use of resources, renewable energy
adoption, circular economy, promoting green spaces and green building practices.
CURRENT CONNECT
First Urban Climate Film Festival:
• In March 2023, the National Institute of Urban Affairs (NIUA) organized the first Urban Climate Film Festival
through the CITIIS program under U20 engagement events.
• CITIIS, or the City Investments to Innovate, Integrate and Sustain, is a sub-component of the Government of
India's Smart Cities Mission. It aims to support sustainable urban development in India by promoting innovative
solutions and integrating various urban systems.

1. Discussion of the various social problems which originated out of the speedy process of urbanization in India.
(2013, 10 marks)
2. Smart cities in India cannot be sustained without smart villages. Discuss this statement in the backdrop of
rural-urban integration. (2015, 10 marks)
3. With a brief background of the quality of urban life in India, introduce the objectives and strategy of the ‘Smart
City Programme’. (2016, 10 marks)
4. Major cities of India are becoming more vulnerable to flood conditions. Discuss. (2016, 10 marks)
5. How is the growth of Tier 2 cities related to the rise of a new middle class with an emphasis on the culture of
consumption? (2022, 10 marks)
========================================================================================
55
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8 GLOBALIZATION
Related Keywords
Glocalisation; McDonalisation, Borderless World; Global Village; Global Citizens, Promoting 3Ps + S (peace,
partnership, prosperity and stability), Human-centric globalization, Cultural Imperialism; Cultural Hegemony.
8.1 INTRODUCTION
Globalization refers to the increasing interconnectedness and interdependence of people, businesses, and countries
worldwide. It involves the exchange of goods, services, ideas, and cultures on a global scale, leading to greater
integration of economies and societies.
8.2 FACTORS AFFECTING GLOBALIZATION IN INDIA
56
8.3 IMPACTS OF GLOBALIZATION ON INDIAN CULTURE
Positive Negative
Access to Information: People can easily learn about Loss of Traditional Practices: Traditional practices like
different cultures, promoting cultural understanding and Ayurvedic medicine and yoga’s popularity declining.
appreciation.
Preservation of Traditional Arts: The global demand for Commercialization of Culture: Traditional practices and
traditional handicrafts has revived these arts. products are marketed for profit, losing their
authenticity.
Festival Celebrations: Traditional festivals have become Displacement of Local Artisans: Local artisans and
more vibrant and diverse due to the fusion of global and craftsmen struggle to compete with mass-produced
local practices. global goods.
Increased Tourism: More tourists have helped preserve Loss of Cultural Identity: Local traditions are often
local traditions and promote cultural heritage. overshadowed by global influences, leading to a loss of
cultural identity.
Cultural Exchange: Globalization has enabled the sharing Impact on Local Traditional Businesses: Local
of cultural practices, music, and art between different businesses struggle to compete with global
regions, enriching Indian culture. corporations.
Hybridization: The blending of global and local elements Homogenization of Culture: Local traditions are often
has created unique cultural expressions, such as fusion replaced by global influences, leading to a more uniform
music and Bhangra pop. culture.
New Forms of Expression: Globalization has introduced Impact on Traditional Festivals: Traditional festivals are
new artistic expressions like street art and graffiti, which sometimes overshadowed by global celebrations.
are popular in urban India.
8.4 IMPACTS OF GLOBALIZATION ON WOMEN
Positive Negative
Increased Economic Opportunities: New opportunities, Gender Inequality: Persistent gender inequality in
especially in the services sector, have emerged for industries like manufacturing and agriculture.
women.
Access to Education: More women have access to Increased Domestic Work: More domestic work for
education, empowering them to improve their quality of women, especially where men work in global industries.
life.
Awareness of Women's Rights: Increased awareness of Pressure to Conform: Pressure on women to conform to
women's rights and gender equality has promoted global beauty standards and consumerist values.
women's empowerment.
Participation in Politics: More women are participating Risk of Violence: Increased risk of violence against
in politics, particularly in local government. women.
Access to Technology: More women, especially in rural Balancing Work and Family: Pressure to balance work
areas, have access to technology. and family responsibilities, especially in households
where both parents work.
57
Exposure to New Ideas and Lifestyles: Globalization Wage Disparity: Wage disparity remains a significant
creates a flow of ideas and cultures worldwide, leading issue despite increased employment opportunities.
to more progressive attitudes toward women's rights Women often earn less than their male counterparts for
and societal roles. the same work.
Increased Social Empowerment: With access to global Marginalization of Rural Women: While urban women
media, the internet, and various forms of may benefit from globalization, rural women are often
communication, many women are more aware of their left behind, further exacerbating rural-urban
rights and have been empowered to fight for them. inequalities.
8.5 IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION ON FAMILY
Positive Negative
Nuclear Families: Rise in nuclear families, giving women Work-life Balance: Increased work demands and long
more autonomy and independence. hours can strain family relationships.
Tolerance: Exposure to diverse cultures promotes Cultural Erosion: Traditional values and customs may be
tolerance and understanding within families. undermined by foreign influences.
Economic Opportunities: Increased job prospects and Migration Stress: Family separation due to migration for
higher income levels improve living standards. better opportunities can cause emotional stress.
Educational Access: Globalization expands access to Consumerism: Materialistic values and excessive
quality education and international learning consumerism can overshadow familial bonds.
opportunities.
Improved Healthcare: Access to advanced medical Generational Gap: Rapid cultural and technological
treatments and technologies enhances family health. changes may create conflicts between generations.
Communication: Enhanced connectivity through Health Issues: Lifestyle changes, such as unhealthy
technology strengthens family bonds across distances. eating habits, can lead to health problems.
Lifestyle Improvements: Access to global markets allows Economic Inequality: Not all families benefit equally
families to enjoy diverse products and services, from globalization, leading to increased socio-economic
improving quality of life. disparities.
“India is not seeking to reverse the benefits of globalization, but is asking that it be made more transparent” - Union
Finance Minister Nirmala Sitharaman
8.6 IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION ON OTHER SECTIONS/FACTORS OF SOCIETY

SECTIONS/FACTORS KEY IMPACTS EXAMPLES
Youth Positive: Better career opportunities, Multiple Avenues More opportunities for studying
of Exploring Oneself, Skills enhancement, Better exposed abroad and working with global
to new technologies, progressive idea etc., Engage in companies; increased
international forums & advocate for their interests, e.g.,
consumption of global brands and
Fridays for Future movement.
Negative: Job insecurity, Rising consumerism, Cultural entertainment.
disconnect, Impacted by perils of social media, Lack of
physical activity
Elderly Positive: Better health, access to voluntary org. and Changes in family structure with
international funding (Ex – Apna Ghar), Enhanced youth moving abroad for work;
58
meaning of life, increased social connectivity and cultural access to advanced healthcare
exchange. technologies and practices.
Negative: Fragmented family, healthcare challenge,
technological lag, lack of old age security.
Economy Positive: Economic growth, Technological Job displacement due to
advancements, Infrastructure development, Export competition from global markets;
growth. but also, opportunities for
Negative: Economic disparities, Rising dependency,
artisanal and traditional products
Increasing vulnerability, De-industrialization Trade
imbalances (India’s trade deficit with China). to reach the global market.
Polity Positive: Increased democratic values, Enhanced Conditionalities imposed on India
transparency & accountability, Changing role of during 1991 crisis.
Bureaucracy. use of social media by terror
Negative: Loss of sovereignty, Exacerbate political
groups to spread fear etc.
instability, Political tensions between countries .
Environment Positive: Global Platform for coordinating climate Efforts like - UNFCCC, Montreal
change prevention efforts, CSR Programs of MNCs, Protocol, Green climate fund, etc.
Technology exchange, Conservation Finance,
Transboundary Conservation Efforts.
Negative: Rise in carbon footprint, Rising pollution,
Resource Depletion and Overconsumption, Invasive
Species, ‘Pollution haven effect’.
8.7 GLOCALIZATION
• Glocalization is a term that combines "globalization" and "localization." It refers to the concept of developing
or tailoring products, services, and strategies under both global and local requirements.
• The goal of glocalization is to create a global product or service that has been adapted to the local culture,
taste, laws, and market demands where it is being sold.
• Glocalization is particularly relevant in the world of business and marketing, where a balance must be struck
between reaching a global audience and catering to local tastes, customs, and regulations.
59
Key features:
• Understanding Local Culture: Gain knowledge about local customs, values, and tastes to ensure relevance and
appeal.
• Adapting Products/Services: Modify design, packaging, features, and names to suit local preferences.
• Compliance with Local Regulations: Adjust products, services, or operations to meet local laws and standards.
• Local Marketing Strategies: Tailor marketing to local languages, cultural values, and media channels.
Some Examples of Glocalization:

Company Glocalization Approach
McDonald's Adapts its menu to local tastes (McAloo Tikki in India, Teriyaki Burger in Japan)
Coca-Cola Uses different formulas and sweeteners based on local taste preferences and health
regulations
IKEA Adapts furniture sizes to local living situations (bigger beds/kitchens in the US)
8.8 THE PHENOMENON OF ANTI-GLOBALIZATION

• Economic Inequality: Globalization has created uneven wealth distribution, with some individuals and
corporations benefiting disproportionately. According to Oxfam, the world's richest 1% have more than twice
as much wealth as 6.9 billion people, leading to feelings of alienation from the benefits of globalization.
• Rise of Protectionism: To protect domestic industries and jobs, some countries impose tariffs and trade
barriers. This undermines the free flow of goods and services that globalization relies on.
• Populist Movements: Economic dissatisfaction has fueled populism, which often resists globalization. These
movements advocate for policies that regain national control over economic affairs.
• Geopolitical Tensions: Political and economic rivalries between major powers can disrupt the global exchange
of goods, services, and information, leading to a process known as "decoupling."
• Technology Disruptions: While technology drives globalization, concerns over data privacy, cybercrime, and
digital divides prompt some countries to restrict the free flow of digital information.
• COVID-19 Pandemic: The pandemic disrupted global supply chains and spurred calls for increased domestic
production of essential goods, potentially leading to more localized production approaches in the future.
• Environmental Concerns: The environmental impact of globalization has led to calls for more sustainable,
localized practices to mitigate ecological damage.
• Issues of Sovereignty: Increasing demands for national sovereignty against the perceived overreach of global
institutions may prompt a shift away from multilateral agreements.
• Migration Crisis: Economic disparity, conflict, and climate change drive large-scale migration, fueling anti-
globalization sentiments and policies in many countries.
• Rise of Nationalism: Growing nationalism leads to a backlash against globalization, as citizens prioritize.
The Resilience of Global Trade: Continuity Amidst Changing Dynamics

• Global Trade Defies Headwinds: Despite challenges, global trade remains robust. e.g., COVID-19 pandemic,
Russia-Ukraine war effects.
• Selective Changes in Global Trade: The structure of global trade is evolving selectively. Example: De-
globalization or regionalization may occur in specific industries and countries over the next five to ten years.
• Regionalization as a Response: Countries and regions pursue self-sufficiency and regional trade. Example:
Rising regionalization of supply chains, such as Asia's increasing share of machinery imports into China.
60
• Shift from Unipolar to Multipolar: The global economy moves away from a unipolar framework. Example: Sino-
U.S. relations deteriorate, leading to a fragmented global economy with multiple ecosystems.
• Implications for Inflation and Growth: Changes in globalization dynamics may impact inflation and growth.
Example: Increased regionalization and potential inflationary pressures could lead to structurally higher interest
rates and lower growth.
Conclusion:
Globalization has brought about significant changes in Indian culture, women, and families. While there are several
positive aspects, there are also several negative consequences that need to be addressed. By adopting inclusive
policies and initiatives, we can ensure that the benefits of globalization are shared by all sections of society and that
Indian culture, women, and family are preserved and promoted for future generations.

1. Elucidate the relationship between globalization and new technology in a world of scarce resources, with
special reference to India. (2022, 15 Marks)
2. What is Cryptocurrency? How does it affect global society? Has it been affecting Indian society also? (2021, 15
Marks)
3. Discuss how emerging technologies and globalization contribute to money laundering. Elaborate measures to
tackle the problem of money laundering both at national and international levels. (2021. 15 marks)
4. Is diversity and pluralism in India under threat due to globalization? Justify your answer. (2020, 15 Marks)
5. Are we losing our local identity for the global identity? Discuss. (2019, 15 Marks)
6. ‘Globalization is generally said to promote cultural homogenization but due to this cultural specificity appears
to be strengthened in the Indian Society. Elucidate. (2018, 15 Marks)
7. To what extent globalization has influenced the core of cultural diversity in India? Explain. (2016, 12.5 Marks)
8. Discuss the positive and negative effects of globalization on women in India. (2015, 12.5 Marks)
9. In a globalized world, Intellectual Property Rights assume significance and are a source of litigation. Broadly
distinguish between the terms-Copyrights, Patents and Trade Secrets.
10. Critically examine the effects of globalization on the aged population in India. (2013, 10 Marks)
========================================================================================
61
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9 SOCIAL EMPOWERMENT: MEANING, NEED AND INITIATIVES

Related Keywords
• Prisoners of aspirations to Agents of change, Catalysts of change, From labharthis (beneficiaries) to Equals,
Principle of Differential treatment to Principle of sovereign equality, Making invisible visible, Silver generation
of India.
9.1 INTRODUCTION
Social empowerment is the process of enabling individuals from vulnerable sections of society to emerge from their
subordinate positions and achieve self-sufficiency. It means having control over the factors and decisions that improve
their conditions and build capacities through access to education and other developmental services. Social
empowerment is viewed as fostering a sense of independence and self-assurance.
Perceptions of being empowered vary across time, culture, and domains of a person’s life:
• A person from a low caste feels empowered when they are given a fair hearing in a public gathering.
• A woman from a traditional home feels empowered if she is permitted to leave the house unaccompanied by
a man.
• A transgender individual feels empowered when they are given employment.
9.2 KEY CONCEPTS RELATED WITH SOCIAL EMPOWERMENT

• Agency: The ability of individuals to act independently and make their own choices.
• Social Mobility: The ability of an individual or family to move up or down the social and economic ladder within
a society.
• Empowerment: Processes that enable participation, enhance control, and foster actions leading to desired
outcomes for individuals or communities.
• Social Capital: The networks of relationships among people in a society, which enable it to function effectively.
• Intersectionality: The interconnected nature of social categories like race, class, and gender, creating
overlapping systems of discrimination or disadvantage.
• Conscientization: Developing a critical awareness of one's social reality through reflection and action.
• Relative Deprivation: The feeling of a negative gap between what one expects and what one currently has,
often driving empowerment movements.
• Social Inclusion: Efforts to ensure equal opportunities for all, regardless of their background.
• Collective Action: Actions taken together by a group of people to enhance their status and achieve common
goals, often used as a means of social empowerment.
9.3 MEANING OF VULNERABLE SECTION

A vulnerable section or socially disadvantaged group has some specific characteristics that make it at higher risk of
falling into poverty than others. Vulnerable section includes scheduled tribes, women, scheduled castes, minorities,
senior citizens, persons with disabilities, children and LGBTQ+ community etc. Type of vulnerability:
• Social Vulnerability: Abuse, social exclusion, loneliness and dipression, levels of literacy and education, health,
access to basic human rights, systems of good governance, social equity etc.
• Physical Vulnerability: Difficulty in access to water resources, means of communications, hospitals, police
stations, fire brigades, roads, buildings in an area in case of disasters etc.
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• Economic Vulnerability: Sources of income, means of production (e.g. farm and livestock, irrigation, etc.) and
the economic transactions.
• Environmental Vulnerability: Pollution, urban flooding, global warming and urban heat etc.
• Attitudinal Vulnerability: Lack of tolerance, negative attitude towards change, hopelessness and pessimism,
and becoming victim of conflicts.
9.4 CHALLENGES FACED BY SOCIALLY DISADVANTAGED GROUPS
9.5 NEED FOR SOCIAL EMPOWERMENT

• Reduce social inequality: In wealth, status, and
opportunities.
• Foster self-efficacy: To control their lives and
rights.
• Promote social justice: To gain fair access to
resources and opportunities.
• Facilitate social integration: By promoting
inclusivity and togetherness in society.
• Enhance democratic participation: Education,
capacity building, awareness helps people to
participate in decision making process in a free and open democracy through – voting rights, RTI, citizen
charter etc.
• Enable resource access: Empowerment helps people or groups access important resources and services.
• Encourage collective action: It inspires people to work together to bring about positive change in society.
• Contribute to individual and societal well-being: Empowered individuals contribute to stronger, healthier
communities.
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• Challenge and change power structures: Empowerment can lead to changes in societal norms and power
dynamics.
• Encourage social innovation: Empowered individuals or groups are more likely to challenge existing ways and
innovate for the benefit of society.
NOTE: Vulnerable sections like – women, tribes and scheduled tribes (STs) are already covered in chapter 1.
9.6 SCHEDULE CASTES

Scheduled Castes (SCs) are officially designated groups of historically disadvantaged people in India. The term is
recognized by the Constitution of India and various laws to provide representation and protection to these groups.
9.6.1 ISSUES FACED BY SCHEDULE CASTES

• Caste-based discrimination: Dalits face discrimination and exclusion based on their caste.
• Economic marginalization: Scheduled Castes have been historically marginalized economically, with limited
access to resources and employment opportunities.
• Education disparities: Scheduled Castes have lower enrolment rates and limited access to quality education.
• Violence and atrocities: Dalits face violence, including physical and sexual abuse.
• Limited political representation: Scheduled Castes often struggle to access political representation despite
reserved seats.
• Landlessness and land rights: Many Dalit families lack land, contributing to economic vulnerability.
• Limited access to healthcare: Dalits often have limited access to quality healthcare services.
• Manual scavenging: Manual scavenging, primarily affecting Dalit women, persists despite legal prohibitions.
• Social stigma and identity-based violence: Dalits face social stigma and derogatory stereotypes.
• Limited access to justice: Dalits encounters challenges in accessing justice for caste-based crimes and
atrocities.
9.6.2 STEPS TAKEN BY GOVERNMENT FOR EMPOWERMENT OF SCs
INITIATIVE OBJECTIVE
EDUCATIONAL
Upgradation of Merit of SC Students Provide facilities for education in residential/non-residential schools for
SC students.
Dr Ambedkar Foundation Promote Dr Ambedkar's ideology and administer schemes emerging
from the Centenary Celebration.
Post Matric Scholarship for Scheduled Empower SC students through education is the largest intervention by
Caste Students (PMS-SC) the central government.
Pre-Matric Scholarships to SC students Support parents of SC children in educating their wards to minimize
dropouts.
Dr Ambedkar National Centre at Establish a world-class library and e-learning center.
Janpath
Scholarships for higher education and Multiple schemes for SC students, including fellowships and overseas
coaching study.
SOCIAL
The Protection of Civil Rights Act, 1955 Enacted to prevent untouchability and promote civil rights.
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SC and ST (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, Provide financial assistance to states/UTs for implementing these acts.
1989
Prohibition of Employment as Manual Promote eradication of dry latrines, manual scavenging, and
Scavengers and their Rehabilitation Act, rehabilitation of manual scavengers.
2013
ECONOMIC
National Scheduled Castes Finance and Finance support to income-generating activities of SCs below the
Development Corporation (NSFDC) poverty line limits.
National Safai Karmachari Finance and Provide credit facilities to Safai Karmacharis, manual scavengers, and
Development Council (NSKFDC) their dependents.
Babu Jagjivan Ram Chatrawas Yojana Construction of hostels for SC students under the PM Anu Suchit Jati
Abhyuday Yojana.
Self-employment scheme for Rehab of Support self-employment opportunities for rehabilitating manual
Manual Scavengers scavengers.
Credit Enhancement Guarantee Scheme Provide credit guarantee facility to young and start-up entrepreneurs
for SC belonging to the SC community.
PM-DAKSH Provide long and short-term skills training to target youth.
PM AJAY Merger of centrally sponsored schemes: Special Central Assistance to
Scheduled Castes Sub Plan (SCA to SCSP) and Pradhan Mantri Adarsh
Gram Yojana (PMAGY).
Conclusion:
In conclusion, Scheduled Castes in India continue to face significant challenges in achieving social and economic
equality. Despite constitutional safeguards and government initiatives, they remain marginalized and excluded from
mainstream society. The persistence of caste-based discrimination and social stigma hinders their progress and
perpetuates their disadvantaged status.
9.7 MINORITIES
• The National Commission for Minorities (NCM) Act, 1992, empowers the central government to designate
certain communities as minorities under section 2(c).
• The Act recognizes Muslims, Sikhs, Christians, Buddhists, Jains, and Zoroastrians (Parsis) as minority
communities.
• Despite the Supreme Court's ruling in the T.M.A. Pai case, which advocated for identifying linguistic and
religious minorities at the state level, Section 2(c) of the NCM Act, 1992, allows the Centre to designate
minorities.
9.7.1 ISSUES FACED BY MINORITIES

• Discrimination: Minorities can face unfair treatment based on their race, ethnicity, religion, language, or other
characteristics. This can lead to unequal opportunities, prejudice, stereotyping, and hate crimes.
• Marginalization and Exclusion: Minorities may be marginalized and excluded from mainstream society, facing
barriers in accessing education, healthcare, employment, housing, and political representation. This can create
social and economic gaps between minority and majority groups.
• Socioeconomic Inequality: Minorities often experience higher levels of poverty, unemployment, and income
inequality. Limited access to quality education, healthcare, and financial resources can trap them in cycles of
poverty and hinder their ability to progress.
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• Cultural Preservation and Identity: Minority communities may struggle to preserve their cultural heritage and
identity. They face challenges such as language loss, erosion of traditional practices, and pressure to assimilate
into the dominant culture.
• Political Underrepresentation: Minorities may have limited representation in political institutions, leading to
a lack of voice and influence in decision-making processes. This can result in policies that do not adequately
address their needs.
• Violence and Intolerance: Minorities are at risk of violence, hate crimes, and intolerance fueled by prejudice.
This can create fear and insecurity within minority communities, impacting their well-being and cohesion.
• Lack of Legal Protection: Some minorities may not have sufficient legal protection of their rights.
Discriminatory laws or policies can perpetuate inequality and make it challenging for minorities to seek justice.
9.7.2 STEPS TAKEN BY GOVERNMENT FOR MINORITIES EMPOWERMENT
SCHEMES AND OTHER INITIATIVES DESCRIPTION

Pre and post-matric scholarship schemes Scholarships provided to minorities for pre- and post-matric
for minorities (2007 and 2012) education.
Nai Roshni scheme (2013) Leadership development program for women of minority
communities.
Learn and Earn scheme (2014) Skill upgradation scheme for minorities.
Minority Cyber Gram (MCG) (2014) Introducing digital literacy skills in identified minority clusters.
Nai Manzil scheme (2015) Education and skill development program for youth from the minority
community.
Upgrading The Skills and Training In Upgrading skills and training in the preservation of traditional arts and
Traditional Arts/Crafts For Development crafts of minorities.
(USTAAD) (2015)
Hamari Dharohar (2015) Preserving the rich and diverse heritage of the minority community in
India.
PM Jan Vikas Karyakram (2018) Improving basic needs and socio-economic conditions in minority
concentration areas.
Naya Savera (2019) Free coaching and allied scheme for minorities.
Nai Udaan Support for minority students after clearing prelims of UPSC, State
PSC, and SSC.
Strengthening of State Waqf Boards Support provided for training and administrative costs for State Waqf
Boards.
Khwaja Garib Nawaz Senior Secondary School established at Ajmer by Maulana Azad Education Foundation to
School boost minority education.
Maulana Azad fellowship scheme for Fellowship scheme for minority students.
minority students
Delhi Government's Proposal for "Migrated Minority" Status:

• In January 2023, the Delhi government has put forward a suggestion to the Centre, proposing the granting of
"migrated minority" status to Hindus who have relocated to the national capital from regions such as Jammu
and Kashmir or Ladakh, where they constitute a religious minority.
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• This recommendation was included in a compilation of views gathered by the Centre from 24 states on the topic
of identifying and notifying religious and linguistic minority communities, either by the Union or the respective
states.
• The Centre submitted this affidavit to the Supreme Court.
Conclusion:
Addressing these challenges requires concerted efforts from governments, civil society, and the international
community to promote diversity, respect human rights, and ensure equal opportunities for all. By recognizing and
addressing the needs of minority groups, societies can move closer to achieving a more inclusive and just world for
everyone.
9.8 SENIOR CITIZENS

Senior citizens, also known as elderly or older adults, are individuals typically aged 60 years and older, although the
age definition may vary depending on the context, country, or organization. This demographic group is characterized
by their advanced age and may face specific challenges associated with aging.
9.8.1 ISSUES FACED BY SENIOR CITIZENS

• Healthcare challenges: Such as chronic illnesses and limited access to healthcare. Medical costs can be high,
and specialized geriatric care may be lacking.
• Financial insecurity: Due to inadequate retirement savings, limited income sources, and rising living costs.
• Social Isolation and mental health: Seniors
may feel lonely due to loss of friends,
reduced mobility, and limited social
interactions.
- Mental health issues like depression
and anxiety, often underdiagnosed and
undertreated.
• Elder Abuse: Some seniors are vulnerable
to abuse, including physical, emotional,
financial, and neglect.
• Ageism and discrimination: Older
individuals may face age-related
discrimination in various areas, affecting
their opportunities and well-being.
• Safety and Security: More susceptible to crime and scams etc.
• Limited access to Services: Like transportation, legal assistance, and social support programs can pose
challenges for seniors.
• Elderly Caregiving: Many seniors need assistance with daily activities, and lack of support for family caregivers
can be challenging.
KEY FACTS RELATED TO ELDERLY IN INDIA
• Elderly population in India: Census Report-2011, population of senior citizens is about 8.5% of the total
population of the country. National Commission on Population’s Report (2011-2036): It states that population
of senior citizens in 2036 will be about 15% of the total population of India.
67
A national survey carried out by the NGO HelpAge India has shown that:
• 47% of elderly people are economically dependent on their families for income.
• 34% are relied on pensions and cash transfers.
• 40% of the surveyed people have expressed the desire to work “as long as possible”.
Highlighting the need to pay greater attention to the social security of senior citizens in the country.
9.8.2 STEPS TAKEN FOR BETTERMENT OF SENIOR CITIZENS
GOVERNMENT INITIATIVES FOR FEATURES

SENIOR CITIZENS
Integrated Programme of Older Improve elders' quality of life by providing basic needs.
persons (IPOP)
National Social Assistance Programme Provides social assistance to the destitute.
National Policy on Older Persons Ensures financial and food security, healthcare, shelter, and other needs
(NPOP) of older people.
National Programme for Healthcare of To provide dedicated healthcare services to senior citizens at various
Elderly level of State Health Care delivery system i.e., at Primary, Secondary and
Tertiary health care, including outreach services.
Vayoshreshtha Samman Recognizes the work of the elderly in various fields.
PM Vaya Vandana Yojana Offers social security for senior citizens.
Varishtha Pension Bima Yojana 2017 Offers a pension scheme for senior citizens.
Senior Citizens Welfare Fund A fund dedicated to the welfare and support of senior citizens.
Indira Gandhi National Old Age Monthly pension at the rate of Rs.200/per month per beneficiary to
Pension Scheme (IGNOAPS) elderly persons in the age group of 60-79 years (increases above 80)
belonging to Below Poverty Line (BPL)
Rashtriya Vayoshri Yojna (RVY) Assisted living devices are distributed free of cost, in camp mode, to
senior citizens belonging to the families living below the poverty line.
Atal Vayo Abhyuday Yojana (AVYAY) An umbrella scheme launched by Ministry of Social Justice and
Empowerment. Aim: Empowering senior citizens, to ensure their well-
being, active participation and inclusion in all aspects of life.
9.8.3 WAY FORWARD

• Accessible Healthcare: Ensure that senior citizens have access to affordable and quality healthcare services,
including routine check-ups, specialist consultations, and emergency care.
• Geriatric Care: Develop and expand geriatric care services, including home care, palliative care, and geriatric
hospitals, to address the specific health needs of older adults.
• Pension Schemes: Strengthen and expand pension schemes to provide a stable source of income for senior
citizens. Ensure timely disbursement and adequate coverage.
• Financial Literacy: Promote financial literacy among senior citizens to help them manage their finances better,
avoid scams, and make informed decisions regarding savings and investments.
• Intergenerational Programs: Develop programs that foster interaction between different age groups, such as
mentorship initiatives, where seniors can share their knowledge and experience with younger generations.
• Support Groups: Create support groups and networks for senior citizens to share their experiences, offer
mutual support, and combat loneliness.
• Elder Abuse Prevention: Establish mechanisms to prevent and address elder abuse, including helplines, legal
aid, and awareness campaigns to educate the public and caregivers about the issue.
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• Legal Protections: Strengthen legal protections for senior citizens against abuse, neglect, and exploitation.
Ensure that laws are effectively enforced and that seniors are aware of their rights.
• Digital Literacy: Provide training programs to help senior citizens become comfortable with using technology,
enabling them to access online services, stay connected with family and friends, and engage in lifelong
learning.
• Mental Health Services: Ensure that mental health services are accessible and tailored to the needs of senior
citizens, addressing issues such as depression, anxiety, and cognitive decline.
• Recreational Activities: Encourage participation in recreational activities, such as arts, crafts, and physical
exercise, to promote mental and physical well-being.
• Flexible Work Opportunities: Create flexible work opportunities for senior citizens who wish to remain active
in the workforce, including part-time and remote work options.
Conclusion:
Addressing these issues requires a comprehensive approach that includes improving healthcare access, enhancing
financial support, reducing social isolation, preventing elder abuse, and combating ageism. Additionally, providing
suitable housing, mental health services, and support for caregivers is essential. By recognizing and addressing the
unique needs of senior citizens, society can ensure that they live with dignity, independence, and a high quality of life.
9.9 PERSONS WITH DISABILITY

Persons with disabilities (PWD) represent a significant portion of the global population, each facing unique challenges
and barriers in various aspects of life. Disabilities can be physical, mental, sensory, or intellectual, and they can
profoundly impact an individual's ability to participate fully in society.
• The estimation in Census 2011, that 2.21% of India’s population is disabled is a gross underestimation.
• According to the World Health Organization, about 16% of the global population is disabled. If that figure is
extrapolated to the Indian context, it would mean at least 192 million disabled people.
9.9.1 ISSUES FACE BY PERSONS WITH DISABILITY

• Social Isolation: Persons with disabilities often experience social isolation due to societal stigma, physical
barriers, and a lack of social support.
• Limited Political Participation: Many barriers prevent people with disabilities from fully participating in
political processes, such as inaccessible polling places and information.
• Violence and Abuse: People with disabilities are at a higher risk of facing physical, sexual, and emotional
abuse.
• Intersectional Discrimination: Disabilities can be compounded by other forms of discrimination based on
gender, caste, or economic status.
• Lack of Representation: People with disabilities are often underrepresented in media, popular culture, and
decision-making positions, leading to a lack of visibility and advocacy.
• Inadequate Infrastructure: Many public and residential facilities lack disability-friendly infrastructure, making
mobility and access difficult.
• Mental Health: The mental health needs of persons with disabilities are often overlooked, leading to
additional health and social challenges.
• Rehabilitation Services: There is a significant gap in the availability and accessibility of quality rehabilitation
services for persons with disabilities.
• Health: The health sector, particularly in rural areas, has not been proactive in addressing the needs of persons
with disabilities.
69
• Education: The education system often lacks inclusivity, making it challenging for children with mild to
moderate disabilities to integrate into regular schools.
• Employment: Despite being capable of productive work, disabled adults face significantly lower employment
rates compared to the general population.
9.9.2 STEPS TAKEN FOR BETTERMENT OF PERSON WITH DISABILITY
Scheme Name Description

Assistance to Disabled Persons for Brings suitable, durable, scientifically-manufactured, modern aids and
Purchase/fitting of Aids and appliances within the reach of disabled individuals.
Appliances (ADIP) (1981)
Deen Dayal Disabled Rehabilitation Provides financial assistance to NGOs for offering various services to
Scheme (2003) persons with disabilities, such as vocational training centers, community-
based rehabilitation, preschool and early intervention, special schools, etc.
National Fellowship for Students Aims to increase opportunities for students with disabilities to pursue
with Disabilities (RGMF) (2012) higher education by providing them with financial support.
Accessible India Campaign (2015) A nationwide flagship campaign focused on achieving universal
accessibility for persons with disabilities.
Scheme for Implementation of the Provides grant-in-aid to State Governments, central and state government
Rights of Persons with Disabilities bodies, autonomous bodies, and universities for implementing the Rights
Act, 2016 (SIPDA) of Persons with Disabilities Act.
Schemes of the National Trust Covers the welfare of persons with autism, cerebral palsy, mental
retardation, and multiple disabilities, providing various programs and
support services.
9.9.3 WAY FORWARD

• Inclusive Design: Ensure public spaces, transportation, buildings, and facilities are designed to be accessible
to all, including ramps, elevators, tactile pathways, and accessible restrooms.
• Assistive Technologies: Promote the development and distribution of assistive technologies that aid mobility,
communication, and daily living for persons with disabilities.
• Special Education Programs: Develop and support inclusive education programs that integrate children with
disabilities into mainstream schools while providing necessary accommodations and support.
• Job Training: Offer vocational training and skill development programs tailored to the abilities and interests
of persons with disabilities to enhance their employability.
• Workplace Accommodations: Encourage employers to provide reasonable accommodations and create an
inclusive work environment that supports the productivity and participation of employees with disabilities.
• Specialized Services: Ensure that healthcare services are accessible and tailored to the needs of persons with
disabilities, including physical therapy, mental health services, and regular medical care.
• Affordability: Implement policies to reduce the financial burden of healthcare for persons with disabilities,
ensuring they have access to necessary treatments and medications.
• Community Engagement: Promote community programs and activities that include persons with disabilities,
fostering social interaction and reducing isolation.
• Anti-Discrimination Laws: Strengthen and enforce laws that protect the rights of persons with disabilities
against discrimination in all areas of life, including education, employment, and access to services.
70
Conclusion:
Addressing these challenges requires a concerted effort from governments, organizations, and communities to create
a more inclusive and supportive environment for persons with disabilities. By improving accessibility, enhancing
representation, providing necessary services, and promoting social inclusion, we can help ensure that persons with
disabilities have equal opportunities and a better quality of life.
9.10 LGBTQ+ COMMUNITY

The LGBTQ+ community, encompassing diverse sexual orientations and gender identities, has been striving for equal
rights and social acceptance worldwide. In India, the journey towards recognizing and safeguarding the rights of
LGBTQ+ individuals has been marked by significant legal and social milestones.
9.10.1 HISTORICAL CONTEXT AND LEGAL MILESTONES

• Ancient acceptance: Texts like the Kama Sutra and temple carvings show historical acceptance of same-sex
relationships and gender fluidity.
• Colonial impact: British colonial rule imposed Victorian morals, leading to laws like Section 377, which
criminalized homosexuality.
• Section 377: Introduced during British rule in 1861, Section 377 of the Indian Penal Code criminalized "carnal
intercourse against the order of nature." This law was often used to persecute LGBTQ+ individuals.
• Naz Foundation Case (2009): The Delhi High Court decriminalized consensual same-sex relations between
adults. This was a significant victory, but it was short-lived.
• Supreme Court Reinstatement (2013): In a surprising reversal, the Supreme Court reinstated Section 377,
stating that only Parliament could change the law.
• Navtej Singh Johar vs. Union of India (2018): A landmark judgment by the Supreme Court decriminalized
consensual same-sex relations, declaring Section 377 unconstitutional in this regard. This was a monumental
step towards equality and recognition of LGBTQ+ rights in India.
• Supreme Court (SC) verdict in Supriyo Chakraborty V Union of India (2023): SC recently delivered a verdict,
rejecting petitions to legalize same-sex marriage under the Special Marriage Act, 1954➔ No fundamental right
to marry under the Constitution➔ Queer couples do not have the right to adopt➔ Couples do not enjoy a
right to a civil union.
9.10.2 SOCIAL AND CULTURAL PERSPECTIVES

• Cultural Acceptance: Despite legal progress, social acceptance of LGBTQ+ individuals vary widely across India.
While urban areas tend to be more accepting, rural regions often maintain conservative views.
• Media Representation: There has been a gradual increase in positive representation of LGBTQ+ characters in
Indian cinema and television. Films like "Fire," "Aligarh," and "Shubh Mangal Zyada Saavdhan" have brought
LGBTQ+ issues to the forefront.
• Pride Parades and Activism: Major cities like Delhi, Mumbai, and Bengaluru host annual Pride parades, which
have become platforms for the LGBTQ+ community to demand equal rights and visibility.
KEY INITIATIVES FOR MAINSTREAMING LGBTQ+ COMMUNITY

• NALSA judgment: Allowed them to change their name and gender in records even without medical intervention.
• Transgender Rights: The Transgender Persons (Protection of Rights) Act, 2019, provides legal protections.
• Government of India expanded the ambit of Ayushman Bharat to include transgender persons.
• The recruitment of transgender persons in Maharashtra Police.
• Political representation: Delhi’s first transgender municipal councilor.
• Karnataka government: Extended transgender people free bus travel.
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• Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment: SMILE scheme for transgender people and set up shelter homes
called Garima Grehs.
• RML Hospital (Delhi): It has inaugurated India’s first dedicated OPD for Transgenders. The initiative is started
with understanding of the difficulties encountered by transgender community to access healthcare services,
largely due to discomfort and the fear of discrimination and social apathy.
9.10.3 WAY FORWARD

• Education and Awareness: Incorporating
LGBTQ+ issues into school curriculums and
workplace training to foster acceptance and
reduce stigma.
• Policy Implementation: Ensuring that legal
protections, such as the Transgender Persons
Act, are effectively implemented with robust
monitoring mechanisms.
• Healthcare Training: Training healthcare
professionals on LGBTQ+ health issues to
provide inclusive and competent care.
- A group of researchers has found that
sensitizing healthcare providers like
doctors, nurses and paramedical staff can
improve positive attitudes, comfort level
and understanding among transgenders
and can reduce attached stigma and
discrimination.
• Legal Reforms: Advocating for the legalization
of same-sex marriages and adoption rights to
ensure equality.
• Mental Health Support: Increasing access to mental health services specifically tailored for LGBTQ+
individuals, including counseling and support groups.
• Workplace Inclusion: Promoting inclusive workplace policies and practices, such as anti-discrimination policies
and diversity training programs.
• Support Systems: Strengthening community support systems, including LGBTQ+ organizations and helplines,
to provide resources and assistance.
• Visibility and Representation: Encouraging positive representation of LGBTQ+ individuals in media, politics,
and public life to normalize LGBTQ+ identities and foster acceptance.
• Addressing Intersectionality: Recognizing and addressing how intersecting identities, such as caste, class,
religion, and disability, impact the experiences of LGBTQ+ individuals.
Conclusion:
India's progress on LGBTQ+ rights include legal victories and social challenges. Decriminalizing same-sex relations was
a major step, but efforts must continue to combat societal prejudices, improve healthcare, and achieve full equality in
marriage and adoption rights. Continued activism, education, and policy reforms are essential for LGBTQ+ individuals
to live with dignity and equality in India.
9.11 CHILDREN
Children are the future of any nation, and their well-being is crucial for societal progress. In India, with one of the
largest child populations globally, addressing children's needs is vital.
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The International Labour Organisation defines child labour as any work that deprives children of their childhood,
their potential, their dignity and one that is harmful to the physical and mental development of the child. It includes
work that is mentally, physically, socially or morally dangerous to children.
• In India, a "Child" as defined by the Child Labour (Prohibition and Regulation) Amendment Act of 2016 as a
person who has not completed 14 years of age.
CONSTITUTIONAL AND STATUTORY PROVISIONS RELATED TO CHILD

• Article 21A: Guarantees the right to free and compulsory education for children aged 6 to 14.
• Article 24: Prohibits child labor in hazardous industries.
• Article 39(e) and (f): Mandate the state to protect children from abuse and ensure their development.
• Right to Education (RTE) Act, 2009: Ensures free and compulsory education for children aged 6 to 14.
• Protection of Children from Sexual Offences (POCSO) Act, 2012: Establishes a legal framework to protect
children from sexual abuse and exploitation.
• Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Act, 2015: Provides care and protection for children in
conflict with the law and those in need of care.
9.11.1 KEY FACTS AND DATA
Health indicator • As per the National Family Health Survey 5 (NFHS 5), ‘36% of children under age 5 years
are stunted; 19% are wasted; 32% are underweight; and 3% are overweight.
Malnutrition • India accounts for 68% of total under-five deaths and 17% of the total disability- adjusted
life years.
Child sex ratio • 108 boys per 100 girls as NFHS 5.
Infant Mortality • Decline to 28 per 1000 live births in 2020 from 30 per 1000 live births in 2019.
Rate (IMR)
Neonatal Mortality • Declined from 22 per 1000 live births in 2019 to 20 per 1000 live births in 2020.
Rate
Under 5 Mortality • It has declined from 2019 (32 per 1000 live births in 2020 against 35 per 1000 live births
Rate in 2019). It varies from 36 in rural areas to 21 in urban areas.
Child brides • According to UNICEF, one in three of the world’s child brides live in India. It estimates
that each year, at least 1.5 million girls under 18 get married in India.
• NFHS-5 data show that about 25% of women aged 18-29 years married before the legal
marriageable age of 18.
Child labour • As per survey conducted
by National Sample
Survey Organisation
(NSSO) in 2004-05, the
number of working
children is estimated at
90.75 lakh.
• As per Census 2011, the
number of working children in the age group of 5-14 years has further reduced to 43.53
lakh.
• In addition, more than 42.7 million children in India are out of school (ILO report)
ILO convention • Convention No 138: It stipulates that the minimum age at which children can start work
ratified by India should not be below the age of compulsory schooling and in any case not less than 15
years; with a possible exception for developing countries.
73
• Convention No. 182: It prohibits hazardous work which is likely to jeopardize children’s
physical, mental or moral health. It aims at immediate elimination of the worst forms of
child labour for children below 18 years.
SDG Goals Poverty (Goal 1), hunger (Goal 2), health (Goal 3), education (Goal 4), gender equality (Goal
5), climate change (Goal 13) or violence against children (Goal 16.2).
CHALLENGES ASSOCIATED WITH CHILDREN IN INDIA
Government Initiatives related to children:

• Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS): Provides health, nutrition, and pre-school education to
children under six.
• Beti Bachao Beti Padhao: Aims to improve the status of girls through awareness and welfare schemes.
• Saksham Anganwadi and Mission Poshan 2.0 Scheme: To address the challenge of child malnutrition and
maternal under-nutrition through a strategic shift in nutrition content and delivery and create conditions and
a convergent eco-system to develop practices that nurture health, wellness and immunity.
74
• POSHAN Abhiyaan: POSHAN Abhiyaan aims to address malnutrition issues across the country through
components like ICT Application, Convergence, Community Mobilization, Behavioural Change & Jan Andolan,
Capacity Building, Incentives and Awards, and Innovations.
• Child Labour (Prohibition and Regulation) Act (1986) and Amendment Act 2016: To prohibit the engagement
of children in certain employments and ban employment of Children below 14 years in all employment and
also with the provisions for prohibition on employment of adolescents (14-18 Years) in the scheduled
hazardous occupations.
• PENCIL (Platform for Effective Enforcement for No Child Labour) Portal: An electronic platform that involves
Centre, State, District, Governments, civil society and public in achieving the target of child labour free society.
Way Forward:
• Policy Reforms: Strengthen and streamline child protection laws and policies to ensure comprehensive
coverage and implementation.
• Quality Education: Focus on improving the quality of education, including teacher training, infrastructure, and
curriculum development.
• Healthcare Access: Enhance access to healthcare services, particularly in rural and underserved areas, through
mobile health units and telemedicine.
• Nutrition Programs: Expand and improve nutrition programs to address malnutrition and stunting.
• Public Awareness Campaigns: Conduct nationwide campaigns to raise awareness about child rights and
protection issues.
• Inclusive Policies: Develop and implement inclusive policies for children with disabilities and special needs.
• Strengthening Child Protection Mechanisms: Enhance the capacity and reach of child protection services,
including Childline and child welfare committees.
• Digital Learning: Expand access to digital learning tools and resources, especially in rural and remote areas.
• Community Engagement: Encourage community involvement in child welfare programs to ensure local
support and sustainability.
• Monitoring and Evaluation: Implement robust monitoring and evaluation mechanisms to track the
effectiveness of child welfare programs and policies.
Conclusion:
India has made significant progress in advancing children's rights and welfare, yet challenges persist. Effective
implementation of laws, policies, and programs is crucial to address issues like child labour, malnutrition, and
education disparities. A collaborative effort involving government, NGOs, and communities is essential to ensure a
safe, healthy, and inclusive environment for all children.
CURRENT CONNECT
• According to the World Health Organisation (WHO), loneliness has been declared as a pressing global health
threat with a mortality effect equivalent to smoking 15 cigarettes a day. Loneliness is far more than just a bad
feeling - it harms both individual and societal health. It is associated with a greater risk of cardiovascular disease,
dementia, stroke, depression, anxiety, and premature death.
• India recently celebrated World Senior Citizen Day 2023. Amidst the celebrations, the Government reaffirmed
its commitment to the Atal Vayo Abhyuday Yojana (AVYAY), a pioneering initiative aimed at addressing the
multifaceted needs of senior citizens across the country.
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75
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10 COMMUNALISM
Related Keywords
• Augury of polarisation, Religious conservatism, Teething problems, War against invisible armies, Transforming
ethnic rift to ethnic harmony, Creating a common thread of acceptance/tolerance, India a melting pot.
10.1 INTRODUCTION
Communalism, specifically in the Indian context, is commonly understood as the occurrence of religious differences
between groups, often resulting in tension and even violent clashes. It can also manifest in forms of discrimination
against religious communities in areas like employment and education.
Interesting Fact: According to NCRB data, a total of 378 cases of communal and religious rioting were registered in
2021.
Features of Communalism:
• Characterised by orthodoxy and intolerance.
• Promotes a strong aversion and hostility
towards other religions.
• Advocates for the exclusion and eradication
of other religions and their values.
• May resort to extremist tactics, including
employing violence.
• Exhibits an exclusive outlook, where
adherents consider their own religion as
superior to others.
10.2 THREE STAGES OF COMMUNALISM IN INDIA
76
10.3 TYPES OF COMMUNALISM
Communalism, an ideology can be classified into:
• Religious Communalism: This type of communalism is based on religious differences and involves the
promotion of the interests of one religious community at the expense of others. It can result in religious
tensions, discrimination, and conflicts.
• Ethnic Communalism: Ethnic communalism focuses on the interests of a particular ethnic group and can
involve the exclusion or marginalization of other ethnic groups. It often leads to identity-based conflicts and
challenges to national unity.
• Political Communalism: Political communalism refers to the instrumental use of religious or ethnic identities
by political parties or leaders to gain power, mobilize support, or polarize communities for electoral or political
gains. It exploits communal divisions for political purposes, leading to communal tensions and conflicts.
• Cultural Communalism: Cultural communalism emphasizes the cultural identity and heritage of a particular
group and can result in the marginalization or suppression of other cultural groups. It can manifest in cultural
dominance, cultural clashes, or the imposition of a dominant culture on others.
• Economic Communalism: Economic communalism involves the preferential treatment or economic
exploitation of a particular religious or ethnic community in terms of access to resources, employment,
business opportunities, or economic benefits. It can lead to economic disparities, resentment, and social
tensions.
• Regional Communalism: Regional communalism focuses on the interests and aspirations of a particular region
or geographic area, often leading to conflicts with other regions. It can involve demands for regional autonomy
or the perception of unfair distribution of resources and opportunities between regions.
Key Social Concepts of Communalism:

• In-Group and Out-Group: These concepts refer to the groups to which individuals feel they do or do not belong.
Communalism often arises from strong in-group identities and exclusionary out-group attitudes.
• Power Dynamics: The imbalance of power between different communal groups often leads to dominance of
one over the other, contributing to communal tensions.
• Symbolic Interactionism: Symbols, rituals, and ceremonies that signify group identity can sometimes become
flashpoints for communal tension.
• Social Change: The process of alterations in the basic structures of a social group or society can often instigate
communal tensions.
• Social Control: This refers to the mechanisms a society uses to get individuals to conform. The way social control
is exercised can either mitigate or exacerbate communal tensions.
10.4 FACTORS LEADING TO THE RISE OF COMMUNALISM IN INDIA

• Historical Causes:
- Policy of Divide and Rule: Britishers implemented a policy of dividing communities along religious lines to
maintain control and exploit divisions for their own benefit. For instance, the policy of separate
electorates by Morley Minto Reforms.
- Partition legacy: The traumatic experience of partition and the formation of Pakistan based on religious
lines have left a lasting impact on communal relations.
• Political Causes:
- Communal politics: Politicians exploiting religious sentiments for electoral gains and promoting divisive
agendas. E.g., Recently the Supreme Court raised concerns about Hate speeches.
- Failure of secular governance: Ineffective implementation of secular policies and inability to address
communal tensions.
77
• Economic Causes:
- Socio-economic disparities: Unequal distribution of resources and opportunities leading to feelings of
marginalisation among certain communities.
- Economic competition: Perceived competition for limited resources, jobs, and economic benefits leading
to communal tensions. E.g., Issue of alleged illegal migrants consuming local resource and jobs is often
seen the context of Assam and Bengal.
• Social Causes:
- Identity politics: The promotion of religious identity as a primary marker of social and political affiliation,
leading to the strengthening of communal divisions.
- Social segregation: Communities living in separate enclaves and limited social interactions contributing
to the development of communal attitudes. For e.g., Issues like Cow Slaughter, Religious processions
often lead to communal clashes
1. Psychological Causes:
- Prejudices and biases: Deep-rooted prejudices, stereotypes, and biases against other religious
communities leading to communal tensions.
- Fear and insecurity: Perceptions of threat and fear, fuelled by communal propaganda and incidents,
leading to the rise of communalism.
Conclusion:
Communalism, with its roots in political, economic, historical, social, and psychological causes, has had a profound
impact on Indian society. It has led to divisions, conflicts, and a sense of mistrust among different religious
communities. Overcoming communalism requires a comprehensive approach that addresses the underlying causes
and promotes unity, tolerance, and harmony.

1. Discuss the impact of post-liberal economy on ethnic identity and communalism. (2023, 10 Marks)
2. Communalism arises either due to power struggle or relative deprivation.’ Argue by giving suitable illustrations.
(2018, 15 Marks)
3. Distinguish between religiousness/religiosity and communalism giving one example of how the former has got
transformed into the latter in independent India. (2017, 15 Marks)
78
11 REGIONALISM
Related Keywords
• Historical heartlands, From competitive to cooperative approach, Primary and secondary
citizens/regions/states, Collective responsibility/capacity, From BIMARU to Saksham Pradesh, Seeds of growth.
11.1 INTRODUCTION
Regionalism in the contemporary world is characterised by loyalties to a specific region of origin. It involves asserting
regional identity and demands for special privileges as a remedy for past neglect or deprivation.
Interesting Fact: 12th five-year focusses on “Faster, sustainable and more inclusive growth”, for balanced regional
growth.
11.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF REGIONALISM

• Regionalism arises from disparities in the economic, social, political, and cultural aspects between regions.
• Regionalism can be driven by emotional and psychological factors.
• Regionalism is based on the expression of group identity and loyalty to a specific region.
• Regionalism prioritises the development of one's own region without considering the interests of other
regions.
• Regionalism restricts the benefits of a particular region to people from outside that region.
11.3 TYPES OF REGIONALISM

• Supra-State Regionalism: Supra-state regionalism involves shared interests among people residing in multiple
states, working towards promoting regional autonomy and local agendas. It suggests that a larger state with
common interests has higher chances of success than smaller states. E.g., North Eastern states in India.
• Inter-State Regionalism: Inter-state regionalism creates divisions among two or more states, often due to
territorial and identity-related factors. It can undermine the interests of certain groups within the states
involved. E.g., Disputes between Karnataka and Tamil Nadu over the distribution of Kaveri water.
• Intra-State Regionalism: Intra-state regionalism emerges when a specific region or state seeks autonomy, self-
identity, and self-reliance. It can be seen as a positive form of regionalism as it promotes self-dependence for
the region. E.g., Saurashtra in Gujarat, East U.P. in Uttar Pradesh, Vidarbha in Maharashtra etc.
11.4 TYPES OF REGIONAL MOVEMENTS

• Secessionism: Secessionist movements involve fundamentalist groups advocating for separatism and the
formation of separate entities. E.g., The National Socialist Council of Nagaland (Isac Muivah) and Islamic
fundamentalist groups in Jammu and Kashmir.
• Separatism: Separatist movements demand the creation of separate states. E.g., The formation of Telangana,
Jharkhand, Uttarakhand, and others.
• Demand for Full Statehood: This type of movement arises from Union territories seeking full statehood, such
as the case of the National Capital Territory of Delhi. Such demands are generally accepted, as seen with
Arunachal Pradesh (former NEFA) and Sikkim.
• Demand for Autonomy: The demand for autonomy arises due to excessive central political interference,
gaining strength since the 1960s.
• Demand for Regional Autonomy within a State: In this type of movement, people from a specific region
demand recognition based on their regional identities within a larger state.
79
• Son of Soil theory: It connects individuals to their place of birth, granting them specific privileges and
responsibilities. It is evident in movements like Shiv Sena's defence of Maharashtrians and conflicts between
Bodos and Bengali-speaking Muslims in Assam.
11.5 FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR RISE OF REGIONALISM
11.6 IMPACT OF REGIONALISM IN INDIA

Positive Impacts of Regionalism:
• Decentralized Governance due to creation of Smaller States: For instance: The creation of smaller states like
Telangana and Uttarakhand required the establishment of new administrative structures to govern these
regions effectively.
• Emergence of New Regional Political Parties: The rise of new regional political parties, such as the Telugu
Desam Party (TDP), driven by regionalism, advocating for separate regions or states.
• Focus on Specific Regional Problems: The formation of regional parties provides an opportunity to address
and prioritise region-specific issues and challenges. Example: The Shiv Sena in Maharashtra emerged to
address the concerns of Marathi-speaking people, particularly related to job opportunities and cultural
preservation.
• Linguistic and Cultural Preservation: Regionalism can contribute to the preservation and promotion of
regional languages, cultures, and traditions, allowing for the diversification of cultural fabric. Example: The
Dravidian movement in Tamil Nadu has played a significant role in preserving and promoting the Tamil
language and culture.
• Healthy Competition among the states: Regionalism often encourages a sense of competition for growth
among different states.
80
Negative Impacts of Regionalism:
• Undermining National Unity: Regionalism can undermine national integration, as loyalty and allegiance to a
specific region may overshadow loyalty to the nation. E.g., Secessionist Movements (Demand for greater
Nagaland.)
• Disturbed Law and Order: Agitations and conflicts arising from regional demands can disrupt the law-and-
order situation, leading to social unrest, protests, and violence. E.g., Division of Andhra Pradesh saw violent
agitations across the state.
• Infiltration of External Factors: It can create opportunities for external factors, such as terrorist groups or
extremist organisations, to exploit the situation and incite disruptions within the region.
• Divisiveness and Fragmentation: Intense regionalism can create divisions and fragmentation within the
country, as regional identities and interests take precedence over national unity and solidarity.
• Economic Disruptions: Regionalism can disrupt economic activities and investments, as uncertainty and
conflicts arising from regional demands can deter business growth and hinder economic stability.
• Hindrance to Inter-State Cooperation: Regionalism can strain inter-state relations and hinder cooperation
among different states, as regions compete for resources, infrastructure projects, and economic opportunities.
Eg. Recent developments along the Maharashtra and Karnataka border
• Weakening of National Institutions: It can weaken national institutions and governance structures potentially
leading to challenges in effective governance and decision-making.
11.7 REGIONALISM AND THREAT TO NATIONAL INTEGRATION

• Coexistence and Development: Regionalism and national integration can coexist, emphasising development.
• Federal and Democratic System: A federal and democratic political system reconciles regionalism and national
integration.
• Preserving National Solidarity: Regionalism, when managed well, does not disrupt national solidarity.
• Strengthening Federalism: Regionalism enhances federalism through equal regional partnership.
• Decentralisation of Power: Regionalism reduces centralization, empowering states.
• Inevitability in a Diverse Nation: Regionalism is natural and inevitable in diverse countries like India.
• Fundamental to Federalism: Regionalism is foundational to federalism, respecting regional identities.
Thus, it will be wrong to say that regionalism is a threat to national integration. India is the best example of co-
existence and successfully maintaining regionalism along with strong national integration.
Combating Social Evils: Casteism, Regionalism, and Linguistic Fanaticism:
• Casteism, regionalism, and linguistic fanaticism are social evils that can be combated through social movements
and by empowering citizens through education and economic opportunities.
• The Protection of Civil Rights Act, 1955, addresses untouchability and the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled
Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989, aims to prevent atrocities against SCs and STs.
• This information was given by the Minister of State for Social Justice and Empowerment in a written reply in
Lok Sabha in March 2023.
Conclusion:
Regionalism in India has both positive and negative effects on the social, political, and economic landscape of the
country. While it provides a platform for addressing region-specific issues and preserving linguistic and cultural
diversity, it can also lead to tensions, conflicts, and challenges to national unity. Finding a balance between regional
aspirations and national integration is crucial for maintaining harmony and sustainable development in a diverse
country like India.
81
1. Do you agree that regionalism in India appears to be a consequence of rising cultural assertiveness? Argue
(2020, 10 Marks)
2. What is the basis of regionalism? Is it that unequal distribution of benefits of development on regional basis
eventually promotes regionalism? Substantiate your answer. (2016, 12.5 Marks)
3. Growing feeling of regionalism is an important factor in the generation of demand for a separate state. Discuss.
(2013, 10 Marks)
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82
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12 SECULARISM
Related Keywords
• Positive and Negative secularism, Principled distance, Sarva Dharma Sambhava, Vasudaiva Kutumbakam,
Religious neutrality/pluralism/tolerance/harmony, Equal respect for all.
12.1 INTRODUCTION
Secularism is a principle that advocates the separation of religion from politics and governance. It seeks to establish a
society where religious institutions and state institutions are independent of each other.
83
Supreme Court recent interpretation on Secularism
• Two-judge bench rejects PIL to restore original names of ancient cultural, historical and religious places that
had purportedly been rechristened by Mughals.
• Supreme Court said “The State “must be guided by the sublime realisation that Bharat is a secular nation
committed to securing fundamental rights to all sections as contemplated in the Constitution.
12.2 COMPARISN OF INDIAN SECULARISM VS WESTERN SECULARISM
INDIAN SECULARISM WESTERN SECULARISM

• Equal Protection of all Religions: Indian • Separation of State and Religion: Western secularism
secularism upholds the principle of providing advocates for the mutual exclusion of the state and
equal protection to all religions, without religion, with each operating in separate spheres.
favouring one over the others or adopting any • Individual-Centric Approach: It interprets liberty,
religion as the state religion. freedom, and equality primarily in terms of individual
• Inter-Religious and Intra-Religious Equality: rights, with less emphasis on community-based or
Indian secularism emphasises both inter- minority-based rights.
religious equality and intra-religious equality, • Intra-Religious Equality: The focus of Western
addressing religious freedom for individuals as secularism is more on intra-religious equality rather than
well as minority communities. inter-religious equality, maintaining an arm's length
• State-Sponsored Reforms: It promotes state- distance between the state and religion in all matters.
led reforms within the religious sphere on an • Homogeneity and Individual Freedom: The Western
equal footing, allowing for principled state model of secularism emerged from a relatively
intervention in all religions. For eg. Abolition of homogeneous society, emphasising strict separation of
Untouchability, ban on practice of Tripple Talaq. the state from the church to safeguard individual
freedom.
12.3 CONSTITUTIONAL AND JUDICIAL PROVISION ON SECULARISM IN INDIA
Constitutional Provisions on Secularism in India Judicial Pronouncements on Secularism in India

• Freedom of Religion (Article 25): Ensures the right • Secularism as Basic Structure (Keshavananda Bharati
to freely practice, propagate, and profess any case, 1973): The Supreme Court held that secularism is
religion. an integral part of the "Basic Structure of the Indian
• Religious Freedom for Denominations (Article 26): Constitution" and cannot be altered by Parliament.
Grants religious denominations the autonomy to • Explicit Recognition of Secularism (S. R. Bommai vs
manage their religious affairs. Union of India case, 1994): The Court affirmed that
although the terms "Socialist" and "Secular" were
added to the Constitution in 1976, the concept of
84
• Freedom from Religious Taxation (Article 27): secularism was already embedded in the constitutional
Prohibits the promotion of any specific religion philosophy.
through taxation. • Limitations on Right to Propagate Religion (Stanislaus
• Freedom of Religious Instruction (Article 28): vs State of Madhya Pradesh case, 1977): The Court
Grants the freedom to attend religious instruction clarified that the right to propagate religion (Article 25)
or worship in educational institutions. does not include the right to engage in forcible
• Prohibition of Discrimination (Article 15): Forbids conversions that may disrupt public order.
discrimination based on religion, race, caste, sex, or • Non-Interference with Religious Essentials (Ratilal vs
place of birth. State of Bombay case, 1954): It was established that
• Equality in Public Employment (Article 16): Ensures state regulations should not interfere with the
equal opportunity for all citizens in matters of public essential practices of religion.
employment, irrespective of religion or other • Maintaining Public Order in Religious Practices
factors. (Church of God vs K.K.R Majestic Colony Welfare
• Protection of Minority Language and Culture Association case, 2000): The Court emphasized that
(Article 29): Safeguards the distinct language, while the right to religion is protected, prayers or
script, or culture of minority communities. religious activities should not disturb the peace of
• Minority Educational Rights (Article 30): others or violate public order.
Recognizes the rights of minorities to establish and • Autonomy of Minority Educational Institutions (St.
administer educational institutions of their choice. Stephen's College vs University of Delhi case, 1992):
• Secular Nature of India (Preamble): Declares India The Court upheld the autonomy of minority
as a secular country (added through the 42nd educational institutions, stating that it is essential to
Amendment Act in 1976). preserve their right to establish and administer
educational institutions.
12.4 CONSTITUTIONAL SECULARISM AND PARTY-POLITICAL SECULARISM

Constitutional secularism:
• It is marked by critical respect for all religions and is not anti-religious.
• It acknowledges the need for the state to maintain a principled distance from all religions and intervene when
religious groups promote communal disharmony or discrimination.
• Such intervention could be either due to inter-religious issues or intra-religious issues, such as the inability of
religious groups to protect their own members from oppression.
• This form of secularism requires a collective commitment from the judiciary, media, civil society activists, and
citizens.
Party-Political secularism:
• It is characterized by opportunism and alliances with religious communities for immediate electoral benefits.
• It has often been involved in controversial issues, such as the Babri Masjid/Ram temple case and the Shah
Bano case.
• It is a doctrine that has removed the values from the core idea of secularism, replaced them with opportunism,
and has been complicit in igniting communal violence.
12.5 POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE SECULARISM
POSITIVE SECULARISM NEGATIVE SECULARISM

• This approach of secularism is generally more proactive • This type of secularism emphasizes the
and interactive. complete separation of religion from the state.
• In positive secularism, the state takes an active role in • In negative secularism, the state neither
ensuring religious harmony and respect for all religions. recognizes nor intervenes in religious affairs.
85
• It doesn't advocate the total separation of religion from Religion is considered to be a private matter
the state. Instead, the state acknowledges and respects all that should have no influence on state affairs.
religions equally without favoring one over the other. • Example: The French concept of "laïcité", often
• Example: India's approach to secularism often falls under falls under negative secularism.
positive secularism. - The French state maintains a strict
- The Indian constitution provides every citizen the separation between the state and religious
right to practice, preach, and propagate any religion affairs, aiming to keep public life and public
of their choice. institutions secular.
- The state often intervenes to maintain religious - This principle is so rigidly applied that it
harmony, protect minorities, and ensure that often leads to policies like banning religious
religious institutions are free from discrimination. symbols in public schools and prohibiting
India's approach of positive secularism is reflected in public employees from displaying their
its motto of 'Unity in Diversity', where diverse religious beliefs at work.
religions co-exist and are respected.
12.6 THE NEED FOR SECULARISM TO PRESERVE DIVERSITY IN INDIA

• Promotes Equality: Secularism ensures that all religions are treated equally by the state, which is crucial in a
diverse country like India where a multitude of religions coexist.
• Prevents Discrimination: By separating the state from religion, secularism helps to prevent discrimination on
the basis of religion. It provides a framework for the state to make decisions without favoring or
disadvantaging any particular religion.
• Upholds Democratic Values: Secularism upholds democratic values by ensuring freedom of religion. It gives
individuals the freedom to choose, change, and practice their religion, or to not follow any religion at all.
• Promotes Unity: By treating all religions equally, secularism can help to promote unity among people of
different faiths. It helps to foster a sense of shared citizenship and national identity, despite religious
differences.
• Protects Minority Rights: In a diverse society, secularism is crucial for protecting the rights of religious
minorities. It ensures that minority religions are not marginalized or disadvantaged by the state.
• Supports Social Harmony: By providing a neutral platform where religious differences are respected,
secularism supports social harmony. It helps to reduce religious conflict and promote peaceful coexistence.
12.7 POSITIVE ASPECTS OF SECULARISM IN INDIA

• Religious Freedom: Secularism guarantees the freedom of individuals to practice and propagate their religion
without interference or discrimination.
• Preventing Religious Conflict: By keeping religion separate from politics, secularism helps mitigate potential
conflicts and tensions arising from religious differences
• Protection of Religious Freedom: Secularism guarantees the freedom of individuals to choose and practise
their religion without discrimination or persecution.
• Social Cohesion: Secularism promotes unity and harmony among people from different religious backgrounds,
fostering a sense of inclusivity and national integration.
• Equality and Justice: Secularism ensures equal treatment and protection of rights for all citizens, regardless of
their religious beliefs.
• Protection of Minority Rights: It safeguards the rights and interests of religious minorities, preventing their
marginalisation and ensuring their participation in society.
• Democratic Values: Secularism upholds the democratic principles of pluralism, tolerance, and respect for
diverse opinions and beliefs.
86
“Welfare without discrimination is true secularism” - Prime Minister of India Narender Modi
• "Secularism and Harmony” is not "political fashion" but it is "perfect passion" for India and Indians. This inclusive
culture and commitment have united the country with fabric of “Unity in Diversity” – Former Union Minister for
Minority Affairs Shri Mukhtar Abbas Naqvi.
12.8 CHALLENGES TO SECULARISM
• Promoting Secularism and Inclusive Education: Examples from India

- Ayodhya Verdict: In 2019, the Supreme Court delivered a landmark judgment on the Ayodhya land
dispute, providing a peaceful resolution to the long-standing dispute between Hindu and Muslim
communities. The judgment focused on the secular principles of law and ensured the construction of a
temple for Hindus and a mosque for Muslims in separate locations.
- National Education Policy 2020: It aims to promote a secular and inclusive education system. It
emphasizes the importance of imparting values of tolerance, harmony, and respect for diversity among
students, fostering a secular mindset from an early age.
CURRENT DEVELOPMENTS ON UNIFORM CIVIL CODE (UCC)
• The Uttarakhand became the first state after Goa to pass the UCC laws in the state.
• Recently, the Parliamentary Standing Committee on Personnel, Public Grievances, Law and Justice called a
meeting on the Uniform Civil Code (UCC) during which it said it will hear the views of stakeholders.
Conclusion:
Secularism in India is a foundational principle that ensures religious freedom and equality for all citizens. It has
promoted social harmony and diversity, allowing people of different faiths to coexist peacefully. However, challenges
such as communal tensions and political exploitation of religious identities persist. Upholding secular values, fostering
interfaith dialogue, and promoting inclusive policies are crucial for maintaining a pluralistic society and strengthening
the fabric of Indian democracy.
• Are tolerance, assimilation and pluralism the key elements in the making of an Indian form of secularism? Justify
your answer. (2022, 15 Marks)
• What are the challenges to our cultural practices in the name of secularism? (2019, 10 Marks)
• How the Indian concept of secularism different from the western model of secularism? Discuss (2018, 10 Marks)
• How do the Indian debates on secularism differ from the debates in the West? (2014, 12.5 Marks)
87
MK YADAV SIR DIVYA MA’AM

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12

MOST CONCISE & RELEVANT COVERAGE

CURRENT & STATIC INTEGRATED

RECENT EXAMPLES, FACTS, & RELEVANT QUOTES

READY USE DIAGRAMS & MIND MAPS

2 POPULATION AND ASSOCIATED ISSUES 22-26

3 ROLE OF WOMEN AND WOMEN’S ORGANIZATION 27-37

9 SOCIAL EMPOWERMENT: MEANING, NEED AND INITIATIVES 62-75

1 SALIENT FEATURES OF INDIAN SOCIETY

1.2.1 CASTE SYSTEM

1.2.1.1 FEATURES OF THE CASTE SYSTEM

1.2.1.2 ROLE OF THE CASTE SYSTEM

1.2.1.3 TRANSFORMATION/WEAKNING OF THE CASTE SYSTEM

1.2.1.4 FACTORS THAT CONSERVE CASTE SYSTEM

RECENT INCIDENCES/DATA OF ALLEGED CASTE-BASED DISCRIMINATION

1.2.1.5 CASTE BASED-RESERVATION IN INDIA

Significance of Caste Census:

Challenges and Criticisms

Caste based reservation in education and issue of meritocracy

1.2.2 RELIGIOUS DIVERSITY IN INDIA

Religious diversity in India is a unique aspect of the country's cultural and

1.2.2.1 CHALLENGES WITH RELIGIOUS DIVERSITY

1.2.2.2 WAY AHEAD TO MAINTAIN RELIGIOUS HARMONY

1.2.3 LINGUISTIC DIVERSITY

1.2.3.1 ISSUES WITH LINGUISTIC DIVERSITY

1.2.3.2 WAY FORWARD

1.2.4 UNITY IN DIVERSITY

1.2.4.1 FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR ‘UNITY IN DIVERSITY’

•Inter-State Councils: Resolve disputes and promote cooperation among states.

1.2.4.3 WAY FORWARD

1.2.5.1 TYPES OF KINSHIP

Consanguineal: It involves Affinal: It is based on the bond of Social: It is based on factors

1.2.5.2 FUNCTIONS OF KINSHIP

1.3 SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS

1.3.1.1 CLASSIFICATION OF FAMILY

1.3.1.2 CHANGES IN INDIAN FAMILY SYSTEM

1.3.1.3 FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR CHANGES IN THE FAMILY SYSTEM

1.3.2 INSTITUTION OF MARRIAGE

1.3.2.1 TYPES OF MARRIAGE

1.3.2.2 CHANGES IN THE INSTITUTION OF MARRIAGE

1.3.2.3 CHALLENGES TO INSTITUTION OF MARRIAGES

1.3.2.4 RECOGNITION OF SAME-SEX MARRIAGE

• Supreme Court (SC) verdict in Supriyo Chakraborty V Union of India

1.4.1 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF TRIBES

1.4.2 LEGAL PROVISIONS FOR TRIBES

1.4.3 COMMITTEES RELATED TO TRIBES

1.4.4 CHANGES IN THE TRIBAL SOCIETY

1.4.5 TRIBAL ISSUES

Forest Rights Act (FRA) Violation:

1.4.6 INITIATIVES FOR TRIBAL WELFARE

UPSC PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS (PYQs)

Target 600+ in GS & ESSAY with THEME wise

Enroll Before June 30th to Get 10% Discount

OUR QEP TOPPERS OF CSE 2023

theIAShub Knowledge Centres /mkyadav

2 POPULATION AND ASSOCIATED ISSUES

2.1 FACTORS INFLUENCING THE DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION

2.2 INDIA-DEMOGRAPHIC DATA

2.3 ADVANTAGES AND CHALLENGES OF DEMOGRAPHIC DIVIDEND

Low Human Development: India ranks 134