Question and Answer on

AstroPhysics
M.Sc. (Hons) Semester- 4

by

Dr. RAMA PRASAD ADAK

Assistant Professor
Taki Government College
Q: - What is a galaxy?
Answer: - A galaxy is a collection of stars, star remnants, gas and dust. There are several billion to
several hundred billion stars in a galaxy. The size of a galaxy can be a few kpc to several hundred
kpc. The shape of galaxies may be spherical, elliptical, lenticular, spiral or irregular. Most of the
galaxy has a central bulge region near the centre of the galaxy. Our home is in Milky Way galaxy.

Q: - Describe the Hubble’s classification of galaxies./ What are the different types of
galaxies?/Write down the Hubble’s sequence of galaxies.
Answer: - Observing large numbers of galaxies, Edwin Hubble arranged the galaxies based on their
visual appearance and from early to late type. The sequence is done for the bright galaxies only. The
sequence is called Hubble’s sequence or Hubble’s classification of galaxies. The diagram is also
called tuning fork diagram.

Figure : Hubble Tuning fork diagram of classification of galaxies

There are mainly three types of galaxies – elliptical, lenticular and spiral. The elliptical galaxies
look like elliptical constellations of stars. They contain old population II stars and have no
interstellar matter. The ellipticity is given by En = 10*(1 – b/a); where ‘a’ and ‘b’ are the semi-major
and semi-minor axes respectively. The E0 galaxy is spherical and is the oldest one. The elliptical
galaxies are arranged as E0, E1, E2, E3, … The spiral galaxies are young and the breeding ground
of new stars. The spiral galaxies are further subdivided into – normal and barred spirals. The normal
spiral galaxy has a central spherical bulge region but the barred has a centre in shape of a bar. Based
on the closeness of the spiral arms the spiral galaxies are arranged as a, b, c with increasing
distances between spiral arms. Almost 75% of the observed galaxies are spiral and 20% are
elliptical galaxies. Another type of galaxy in Hubble sequence is the irregular type galaxies. They
have no regular shape and are the youngest. The irregular galaxies are further of two types – Irr I
are rich in gas and many young stars, Irr II are dusty.

Q: Describe the Kapteyn Universe. / Write the structure of the universe according to Kapteyn.
Jacobus C. Kapteyn followed the idea of William Herschel using the techniques of star counting in
200 selected regions of the Milky Way galaxy. In this technique, it was assumed that (a) all the stars
have approximately the same absolute magnitude, (b) the number density of the stars in the universe
is roughly constant, (c) the light from the stars is not obscured by anything, and (d) the edges of the
whole stellar distribution is seen. The number of stars in a selected region is counted over a
specified apparent magnitude range. This technique is called differential star count. The distances of
each star are not measured individually. Kapteyn used a more quantitative method than William
Herschel to specify the distance scale for his model of the universe. The model is known as Kapteyn
Universe. The universe is a flattened spheroidal system with a steadily decreasing stellar density
with the distance from the centre. The number density along the galactic plane decreased by 50% at
a distance of some 800 pc from the centre, and along the axis perpendicular to the galactic plane,
the number density decreased by 50% at a distance 150 pc.
In the Kapteyn Universe, the Sun was located too near the centre and the diameter of the Milky Way
was estimated to be 10 kpc. Kapteyn was aware of the interstellar extinction but the same is not
considered in calculating the distances of the stars. Though Kapteyn universe has too many errors in
calculating the position of the Sun and the size of the universe, the model was significant for its
time because it attempted to quantify our galaxy.

Q: Describe Shapley’s model of the universe. / Write the Shapley’s model of the Milky Way galaxy.
The distance of far distant stars can be measured using the data from variable stars, like - R R
Lyrae and W Varginis stars in a globular cluster. The globular clusters have huge number of stars
(~106-7) and are easily identified by their high luminosity. The period-luminosity relation of a
variable star is discovered by H Leavitt. The relation can be used to find the absolute magnitude of
a star by measuring the period of variation of the luminosity and the distance of the star can be
calculated. Shapley observed that most of the globular stars are observed in the direction of the
constellation Sagittarius. This lead him to conclude that the centre of the galaxy must be in that
direction and the globular clusters are distributed symmetrically around the centre of the galaxy.
The galaxy has a spherical bulge region followed by a thin disc. Shapley estimated the distances of
93 globular clusters using the data from R R Lyrae stars and W Virginis stars. The distance of the
Sun from the centre of the galaxy is estimated to be 15 kpc and the diameter of the galaxy 100 kpc.
A picture of the Shapley model is shown below :

Figure: Shapley model of the universe, the Sun is indicated by a X.

This model over estimated the position of the Sun and the size of the galaxy. Shapley choose
globular clusters that are well above and below the galactic plane and that are inherently bright,
making them visible. In the direction perpendicular to the galactic plane stellar extinction effect is
minimum. Unfortunately, errors in calibration of the period-luminosity relation used by Shapley led
to over estimate the distance scales.

Q: What do you mean by zone of avoidance?

No view of a particular star or globular cluster is obtained in a region between approximately ±10°
of the galactic plane due to stellar extinction in certain wavelengths, particularly visible light. So
there will be large errors in determining the luminosity of a star in this region and proper care
should be taken care while calculating astronomical quantities.

Q: - Write de Vaucouleurs’ law of the surface brightness distribution of a galaxy.

Answer: - The surface brightness distribution in elliptical galaxies depends on the distance from the
centre and orientation of the major and minor axis. According to de Vaucouleurs’ law, the surface
brightness at a distance r is,

where ‘Ie‘ is the brightness at radius ‘re’ so that half of the light of the galaxy is radiated from within
‘re’ . Typical values of corresponds to 1- 10 kpc and corresponds to 20-23 magnitudes per square arc
second. The law is valid for the bulge region of the normal galaxy and S0 galaxies. The de
Vaucouleurs’ law gives an idea of the 3D structure of the galaxy.

Q: - What are the differences between spiral and elliptical galaxies?

Answer: - There are many differences between the spiral and elliptical galaxies. The spiral galaxy
has a central bulge region of brighter and massive stars and few spiral arms. The elliptical galaxy
has no arms but has a central dense region. The spiral galaxies have more gas and dust in their spiral
arms where new young stars are born. Elliptical galaxy has both population-I and II stars, it is older
than spiral galaxies. The elliptical galaxies have no gas and dust, so no new star borns there. Due to
the presence of old stars, the elliptical galaxy has low luminosity and appears reddish, thus hard to
observe, whereas, the spiral galaxy has relatively reddish central bulge and bluish spiral arms.
Almost 75% of the observed galaxies are spiral and 20% are elliptical galaxies.

Q: Write the structure of Milky Way galaxy.

Answer :- The Milky Way galaxy is a highly flattened disc shaped and spiral galaxy. There are
almost 200 billion of stars in the galaxy. The galaxy has a central bulge region, disc, interstellar
medium, Stellar halo, dark matter halo and magnetic field.

The Sun is located at 8 ± 0.5 kpc from the centre of the galaxy. The centre of the galaxy is in the
direction of Sagittarius A* whose galactic coordinates are R.A. = 17h 42m 29.3 s and
δ = -28059’18”.
The full diameter of the disk, including the dust, gas, and stars, is believed to be roughly 50 kpc,
with estimates ranging from 40 to 50 kpc.

Central bulge - The mass of the bulge is believed to be roughly 1010 Mʘ and its B-band luminosity is
near 3 × 109 Lʘ. The radius of the central bulge is roughly 4 kpc, the scale height is 100pc for young
stars and 500 pc for old stars. The central bulge is not a perfect sphere with a b/a ratio of 0.9. The
luminosities of the stars in the central bulge follows the de Vaucouleurs’ law.

Disc – The disc of the galaxy can be divided into thin and thick disc regions. The thin disk, which is
composed of relatively young stars, dust, and gas, has a vertical scale height of 350 pc and is the
region of current star formation. The thin disc can be divided into young and old thin disc. The
young thin disc is the central plane of the Galactic dust and gas distribution with a scale height of
90 pc. The thick disk, which is probably an older population of stars, has a scale height of
approximately zthick = 1000 pc. When the thin and thick disks are combined, empirical fits to the
stellar number density derived from star count data give -
 n(z, R) = n0 (e −z/z_thin + 0.085 e −z/z_thick )e −R/ hR ,

where z is the vertical height above the galactic midplane, R is the radial distance from the Galactic
centre, hR > 2.25 kpc is the disc scale length, and n0 ∼ 0.02 stars pc 0.02 stars pc−3.
The distribution of surface brightness in the disc is described by the expression,
I(r) = I0 e −r/r0
where I0 is central surface brightness, and r0 is 1-1.5 kpc.

Spiral Arms – Similar to all spiral galaxies, like – Andromeda, our galaxy has spiral structure when
viewed from the perpendicular direction. The spiral arms are not necessarily begins from the centre.
Our Sun is in the Orion arm, the arms are named after the constellation in which they are observed.

Interstellar Medium – Gas and dust are the main components of the interstellar medium where stars
are hatched. The location and map of gas and cloud is made using 21-cm H-I emission spectra.
Molecular Hydrogen and coller dust are mainly found in the region of 3-8 kpc from the galactic
mid-plane. The atomic Hydrogen is found in the region from 3 kpc out to the edge of the galactic
disc(~25 kpc). H2 and dust are mostly tightly bound to the plane of the galaxy with a scale height of
±90 pc from the galactic mid-plane. Most of the interstellar medium in spiral galaxy is in the form
of molecular hydrogen.

Stellar Halo – This is the extended region surrounding the disc of the galaxy. It consists of old stars,
globular clusters, field star (having large velocity) and a very few amount of dust. No star forming
process is going on inside the stellar region and is mostly empty space. The globular clusters are
mostly found within 35 kpc from the centre.

Dark Matter halo – The 21-cm H-I radiation observation suggests that there may be another
spherically distributed halo of matter extending out to 100 kpc and possibly further. The matter are
unseen and might be responsible for the high speed of the stars above 8-10 kpc from the centre.
This halo is called Dark matter halo. If this halo exists it will contain 90% of the mass within a
radius of 100 kpc.

Magnetic field - The galaxy as a whole poses a magnetic field which can be measured by Zeeman
effect and polarisation of the visible and radio wavelength electromagnetic radiation reflected from
the interstellar particles. The magnetic field follows the spiral pattern within the disc and has a
typical value of 0.4 nT. The field strength near the centre of the galaxy may reach 1 uT which is
weak compared to the magnetic field at the earth surface (50 uT). The magnetic field plays a vital
role in maintaining the structure and evolution of the galaxy.

Q: Derive Oort’s formula related to the rotation of the galaxy.

Answer : See the Book – Astrophysics for Physicists by Arnab Raychodhury Page No 160.

Problem 1 : If Oort’s constants are A = 15 km/s/kpc and B = -10 km/s/kpc, what is the value of the
angular velocity of Sun?
Answer : We know that, the Oort’s constants are defined as -

So, A- B =

Thus
Q:- What is Local Standard of rest?
Answer : - The local standard of rest (LSR) is defined to be a point that is instantaneously centred
on the Sun and moving in a perfectly circular orbit along the solar circle about the galactic centre.
The motion of the Sun and other stars in the solar neighbourhood are investigated using LSR.
As Sun is not moving in a circular orbit and not in a plane, the LSR is always changing. The
velocity of the LSR must be,
radial velocity (ΠLSR ) = dR/dt = 0, angular velocity (ΘLSR) = Rdθ/dt = Θ0, Velocity perpendicular to
the galactic plane (ZLSR ) =dZ/dt = 0 and Θ0 = angular velocity at R0 (Solar galactocentric distance).

Q:- What do you mean by peculiar velocity of a star?

Answer :- The velocity of a star relative to the LSR is known as the peculiar velocity and is given
by, V = (VR, Vθ, Vz) ≡ (u, v, w), where
u = Π - ΠLSR
v = Θ - ΘLSR = = Θ - Θ0
w = Z - ZLSR = Z
The average value of u and w in the Solar neighbourhood is should be zero when axisymmetric
galaxy is considered.

Q: - What do you mean by differential rotation of the galaxy?

Answer: - Differential rotation refers to the phenomenon where different parts of a rotating system
rotate at different angular velocities. In a galaxy, the stars have different velocities at different
distances from the centre. Unlike, the Solar system, the velocity of the stars does not decreases
slowly with the radius of the orbit. The velocities of stars increase with the distance from the centre.
The stars far from the centre of the galaxy rotates at a same velocity. This suggests that there must
be some unseen mass distributed symmetrically in the galaxy.

Q: - What informations can be obtained from the differential rotational curve?

Answer: - many vital informations can be unveil from the differential rotation, such as, -
• Mass Distribution of the galaxy – Unlike, the solar structure, most the mass is not
concentrated at the centre of the galaxy. The galactic rotational curve gives us an estimate of
the distribution of mass across the galaxy.
• Structure of the galaxy -
• Indirect proof of dark matter – If it is assumed that the whole mass is concentrated at the
centre of the galaxy, the rotational velocity of a star at far distance from the centre will be
less compared to the stars near the centre. But, the velocity is not decreased as the distance
from the galactic centre is increased. The velocities of the stars are nearly same at far
distance from the centre, which suggests that a substantial part of the mass of the galaxy is
distributed outside the centre of the galaxy which gives enough gravitational pull to the
periferal stars to rotate faster that the theoretical values. This suggests the idea of dark
matter.
• Undiscovered objects – The non-existence of the complete theory of galactic rotation
suggests that there must be some undiscovered, unobserved masses inside the galaxy.
• These curves typically exhibit a flat or rising profile, indicating that outer regions rotate at
unexpectedly high velocities compared to what would be expected from the visible mass
distribution. This discrepancy suggests the presence of dark matter.
Q: - Draw the differential rotation curve of Milky Way galaxy. Hence explain that
how this leads to the prediction of Dark Matter in the Universe. 1 + 4 WBSU’20
Answer: -
The differential rotation curve of Milky way galaxy is shown in the figure below,

The rotational speed of Milky Way has different values at different distances from its centre. It
slowly increases with the radius. Using Newton’s law, we can can calculate the speed of the planets
in solar system and the speed decreses with the distance. But in case of Milky Way the speed
increases from the centre as opposed to the planetary system. This discrepancy suggests the
presence of additional mass which boost the stars far from the centre. The matter is unseen and does
not absorb, reflect, emit any radiation making it invisible but its gravitational effects are observable.

Q: - Discuss the characteristics of Globular Clusters.’2020 2

Globular clusters are fascinating astronomical objects that exhibit several distinctive characteristics:
1. Spherical Symmetry: Globular clusters typically have a spherical or nearly spherical shape.
They are densely packed collections of stars that are gravitationally bound to each other.
This spherical symmetry is a result of the mutual gravitational attraction between the stars,
causing them to aggregate into a roughly symmetrical configuration.
2. Old Age: Globular clusters are among the oldest known objects in the universe. Most
globular clusters are estimated to be around 10 to 13 billion years old, nearly as old as the
universe itself. Their stars are predominantly ancient, with relatively few younger stars, if
any.
3. High Stellar Densities: These clusters are incredibly dense compared to the rest of the
galaxy. In the core of a globular cluster, stars can be packed so closely together that they are
only a few light-years apart. This high stellar density leads to frequent interactions and
collisions between stars.
 4. Population II Stars: Globular clusters are composed mainly of Population II stars, which
are older, metal-poor stars. These stars formed early in the history of the universe when the
interstellar medium contained much lower amounts of heavy elements (elements heavier
than hydrogen and helium).
5. Lack of Dust and Gas: Unlike other regions of the galaxy, globular clusters contain very
little interstellar dust and gas. This lack of dust and gas is a consequence of the age of the
clusters and the absence of recent star formation. Consequently, globular clusters appear as
tight, densely-packed collections of stars with little or no interstellar material obscuring our
view.
6. High Velocity Dispersion: The stars within a globular cluster exhibit a wide range of
velocities, with some moving much faster than others. This high velocity dispersion is due to
the gravitational interactions between stars, which can result in stars being flung out of the
cluster or accelerated to high speeds.
7. Halo Distribution: Globular clusters are found in the halo regions of galaxies, orbiting the
galactic core at large distances. They are often distributed in a roughly spherical halo
surrounding the galaxy's central bulge. This distribution contrasts with younger star clusters,
which are typically found in the disk of the galaxy.
8. Black Holes and Exotic Objects: Some globular clusters are believed to contain
intermediate-mass black holes (IMBHs) at their cores. These IMBHs are thought to have
formed from the collisions and mergers of massive stars within the cluster. Additionally,
globular clusters may host other exotic objects such as neutron stars, white dwarfs, and even
rogue planets.
Overall, globular clusters represent some of the oldest and most densely packed stellar systems in
the universe, offering valuable insights into the early stages of galaxy formation and the dynamics
of stellar populations.
Q: - What are the special features of Cepheid Variables?
Answer: - Cepheid variables are a type of pulsating variable star with several special features that
make them valuable tools for astronomers in measuring cosmic distances and understanding stellar
evolution:
1. Period-Luminosity Relationship: Cepheid variables exhibit a direct correlation between
their pulsation period (the time it takes for the star to expand and contract) and their intrinsic
luminosity (brightness). This relationship, discovered by Henrietta Swan Leavitt in 1912,
allows astronomers to determine the distance to Cepheid variables by measuring their
pulsation periods and comparing them to their observed brightness. This makes Cepheids
crucial "standard candles" for measuring distances to nearby galaxies and determining the
scale of the universe.
2. Regular Pulsations: Cepheids pulsate in a regular and predictable manner, with periods
ranging from a few days to a few months. During each pulsation cycle, the star expands and
contracts, causing its brightness to vary. This regularity allows astronomers to accurately
measure the period of a Cepheid by monitoring its light curve—the pattern of its brightness
variations over time.
3. Instability Strip: Cepheid variables are typically found within a specific region of the
Hertzsprung-Russell diagram known as the instability strip, which corresponds to a narrow
range of temperatures and luminosities. Within this strip, the outer layers of the star undergo
periodic pulsations driven by changes in the opacity of ionized helium. This instability strip
is crucial for identifying Cepheid variables and understanding the physical mechanisms
behind their pulsations.
4. Mass and Evolutionary Stage Indicators: The pulsation period of a Cepheid variable is
related to its mass, with longer-period Cepheids generally being more massive than shorter-
period ones. Additionally, Cepheids are often found in young stellar populations, such as
open clusters and spiral arms of galaxies, indicating that they are relatively young stars in
the evolutionary sequence. Studying Cepheids provides valuable insights into the evolution
of intermediate-mass stars and the processes that govern their life cycles.
5. Standardizable Candle: Because of their well-established period-luminosity relationship,
Cepheid variables serve as standardizable candles for measuring distances within the Local
Group of galaxies and beyond. By calibrating the luminosities of Cepheids in nearby
galaxies, astronomers can use them as distance indicators to measure the expansion rate of
the universe and constrain cosmological models.
Q: Write the evolution of galaxy due to density wave theory.
Answer: It is known that the gravitational instability is the main reason for the formation of spiral
structure in a disk galaxy. The spiral structure is assumed as a wave pattern which either stationary
or at least quasi-stationary, in a frame of reference rotating around the centre of the galaxy at a
proper angular speed (probably zero). The matter in the galaxy, the stars along with the gas, can
maintain a density wave through gravitational interaction in presence of the differential rotation of
various parts of the disc. The density provides a spiral gravitational field which underlies the
observable concentration of young stars and gas. In this way, an observable spiral pattern can be
maintained over the whole structure.
The mass is concentrated in an infinitesimally thin disc, with a surface density that is
approximately equal to the projected density in the galactic plane. The gravitation forces are
balanced with appropriate circular random velocities. Such a representation necessarily involves a
high surface density in the central region, where a typical galaxy has a bulge due to 3D velocity
dispersion of the stars. Thus it will be often be found convenient to have a singularity of density
distribution at the centre, provided the total mass is finite.
Considering a cylindrical system of coordinates, The surface density can be derived solving the
basic equations of stellar dynamics expressed in terms of distribution function in phase space.
Neglecting the velocity dispersion, the surface density is,
(Eqn. 1)

μ’(r, θ, t) is the perturbation term due to density wave to the equilibrium μ0 (r).
The μ’(r, θ, t) is given by,
(Eqn. 2)
where ϕ(r) is the negative of the gravitational potential, S(r) and ϕ(r) are real.
If S(r) varies slowly with the radial distance and ϕ(r) quickly, then Eqn. 2 gives a spiral impression
in the density function at any instant of time, ‘n’ being the number of arms.

See : On the spiral structure of disk galaxies by C C Lin and Frank H shu
 Asteroseismology
Reference books:
1. Asteroseismology by C. Aerts, J. Christensen-Dalsgaard, D.W. Kurtz
2. MUSIC OF THE SUN - The Story of Helioseismology by WILLIAM JAMES CHAPLIN
Q: What is Asteroseismology? What informations do we get from the oscillations of stars?
Answer: It is not possible to goo inside a star or make any observation by a telescope inside a star,
but the the structure of the interior of the stars can be studied by the oscillation of the stars. The
stars oscillate in different modes which causes the star to change their shape, luminosity, surface
brightness, temperature. Asteroseismology is the study of the oscillation or sound of the stars to
explore the interior of the stars.
Knowing the shape, luminosity, surface brightness, temperature of a star, the mode of
oscillations of the star can be modelled. Comparing the model with the observed data, the structure,
composition of the star can be obtained. The modes of oscillations of a hydrogen core-burning and
carbon burning star are different. Asteroseismology gives us an idea of the rotation, magnetic field,
size, age of the star.

Q: Does the stars make any sound? Can we hear the sound?
Answer: The stars make sound. The gas pressure, buoyancy, rotation, magnetic field causes
oscillations inside a star to sound it in different frequencies, amplitudes with some time period. The
sound wave does not reach the earth due to empty space between the stars and the earth.

Q: What do you mean by p-mode oscillation in star?

Answer: In p-mode or pressure mode oscillation inside a
star, pressure is the primary restoring force for a star
perturbed from equilibrium. These p modes are acoustic
waves and have gas motions that are primarily vertical. The
acoustic ray paths are bend by the increase in sound speed
with depth until they reach the inner turning point where
they undergo total internal refraction as shown in Fig. 1. At
the surface the acoustic waves are reflected by the rapid
decrease in density. The p modes are most sensitive to
conditions in the outer part of the star. As the number of
radial nodes increases the frequencies of the p modes
increase. The asymptotic relations are very important in
many pulsating stars. One such formula given by Tassoul, Fig- 1: p modes Oscillation
for the p modes, the frequencies are
approximately given by,

where n and l are the overtone and degree of the mode, is a constant of order unity, and εnl is a
small correction. Δν is known as the large separation and is the inverse of the sound travel time for
a sound wave from the surface of the star to the core and back again.
Q: What is g-mode oscillation in star?
Answer: In the g modes, or gravity modes of oscillation inside a
star, buoyancy is the restoring force and the gas motions are
primarily horizontal. The g modes are most sensitive to
conditions in the deep interior of the star. As illustrated in Fig.
2, g modes in solar-like stars are trapped beneath the convective
envelope, when viewed as rays. In reality the modes have finite
amplitudes also in the outer parts of the star and hence, at least
in principle, can be observed on the surface; this is in fact the
case in the γ Dor stars which have convective envelopes. In
more massive main-sequence stars, the g-mode rays are
confined outside the convective core.
The periods of g modes, asymptotically given by
Fig-2: g modes of oscillation

are nearly uniformly spaced; here n and l are the overtone and degree of the mode, ε is a small
constant, and Π0 is a constant. As the g modes are confined to the deep interior of a star, thus the
structure of the deep interior of the star is best studied by g mode oscillation.

Q: Write the differences between p-mode and g-mode oscillation in star.

Answer: The differences between p-wave and g-wave oscillation in a star are the following -
P-mode oscillation G-mode oscillation
1. The restoring force is pressure gradient. The restoring force is buoyancy.
2. The gas motion is vertical. The gas motion is horizontal.
3. P-mode oscillation is sensitive to the outer, G-mode oscillation is sensitive to the deep
convective region of a star. interior of the star.
4. As the number of radial nodes increases the The frequencies of g modes decreases with the
frequencies of the p modes increase. increases with the increase of the radial nodes.
5. For large l, n>>l, the asymptotic relations The asymptotic relations are such that the g
are such that p modes are equally spaced in modes are equally spaced in period.
frequency.

Q: What do you mean by radial and non-radial modes of oscillations in star?

Answer: The 3-dimensional displacements in the (r, θ, ϕ) for the oscillation of a spherically
symmetric star is given by,
where Ylm are the spherical harmonics, a(r) and b(r) are amplitudes, ν is the oscillation frequency.
For 3-D stars there are three quantum numbers to specify the modes of oscillations: n is related to
the number of radial nodes and is called the overtone of the mode; l is the degree of the mode and
specifies the number of surface nodes that are present; m is the azimuthal order of the mode, where
|m| specifies how many of the surface nodes are lines of longitude. It follows therefore that the
number of surface nodes that are lines of co-latitude is equal to l − |m|. The values of m range from
−l to +l, so there are 2l + 1 modes for each degree l.

Radial Mode:- When the star contracts and expanded periodically, the star swells and contracts,
heats and cools, spherically symmetrically with the core as a node and the surface as a displacement
antinode, the modes are called radial modes of oscillation.
The simplest one is when l=0, with the core as a node and the surface as a displacement antinode.
The energy is released when the star contracts and it cools. During contraction, the star does not
emit energy and it get hotter. The Cepheid variables and for RR Lyrae stars oscillate in this mode
having time periods of several days to several weeks.
The first overtone (l = 1) radial mode has one radial node that is a concentric shell within the star.
As we are thinking in terms of the radial displacement, that shell is a node that does not move; the
motions above and below the node move in antiphase. The highly rotating roAp stars oscillate in the
first overtone radial mode.
For the Cepheids the ratio of the first overtone period to the fundamental period is 0.71; for the δ
Sct stars it is 0.77. This is due to the fact that Cepheid giant stars are more centrally condensed than
the hydrogen core-burning δ Sct stars.

Non-Radial Oscillation:- The non-radial oscillations are not symmetric around the centre of the
star. The simplest of the nonradial modes is the axisymmetric dipole mode with l = 1, m = 0. For
this mode the equator is a node; the northern hemisphere swells up while the southern hemisphere
contracts, then vice versa; one hemi- sphere heats while the other cools, and vice versa – all with the
simple cosine dependence of P01(cos θ) = cos θ, where θ is the co-latitude. There is no change to the
circular cross-section of the star, so from the observer’s point of view, the star seems to oscillate up
and down in space. Considering this process as adiabatic, it is shown that the centre-of-mass of a
star is not displaced during dipole oscillations, so stars can pulsate in such modes. Nonradial modes
only occur for n ≥ 1, so in the case of the l = 1 dipole mode, there is at least one radial node within
the star. While the outer shell is displaced upwards from the point of view of the observer, the inner
shell is displaced downwards and the centre of mass stays fixed. Dipole modes are the dominant
modes observed in the rapidly oscillating Ap stars, and are also seen in many other kinds of
pulsating variables. Modes with two surface nodes (l = 2) are known as quadrupole modes. When
the number of modes increases, the star has a large number of nodes and antinodes so that there will
be partial cancellation due node and antinode at a same point. That modes will be hard to observe.

Q: Draw a typical p-mode oscillation and a g-mode oscillation inside a star?

Answer: See figues above.

Q: What are the causes of oscillation inside a star? Or What are the driving mechanisms behind the
oscillations inside a star?
Answer: A large amount of energy is released in each pulsation of the oscillation of a star. The
mechanisms is called driving mechanism.
The driving mechanisms that causes oscillations in stars are given below -
k-mechanism – A region in the star, usually a radial layer, that gains heat during the compression
part of the pulsation cycle drives the pulsation. For the oscillation pulse to be continued, there
should be some part of the interior of the star where not only is energy fed into the pulsation, but
as much energy is fed in as is damped throughout the rest of the bulk of the star.

Suppose the star has contracted, after by expanding and cooling slightly, the opacity increases so
more radiation is absorbed. The trapped radiation heats up the layer and expands. The process
continued until material opacity stops increasing so rapidly and the radiation in the layer can escape.
The mechanism is called kappa mechanism. In the Helium burning stars like – Cepheid and R R
Lyrae k-mechanism is the cause of oscillation. The radiation is trapped until the He is fully ionized,
then the opacity decreases and the radiation can escape the layer. The mechanism is also called Heat
engine mechanism where heat energy converted to mechanical energy. The opacity works as a valve
to this heat engine.

Stochastic Mechanism - In Sun, Sun-like stars and in some red giant stars, there is sufficient
acoustics energy in the outer convective region of the star that the star resonates in one of its natural
frequencies where some of the stochastic noise is transferred to energy of global oscillation.

Tidal Excitation - In a binary star system, when the distance between the stars is minimum, the
gravitational force makes a tidal non-radial oscillation inside the star. The characteristic shape of the
lightcurves become heart-shaped, the stars are called heartbeat star.

Epsilon Mechanism - The rate of generation of energy inside core of a star is denoted by epsilon.
The variation in epsilon can drive pulsation in the star.

Q:
Answer:

compiled by Dr. RAMA PRASAD ADAK, Assistant Professor, Taki Govt College.
E-mail: ramaprasad.adak@gmail.com