BIOLOGY FOR COMPUTER

ENGINEERS (BBOC407)
Ms. Krithika A
Department of Biotechnology

MODULE - 1

CELL: BASIC UNIT OF LIFE

ENGINEERING
Course objectives:
• To familiarize the students with the basic biological concepts and their
engineering applications.
• To enable the students with an understanding of biodesign principles
to create novel devices and structures.
• To provide the students an appreciation of how biological systems can
be re-designed as substitute products for natural systems.
• To motivate the students develop the interdisciplinary vision of
biological engineering.
 SYLLABUS
• Module-1 (5 Hours)
INTRODUCTION TO BIOLOGY:
The cell: the basic unit of life, Structure and functions of a cell. The Plant Cell and animal cell, Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic cell, Stem cells and their application. Biomolecules: Properties and
functions of Carbohydrates, Nucleic acids, proteins, lipids. Importance of special biomolecules; Enzymes (Classification (with one example each), Properties and functions), vitamins and
hormones.
• Module-2 (5 Hours)
BIOMOLECULES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS (QUALITATIVE):
Carbohydrates (cellulose-based water filters, PHA and PLA as bioplastics), Nucleic acids (DNA Vaccine for Rabies and RNA vaccines for Covid19, Forensics – DNA fingerprinting), Proteins (Proteins
as food – whey protein and meat analogs, Plant based proteins), lipids (biodiesel, cleaning agents/detergents), Enzymes (glucose-oxidase in biosensors, lignolytic enzyme in bio-bleaching).
• Module-3 (5 Hours)
HUMAN ORGAN SYSTEMS AND BIO-DESIGNS
Brain as a CPU system (architecture, CNS and Peripheral Nervous System, signal transmission, EEG, Robotic arms for prosthetics. Engineering solutions for Parkinson’s disease).Eye as a Camera
system (architecture of rod and cone cells, optical corrections, cataract, lens materials, bionic eye).Heart as a pump system (architecture, electrical signalling - ECG monitoring and heart related
issues, reasons for blockages of blood vessels, design of stents, pace makers, defibrillators). Lungs as purification system (architecture, gas exchange mechanisms, spirometry, abnormal lung
physiology - COPD, Ventilators, Heart-lung machine).Kidney as a filtration system (architecture, mechanism of filtration, CKD, dialysis systems). Muscular and Skeletal Systems as scaffolds
(architecture, mechanisms, bioengineering solutions for muscular dystrophy and osteoporosis).
• Module-4 (5 Hours)
NATURE-BIOINSPIRED MATERIALS AND MECHANISMS (QUALITATIVE):
Echolocation (ultrasonography, sonars), Photosynthesis (photovoltaic cells, bionic leaf). Bird flying (GPS and aircrafts), Lotus leaf effect (Super hydrophobic and self-cleaning surfaces), Plant burrs
(Velcro), Shark skin (Friction reducing swim suits), Kingfisher beak (Bullet train). Human Blood substitutes - hemoglobin-based oxygen carriers (HBOCs) and perflourocarbons (PFCs).
• Module-5 (5 Hours)
TRENDS IN BIOENGINEERING (QUALITATIVE):
Bioprinting techniques and materials, 3D printing of ear, bone and skin. 3D printed foods. Electrical tongue and electrical nose in food science, DNA origami and Biocomputing, Bioimaging and
Artificial Intelligence for disease diagnosis. Self-healing Bioconcrete (based on bacillus spores, calcium lactate nutrients and biomineralization processes) and Bioremediation and Biomining via
microbial surface adsorption (removal of heavy metals like Lead, Cadmium, Mercury, Arsenic).
Contents of Module 1
• Introduction.
• Structure and functions of a cell.
• Stem cells and their application.
• Biomolecules: Properties and functions of Carbohydrates, Nucleic
acids, proteins, lipids.
• Importance of special biomolecules: Properties and functions of
enzymes, vitamins and hormones.
 Introduction
• Biology for engineers is important for several reasons:

• Biomimicry: Engineers often draw inspiration from nature to design innovative solutions to complex problems. By
understanding biological systems, engineers can mimic natural structures and processes to develop more efficient and
sustainable technologies. For example, studying the structure of bird wings has inspired the design of more aerodynamic
aircraft wings, and studying the way that geckos cling to surfaces has led to the development of adhesive materials.
• Biomedical Engineering: Biology is the foundation of biomedical engineering, which involves the application of engineering
principles and techniques to solve problems in medicine and healthcare. Biomedical engineers work on developing
medical devices, diagnostic tools, prosthetics, and tissue engineering solutions, among other things. A strong
understanding of biology is essential for designing devices and treatments that interact with living organisms.
• Environmental Engineering: Engineers play a crucial role in addressing environmental challenges such as pollution, habitat
destruction, and climate change. Understanding biological processes is essential for developing sustainable solutions to
these problems.
• For example, bioremediation techniques use microorganisms to degrade or detoxify pollutants in soil and water, and
ecological engineering applies principles from ecology to design solutions for restoring ecosystems and mitigating
environmental damage.
 Introduction
• Bioinformatics and Biotechnology: Advances in genetics, genomics, and bioinformatics have
revolutionized many fields, including medicine, agriculture, and biotechnology. Engineers with a
background in biology can contribute to these fields by developing computational tools for
analyzing biological data, designing biotechnological processes for producing pharmaceuticals or
biofuels, and engineering biological systems for various applications.
• Bioinformatics is a multidisciplinary field that utilizes computer programming, machine
learning, algorithms, statistics, and other computational tools to organize and analyze large
volumes of biological data.
• Interdisciplinary Collaboration: Many modern challenges require interdisciplinary approaches that
integrate knowledge from multiple fields. Engineers working on projects related to health,
sustainability, or the environment often collaborate with biologists, medical professionals,
ecologists, and other experts. Understanding the language and principles of biology facilitates
effective communication and collaboration across disciplines.

• In summary, biology for engineers provides a foundation for developing innovative technologies,
addressing complex challenges in healthcare and the environment, and collaborating across
disciplines to solve real-world problems.
Here are some applications of AI and ML in
biology:
• RNA structure prediction
• AI and ML algorithms can predict RNA structures more quickly and accurately than
traditional methods. This can help researchers discover new insights from large datasets.
• Drug discovery and development
• AI can help researchers identify potential drug candidates more quickly and accurately than
traditional methods. AI can also be used to model protein–ligand interactions.
• Protein characterization
• AI can be used in combination with biological design tools to help characterize proteins,
such as their 3-D structure.
• Understanding ecosystems
• AI and ML tools can be used to understand ecosystems across space and time.
• Zoology
• Machine learning can help with tasks such as species classification, behavior identification,
animal population size prediction, bird sound recognition, and nonhuman animal language
learning
Why a datacentric approach became
essential?
• An expanding collection of sequences provided both a source of data and a set of
interesting problems that were infeasible to solve without the number-crunching
power of computers.
• Sequence and structure is information and a central part of the conceptual
framework of molecular biology.
• High-speed digital computers, which had developed from weapons research
programmes during the Second World War, finally became widely available to
academic biologists.
• Data collection
• Pattern recognition
• Pattern generalisation

• Source: Hagen, Nature Reviews Genetics 1, 231–236 (2000)

Introduction
• What is a cell??
• Cell is the basic structural and functional unit of life. It contains the fundamental molecules of
life and composes all living things.
• What does it look like??
•Discovery of the cell
• Robert Hooke (1665) viewed thin slice of cork –
observed honeycomb structures; coined the term ‘cell’ (
Latin: cellulae :: six-sided cell of a honeycomb)
• Modern cell theory
• All organisms are made of cells.
• All cells only come from other cells (the principle of
biogenesis).
• Cells are the fundamental units of structure and function
in organisms.
• Matthias Schleiden (German Scientist) concluded that
all plant parts are made of cells.
• Theodor Schwann also a German Scientist concluded
that all animal parts are made of cells.
• About 20 years later another scientist, Rudolf Virchow,
discovered that cells couldn’t develop from anything but
other cells.
Types of
cells
• Prokaryotic cells
• Bacteria
• Archaea
• Blue-Green Algae
• Eukaryotic cells
• Plant cell
• Animal cell
• Prokaryotic cells typically range
from 0.1 to 5.0 μm in diameter,
while eukaryotic cells usually
have diameters ranging from
10 to 100 μm.
Prokaryotic
cells
• “Prokaryotic cells are the cells that do not have a true nucleus and
membrane-bound organelles.”
• Prokaryotic cells are much smaller than eukaryotic cells, and range in size
from 0.1 µm to 5 µm.
• Prokaryotes lack an organized nucleus and other membrane-bound
organelles.
• Prokaryotic DNA is found in a central part of the cell called the nucleoid.
• The cell wall of a prokaryote acts as an extra layer of protection, helps
maintain cell shape, and prevents dehydration.
• The small size of prokaryotes allows quick entry and diffusion of ions and
molecules to other parts of the cell while also allowing fast removal of waste
products out of the cell.
Parts of a Prokaryotic Cell
• Capsule– It is an outer protective covering found in the bacterial cells, in addition to
the cell wall. It helps in moisture retention, protects the cell when engulfed, and helps
in the attachment of cells to nutrients and surfaces.
• Cell Wall– It is the outermost layer of the cell which gives shape to the cell.
• Cytoplasm– The cytoplasm is mainly composed of enzymes, salts, cell organelles and
is a gel-like component.
• Cell Membrane– This layer surrounds the cytoplasm and regulates the entry and exit
of substances in the cells.
• Pili– These are hair-like outgrowths that attach to the surface of other bacterial cells.
• Flagella– These are long structures in the form of a whip, that help in the locomotion
of a cell.
• Ribosomes– These are involved in protein synthesis.
• Plasmids– Plasmids are non-chromosomal DNA structures. These are not involved in
reproduction. the genes carried in plasmids provide bacteria with genetic advantages,
such as antibiotic resistance.
• Nucleoid Region– It is the region in the cytoplasm where the genetic material is
present.
• A prokaryotic cell lacks certain organelles like mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum,
and Golgi bodies.
Eukaryotic cells
“Eukaryotic cells are the cells that contain a membrane
bound nucleus and organelles that form large and
complex organisms.”
Protozoa, fungi, plants, and animals all have eukaryotic
cells. They are classified under the kingdom Eukaryota.
• Eukaryotic cells have the nucleus enclosed within the Plant Cell
nuclear membrane.
• The cell has mitochondria.
• A cell wall is the outermost layer of the eukaryotic
cells.
• The cells divide by a process called mitosis.
• The eukaryotic cells contain a cytoskeletal structure.
• The nucleus contains double stranded DNA, which
carries all the genetic information.
Animal Cell
Prokaryotic v/s Eukaryotic
 CELL ORGANELLES

Organelles are structures that enable

the cell to live, grow and reproduce.
Cell organelles in Eukaryotes
• Structure:
• Cell Membrane
• Cell Wall (plant cells only)
• Centrosome
• Centriole (animal cells only)
• Chloroplast (plant cells only)
• Cytoplasm
• Cytoskeleton
• Cytosol
• Golgi
• Lysosome
• Nucleus
• Mitochondria
• Nucleolus
• Peroxisome
• Ribosomes
• Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
• Secretory Vesicle
• Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
• Vacuole
Structure of a Eukaryotic cell
• Plasma Membrane
• The plasma membrane separates the cell from the outside environment.
• It comprises specific embedded proteins, which help in the exchange of substances in and out of the cell.
• Cell Wall
• A cell wall is a rigid structure present outside the plant cell. It is, however, absent in animal cells.
• It provides shape to the cell and helps in cell-to-cell interaction.
• It is a protective layer that protects the cell from any injury or pathogen attacks.
• It is composed of cellulose, hemicellulose, pectins, proteins, etc.
• Cytoskeleton
• The cytoskeleton is present inside the cytoplasm, which consists of microfilaments, microtubules, and fibres to provide perfect shape to
the cell, anchor the organelles, and stimulate the cell movement.
• Endoplasmic Reticulum
• It is a network of small, tubular structures that divides the cell surface into two parts: luminal and extraluminal.
• Endoplasmic Reticulum is of two types:
• Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum contains ribosomes.
• Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum that lacks ribosomes and is therefore smooth.
• Nucleus
• The nucleoplasm enclosed within the nucleus contains DNA and proteins.
• The nuclear envelop consists of two layers- the outer membrane and the inner membrane. Both the membranes are permeable to ions,
molecules, and RNA material.
• Ribosome production also takes place inside the nucleus.
 CELL ORGANELLES IN PLANT AND ANIMAL
CELLS
• Golgi Apparatus
• It is made up of flat disc-shaped structures called cisternae.
• It is absent in red blood cells of humans and sieve cells of plants.
• They are arranged parallel and concentrically near the nucleus.
• It is an important site for the formation of glycoproteins and glycolipids.
• Ribosomes
• These are the main site for protein synthesis and are composed of proteins and ribonucleic acids.
• Mitochondria
• These are also known as “powerhouse of cells” because they produce energy.
• It consists of an outer membrane and an inner membrane. The inner membrane is divided into folds called
cristae.
• They help in the regulation of cell metabolism.
• Lysosomes
• They are known as “suicidal bags” because they possess hydrolytic enzymes to digest protein, lipids,
carbohydrates, and nucleic acids.
• Plastids
• These are double-membraned structures and are found only in plant cells. These are of three types:
• Chloroplast that contains chlorophyll and is involved in photosynthesis.
• Chromoplast that contains a pigment called carotene that provides the plants yellow, red, or orange
colours.
• Leucoplasts that are colourless and store oil, fats, carbohydrates, or proteins.
 CELL MEMBRANE
“Gateway to the cell”

• Plasma Membrane
• The plasma membrane separates the cell from the outside environment.
• It comprises specific embedded proteins, which help in the exchange of substances in and out of
the cell.
• In the plant cells, it is known as plasmalemma.
• It provides protection to all the internal organelles of the cell.
• Most of the cell membrane is composed of 40-50 % protein and 50-60 % lipids.
• Membrane lipids are of three types: a) Phospholipids b) Glycolipids c) Steroids
• In the different membrane, the proportion of the lipid varies
• The fluid mosaic model is the scientific and widely accepted model of the cell
membrane.
FUNCTIONS OF THE CELL MEMBRANE
• Cell recognition and communication
• It is essential during the defense against microbes and
tissue formation.
• Blood grouping
• Based on the antigens present in the cell membrane,
blood grouping can be done and separated as A, B, AB, O
• Digestion
• modified cell membrane of microvilli in the
gastrointestinal tract that helps in the digestion of food
materials.
• Active transport
• Osmosis
• It shows semi-permeable activity for the transport of
water by osmosis.
• Diffusion
• The exchange of gases with the external environment
occurs by diffusion.
• Metabolism
• Several enzymes are present on the cell surface
which is involved in the breakdown of extracellular
nutrients.
 NUCLEUS
“Brain of the cell”
• The cell nucleus is a membrane-bound structure that contains the
cell’s hereditary information and controls the cell’s growth and
reproduction.
• The nucleoplasm enclosed within the nucleus contains DNA and
proteins.
• The nuclear envelope consists of two layers- the outer membrane and
the inner membrane. Both the membranes are permeable to ions,
molecules, and RNA material.
• Ribosome production also takes place inside the nucleus.
• PARTS OF A NUCLEUS
• Nucleoplasm
• Nucleoplasm is the gelatinous substance within the nuclear envelope.
• Chromosomes
• The nucleus is the organelle that houses chromosomes.
• Chromosomes consist of DNA, which contains heredity information and
instructions for cell growth, development, and reproduction.
• Nucleolus
• Contained within the nucleus is a dense, membrane-less structure
composed of RNA and proteins called the nucleolus.
• The nucleolus helps to synthesize ribosomes.
The Nucleus- “Mayor’s office”
• The control center of the cell
• Contains the Cell’s DNA
• The nucleus contains chromatin, RNAs, and nuclear proteins
move freely in aqueous solution.
• Nucleus has an internal structure that organizes the genetic
material and localizes nuclear functions.
• A loosely organized matrix of nuclear lamins extends from the
nuclear lamina into the interior of the nucleus.

• NUCLEAR ENVELOPE
• Complex structure consisting of two nuclear membranes, an
underlying nuclear lamina, and nuclear pore complexes.
• Two concentric membranes, called the inner and outer nuclear
membranes .

FUNCTION • The outer membrane is continuous with the endoplasmic

reticulum, so the space between the inner and outer nuclear
• Serves both as the repository of genetic information and as membranes
the cell's control center.
is directly connected with the lumen of the
• The presence of a nucleus thus allows gene expression to beendoplasmic
regulated reticulum.
by post-transcriptional mechanisms,
such as alternative splicing.
• The nuclear envelope provides novel opportunities for the control of gene expression at the level of
Mitochondria- “Powerhouse of the cell”
• Power center of cell
• Provides the energy the cell needs to move, divide, etc.
• Length- 5-12µm Diameter- 0.5-1µm
• Filamentous or globular in shape.

• Components of Mitochondria are –

– i)Outer Membrane
– ii)Inner Membrane
– iii)Intermediate Space- space between outer and inner
membrane
– iv)Cristae-Infoldings of inner membrane
– v)Matrix- The space enclosed by inner membrane

• The membranes are made up of phospholipids and proteins

• Power generating units of the cells.
• Important to maintain proper concentration of calcium ions within
the various compartments of the cell.
• Energy transduction through respiration.
Ribosomes- “Proteins Factories of the cell”
• Site where proteins are made
• A ribosome is a complex cellular mechanism used to translate genetic
code into chains of amino acids. Long chains of amino acids fold and
function as proteins in cells.
• A ribosome is made from complexes of RNAs and proteins and is,
therefore, a ribonucleoprotein.
• Around 37 to 62% of RNA is composed of RNA and the rest is
proteins.
• Each ribosome is divided into two subunits:
• A smaller subunit which binds to a larger subunit and the mRNA
pattern, and
• A larger subunit which binds to the tRNA, the amino acids, and the
smaller subunit.
• Prokaryotes – 70S; Eukaryotes – 80S (S = Svedberg unit)
• FUNCTIONS
– The ribosome is a complex molecular machine, found within all
living cells, that serves as the site of biological protein
synthesis (translation).
– Ribosomes link amino acids together in the order specified
by messenger RNA (mRNA) molecules.
– Ribosomes act as catalysts in two extremely important biological
processes called peptidyl transfer and peptidyl hydrolysis.
 Endoplasmic Reticulum
• Transportation system of cell
- “Roadways of the cell”
• Rough ER- ribosomes attached
• Smooth ER- no ribosomes
• Network of tubular and flat vesicular structures in the cytoplasm.
• An extensive network of closed, flattened membrane-bounded sacs
called cisternae
• Space inside the tubules is filled with Endoplasmic Matrix.
1. Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum - Ribosomes absent
• Site of synthesis of lipid and steroid hormones.
• Mainly present in lipid forming cells such as adipocytes, interstitial cells of
testis, glycogen storing cells of liver, adrenal cortex cells, muscle cells,
leucocytes etc.
2. Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum - Contains ribosomes
• Site of protein synthesis, processing and packaging.
• Mainly present in protein forming cells such as pancreatic acinar cells ,Goblet
• cells ,antibody producing plasma cells, Nissl’s granules of nerve cells etc.
FUNCTIONS
• Synthesis of proteins. Protein segregation.
• Unsaturation of fatty acid.
• Muscle contraction --- commonly known as Sarcoplasmic Reticulum in
muscle fibers.
Golgi Complex- “UPS of the cell”
• Packaging house of cell
• Packages, processes, and ships out the stuff the cell makes
• Golgi Bodies is a collection of membrane enclosed sacs composed of
four or more stacked layers of thin, flat enclosed vessels lying near
the side of the nucleus.
• Consist of multiple discrete compartments.
• Golgi apparatus appears as a complex array of interconnecting
tubules, vesicles, and cisternae.

FUNCTIONS
• Wrapping and Packaging department of the cell.
• Produces secretion granules i.e. membrane enclosed complexes, which store hormones
and enzymes in the protein secreting cells, it packages proteins.
• Site of formation of lysosomes i.e. large irregular structures surrounded by membrane
which are present in the cytoplasm.
• It adds certain carbohydrates to form glycoproteins, which play an important role in the
association of the cells to form tissues
• They play a key role in sorting many of the cell’s proteins and membrane constituents,
and in directing them to their proper destinations.
Lysosomes- suicide bags of the cell
• Digests food particles and cell parts
– “Garbage men”
• Protects cell by digesting foreign invaders
– “Police men
• Diameter- 250 -750nm
• These are the irregular structures surrounded by the unit membrane.
• More acidic than rest of the cytoplasm and external bacteria as well as worn
out cell components are digested in them.
• The interior is kept acidic(near pH 5.0) by the action of proton pump or H+ or
ATPase.
• Lysosomes are cell hydrolases and they function best at the acidic pH.
FUNCTIONS
• Acts as a form of digestive (lytic ) system of the cell, because enzymes present
in it can digest essentially all macromolecules.
• Engulf worn out components of the cells in which they are located.
• Engulf exogenous substances e.g. bacteria and degrade them.
• When a cell dies ,lysosomal enzymes causes autolysis of the remnant . That's
why lysosomes are called as Suicidal Bags.
PEROXISOMES
• Diameter- 0.5µm
• A lipid bilayer membrane surrounds which regulates what enters
or exits the peroxisomes.
• Urate oxidase crystalline core.
• Structure is similar to that of the lysosomes but with a different
chemical composition.
• Peroxisomes can be formed by the budding of ER, or by division
• Contains oxidases that produces H2O2.
• Catalases degrades hydrogen peroxide to yield water and
oxygen
• Proteins are directed to the Peroxisomes by a unique
• signal sequence with the help of protein chaperones, Peroxins.

• FUNCTIONS
• H2O2 metabolism and detoxification
• Helps in Photorespiration in plants
• Biosynthesis of lipids .
• Cholesterol and dolichol are synthesized in animals.
• Synthesis of bile acids in liver.
• Synthesis of plasmalogens ( myelin sheath).
Vacuole
• Stores water, food & wastes.
• The components of the vacuole,
known as the cell sap, differ from that
of the surrounding cytoplasm.
• The membranes are composed of
phospholipids.
• The membranes are embedded with
proteins that help in transporting
molecules across the membrane.
• Different combinations of these
proteins help the vacuoles to hold
different materials.
• The substances are taken in by a
vacuole through endocytosis and
excreted through exocytosis. These
substances are stored in the cells,
separated from the cytosol.
Chloroplasts
• The chloroplast, found only in algal and plant cells. It is
a cell organelle that produces energy through photosynthesis.
• The chloroplast has an inner and outer membrane with an empty
intermediate space in between. Inside the chloroplast are stacks of
thylakoids, called grana, as well as stroma, the dense fluid inside of
the chloroplast. These thylakoids contain the chlorophyll that is
necessary for the plant to go through photosynthesis. The space the
chlorophyll fills is called the thylakoid space.
• Functions of Chloroplast
• Absorption of light energy and conversion of it into biological
energy.
• Production of ATP by photophosphorylation. NADPH2 and ATP are
the assimilatory powers of photosynthesis. Transfer of CO2 obtained
from the air to 5 carbon sugar in the stream during dark reaction.
• Breaking of 6-carbon atom compound into two molecules of
phosphoglyceric acid by the utilization of assimilatory powers.

• NAPDH2- nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate hydrogen

 Cells to Organisms (Organization level)
Organism
Organ
Organs Systems
Tissues
Cells
STEM CELLS AND
THEIR
APPLICATIONS
 STEM CELLS AND THEIR APPLICATIONS
• Stem cells are special human cells that are able to develop into many different cell types. This can range from muscle cells
to brain cells. In some cases, they can also fix damaged tissues.
• Types: Adult Stem Cells, Embryonic Stem Cells, induced Pluripotent Stem Cells
• Stem cells are immature cells that have the potential to differentiate into specialized cells which have a distinct function.
• There are 2 types of human stem cells:
• a. those associated with the embryo (or embryonic)
• b. those associated with the adult (or somatic)
• Unique Properties of Stem Cells
• 1. Self-renewal: the ability to go through numerous cycles of cell division to produce more stem cells.
• 2. Differentiation: these cells can differentiate into specialized cell types.
• Stem cells are essential cells that replace damaged cells or cells lost due to diseases.
• These cells are the earliest cells of the cell lineage in all tissues and are found in both embryonic and adult organisms.
• These cells provide a continuous supply of new cells that make up the tissues and organs of animals and plants.
• Stem cells have been of great interest as a therapeutic method for various diseases and conditions.
• The stem cells in the embryonic organism are present in the inner cell mass of the blastocyte, which then differentiates into
all other cells in the body.
• The stem cells in adults, however, are localized to specific areas within the body like in the bone marrow and the gonads.
Differentiation Potential
● Totipotent: These stem cells can differentiate into all
possible cell types. The first few cells that appear as
the zygote starts to divide are totipotent.
● Pluripotent: These cells can turn into almost any cell.
Cells from the early embryo are pluripotent.
● Multipotent: These cells can differentiate into a
closely related family of cells. Adult hematopoietic
stem cells, for example, can become red and white
blood cells or platelets.
● Oligopotent: These can differentiate into a few
different cell types. Adult lymphoid or myeloid stem
cells can do this.
● Unipotent: These can only produce cells of one kind,
which is their own type. However, they are still stem
cells because they can renew themselves. Examples
include adult muscle stem cells.
Types of stem cells
• Depending on the source of the stem cells or
where they are present, stem cells are divided
into various types;
•1. Embryonic stem cells
• Embryonic stem cells are a group of cells that
are present in the inner cell mass of the
embryo at a very early stage of
development(4-5 days of fertilization), called a
blastocyst. The number of cells at that point is
about 50-150.
• These cells are pluripotent, meaning they can
develop and differentiate into various cell
types (approx 250 types) during their
proliferation. These do not, however,
contribute to the extraembryonic cells like the
placenta.
• Embryonic stem cell culture is important as
they perform as a new source for regenerative
medicine and genetic disease and toxicology
test in vitro.
2. Adult stem cells (Somatic or Tissue-specific stem cell)
• Adult stem cells, also called somatic stem
cells, are the cells found in specific tissues
that function to repair and form cells of only
the tissues they are found on.
• These cells are considered less potent than
embryonic stem cells as they cannot
differentiate to different cell types.
• Adult stem cells are found in both children
and adults and mostly localized in tissue like
the epidermis, bone marrow, and lining of
the intestine.
• Adult stem cells present in the bone marrow
are the hematopoietic cells that
differentiate to form three different types of
blood cells and immune cells.
• Stem cells are also found in the brain that
differentiates to form very few nerve cells
after birth.
3. Induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs)
• The limitations in adult stem cells led to the
creation of novel pluripotent cells termed
induced pluripotent cells from the adult cells
by the process of reprogramming the genes.
• Induced pluripotent stem cells are formed
when the adult cells are cultured with
embryonic stem cells where a fusion of these
two cells forms new cells with stem cell-like
properties.
• Induced pluripotent stem cells are similar to
embryonic stem cells in that they can also be
stimulated to differentiate into different cell
types.
• These cells are of significant importance as
they can be used in therapeutic medicine
where doctors will be able to generate cells of
practically all organs of the body for each
patient.
• Besides, they also prevent the use of more
embryonic stem cells which might cause
ethical issues.
Application/ Uses of Stem cell Research
• Stem cell research has been used in the field of regenerative medicine, which deals
with the restoration of tissues or organs in the patient suffering from severe injuries or
some chronic disease.
• Induced stem cells of the heart and the eyes can be used in the transplantation of the
cells during severe heart and eye-related diseases.
• The progress made in the field of stem cell research has laid the foundation for other
cell-based therapies of disease that cannot be cured with conventional medicines.
• Many years of research on stem cells has made it possible to transplant hematopoietic
stem cells to the patients after the cancer treatments.
• Stem cell research has also been used for the testing of new drugs before they can be
tested in animals or humans.
• Cultured stem cells are used for the transplant of cells in the case of various diseases
like bone marrow for leukemia, nerve cells for Parkinson’s and Alzheimer’s disease,
heart muscle for heart disease, and pancreatic islets for diabetes.
BIOMOLECULES
Properties and functions of Carbohydrates, Nucleic
acids, proteins, lipids. Importance of special
biomolecules; Enzymes (Classification (with one
example each),Properties and functions), vitamins
and hormones.
BIOMOLECULES
• What is a biomolecule?

• Biomolecules, also known as biological molecules, are chemical compounds found in living organisms that are
essential for the survival of living cells and play a vital role in all life processes.

• Biomolecules have a wide range of sizes and structures and perform a vast array of functions. The four major
types of biomolecules are carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids, and proteins. Among biomolecules, nucleic acids,
namely DNA and RNA, have the unique function of storing an organism’s genetic code—the sequence of
nucleotides that determines the amino acid sequence of proteins, which are of critical importance to life on
Earth.
• Biomolecules can be classified into two categories:
• Macromolecules: These include protein, nucleic acid, and polysaccharides
• Micromolecules: These include amino acids, nucleic acids, and monosaccharides
 BIOMOLECULES

MACROMOLECULES MICROMOLECULES

CARBOHYDRATES MINERALS

WATER
NUCLEIC ACIDS

GASES
PROTEINS
SUGARS
LIPIDS
NUCLEOTIDES

AMINO
ACIDS

FATTY ACIDS
 CARBOHYDRATES
Classification, Properties and Functions
CARBOHYDRATES
• Carbohydrates (hydrates of carbon) are a group of naturally
occurring carbonyl compounds (aldehydes or ketones) that also
contain several hydroxyl groups. It may also include their derivatives
which produce such compounds on hydrolysis.
• They are the most abundant organic molecules in nature and are also
referred to as “saccharides”.
• Simple carbohydrates which are soluble in water and sweet in taste are
called “Sugars”.
• They can be added to foods, such as the sugar in candy, desserts,
processed foods, and regular soda.
• Body breaks down carbohydrates into glucose.
• Glucose, or blood sugar, is the main source of energy for your body's
cells, tissues, and organs.
• Glucose can be used immediately or stored in the liver and muscles
for later use, as Glycogen.
• Carbohydrates consist of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
• The general empirical structure for carbohydrates is (CH2O)n.
• They are organic compounds organized in the form of aldehydes or
ketones with multiple hydroxyl groups coming off the carbon chain.
• The building blocks of all carbohydrates are simple sugars called
monosaccharides.
 FUNCTIONS OF CARBOHYDRATES
• Carbohydrates participate in a wide range of functions
1. They are the most abundant dietary source of energy (4Cal/g) for all organisms.
2. Carbohydrates are precursors for many organic compounds (fats, amino acids).
3. Carbohydrates (as glycoproteins and glycolipids) participate in the structure of cell membrane and cellular functions such
as cell growth, adhesion and division.
4. They are structural components of many organisms. These include the fiber (cellulose) of plants, exoskeleton of some
insects and the cell wall of microorganisms.
5. Carbohydrates also serve as the storage form of energy (glycogen) to meet the immediate energy demands of the body.
6. Ribose and deoxyribose sugars forms the structural frame of the genetic material, RNA and DNA.
7. Stored carbohydrates acts as energy source instead of proteins.
8. Carbohydrates are intermediates in biosynthesis of fats and proteins.
9. Carbohydrates aid in regulation of nerve tissue and is the energy source for brain.
10. Carbohydrates gets associated with lipids and proteins to form surface antigens, receptor molecules, vitamins and
antibiotics.
11. They form structural and protective components, like in cell wall of plants and microorganisms.
12. In animals they are important constituent of connective tissues.
13. They participate in biological transport, cell-cell communication and activation of growth factors.
14. Carbohydrates that are rich in fibre content help to prevent constipation.
15. Also they help in modulation of immune system.
CLASSIFICATION OF
CARBOHYDRATES
 CLASSIFICATION OF
CARBOHYDRATES
• Monosaccharides
• Monosaccharides, or simple sugars, consist of a single polyhydroxy aldehyde or ketone unit. The
most abundant monosaccharide in nature is the six-carbon sugar D-Glucose, sometimes referred
to as dextrose.
• Example: Glucose, Fructose, Galactose
• Oligosaccharides
• Oligosaccharides consist of short chains (2-10) of monosaccharide units, or residues, joined by
characteristic linkages called glycosidic bonds. The most abundant are the disaccharides, with
two monosaccharide units.
• Example: sucrose (cane sugar), lactose, maltose
• Polysaccharides
• The polysaccharides are sugar polymers containing more than 20 or so monosaccharide units,
and some have hundreds or thousands of units.
• Example: starch, glycogen, cellulose, chitin, hyaluronic acid, heparin
• Polysaccharides are of two types based on their function and composition. Based on function,
polysaccharides of two types storage and structural.
• A. Storage polysaccharide – starch, glycogen
• B. Structural polysaccharide – cellulose, chitin
STRUCTURAL POLYSACCHARIDE
CELLULOSE
• Cellulose is an important structural polysaccharide, and
is the single most abundant organic compound on
earth. It is the material in plant cell walls that provides
strength and rigidity; wood is 50% cellulose.
• The glucose units are linked into straight chains each
100-1000 units long.
• Cellulose is also important industrially, from its
presence in wood, paper, cotton, cellophane, rayon,
linen, nitrocellulose (guncotton), photographic films
(cellulose acetate), water filters, etc.
• Cellulose microfibrils arrange themselves into thicker
bundles called microfibrils. (These are usually referred
to as fibres.)
• The cellulose fibres are often “glued” together by other
compounds such as hemicelluloses and calcium pectate
to form complex structures such as plant cell walls.
EXAMPLES
• Fiber is an another example of a complex carbohydrate.
• Fiber can help you feel full and make you less likely to overeat. Diets high in fiber
have other health benefits.
• They may help prevent stomach or intestinal problems, such as constipation. They
may also help lower cholesterol and blood sugar. Fiber is found in many foods that
come from plants, including fruits, vegetables, nuts, seeds, beans, and whole
grains. Just like starches, cellulose is another best example for carbohydrates.
• Cellulose, a complex carbohydrate (or polysaccharide), consists of 3,000 or more glucose
units.
• Abundant, easily renewable, and biodegradable.
• Due to intermolecular and intramolecular hydrogen bonding between the
hydroxyl groups of the neighboring cellulose chains, cellulose is insoluble in
water, and is difficult to dissolve with common organic solvents.
• Taking benefit of these properties Cellulose-based air/water filters have been
developed.
• Starches are complex carbohydrates
• Your body needs to break starches down into sugars to use them for energy.
• Starchy foods include rice, bread, cereals, and pasta.
• They also are contained in certain vegetables, like potatoes, peas, and corn.

Schematic diagram of cotton fibre and its constituents

 NUCLEIC ACIDS
Properties and Functions
NUCLEIC ACIDS
• In 1952, Rosalind Franklin obtained an X-ray crystal structure
(“Photo 51”) of a sample of DNA which contained structural
features that lead James D. Watson and Francis H.C. Crick to deduce
the double helix structure of DNA (Nobel Prize- Medicine- 1962).
• Nucleic acids are large biomolecules that play essential roles in all
cells and viruses. A major function of nucleic acids involves the
storage and expression of genomic information.
• There are two types of nucleic acids, namely deoxyribonucleic acid
(DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA). Primarily, nucleic acids serve as
repositories and transmitters of genetic information.
• DNA & RNA are polymers consisting of repeating subunits called
Nucleotides, which are made up of three components:
• 1) a heterocyclic base (nitrogenous base)
• 2) a sugar (ribose or deoxyribose)
• 3) a phosphate group
• Pyrimidines and Purines are two types of nitrogenous bases.
Pyrimidines are composed of cytosine and thymine. Purines are
composed of guanine and adenine. Thymine is replaced by Uracil in
ribonucleic acid whereas deoxyribonucleic acid comprises of all four
bases.
DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID
(DNA)
• Chemically, DNA is composed of a pentose sugar,
phosphoric acid and some cyclic bases containing
nitrogen.
• The sugar moiety present in DNA molecules is
β-D-2-deoxyribose.
• The cyclic bases that have nitrogen in them are adenine
(A), guanine (G), cytosine(C) and thymine (T).
• DNA has a double-strand helical structure in which the
strands are complementary to each other.
• The structure of DNA is a double helix (Watson-Crick
model) composed of two antiparallel strands of
polydeoxynucleotides twisted around each other.
• The strands are held together by 2 or 3 hydrogen bonds
formed between the bases i.e. A = T; G ≡ C. DNA
structure satisfies Chargaff's rule that the content of A
is equal to T, and that of G equal to C.
• These bases and their arrangement in the molecules of
DNA play an important role in the storage of
information from one generation to the next one.
RIBONUCLEIC ACID (RNA)
• The RNA molecule is also composed of phosphoric acid, a pentose
sugar and some cyclic bases containing nitrogen.
• RNA has β-D-ribose in it as the sugar moiety.
• The heterocyclic bases present in RNA are adenine (A), guanine (G),
cytosine(C) and uracil (U).
• In RNA the fourth base is different from that of DNA.
• The RNA generally consists of a single strand which sometimes folds
back; that results in a double helix structure.
• There are three types of RNA molecules, each having a specific
function:
• messenger RNA (m-RNA)
• Messenger ribonucleic acid is a single-stranded molecule of RNA that
corresponds to the genetic sequence of a gene, and is read by a ribosome in
the process of synthesizing a protein.
• ribosomal RNA (r-RNA)
• ribosomal RNA (rRNA), molecule in cells that forms part of the
protein-synthesizing organelle known as a ribosome and that is exported to
the cytoplasm to help translate the information in messenger RNA (mRNA)
into protein. essential for all of the ribosome’s activities, including binding to
mRNA, attracting tRNA, and catalysing the formation of peptide bonds
between amino acids.
• transfer RNA (t-RNA)
• tRNA or transfer RNA is a type of RNA, which helps in the synthesis of
protein from mRNA. tRNA functions as an adapter molecule during the
translation process. As an adapter, it links the amino acids to nucleic
acids. It carries the amino acid to be added in the peptide chain and
also deciphers the codon for the same in the mRNA molecule.
FUNCTIONS OF NUCLEIC ACIDS
• DNA is the chemical basis of heredity and may be regarded
as the reserve bank of genetic information.
• A major function of nucleic acids involves the storage and
expression of genomic information. Deoxyribonucleic acid,
or DNA, encodes the information cells need to make
proteins.
• DNA is exclusively responsible for maintaining the identity of
different species of organisms over millions of years.
• Further, every aspect of cellular function is under the control
of DNA.
• The DNA is organized into genes, the fundamental units of
genetic information.
• The genes control the protein synthesis through the
mediation of RNA.
• The interrelationship of these three classes of biomolecules
(DNA, RNA and proteins) constitutes the central dogma of
molecular biology or more commonly the central dogma of
CENTRAL DOGMA
• REPLICATION
• DNA replication is the biological process of producing
two identical replicas of DNA from one original DNA
molecule. DNA replication occurs in all living organisms
acting as the most essential part of biological
inheritance.
• TRANSCRIPTION
• The process by which a cell makes an RNA copy of a
piece of DNA. This RNA copy, called messenger RNA
(mRNA), carries the genetic information needed to
make proteins in a cell. It carries the information from
the DNA in the nucleus of the cell to the cytoplasm,
where proteins are made.
• TRANSLATION
• Translation, is the process through which information
encoded in messenger RNA (mRNA) directs the addition
of amino acids during protein synthesis. Translation
takes place on ribosomes in the cell cytoplasm, where
mRNA is read and translated into the string of amino
acid chains that make up the synthesized protein.
NUCLEIC ACIDS ALSO PLAY A ROLE IN:
• DNA fingerprinting
• Forensic experts use DNA fingerprinting to determine paternity and identify criminals.
• Biological evolution and genetics
• Nucleic acids have played a major role in studies regarding biological evolution and genetics.
• Transcription
• Transcription is the replication process of nucleic acids within eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells.
• Protein synthesis
• RNA functions as an adapter molecule that facilitates the translation of protein from DNA.
• DNA repair
• DNA ligases are a group of nucleic acid enzymes that play an essential role in DNA repair, replication,
and recombination.
• Chromatin
• Chromatin is a unique structure made up of proteins and nucleic acid that tightly packs the nucleic acid
within the eukaryotic nucleus.
• RNA interference
• RNA interference is a nucleic acid-based reverse genetic approach that involves disruption of gene
expression in order to determine gene function or its effect on a metabolic pathway.
 LIPIDS
Classification, Properties and Functions
LIPIDS
• Lipids are a group of diverse macromolecules consisting of
fatty acids and their derivatives that are insoluble in water
but soluble in organic solvents.
• Lipids consist of fats, oils, hormones, and certain
components of membranes that are grouped together
because of their hydrophobic interactions.
• The lipids are essential constituents of the diet because of
their high energy value.
• These are also essential for the fat-soluble vitamins and the
essential fatty acids found with the fat of the natural
foodstuffs.
• Fats combined with proteins (lipoproteins) are essential
constituents of the cell membranes and mitochondria of the
cell.
• Lipids occur naturally in living beings like plants, animals, CELL
and microorganisms that form various components like cell
membranes, hormones, and energy storage molecules.
• Lipids exist in either liquid or non-crystalline solids at room
temperatures and are colorless, odorless, and tasteless.
• These are composed of fatty acids and glycerol.
STRUCTURE OF LIPIDS
• Lipids are made from two
molecules: Glycerol and Fatty Acids.
• A glycerol molecule is made up of three carbon
atoms with a hydroxyl group attached to it and
hydrogen atoms occupying the remaining positions.
• Fatty acids consist of an acid group at one end of the
molecule and a hydrocarbon chain, which is usually
denoted by the letter ‘R’.
• They may be saturated or unsaturated.
• A fatty acid is saturated if every possible bond is
made with a Hydrogen atom, such that there exist
no C=C bonds. (Ex: Coconut oil, olive oil, etc)
• Unsaturated fatty acids, on the other hand, do
contain C=C bonds. Monounsaturated fatty acids
have one C=C bond, and polyunsaturated have more
than one C=C bond. (Ex: Sunflower oil, Groundnut oil
,etc)
 CLASSIFICATION OF LIPIDS
• Lipids can be classified according to their hydrolysis products and according to similarities in their molecular
structures. Three major subclasses are recognized:
• 1. Simple lipids
• The main simple lipids are triglycerides (also known as triacylglycerols), steryl esters, and wax esters.
• (a) Fats and oils which yield fatty acids and glycerol upon hydrolysis.
• (b) Waxes, which yield fatty acids and long-chain alcohols upon hydrolysis.
• Fats and Oils Ester
• Both types of compounds are called triacylglycerols because they are esters composed of three fatty
acids joined to glycerol, trihydroxy alcohol.
• The difference is on the basis of their physical states at room temperature. It is customary to call a lipid
a fat if it is solid at 25°C, and oil if it is a liquid at the same temperature.
• These differences in melting points reflect differences in the degree of unsaturation of the constituent
fatty acids.
• Waxes
• Wax is an ester of long-chain alcohol (usually mono-hydroxy) and a fatty acid.
• The acids and alcohols normally found in waxes have chains of the order of 12-34 carbon atoms in
length.
 CLASSIFICATION OF LIPIDS
• Complex (or compound) lipids :
• These are esters of fatty acids with alcohols containing additional groups such as phosphate,
nitrogenous base, carbohydrate, protein etc.
• They are further divided as follows
• (a) Phospholipids : They contain phosphoric acid and frequently a nitrogenous base. This is in addition
to alcohol and fatty acids.
• (i) Glycerophospholipids : These phospholipids contain glycerol as the alcohol
• e.g., lecithin, cephalin.
• (ii) Sphingophospholipids : Sphingosine is the alcohol in this group of phospholipids
• e.g., sphingomyelin.
• (b) Glycolipids : These lipids contain a fatty acid, carbohydrate and nitrogenous base. The alcohol is
sphingosine, hence they are also called as glycosphingolipids. Glycerol and phosphate are absent.
• e.g., cerebrosides, gangliosides.
• (c) Lipoproteins : Macromolecular complexes of lipids with proteins.
• (d) Other complex lipids : Sulfolipids, aminolipids and lipopolysaccharides are among the other complex
lipids
 3. Derived lipids:
• Hydrolysis product of simple and compound
lipids is called derived lipids.
• They include fatty acids, glycerol, sphingosine,
terpenoid and steroid derivatives.
• Steroid derivatives are phenanthrene structures
that are quite different from lipids made up of
fatty acids.
• Steroid hormones are a group of hormones
derived from cholesterol that act as chemical
messengers in the body. The steroid hormones
regulate many physiologic processes, including
the development and function of the
reproductive system.
• Examples-
• Steroids – Cholesterol, ergosterol
• Terpenes – Carotenoids
 Fig.2 Sphinomyelin

Fig.1 (a) Triglyceride, (b) Phospholipid, (c) Cholesterol

PROPERTIES OF LIPIDS
• Lipids may be either liquids or non-crystalline solids at room temperature.
• Pure fats and oils are colorless, odorless, and tasteless.
• They are energy-rich organic molecules
• Insoluble in water
• Soluble in organic solvents like alcohol, chloroform, acetone, benzene, etc.
• No ionic charges
• Solid triglycerols (Fats) have high proportions of saturated fatty acids.
• Liquid triglycerols (Oils) have high proportions of unsaturated fatty acids.
 FUNCTIONS OF LIPIDS
• Biological lipids are a chemically diverse group of compounds, and the biological functions of
the lipids are as diverse as their chemistry.
• In the body, fats serve as an efficient source of energy and are also stored in the adipose
tissues.
• These also serve as an insulating material in the subcutaneous tissues and around certain
organs give shape and smooth appearance to the body.
• Phospholipids and sterols are major structural elements of biological membranes.
• Lipids also act as the structural component of the cell and provide the hydrophobic barrier
that allows the separation of the aqueous contents of the cell and subcellular structures.
• Other lipids, although present in relatively small quantities, play crucial roles as enzyme
cofactors, electron carriers, light-absorbing pigments, and hydrophobic anchors for proteins.
• Lipids are important as cellular metabolic regulators (steroid hormones and prostaglandins).
• They serve as a source of fat soluble vitamins (A, D, E and K) and hormones.
• Lipids are also activators of enzymes like glucose-6-phosphatase, β-hydroxybutyric
dehydrogenase, and stearyl CoA desaturase.
 PROTEINS
Classification, Properties and
Functions
PROTEIN
S
• Proteins are nitrogen containing, most abundant organic
macromolecules widely distributed in animals and plants.
They perform structural and dynamic functions in the
organisms.
• Proteins are species-specific and are unique to each
organism. Similarly, these are also organ-specific in that
the proteins of the brain are different from those in the
muscles.
• Proteins are also termed polypeptides, as they are long
chains of amino acids connected by peptide bonds.
• Proteins are polymers composed of L-α-amino acids. They
are 20 in number and classified into different groups
based on their structure, chemical nature, nutritional
requirement and metabolic fate.
• Proteins can be classified in three ways based on their --
• a) Function
• b) Chemical nature and Solubility
• c) Nutritional value
AMINO ACIDS
• Amino acids are the monomers that
make up proteins. They are a group of
organic compounds containing two
functional groups— amino and
carboxyl. The amino group (—NH2 ) is
basic while the carboxyl group
(—COOH) is acidic in nature.
• General structure of amino acids
• The amino acids are termed as α-amino
acids, if both the carboxyl and amino
groups are attached to the same
carbon atom.
• The α-carbon atom binds to a side
chain represented by R (another atom
or group of atoms bonded to the
central atom) which is different for
each of the 20 amino acids found in
proteins.
• The amino acids mostly exist in the
ionized form in the biological system.
FUNCTIONS OF PROTEINS
• Proteins perform a great variety of specialized and essential functions in the
living cells.
• These functions may be broadly grouped as static (structural) and dynamic.
• Structural functions
• Certain proteins perform brick and mortar roles and are primarily responsible for
structure and strength of body.
• These include collagen and elastin found in bone matrix, vascular system and other
organs and α-keratin present in epidermal tissues.
• Dynamic functions
• The dynamic functions of proteins are more diversified in nature.
• These include proteins acting as enzymes, hormones, blood clotting factors,
immunoglobulins, membrane receptors, storage proteins, besides their function in
genetic control, muscle contraction, respiration etc.
• Proteins performing dynamic functions are appropriately regarded as the
working horses of cell.
 FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION OF
PROTEINS
• Based on the functions they perform, proteins are classified into the following
groups (with examples)
Type Examples Functions
Help in digestion of food by catabolizing
Digestive Enzymes Amylase, lipase, pepsin, trypsin
nutrients into monomeric units

Carry substances in the blood or lymph

Transport Hemoglobin, serum albumin
throughout the body
Construct different structures, like the
Structural collagen, tubulin, keratin
cytoskeleton
Coordinate the activity of different body
Hormones Insulin, thyroxine, growth hormones
systems
Defense Immunoglobulins Protect the body from foreign pathogens
Genetic Nucleoproteins
Contractile Actin, myosin Effect muscle contraction
Storage Legume storage proteins, egg white Provide nourishment in early development
(albumin) of the embryo and the seedling

Receptor proteins for Hormones and antigens

 PROTEIN CLASSIFICATION BASED ON
CHEMICAL NATURE AND SOLUBILITY
• This is a more comprehensive and popular classification of
proteins. It is based on the amino acid composition, structure,
shape and solubility properties.
• Proteins are broadly classified into 3 major groups
• Simple proteins: They are composed of only amino acid
residue. On hydrolysis, these proteins yield only constituent
amino acids. It is further divided into:
• Fibrous protein: Keratin, Elastin, Collagen
• Globular protein: Albumin, Globulin, Glutelin, Histones
• Conjugated proteins: They are combined with non-protein
moiety.
• Eg. Nucleoprotein, Phosphoprotein, Lipoprotein,
Metalloprotein, etc.
• Derived proteins: They are derivatives or degraded products
of simple and conjugated proteins. They may be :
• Primary derived protein: Proteans, Metaproteins, Coagulated proteins
• Secondary derived proteins: Proteosesn or albunoses, peptones,
peptides.
NUTRITIONAL CLASSIFICATION OF
PROTEINS
• The nutritive value of proteins is determined by the
composition of essential amino acids.
• From the nutritional point of view, proteins are
classified into 3 categories.
• 1. Complete proteins : These proteins have all the ten
essential amino acids in the required proportion by
the human body to promote good growth.
• e.g. egg albumin, milk casein.
• 2. Partially incomplete proteins : These proteins
partially lack one or more essential amino acids, and
can promote moderate growth.
• e.g. wheat and rice proteins (limiting Lys, Thr).
• 3. Incomplete proteins : These proteins completely
lack one or more essential amino acids. Hence they
do not promote growth at all.
• e.g. gelatin (lacks Trp), zein (lacks Trp, Lys).
FUNCTIONS OF PROTEINS
• Proteins are essential biomolecules that are critical to life and to perform various activities.
Some of the important biological roles of proteins are:
• Many proteins act as catalysts that enhance the rate of chemical reactions in various
metabolic pathways. -- ENZYMES
• The fibrous proteins are a component of various tissues holding the skeletal elements
together like collagen, which is a structural unit of connective tissues.
• The nucleoproteins serve as carriers of genetic characters and hence govern the inheritance
of traits.
• Proteins also perform transport functions that regulate the transport of many compounds in
and out of the cells and accumulate inside at much higher concentrations than expected from
diffusion alone.
• Various protein hormones regulate the growth of plants and animals, besides controlling
many other physiological functions.
• Blood plasma has multiple soluble proteins that can be used for the treatment of shock
produced by severe injuries and operations.
• Interferons are regulatory glycoproteins produced by many eukaryotic cells in response to
virus infection, endotoxins, antigenic stimuli, and many parasitic organisms.
• Peptides from humans called defensins are antibiotic in nature.
 ENZYMES
Classification, Properties and
Functions
 ENZYMES
• Enzymes are the protein biocatalysts synthesized by the living cells.
• An enzyme is specific in its action, possessing active site, where the substrate binds
to form enzyme-substrate complex, before the product is formed.
• Factors like concentration of enzyme, substrate, temperature, pH etc. influence
enzyme activity.
• The majority of enzymes are proteins with catalytic capabilities crucial to perform
different processes. With the exception of ribozymes, all enzymes are protein-based.
Metabolic processes and other chemical reactions in the cell are carried out by a set
of enzymes that are necessary to sustain life.
• Enzymes are found in all tissues and fluids of the body. Catalysis of all reactions
taking place in metabolic pathways is carried out by intracellular enzymes.
• The enzymes in the plasma membrane govern the catalysis in the cells as a response
to cellular signals and enzymes in the circulatory system regulate the clotting of
blood. Most of the critical life processes are established on the functions of enzymes.
CLASSIFICATION OF ENZYMES
 ENZYME ACTIVITY
• The functional unit of the enzyme is known as holoenzyme which is often made up
of apoenzyme (the protein part) and a coenzyme (nonprotein organic part).
• An enzyme molecule has a specific active site to which its substrate binds and
produces an enzyme-substrate complex.
• The reaction proceeds at the binding site to produce the products which remain
associated briefly with the enzyme.
• The product is then liberated, and the enzyme molecule is freed in an active state to
initiate another round of catalysis.
 FUNCTIONS OF ENZYMES
• Enzymes are vital for all biological processes, aiding in digestion, and metabolism.
Besides, these are also involved in several other processes;
• Enzymes like kinases and phosphatases are important for cell regulation and signal
transmission.
• Different enzymes are produced throughout the body for the regulation of reactions
involved in various metabolic pathways.
• They also catalyze Post-translational modifications involving phosphorylation,
glycosylation, and cleavage of the polypeptide chain.
• Some enzymes are also involved in the regulation of enzyme levels by changing the
rate of enzyme degradation.
• Since a tight regulation of enzymes is essential for homeostasis, any changes in the
enzyme structure and production might result in diseases.
• Enzymes synthesized in various organisms are also utilized in various industries for
wine production, cheese production, bread whitening, and designing fabrics.
VITAMINS
 VITAMINS
• Vitamins are accessory food factors required in the diet.
• Vitamins may be regarded as organic compounds required in the diet
in small amounts to perform specific biological functions for normal
maintenance of optimum growth and health of the organism.
• They are classified as fat soluble (A, D, E and K) and water soluble
(B-complex and C).
FAT SOLUBLE VITAMINS
• The four vitamins, namely vitamin A, D, E, and K are known as fat or lipid soluble.
• Their availability in the diet, absorption and transport are associated with fat.
• They are soluble in fats and oils and also the fat solvents (alcohol, acetone etc.).
• Fat soluble vitamins can be stored in liver and adipose tissue.
• They are not readily excreted in urine.
• Excess consumption of these vitamins (particularly A and D) leads to their accumulation and toxic
effects.
FAT SOLUBLE VITAMINS
Water-soluble vitamins
• Water-soluble vitamins, unlike fat-soluble vitamins, cannot be stored in the
body for extended periods. Following consumption, these vitamins are
eliminated through urine regularly. This is why water-soluble vitamins must
be consumed more regularly than fat-soluble vitamins.
VITAMIN DEFICIENCIES
 HORMONES
Classification and Functions
HORMONES
• The endocrine system acts through a wide range of chemical messengers
known as hormones.
• Hormones are the organic substances, produced in minute quantities by
specific tissues (endocrine glands) and secreted into the blood stream to
control the biological activities in the target cells. They may be regarded
as the chemical messengers involved in the regulation and coordination of
body functions.
• Hormones are classified based on their chemical nature or mechanism of
action. Chemically, they may be proteins or peptides (insulin, oxytocin),
steroids (glucocorticoids, sex hormones) and amino acid derivatives
(epinephrine, thyroxine). By virtue of the function, group I hormones bind
to the intracellular receptors (estrogens, calcitriol), while group II
hormones (ACTH, LH) bind to the cell surface receptors and act through the
second messengers.
• Endocrine System
• An endocrine system is a group of ductless glands where
the secretory cells diffuse the hormones directly into
the bloodstream.
• The hormones secreted by endocrine glands are effective
in very small amounts; thus, the circulating levels of these
hormones are typically low.
• Different hormone systems of the endocrine organs help in
the regulation of all body functions like metabolism,
growth, electrolyte balance, reproduction, and behavior.
• Most endocrine glands are regulated by a simple negative
feedback mechanism, while the secretion is controlled by
the nervous and immune systems.
 CLASSIFICATION OF HORMONES
Based on their chemical nature
• The hormones can be categorized into three groups considering their chemical nature.
• 1. Protein or peptide hormones
• Peptide hormones are hormones that are made of small chains of amino acids. The body produces a
wide range of peptide hormones, which circulate in the blood and bind to receptors on targeted
organs and tissues.
• e.g. insulin, glucagon, antidiuretic hormone (ADH), oxytocin.
• 2. Steroid hormones
• Steroid hormones are a group of hormones derived from cholesterol that act as chemical
messengers in the body. The steroid hormones regulate many physiologic processes, including the
development and function of the reproductive system.
• e.g. glucocorticoids, mineralocorticoids, sex hormones.
• 3. Amino acid derivatives
• The amino acid – derived hormones (ending in '-ine') are derived from tyrosine and tryptophan and
include epinephrine and norepinephrine (produced by the adrenal medulla). Amino acid-derived
hormones also include thyroxine (produced by the thryoid gland) and melatonin (produced by the
pineal gland).
• e.g. epinephrine, norepinephrine, thyroxine (T4 ), triiodothyronine (T3 ).
Summary of the Different Classes of Hormones
 CLASSIFICATION OF HORMONES BASED
ON THEIR MECHANISM OF ACTION
• 1. Group I hormones :
• These hormones bind to intracellular receptors to form receptor-hormone complexes
(the intracellular messengers) through which their biochemical functions are mediated.
• Group I hormones are lipophilic in nature and are mostly derivatives of cholesterol
(exception—T3 and T4 ).
• e.g. estrogens, androgens, glucocorticoids, calcitriol.
• 2. Group II hormones :
• These hormones bind to cell surface (plasma membrane) receptors and stimulate the
release of certain molecules, namely the second messengers which, in turn, perform
the biochemical functions.
• Thus, hormones themselves are the first messengers.
• E.g. of Hormones- ACTH, FSH, LH, PTH, TRH, GnRH, gastrin, CCK, growth hormone,
insulin, oxytocin, prolactin.
• E.g. of Second messengers- cAMP, phosphatidylinositol/calcium, etc
Mechanism of action of Group I
hormones
• These hormones are lipophilic in nature and can easily pass
across the plasma membrane. They act through the
intracellular receptors located either in the cytosol or the
nucleus. The hormone-receptor complex binds to specific
regions on the DNA called hormone responsive element (HRE)
and causes increased expression of specific genes.
• Here is the detailed mechanism of action of Group 1 hormones:
• Hormone Entry: Since these hormones are lipophilic, they can
easily pass across the plasma membrane
• Receptor Binding: They bind to the intracellular receptors
located either in the cytosol or the nucleus
• Formation of Hormone-Receptor Complex: The
hormone-receptor complex thus formed now binds to specific
regions on the DNA called hormone responsive element (HRE)
• Gene Expression: This binding causes the increased expression
of specific genes
• Protein Synthesis: The interaction of hormone receptor
complex with HRE is believed to promote initiation and, to a
lesser extent, elongation and termination of RNA synthesis
(transcription). Ultimately, it results in the production of
specific proteins in response to hormonal action.

H- Hormone; R- Receptor; HRE- Hormone- Responsive Element

Group II hormones
• Includes peptide hormones.
• They are hydrophilic and lipophobic (fat-hating) - meaning
they cannot freely cross the plasma membrane.
• They bind to receptors on the surface of the cell, which are
typically coupled to internally anchored proteins (e.g. G
proteins).
• The receptor complex activates a series of intracellular
molecules called second messengers, which initiate cell
activity.
• This process is called signal transduction, because the
external signal (hormone) is transduced via internal
intermediaries.
• The use of second messengers enables the amplification of
the initial signal (as more molecules are activated).
• Peptide hormones include insulin, glucagon, leptin, ADH and
oxytocin.
• Here's how Group 2 hormones work:
• The hormone binds to a receptor on the cell membrane.
• The cell membrane's adenylyl cyclase enzyme is activated.
• Adenylyl cyclase produces cAMP, which acts as a secondary
messenger.
• cAMP diffuses through the cell membrane and activates
enzymatic reactions that cause biochemical changes.
• The target cell responds to these changes.
Fig. a. Mechanism of Action – Group I hormones

Fig. b. Mechanism of Action – Group II hormones Fig. c. Mechanism of Action – Group I & II hormones
SUMMARY OF HORMONE CLASSES
 SUMMARY OF MODULE 1
• What is a cell??
• Cell is the basic structural and functional unit of life. It contains the fundamental
molecules of life and composes all living things.
• Types of cells
• Prokaryotic cell - “Prokaryotic cells are the cells that do not have a true nucleus and
membrane-bound organelles.”
• Eukaryotic cell - “Eukaryotic cells are the cells that contain a membrane bound nucleus
and organelles that form large and complex organisms.”
• Cell organelles of a eukaryotic cell (Plant & Animal Cells)
Cell Membrane, Cell Wall (plant cells only), Chloroplast (plant cells only), Cytoplasm,
Cytoskeleton, Nucleus, Nucleolus, Golgi Complex, Lysosome, Mitochondria, Peroxisome,
Ribosomes, Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum, Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum, Secretory
Vesicle, Vacuole
 SUMMARY OF MODULE 1
• Stem cells are special human cells that are able to develop into many
different cell types. This can range from muscle cells to brain cells. In
some cases, they can also fix damaged tissues.
• Unique Properties of Stem Cells
• Self-renewal and Differentiation
• Types of Stem Cells -
• Embryonic Stem Cells(ESCs), Adult Stem Cells(ASCs), Induced Pluripotent
Stem Cells(iPSCs)
• The progress made in the field of stem cell research has laid the
foundation for other cell-based therapies of disease that cannot be
cured with conventional medicines.
 •What is a biomolecule?
• Biomolecules, also known as biological molecules, are chemical compounds found in living organisms that are essential
for the survival of living cells and play a vital role in all life processes.
•The four major types of biomolecules are carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids, and proteins.
•Carbohydrates (hydrates of carbon) are a group of naturally occurring carbonyl compounds (aldehydes or ketones) that
also contain several hydroxyl groups. It may also include their derivatives which produce such compounds on hydrolysis.
• Example: Glucose, Sucrose, Cellulose
•Nucleic acids are large biomolecules that play essential roles in all cells and viruses. A major function of nucleic acids
involves the storage and expression of genomic information. The two major nucleic acids are DNA and RNA.
•Lipids are a group of diverse macromolecules consisting of fatty acids and their derivatives that are insoluble in water but
soluble in organic solvents. They consist of fats, oils, hormones, and certain components of membranes that are grouped
together because of their hydrophobic interactions.
• Example: Triglycerides, Phospholipids, Cholesterol, etc.
•Proteins are nitrogen containing, most abundant organic macromolecules widely distributed in animals and plants. They
perform structural and dynamic functions in the organisms. They are made up of long chains of amino acids that are linked
together.
• Example: Albumin, Keratin, Nucleoproteins, etc.
•Enzymes are the protein biocatalysts synthesized by the living cells.
• Example: Amylase, Pepsin, Ribozymes, Synthetases (ligases), etc.
•Vitamins may be regarded as organic compounds required in the diet in small amounts to perform specific biological
functions for normal maintenance of optimum growth and health of the organism.
• They are classified as fat soluble (A, D, E and K) and water soluble (B-complex and C).
•Hormones are the organic substances, produced in minute quantities by specific tissues (endocrine glands) and secreted
into the blood stream to control the biological activities in the target cells. They may be regarded as the chemical
messengers involved in the regulation and coordination of body functions.
• Example: FSH, Testosterone, Insulin, epinephrine, thyroxine(T4)