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BANE - 143

TRIBAL CULTURES
OF INIDA
BANE-143

TRIBAL CULTURES OF INDIA

School of Social Sciences

Indira Gandhi National Open University
New Delhi
EXPERT COMMITTEE

Professor S. M Patnaik Prof. Rashmi Sinha Dr. Rukshana Zaman

Department of Anthropology SOSS, Discipline of Anthropology Assistant Professor
University of Delhi IGNOU, New Delhi Discipline of Anthropology
Dr. K. Anil Kumar SOSS, IGNOU
Dr. Sunita Reddy
Assistant Professor New Delhi
Centre for Social Medicine Discipline of Anthropology
and Community Health SOSS, IGNOU, New Delhi Dr. Mitoo Das
School of Social Science Dr. P. Venkatramana Assistant Professor
Jawaharlal Nehru University Assistant Professor Discipline of Anthropology
New Delhi Discipline of Anthropology SOSS, IGNOU, New Delhi
SOSS, IGNOU, New Delhi

COURSE PREPARATION TEAM

Block 1 Anthropology of Indian Tribes
Unit 1 Concept of Tribe in India Dr. Meera Swain, Faculty in Anthropology, Central University of
Orissa, Landiguda, Koraput, Odisha
Unit 2 Idea of Indigenous Communities Dr. K. Anil Kumar, Assistant Professor, Discipline of Anthropology,
SOSS, IGNOU, New Delhi This Unit is adopted from the Course
BANE 146
Unit 3 Characteristics and Geographical Dr. D. V. Prasad, Assistant Professor, Department of Sociology &
Distribution of Tribes Social Anthropology, Indira Gandhi National Tribal University,
Amarkantak
Unit 4 Anthropology of Tribes of India Dr. Sipoy Sarveswar, Assistant Professor, Department of
Anthropology, Visva-Bharati, Central University, Santiniketan, West
Bengal
Unit 5 Tribal Organisation Dr. Meera Swain, Faculty in Anthropology, Central University of
Orissa, Landiguda, Koraput, Odisha
Block 2 Social and Cultural Changes among the Tribes
Unit 6 Tribe-Caste Continuum in India Dr. Meera Swain, Faculty in Anthropology, Central University of
Orissa, Landiguda, Koraput, Odisha
Unit 7 Tribal Monographs on Social Change Dr. K. Anil Kumar, Assistant Professor, Discipline of Anthropology,
SOSS, IGNOU, New Delhi Some portions of the unit adopted from
the course BANC 131
Unit 8 Globalisation among Indian Tribes Dr. K. Anil Kumar, Assistant Professor, Discipline of Anthropology,
SOSS, IGNOU, New Delhi
Block 3 Contemporary Challenges
Unit 9 Tribal Displacement and Rehabilitation Dr. B. K. Srinivas, Asisstant Professor, Department of Anthropology,
Central University of Orissa, Landiguda, Koraput, Odisha
Unit 10 Development of Forest Policy Dr. Hari Charan Behera, Assistant Professor, Indian Statistical
and Tribes Institute Giridih, Jharkhand
Unit 11 Tribal Movements Dr.Khirod Chandra Moharana, Assistant Professor, Department of
Anthropology, University of Allahabad, Allahabad
Block 4 Problems, Development Programme and Constitutional Safeguards
Unit 12 Problems of Tribes Dr. K. Koteswara Rao, Assistant Professor, Department of
Humanities and Social Sciences, National Institute of Technology,
Rourkela, Odisha
Unit 13 Problems of Tribal Women Dr. Kalyani Sahal, Adoc Assistant Professor, Department of
Anthropology, University of Hyderabad, Gachi Bowli, Hyderabad
Unit 14 Constitutional Provision and Safeguards Dr. Kasi Eswarappa, Assistant Professor, Department of Tribal
Studies, Indira Gandhi National Tribal University, Amarkantak.

Practical Manual Dr. K. Anil Kumar, Assistant Professor, Discipline of Anthropology,

SOSS, IGNOU, New Delhi
Course Coordinator : Dr. K. Anil Kumar, Assistant Professor, Discipline of Anthropology,
SOSS, IGNOU, New Delhi

General Editor : Dr. K. Anil Kumar, Assistant Professor, Assistant Professor, Discipline
of Anthropology, SOSS, IGNOU, New Delhi

Language Editor : Mr. Bhupinder Singh, Freelance editor and document reviewer, 302
Tower 7, The Close North, Nirvana Country, South City II, Gurgaon,
Haryana-122018

Academic Consultant : Dr. Smarika Awasthi, Discipline of Anthropology, SOSS, IGNOU,

New Delhi

Cover Design : Rakesh Kumar, R K Enterprises, Kalkaji, New Delhi

PRINT PRODUCTION
Mr. Rajiv Girdhar Mr. Hemant Kumar Parida
Assistant Registrar, Section Officer,
MPDD, IGNOU, New Delhi MPDD, IGNOU, New Delhi

March, 2022
 Indira Gandhi National Open University, 2022
ISBN :
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other means,
without permission in writing from the Indira Gandhi National Open University.
Further information about the School of Health Sciences and the Indira Gandhi National Open University
courses may be obtained from the University’s office at Maidan Garhi, New Delhi-110 068.
Printed and published on behalf of the Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi by Director,
School of Health Sciences.
Laser Typesetting : Akashdeep Printers, 20-Ansari Road, Daryaganj, New Delhi-110002
Printed at :
Course Contents
Pages

COURSE INTRODUCTION 7

BLOCK 1 ANTHROPOLOGY OF INDIAN TRIBES 9

Unit 1 Concept of Tribe in India 11

Unit 2 Idea of Indigenous Communities 22
Unit 3 Characteristics and Geographical Distribution of Tribes 41
Unit 4 Anthropology of Tribes of India 53
Unit 5 Tribal Organisation 62

BLOCK 2 SOCIAL AND CULTURAL CHANGES AMONG 75

THE TRIBES

Unit 6 Tribe-Caste Continuum in India 77

Unit 7 Tribal Monographs on Social Change 87
Unit 8 Globalisation among Indian Tribes 103

BLOCK 3 CONTEMPORARY CHALLENGES 119

Unit 9 Tribal Displacement and Rehabilitation 121

Unit 10 Development of Forest Policy and Tribes 133
Unit 11 Tribal Movements 143

BLOCK 4 PROBLEMS, DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME AND 155

CONSTITUTIONAL SAFEGUARDS

Unit 12 Problems of Tribes 157

Unit 13 Problems of Tribal Women 176
Unit 14 Constitutional Provision and Safeguards 186

Practical Manual 195

1.1 MEANING AND CHARACTERISTICS OF TRIBE

The community with distinct culture, which is continuing since the evolutionary phases,
are assumed to be “Adivasi” or tribe in India. These communities vary across the
cultural platform with diverse features and also these diversities say a lot on their pattern

*Contributor: Dr. Meera Swain, Faculty in Anthropology, Central University of Orissa,

Landiguda, Koraput, Odisha 11
Anthropology of Indian of adaptation to the varieties of climatic conditions and geography. The characteristic
Tribes
features of a tribe are:
a) Particular geography
b) Specific cultural practices
c) Language/dialect
d) Egalitarian in nature
e) No hierarchy
f) Endogamous group
g) Lack of occupational specialisation
h) Traditional technology in economic pursuits
i) Social networking based on kinship
These are some of the accepted features of a tribe in general in India. But if we analyse
the individual tribe, we may not find all these, for example, the Saoras of south Odisha
have the hierarchy like Gomango, Mandal, Bhunya, and Raita. Again these are based
on the occupation of the group, which is a caste like structure. Among the Paraja of
Koraput and Nabarangpur district, the divisions found like Bada Paraja and Sana
Paraja. The social hierarchy exists to the extent of social status including purity and
pollution which is also a caste like structure, but found among Saora.
We can better understand the tribe from the following as it is discussed by different
scholars. S.C. Dube (1990) has listed the following characteristics of the tribal groups
in India:
a) Tribals are not the original inhabitants but the oldest inhabitants of the land. Being
the earlier settlers of the soil, tribals are considered as the indigenous population.
b) In India, tribal populations are continuing since centuries along with the non-tribals.
c) Most probably these populations were forced to live in remote areas or in isolation
though originally it is not always that they were the forest dwellers.
d) Mythology says about their history which is not beyond three/four generations.
Oral history is the significant source to reconstruct the history of the preliterate
communities.
e) The traditional techno-economic features are of subsistence level.
f) Except some tribes having leaders as rulers or land owners (Gonds, Ahoms,
Cheros), most of the communities are non-hierarchic and undifferentiated.
g) The cultural attributes are distinct to the community, such as language, beliefs,
worldviews, customs, and the like.
T.B. Naik has discussed some of the features to declare the community as a ‘Tribe’
such as common dialect, customary laws, geographical isolation, community panchayats,
and traditional technology for economic pursuits.
12
Coming to the specific features of the tribe, we can get the matrilineal and patrilineal Concept of Tribe in India*

communities where inheritance and other descent rules are traced through mother’s
line or father’s line respectively. Considering linguistic families, more than one tribe can
be considered under the respective classifications. On the basis of social organisations,
physical characteristics, occupations/economy, again tribes can be defined within Indian
context.
The concept of tribe is in use for the official clarifications and the necessary strategies
for the welfare/administration of the concerned communities. But the community doesn’t
say anything about the term “Tribe”. Only the members can specify the mythology,
customary laws, and dialect they speak, among other distinctions they have from other
tribal and non-tribal communities.
In India the academics related to tribal studies has been nourished by Anthropology,
through continuous addition by empirical studies. Both foreign and Indian scholars
contributed to tribal studies and tried to clarify the concept of “Tribe”.
The distribution of tribal population is more in eastern, central, and western parts of the
country. The following is the available data for the state and the union territories of
India. Starting with Madhya Pradesh with 14.69% of tribal population, the highest of
all, followed by Maharashtra with 10.08%, Odisha with 9.02%, Rajasthan with 8.86%,
Gujarat with 8.55%, Jharkhand with 8.29%, Chhattisgarh with 7.5%, Andhra Pradesh
with 5.7% and the like. Mizoram is the state with highest tribal population of 94.5%
and Lakshadweep is the union territory with the highest tribal population of 94.8%.
The north-eastern states constitute about 12% of the tribal population followed by the
southern region with 5% and Northern region with 3% of their population. Odisha is
having sixty two tribes (Census 2011).
Check Your Progress
1) What is the meaning of the term “Tribe”?
........................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................

Tribe and Indigenous People in India

Very often confusions arise between the term “tribe” and indigenous people and are
taken as synonymous towards their existence, importance and characteristic features.
In Anthropology various processes of socio-cultural evolution and changes are discussed
including the factors and sequences of them. One of the important schools of socio-
cultural theories “Diffusion” also talks about culture centres/districts/areas from where
culture travels to other places of human communities through migrants. Thus being
assumed as the original inhabitants, we cannot rule out the tribe as the owner of the
early human culture, from the rudimentary stage till date.
In India, history has many phases of changes, which had their impact on the land and
its people, particularly the pre-colonial and post-colonial phases. Thus the indigenosity
of the communities was always subject to impact, and changes happened.
13
Anthropology of Indian The communities of Santhal, Mundas, Saoras, Gaddi, Jaunsar Bawar and many of
Tribes
these, have migrated to other places for various reasons. The Saoras tribes are the
workers of tea garden in North- East states and some of them, as the family history
says even married in those areas and are continuing there. Religious conversion is
also a factor for changes in cultural practices. The specific articles for scheduled
tribes in our Indian Constitution provided them the distinctions by listing them in a
category.

However the age old socio-cultural platform has given the instances of caste-tribe
continuum on the Indian soil. “Ädivasis” the residents from earlier time, is the usual
connotation for the colonial term of “Tribe”. However, the anthropological and
sociological researches have contributed towards the clarification of the term “tribe”,
which served both the administrative and academic purposes.

1.2 ANTHROPOLOGICAL DEFINITIONS

In the beginning we have discussed the meaning of tribe and how it is contextualised
and considered for various purposes. The Latin word tribus is the word from which it
is derived. Common ancestors, descent, common dialect, are some of the important
attributes to understand the group/community as a “Tribe”. Anthropology is the discipline
which focused its coverage on these communities but the term tribe is not in use in
academics for other countries and continents. In Australia and Africa, these communities
are mentioned as aborigines, and in America, they are referred to as Indians. But in
India, “tribe” is in use since the colonial rule. Some of the popular definitions of tribe in
Anthropology are:

 W.H.R. Rivers defined “tribe as a social group of simple kind, the members of
which speak a common dialect, have a single government and act together for
such common purposes as warfare” (Chaudhury, 1977).

 D.N. Majumdar defined “tribe as, a social group with territorial affiliation,
endogamous, with no specialisation of functions, ruled by tribal officers, hereditary
or otherwise, united in language or dialect, recognising social distance with other
tribe or castes, without any social obloquy attaching to them, as it does in the caste
structure, following tribal traditions, beliefs and customs, illiberal of naturalisation
of ideas from alien sources, above all conscious of a homogeneity of ethnic and
territorial integration”(The Eastern Anthropologists, September-November, 1958).

 B.K. Roy Burmen (1994): “a tribe should be understood in terms of a stage in the
techno-economic cultural evolution and relationship of man and nature” ……

 Lucy Mair: “A Tribe is an independent political division of a population with a

common culture”.

 Ralph Linton: “In its simplest form the tribe is a group of bands occupying a
contiguous territory or territories and having a feeling of unity deriving from numerous
similarities in culture, frequent contacts, and a certain community of interest.”

 Mitchell (1979: 232): “Tribe is generally used for socially cohesive unit, associated
with the members of which regard themselves as politically autonomous.”
14
Thus “Tribe” is defined by anthropologists across the countries. Though attempts were Concept of Tribe in India*

made to clarify but confusions are still prevailing over the appropriateness of the meaning
of the term. The ethnographic data through anthropological research are the best source
to update and give a polished definition of “Tribe”. It depends on the researcher to
look into the meaning contextualising the community under study. In India, the tribe-
caste continuum is the significant aspect to be considered while defining tribe as both
the tribal and non-tribal communities are living together with cultural exchange, inclusive
dealings, and socio-cultural networking.

1.3 SOCIOLOGICAL DEFINITIONS OF TRIBE

The sociological definition of tribe says about the contemporary issues of the tribe
along with other aspects, though anthropology does it as well. The definitions in sociology
are not community specific but with regard to the larger platforms of human communities
and the corresponding issues and concerns.

 Oxford Dictionary of Sociology defined tribe as “a social group bound together

by kin and duty associated with a particular territory. Members of the tribe share
the social cohesion and are associated with the family together with the sense of
political autonomy of the nation”.

 According to Imperial Gazetteer of India “ATribe is a collection of families bearing

a common name, speaking a common dialect, occupying or professing to occupy
a common territory and is not usually endogamous though originally it might have
been so”.

 According to Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary, “Tribe is a group of people

of the same race, and with the same custom, language, religion, etc. living in a
particular area and often led by a chief”.

On the basis of the findings of the people of India project, K.S. Singh (1997) writes
about the incidences of migration among tribal population and the oral traditions are
the record of these accounts. This resulted in intercommunity interactions. Both S.C.
Dube and Andre Betelle wrote on the historical evidences of cultural enrichment through
constant and continuous exchange of cultural practices. The confusions regarding
indigenous, Adivasi, and the like are also taken for academic research for confirmation
and clarity. The outlines of Sociology by Ludwig and Irving Louis also tried to clarify
the racial elements to appropriate the group as tribe or aborigines.

Check Your Progress

2) Mention the characteristics of a tribe.

........................................................................................................................

........................................................................................................................
15
Anthropology of Indian
Tribes 1.4 DE-NOTIFIED, NOMADIC AND SEMI-NOMADIC
TRIBES
Some of the tribal communities in India were listed as ex-criminal tribes under British
government’s Criminal Tribes Act (1871). Earlier these were known as criminal tribes
but de-notified later. The tribes like Lodhas, Koravas, Yerkula, Yandi, Sugali, Mina,
Bhedkut, Lambadi are some of them. But identifying these groups or a small group
within the entire group is still a task for researchers and administrators.

The National Commission for the De-notified, Nomadic and Semi-Nomadic Tribes
(2008), also known as Balakrishna Renke Commission has estimated about100
communities, constituting around 10 per cent of our country’s population belonging to
de-notified, nomadic, and semi-nomadic population. With a beginning of 1871 Act
revised again in 1911, the entire effort was on the basis of a theory that certain
populations are criminal by birth, occupation, or caste, which started revolting against
the colonial rulers in India. The district collectors are given the power to notify these
communities from time to time. Finally on the recommendations of Aiyanger Committee
these communities were declared as De-notified tribes (Siva Prasad R, 2015). However,
these communities are with varieties of cultural practise and occupational incentives
around their ecosystems. According to P.K. Bhowmik, de-notified tribes can be
classified into:

a) Nomadic groups who have taken to criminal life;

b) Fighting men and soldiers who have lost their jobs and have turned into criminals;

c) Communities who used to work as village watchman and police, but have taken to
criminal life;

d) Wild tribe in distress who took to criminal living as a way out of the plight they had
fallen in.

These communities practice variety of occupations and are remarkably diverse within
the group. The significant occupations are hunting-gathering, pastoralism, metal workers,
basket makers, wrestlers, snake charmers, monkey trainers, astrologers, bards, artisans
and herbalists (Millind Bokil, 2002). According to Renke Commission, there are 1500
nomadic and semi-nomadic communities in India along with 150-198 de-notified
communities.

The kind of stigma the members of this group were suffering could be lessened due to
the suggestions by the Backward Classes’ Commission appointed by Government of
India. The significant suggestions were:

a) Criminal tribes to be called as De-notified Tribes (Vimukta Jatis).

b) On the basis of distinct social features, these tribes should be included in Scheduled
Tribes, Scheduled Castes and Backward classes.

c) Resettlement in batches and gradual integration in the larger society.

d) Educational status to be proper to help their integration in the Indian Nation.

16
e) Reform activities to help the community. Concept of Tribe in India*

f) Collective criminal activities and individual criminal activities should be distinguished

to deal with.

g) Proper education and employment of the children to be ensured.

h) Economic rehabilitation should be taken care of.

Thus the Acts and the subsequent commission recommendations helped the De-notified
communities to elevate their status in the social sphere. It also helped them to get
necessary reforms and rehabilitations to enable them for national integration and socio-
economic incentives through educational facilities and employment avenues. Several
examples are there about the successful mainstreaming of these groups.

Nomadic groups are the communities who have no permanent habitation. They move
from place to place for their livelihood as herders, hunters, pastorals, and other
specialised occupations as smiths or snake charmers. There are no clear distinctions
between the de-notified and nomadic tribes’ culture and occupation. Very often these
are not different but similar groups.

The Raika-Rabari is closer to the pastoral caste known as Bharwad in Gujarat. Similarly,
some other nomadic communities like Gadia Lohar, Banjara have a mix of the local
characteristics as well as the unique features of their own community which are common
across their hamlets in other parts of the country (Religion of the Raika- Vinay Kumar
Srivastava). We can refer to the discussion as part of the report of national commission
to know more about their culture. According to National Commission for De-notified,
Nomadic and Semi-nomadic Tribes:

“The nomads ore known for their cultural richness, special cultural identity and
diversity but Globalisation and modernisation hove greatly influenced them
socially, culturally as well as economically. In spite of this, these communities ore
trying to preserve their cultural integrity by organising festivals in order to
remember and keep alive their history and traditions. The social and cultural
characteristics of nomadic communities are closely related with their economic
activities. Most of the communities follow o traditional system of moving in groups
of five to twenty with a senior member who is responsible for settling disputes,
leading each group. Each of these sub groups travelled independently on different
routes in order to earn their livelihood. ln some communities there is a system of
meeting on annual customary camping, where reunions, marriages and even
cattle trading take place. The nomadic way of life revolves around socio-economic
necessity, ranging from making tools and utensils, supplying basic goods (salt,
wool), providing medicines, and herbs, to entertaining people. The available
accounts indicate that these nomadic communities were an integral part of the
society and its economic processes around the middle of the l9th century. With
their skills and ability to travel for long distances with their kin, they provided
essential goods and services to sedentary agrarian communities. The sedentary
and nomadic way of life coexisted together in the society since ancient times.
The nomadic way of life was not unacceptable in society and even the sedentary
port of society practiced nomadism on certain occasions. One point of view is
also that nomadism emerged in response to change in climatic factors such as 17
Anthropology of Indian drought and flood. During the colonial period, the sedentary lifestyle become
Tribes
more acceptable and the nomadic communities started facing dishonour and the
stigma, continues till dote” (December, 2017, pp. 25-26).

1.5 PARTICULARLY VULNERABLE TRIBAL

GROUPS (PVTGS)
These tribal communities are facing certain problems and are in trouble. The entire
population is suffering and are at the verge of extinction. Earlier known as the primitive
tribal groups, these groups are characterised as Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups
(PVTGs). On the basis of vulnerability, the criteria of identifying these groups stated by
Ministry of Home Affairs in 1979, the important features are:

a) Pre-agricultural level of technology and economy

b) Declining population

c) Low rate of literacy

d) Subsistence level of economy

Among more than 705 tribal groups, there are 75 of 18 states and union territory of
Andaman and Nicobar Islands. According to a stastical profile of Scheduled Tribes in
India, published by the Ministry of Tribal Affairs, the PVTG population was 27.68
lakhs of seventy one (71) communities. About nineteen communities have less than
1,000 populations, of which Sentinelese (15) and Great Andamanese (44) are having
the least number. Most of the PVTGs live in Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Odisha,
Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. However the Maria Gond of Maharashtra and Saora
of Odisha are having comparatively larger population among all PVTGs. Taking into
account of their livelihood and ecological systems, these groups are comparatively
isolated with their distinct culture. Hunting, food gathering, fishing, pastoralism, shifting
cultivation are in practice for the subsistence.

Some communities which are grouped under Scheduled Tribe in one state in India but
are not so in other States. Because of the constitutional attributes, the same tribe are
grouped under backward classes. “In view of the vulnerability and special needs of
PVTGs, separate schemes for economic uplift and imparting education have been
envisaged for them (Venkata Rao, 2015). Also the committee report submitted by
Virginius Xaxa and referred to by V.K. Srivastava, states that one of the important
issue is concerned with identifying the criteria that could be used for defining tribal
communities (Srivastava, 2015).

The PVTGs are 13 in Odisha, 12 in Andhra Pradesh, 9 in Bihar and Jharkhand, 7 in

Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh, 6 in Tamil Nadu, 5 in Kerala, 5 in Gujarat, 3 in
West Bengal, 3 in Maharashtra, 2 in Karnataka, 2 in Uttarakhand. Rajasthan, Manipur
and Tripura have one PVTG each. The following table will give an idea of the state
wise and union territory wise tribal communities declared as PVTGs.

Source: https://tribal.nic.in/downloads/PVTG/State-wise%20List%20of%
20PVTGs.pdf
18
Concept of Tribe in India*

A total number of 75 communities having a population of 27.68 lakhs have been

declared as the particularly vulnerable tribal groups. Various schemes for restoring the
population and their culture are continuously in process by the Indian Government.
Academicians are also preparing documents in the form of reports, ethnographic records,
and journal papers, to assess their situations from time to time.

19
Anthropology of Indian
Tribes 1.6 SUMMARY
Tribe as a word or term is conceptualised by different scholars world over. In India,
these groups are better understood as Adivasi (original settlers) and scheduled tribe
(anusuchit janajati). In academics it is popular as “Tribe”. The total population of tribe
in India is about 8.6% (10,42,81,034) of the total population.
The tribes with comparatively largeer population are Bhils, Gonds, Santhals, and
Meenas. The geographical distribution is not uniform and very often spreads to more
than three states.
The De-notified, Nomadic and Semi-nomadic groups are classified through Reke
Commission and National Commission for Denotified, Nomadic and Semi-nomadic
Tribes. Since ages, tribals are in continuous contact with non-tribals. In India, as we
have discussed earlier in this unit, tribe-caste continuum is one of the significant feature
of its culture. Therefore academicians are still working to bring clarity to the term
“Tribe” which has developmental and socio-cultural perspectives. The members of
these groups are the carrier of indigenous knowledge which is also the storehouse of
the stages of evolutions and experiences towards growth of human culture.

1.7 REFERENCES
Bailey, F.G. (1957). Caste and Economic Frontier. Bombay: OUP.
Beteille, A. (1986). The concept of tribe with special reference to India. European
Journal of Sociology, Volume 27, 297-318.
Beteille, A. (2008). The concept of tribe with special reference to India. S.K.,
Chaudhury & S.M., Patnaik (Eds.). Indian Tribes and Mainstream (pp. 21-40).
Jaipur: Rawat Publications.
Chaudhury, S.K. & Pattanaik, S.M. (2008). Indian Tribes and Mainstream (pp
1-6). Jaipur: Rawat Publications.
Dash, K.N. (2004). Invitation to Social and Cultural Anthropology (pp. 242-
264). New Delhi: Atlantic Publishers.
Mair, L. (1972). An Introduction to Social Anthropology (pp.1-368). New Delhi:
Oxford University Press.
Majumdar, D.N. (1937). A Tribe in Transition: A Study in Cultural Pattern. London:
Longmans Green and Co.
Report of National Commission for De-notified, Nomadic and Semi-nomadic Tribes.
(2017).
Sills, D.L. (1976). International Encyclopedia of Social Sciences (pp. 147-150).
Vol.16. New York: MacMillan and Free Press.
Singh, K.S. (1994). The Scheduled Tribes. Volume 2. New Delhi: Oxford University
Press.
Siva Prasad, R. (2015). India’s nomadic and de- notified communities. P.C., Joshi
(Ed.). Symposium on People of India. Department of Anthropology, University of
20 Delhi, New Delhi.
Srivastava,V.K. (2005). The Raikas of Rajasthan. H.S.,Verma & N., Hasnain (Eds.) Concept of Tribe in India*
Stagnation, retrograde change or positive progress? Vignettes from the journey
of the OBC communities in the process of change in India (pp.170-205). New
Delhi: Serials.
Swain, M. (2010). Saora Kinship. Bhubaneswar: Amedus Press.
Swain M. (2012). Kuli: A Tribe Of Odisha (revised ed.). Bhubaneswar: Freelancer.
Venkata Rao, P. (2015). People of India-The particularly vulnerable tribal groups.
P.C., Joshi (Ed.). Symposium on People of India. Department of Anthropology,
University of Delhi.

1.8 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1) Refer to Section 1.1
2) Refer to Sections 1.1 and 1.2

21
Anthropology of Indian
Tribes UNIT 2 IDEA OF INDIGENOUS
COMMUNITIES*
Structure

2.0 Introduction
2.1 Meaning and Definition of Indigenous Peoples
2.1.1 Meaning of the Term “Indigenous”
2.1.2 Defining Indigenous Peoples
2.2 International Organisations and the Concept of Indigenous Peoples
2.3 History of Indigenous Peoples’ Rights and International Law
2.4 Summary
2.5 References
2.6 Answers to Check Your Progress
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be able to:
 identify who are indigenous peoples;
 understand the meaning and definition of “indigenous people”;
 comprehend the concept of indigenous peoples in the context of rights;
 be familiar with the emerging international policies and laws for the protection of
indigenous peoples; and
 learn about the rights of indigenous peoples under international law.

2.0 INTRODUCTION
Since anthropology emerged as a scientific discipline in the nineteenth century,
indigenous and tribal people have been its major focus. Many anthropologists have
spent their professional lives working with indigenous and tribal people whose
traditions, language or ways of life differ from those of people from politically dominant
ethnic groups.
According to the United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues there are
more than 370 million indigenous people spread across 90 different countries worldwide.
Most of the indigenous people live in remote areas of the world. Out of 370 million
indigenous people, about 70% live in Asia. They occupy only 20% of the world’s land
but consist of and nurture about 80% of the world’s cultural and biological diversity. In
the world, there are over 5,000 ethnic cultures of indigenous peoples ranging from the
forest people of the Amazon to the tribal people of India, from the Inuit of the Arctic to
the Aborigines of Australia. Indigenous people are characterised by the distinctiveness
of their unique traditions. They have their own social, cultural, economic and political

*Contributor: Dr. K. Anil Kumar, Assistant Professor, Discipline of Anthropology, School of

22 Social Sciences, Indira Gandhi National Open University, Maidan Garhi, New Delhi
institutions that are distinct from those of the dominant and larger societies in which Idea of Indigenous
Communities *
they live.
Some examples of indigenous peoples are:
 the Lakota in the USA,
 the Mayas in Guatemala,
 the Aymaras in Bolivia,
 the Inuit and Aleutians of the circumpolar region,
 the Saami of northern Europe,
 the Aborigines and Torres Strait Islanders of Australia and
 the Maori of New Zealand.
Some of the indigenous peoples in Asia are:
 hill tribes of Thailand,
 scheduled Tribes of India,
 numerically small people of the North Siberia,
 national minorities of China,
 cultural minorities of Philippines,
 isolated and alien people of Indonesia,
 aboriginal tribes of Taiwan,
 aborigines of Malaysia, and
 natives of Borneo.
According to Colchester (1995), most of these groups now claim to be ‘indigenous’,
for the term is less prejudicial than the aforementioned labels and it links them all in a
common struggle.
These and most other indigenous peoples have retained their distinct characteristics
which are different from those of other segments of the national populations. Spread
across the world, they are the descendants - according to a common definition - of
those who inhabited a country or a geographical region at the time when people of
different cultures or ethnic origins arrived. The new arrivals later became dominant
through conquest, occupation, settlement or other means.
Indigenous peoples often have much in common with other neglected segments of
societies. Like them, they
 lack political representation and participation,
 are economically marginalised and poor,
 lack access to social services and
 face discrimination.
23
Anthropology of Indian Despite their cultural differences, diverse indigenous people share similar problems
Tribes
related to the protection of their rights. They strive for recognition of their identities,
their ways of life and their right to traditional lands, territories and natural resources.
Contrary to other ethnic minorities, that struggle to protect their rights on individual
level, indigenous people have always stressed the need to recognise their collective
rights.
Despite some positive developments, the rights of indigenous peoples as a whole have
traditionally been ignored. As a global reality, efforts of indigenous peoples to have
their rights recognised or further developed are relevant in both developing and
developed countries. Indigenous peoples suffered from historic injustices due to
colonisation and dispossession of their lands, territories and resources, preventing them
from exercising their right to development that meets their own needs and interests. In
general, indigenous people are disproportionately represented, even among the poorest
of the poor, in both industrialised and developing countries (Victoria Tauli-Corpuz,
2001).
The rights of indigenous peoples are recognised through various international declarations
or conventions such as:
 The 1989 International Labour Organisation Convention No. 169 concerning the
indigenous and tribal people in independent countries,
 The 1992 United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity, and
 The 2007 United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples
(UNDRIP).
The United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP),
adopted in September 2007 by the General Assembly, is the most comprehensive and
advanced of international instruments dealing with indigenous peoples’ individual and
collective rights. It is the latest addition to a growing body of international human rights
law. UNDRIP is comprehensive in the sense that it covers the full range of civil, political,
economic, social, cultural and environmental rights under international law. The
Declaration not only elaborates on these rights but also imposes obligations on states
and international organisations and inter-governmental bodies as well (International
Work Group for Indigenous Affairs, http://www.iwgia.org/culture-and-identity/
identification-of-indigenous-people).
In the context of this framework, the present unit deals with the most disadvantaged
and vulnerable group of people in the world today, the Indigenous peoples. The unit is
divided into three parts: The first part will describe the background, meaning, definitions
and concept of indigenous peoples, while the second and third parts focus on the legal
context of the rights of indigenous peoples, including an analysis of the content of the
Declaration.

2.1 THE MEANING AND DEFINITION OF

INDIGENOUS PEOPLES
In this section, the meaning and different definitions of indigenous people put forth by
scholars and international organisations will be introduced.
24
2.1.1 Meaning of the Term “Indigenous” Idea of Indigenous
Communities *
Etymologically, the term “indigenous” derives from the Latin word “indigena” made
up of two words, namely indi, meaning “within” and gen or genere meaning “root”. In
other words, the term “indigenous” refers to “born in”, “something that comes from the
country in which it is found”,” native of”, or “aborigine”, in contrast to “foreign” or
“brought in” (see Albert Kwokwo Barume: 2010, 2014).
The word ‘indigenous’, used in a purely adjectival sense, has the common meaning of
“from” or “of the original origin” or group or culture regarded as coming from a given
place. Anthropology defines the term ‘indigenous’ as referring to someone or something
that is native or originating from a given place or the original inhabitants of a specific
geographical area.
The word Indigenous was adopted by aboriginal leaders in the 1970s after the
emergence of indigenous rights movements around the world as a way to identify and
unite their communities and represent them in political arenas, such as the United Nations.
Indigenous was chosen over other terms that leaders felt reflected particular histories
and power dynamics, or had been imposed by the colonisers. The word “peoples” is
used instead of the word “population” because this term recognises the existence of
organised societies with an identity of their own rather than mere groupings sharing
some racial or cultural characteristics (ILO: 1998).
Since the 1980s the term indigenous and indigenous people has evolved beyond its
specific empirical reference. Combined with the term knowledge and people, it has
come to signify a social science perspective as well as a philosophical and ideological
position, which rests on recognition of the role of knowledge in the power relations
that have come into being by the expansion of Europe.
Activity
Define the term ‘indigenous’.

Indigenous peoples are peoples, communities and nations who claim a historical
continuity and cultural affinity with societies endemic to their original territories that
developed prior to exposure to the larger connected civilisation associated with the
Western culture.
While the term “indigenous peoples” is used in international instruments, these people
are often known as
 tribes,
 natives,
 original,
 first people/nations,
 aborigines,
 ethnic groups,
 adivasi, janajati,
 indios,
 pueblos originarios, 25
Anthropology of Indian  original population,
Tribes
 hunter-gatherers,
 nomads,
 hill people.
Having been politicised, the term indigenous is a highly contentious term and it is still far
from clear.
During the late twentieth century, the term indigenous people evolved into a legal
category, which refers to culturally distinct groups that had been affected by the
processes of colonisation. To reach its current understanding in international law, the
meaning of the term “indige-nous” seems to have evolved through several distinct phases
(see Albert Kwokwo Barume; 2010, 2014).
Activity
Identify various generic terms used for indigenous people.

2.1.2 Defining Indigenous People

The term indigenous or its equivalent has been used in anthropology to describe groups
called tribes for quite some time. However, there is no universal agreement on the
definition of the word “indigenous peoples”. Many prominent scholars have developed
their definitions with different elements to characterise indigenous people. However,
there is no consensus on the definition of the term “indigenous people” in international
law. This is because it is almost impossible to create one simple definition to describe
a large number of very different communities, each existing within unique social, political
and geographical situations.
In her acclaimed work, The Indigenous Voice in World Politics, Ranke Wilmer
examined the global historical process of moral exclusion undertaken by Western powers
against indigenous peoples. She defines indigenous as peoples:
 with tradition-based cultures;
 who were politically autonomous before colonisation;
 who, in the aftermath of colonisation and/or decolonisation, continue to struggle
for the preservation of their cultural integrity, economic self-reliance, and political
independence by resisting the assimilation policies of nation-states.
Anthropologist John Bodley developed an even more inclusive definition of indigenous
people by simply describing them as a group of people who identify themselves with a
specific, small-scale cultural heritage.
In 1972 the United Nations Working Group on Indigenous Populations (WGIP)
accepted as a preliminary definition a formulation put forward by Mr. José Martinez
Cobo, Special Rapporteur on Discrimination against Indigenous Populations.
Box:1"Indigenous communities, peoples and nations are those which, having a
historical continuity with pre-invasion and pre-colonial societies that developed
on their territories, consider themselves distinct from other sectors of the societies
now prevailing in those territories, or parts of them. They form at present non-
dominant sectors of society and are determined to preserve, develop and transmit
26
Idea of Indigenous
to future generations their ancestral territories, and their ethnic identity, as the Communities *
basis of their continued existence as peoples, in accordance with their own cultural,
social institutions and legal systems.”

The limitations of the definition were subsequently noted by the organisation. The
definition applied mainly to pre-colonial populations, excluded other isolated or marginal
societies. In 1983 the WGIP enlarged this definition (E/CN.41Sub.2/1983/21Add
paragraph 3. 79) to include the following criteria:
Box:2 (a) they are the descendants of groups, which were in the territory at the
time when other groups of different cultures or ethnic origin arrived there; (b)
precisely because of their isolation from other segments of the country’s population
they have almost preserved intact the customs and traditions of their ancestors
which are similar to those characterised as indigenous; (c) they are, even if only
formally, placed under a state structure that incorporates national, social and cultural
characteristics alien to their own.
In 1986 it was further added that any individual who identified himself or herself as
indigenous and was accepted by the group or the community as one of its members
was to be regarded as an indigenous person (E/CN.4/Sub.2/1986/7/Add.4.para.381).
The draft Universal Declaration on the Rights of the Indigenous peoples prepared by
the DWIG does not provide a specific definition of indigenous peoples or populations.
According to the Chairperson, Ms. Erica Irene Daes, Rapporteur of the Working
Group, this was because “historically, indigenous peoples have suffered, from definitions
imposed by others” (E/CN.4/Stib.2/AC.4/1995/3, page 3) (Sylvie Motard, 2007).
There is no universal definition of indigenous and tribal peoples, but ILO Convention
No. 169 takes a practical approach to the issue and provides objective and subjective
criteria for identifying the peoples concerned (see Article 1 of the Convention). These
criteria can be summarised as:
Table 1.1: Objective and subjective criteria for identifying
the peoples concerned
Box: 3 Subjective criteria Objective criteria
Indigenous peoples Self-identification as Descent from populations, who
belonging to an inhabited the country or
indigenous people geographical region at the time of
conquest, colonisation or
establishment of present state
boundaries.
They retain some or all of their
own social, economic, cultural and
political institutions, irrespective of
their legal status.
Tribal peoples Self-identification as Their social, cultural and
belonging to a tribal economic conditions distinguish
people them from other sections of the
national community.
Their status is regulated wholly or
partially by their own customs or
traditions or by special laws or
regulations.
Source: https://www.ilo.org/global/topics/indigenous-tribal/WCMS_503321/lang—en/index.htm
27
Anthropology of Indian A description of indigenous people given by the World Bank (operational directive
Tribes
4.20, 1991) points out that,
Box:4 Indigenous Peoples can be identified in particular geographical areas by
the presence in varying degrees of the following characteristics:
a) close attachment to ancestral territories and the natural resources in these
areas;
b) self-identification and identification by others as members of a distinct cultural
group;
c) an indigenous language, often different from the national language;
d) presence of customary social and political institutions; and
e) primarily subsistence-oriented production.

As can be seen, no universal definition of indigenous peoples exists and because of the
history of political repression, discrimination, and assimilation policies by states,
indigenous peoples usually reject to be defined by external agencies. In order to identify
rather than “define” indigenous identities, most of the researchers use the working
definitions provided by the International Labour Organisation (ILO) Convention 169
(Tomei and Sweptson, 1996) and the Draft UN Resolution on Indigenous Rights.
Both approaches emphasise that self-identification by indigenous peoples should be
used as the main criterion, while at the same time underlying the following commonalities
shared by indigenous identities, including
i) historical continuity with pre-colonial societies;
ii) strong link to territories;
iii) distinct social, economic, and political systems;
iv) distinct language, culture, and beliefs; and
v) self-identification as different from national society.
From an indigenous perspective, the right to self-identification is essential to ensuring
that they are respected as peoples with their own identities, cultures, languages,
worldviews, and religions (Stavenhagen, 2002).
International organisations more closely follow IWGIA’s (International Work Group
for Indigenous Affairs) definition in their work programmes. The International Labour
Organization (ILO), the United Nations (UN), and the World Bank also use the above
definition in their work programmes with indigenous peoples. The World Bank further
recognises that because indigenous people live in various contexts, there may not be a
universally accepted definition for indigenous peoples. Therefore, the World Bank
also recognises minority groups that governments have labelled as “indigenous ethnic
minorities,” “aboriginals,” “hill tribes,” “minority nationalities,” “scheduled tribes,” or
“tribal groups,” to be indigenous communities or peoples.
Check Your Progress
1) Discuss the meaning of Indigenous Peoples.
........................................................................................................................
28 ........................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................ Idea of Indigenous
Communities *
........................................................................................................................

2.2 INTERNATIONAL ORGANISATIONS AND THE

CONCEPT OF INDIGENOUS PEOPLES
As noted earlier, since there is no universally accepted definition of indigenous peoples,
it leads to varying interpretations by states. As a result, UNDRIP (2007), though
regarded as an authoritative declaration on the rights of indigenous peoples, does not
provide any form of formal definition of the term ‘indigenous peoples’. It identifies
“indigenous peoples” as being the beneficiaries of the rights contained in the Declaration,
without defining the term. Considering the diversity of indigenous peoples, an official
definition of “indigenous” has not been adopted by any UN system/body. Instead, the
system has developed a modern understanding of this term based on the following
criteria:
Box: 5
 self-identification as indigenous peoples at the individual level and accepted
by the community as their member;
 historical continuity with pre-colonial and/or pre-settler societies;
 strong link to territories and surrounding natural resources;
 distinct social, economic or political systems;
 distinct language, culture and beliefs;
 form non-dominant groups of society; and
 resolve to maintain and reproduce their ancestral environments and systems
as distinctive peoples and communities.

Source: United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues, Indigenous peoples

According to the United Nations the most fruitful approach is to identify rather than
define indigenous peoples. This is based on the fundamental criterion of self-identification
as underlined in a number of human rights documents.

The International Labour Organization (ILO) has adopted a definition of the concept
of indigenous peoples on two occasions: the statements of coverage of Convention
107 (1957) and Convention No. 169 (1989). When treaty law is examined for a
formal legal definition of indigenous peoples, we see that Article 1 of the 1989 ILO
Convention 169 provides some clarity (see Box: 3).

Indigenous and tribal peoples are often known by national terms such as native peoples,
aboriginal peoples, first nations, adivasi, janajati, hunter-gatherers, or hill tribes. Given
the diversity of peoples it aims at protecting, the Convention uses the inclusive
terminology of “indigenous and tribal peoples” and ascribes the same set of rights to
both groups. In Latin America, for example, the term “tribal” has been applied to
certain afro-descendent communities.
29
Anthropology of Indian The ILO definition includes both historical disruptions caused by colonisation and
Tribes
situations outside that context during the formation of the present state boundaries.
This definition could apply to both European settler states as well as Asian or African
states. Nevertheless, according to treaty law, this definition applies only to those states
who are party to the convention. As of June 2012, ILO Convention 169 was ratified
by only 22 countries and the only Asian state that remains a party to this Convention is
Nepal, which joined this treaty regime in the year 2007 (ratification ILO C169).
Therefore, this definition cannot be termed as established within international law. At
the most, it applies only to those states which are party to the convention.
Further, in the earlier ILO Convention 107 (1957), Article 1(b) provided that: “members
of tribal or semi-tribal populations in independent countries which are regarded as
indigenous on account of their descent from the populations which inhabited the country,
or a geographical region to which the country belongs, at the time of conquest or
colonisation and which, irrespective of their legal status, live more in conformity with
the social, economic and cultural institutions of that time than with the institutions of the
nation to which they belong”. Here the definition of indigenous refers to populations
who are descendants of those who inhabited the region at the time of colonisation. The
convention remains in force for only 17 countries including a few Asian countries such
as India, Bangladesh and Pakistan. Therefore, this definition also cannot be taken as
standard within international law. At the most, it applies only to those who are party to
the convention.
The description of “indigenous peoples” in Convention No. 169 contains several
elements which are not found in its description of “tribal peoples”:
 historical continuity (pre-conquest/colonization societies);
 territorial connection (their ancestors inhabited the country or region at the time
of conquest/colonisation/creation of the state); and
 distinct social, economic, cultural and political institutions (they retain some
or all of their own institutions).
However, these conceptual dissimilarities have no legal implications under Convention
No. 169 as far as the actual rights of these two groups are concerned; both groups are
entitled to the same rights under the Convention. This however may not be the case in
the application of other international instruments; in particular the UN Declaration on
the Rights of Indigenous peoples.
The statement of coverage of Convention No. 169 is largely based on criteria developed
by José Martinez Cobo, whereas Convention No. 107 identifies indigenous peoples
as a sub-category of “tribal”; the two groups are separate in Convention No. 169.
Moreover, article 1 (2) of Convention No. 169 – similar to the Cobo definition -
establishes self-identification as indigenous as a fundamental criterion for determining
the groups that are to be identified as indigenous peoples.
Convention No. 169 also describes indigenous peoples as ‘people’ – whereas
Convention No. 107 identifies them as ‘populations’.
Article 1 (3) of Convention No. 169 specifies that the use of the term peoples in the
Convention shall not be construed as having any implications as regards the rights
which may be attached to the term under international law. The objective of this
30 reservation is to avoid challenging international legal questions related to the concept
of ‘people’ — in particular the right to self-determination, which under international Idea of Indigenous
Communities *
law is acknowledged as a right of ‘all peoples’. This reservation, or the application of
the other provisions of Convention No. 169, shall not – according to article 35 of the
Convention – affect the rights of the peoples concerned pursuant to other international
instruments or national legislation (UN Document A/61/L.67 12 September 2007).
The reservation in article 1 (3) demonstrates the close link between the problem of
finding an international agreement on how indigenous peoples should be identified and
legal issues.
Although there is no general agreement on the need for a definition, there are several
definitions that are widely accepted as guiding principles for the identification of
indigenous peoples, including the Cobo definition, and the statement of coverage of
the ILO Convention No. 169 (article 1).
While conducting a special study on the problem of discrimination against indigenous
peoples, the Special-Rapporteur of the UN Sub-Commission on the Promotion and
Protection of Human Rights, José Martinez Cobo, 1986, formulated a working definition
of indigenous peoples (see Box 1).
Though this definition was the result of a comprehensive study conducted by the Special
Rapporteur on the problem of discrimination against indigenous populations under the
recommendation of the Sub-Commission, it was merely a recommendation report
(For Cobo’s report, see supra note 52) submitted to the UN Working Group on
Indigenous Populations and therefore could not be called a legal document. As shown
in chapter 6, there is no apparent and uniform state practice and opinio juris concerning
this definition; accordingly, the definition of Martinez Cobo cannot be said to have
attained the status of customary law (José Martinez Cobo 1986).
The Special-Rapporteur outlined a number of factors that may be relevant for identifying
indigenous peoples. This emphasises their historical continuity, for an extended period
reaching into the present, and includes:
 occupation of ancestral lands;
 common ancestry with the original occupants of these lands;
 culture;
 language; and
 residence in certain parts of the country, or certain regions of the world.
The Special-Rapporteur included self-identification as ‘indigenous’, as a fundamental
criterion:
An indigenous person is one who belongs to an indigenous peoples through
self-identification as indigenous (group consciousness) and is recognised and
accepted by the group as one of its members (acceptance by the group).
According to Benedict Kingsbury, Cobo’s approach to the definition was controversial
due to its requirement of “historical continuity with the pre-invasion and pre-colonial
societies that developed on their territories.” This approach reflected the classical
European case of colonial settlement in the western settler states such as the United
States, Canada, Australia and New Zealand. This requirement did not reflect the reality
in many Asian and African countries where there was no clear cause of historical 31
Anthropology of Indian disruption by colonial settlement. The views of Asian states and groups (claiming to be
Tribes
indigenous) greatly differ from Cobo’s definition of indigenous peoples.
Many Asian states opposed the application of the concept of indigenous peoples within
their territories and endorsed the definition laid down by Cobo. China, for example,
agrees with Cobo’s definition while claiming that “the question of indigenous peoples is
the product of European countries’ recent pursuit of colonial policies in other parts of
the world” (UN Doc. E/CN.4/WG.15/2 (1995). Here China affirmed the test of ‘Salt-
Water’ colonialism, which was a standard test of determining ‘Colonialism’ during the
time of decolonisation and self-determination in the 1960s.
The term “indigenous peoples” is not officially recognized or used in India the way it is
applicable in America, Canada, Australia and Africa. India ratified the ILO Indigenous
and Tribal Populations Convention, 1957 (No. 107) in 1958. The position of the
Government of India with regard to the usage of the term as understood in the United
Nations is that all Indians are indigenous to India (Bijoy, C.R., and Tiplut Nongbri,
2013).
India and Bangladesh also denied the status of indigenous peoples within their territories
by claiming that “indigenous peoples are descendants of the original inhabitants who
have suffered from conquest or invasion from outside.” Asian groups continue to claim
recognition and status of indigenous peoples within their countries despite strong
oppositions from governments. Thus they tend to go beyond Cobo’s narrow definitional
requirement of colonial disruption or conquest. As a result, there is no consensus on
the definition laid down by Cobo.
However, this draft definition was not adopted as Martinez Cobo’s definition later
became the working definition of the UN Working Group (Copenhagen: IWGIA
Document No. 80, 1996). Even though this earlier definition is not legally binding, it
can be said to have reflected the intent of the working group members at the time to
make the concept of indigenous peoples more universal and applicable beyond classical
western colonisation. Alternately, one could also conclude that since this definition was
replaced by the latter, it does not reflect the consensus of the group members.
With regard to general principles of law as a source of international law on the definition,
there is no literature available presently that argues the possibility of any particular
principle of law lending its force, in order to determine a definition of indigenous peoples.
Likewise, judicial decisions and scholarly writings, as subsidiary means of determining
law, do not point to the existence or emergence of a particular definition as established
in international law.
An additional source that provides a definition of indigenous peoples is the World
Bank’s Operational Policy 4.10 on indigenous peoples (see Box: 4). This definition
can also not be termed as binding in international law because the policies of the Bank
are considered more of an internal policy guideline than a binding norm of international
nature. Also, the application of the Bank policies are to be observed (in good faith)
only by states funded by the Bank. Therefore, the World Bank definition of indigenous
peoples cannot be termed as binding in international law.
It is clear that there is no universally accepted and binding definition of the term
“indigenous peoples” in international law. With regard to the Asian context too, there is
no agreement among states and groups within these states claiming to be indigenous,
on the definition.
32
As discussed earlier, declarations of the UN General Assembly, per se, do not have Idea of Indigenous
Communities *
the binding effect of law. Nevertheless, the significance of the UNDRIP cannot be
understated, as it was adopted after decades of consultation and participation from
both state parties and indigenous peoples in a legitimate process of norm-building in
the field of indigenous rights. Therefore, such a declaration, having been solemnly
adopted by the majority of member states of the United Nations, may arguably have a
formal status nearing that of the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights. According
to James Anaya:

Box:7
It is possible, at least arguably, to understand the Declaration as related to legal
obligation within standard categories of international law. First, the Declaration is
a statement of rights proclaimed by the vast majority of U.N. member states,
through the General Assembly, within the framework of the general human rights
obligations established for states by the U.N. Charter, a multilateral treaty. With
this status, the Declaration can be seen as embodying or providing an authoritative
interpretation of norms that are already legally binding and found elsewhere in
international human rights law, including in various human rights treaties.

According to Siegfried Wiessner and James Anaya, indigenous peopless’ “right to

demarcation, ownership, development, control and use of the lands they have
traditionally owned or otherwise occupied and used” has attained the status of customary
international law. Thus, it is crucial to examine the customary status of these rights in
order to understand the implications of their eventual application to a wider world of
indigenous peoples.
Check Your Progress
2) Define the concept of indigenous peoples.
........................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................

3) Describe a few definitions of indigenous peoples.

........................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................

2.3 HISTORY OF INDIGENOUS PEOPLES’ RIGHTS

AND INTERNATIONAL LAW
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) was adopted on 10 December
1948 is still working on to ensure freedom, equality and dignity for all. The universal
ideals contained in the Declaration’s 30 Articles range from the most fundamental – the
33
Anthropology of Indian right to life – to those that make life worth living, such as the rights to food, education,
Tribes
work, health and liberty. Emphasising the inherent dignity of every human being, its
Preamble underlines that human rights are “the foundation of freedom, justice and
peace in the world” (see https://www.standup4humanrights.org/en/article.html).
Though the issue of indigenous peoples seems to have received greater attention after
World War II in literature, a number of writers describe a long tradition of recognition
of the status and rights of indigenous peoples within international law. According to
early writings, the contemporary emergence of indigenous rights is not so much the
progressive development of new law, but rather the restoration of rights previously
existing and recognised.
The international community has shown increasing concern for the protection of the
rights of indigenous peoples. Conventions and declarations of the international community
provide a broad framework, as well as specific statements regarding the protection of
indigenous peoples and their interests, cultures, ways of life, cultural survival and
development. It may be noted that some international instruments relating to indigenous
peoples have not been ratified by large numbers of the international community.
The emergence of the concept of “indigenous peoples” was a long process. From the
year 1920 indigenous peoples have tried to raise the issue of their marginalisation and
discrimination. The first international organisation to deal seriously with indigenous
peopless’ rights issues was the International Labour Organization (ILO). Within its
framework, the ILO Convention Concerning the Protection and Integration of
Indigenous and Other Tribal and Semi-Tribal Populations in Independent Countries
(ILO Convention No. 107) was adopted in the year 1957. It was the first binding
document in the field of indigenous peopless’ rights protection.
Convention 107 contained important provisions on land use and inheritance, social
security, health and the right to education. After 30 years, ILO Convention No. 107
was revised by the Convention Concerning Indigenous and Tribal peoples in Independent
Countries (ILO Convention No. 169). Convention 169 makes the first attempt to
define indigenous peoples based on their descent from the population which inhabited
the country or geographical region at the time of conquest or colonisation.
Ever since then, the prominence of indigenous peoples and their rights in international
law has progressively increased. At the beginning of the 1970s, the United Nations
began examining the issues concerning indigenous peoples in a more detailed way.
More and more indigenous peoples’ organisations started to receive consultative status
with the United Nations Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC). This allowed them
to participate within the United Nations’ system alongside other non-governmental
organisations.
Beginning in the 1970s, non-governmental organisations in Geneva launched ad hoc
initiatives on specific human rights issues concerning indigenous peoples. But gradually,
the human rights bodies of the United Nations started to look more seriously at the
problem as well.
In the Year 1971, the Sub-Commission on Prevention of Discrimination and Protection
of Minorities appointed a Special Rapporteur (Mr. José R. Martínez Cobo of Ecuador)
to undertake a study of the problem of discrimination against indigenous populations.
Martínez Cobo concluded that existing human rights standards are “not fully applied”
in the case of indigenous communities. It is stated in the report that self-determination
34
must be one of the basic pre-conditions for indigenous peoples’ rights as well as the Idea of Indigenous
Communities *
right to keep the territories they possess.
In 1982, ECOSOC created an ad hoc subsidiary organ of the Sub-Commission devoted
to indigenous peoples: the Working Group on Indigenous Populations. The aim of the
working group was to review the existing standards on indigenous rights protection
and contribute to their development. The working group, composed of representatives
of governments as well as indigenous peoples and organisations, is one of the largest
human rights forums in the U.N. system, bringing in its fold more than seven hundred
participants regularly. Its tasks include the building of dialogue between governments
and indigenous peoples, reviewing national situations, and developing international
standards concerning the promotion and protection of indigenous peoples’ rights.
The next landmark in the history of indigenous rights recognition is the Draft Declaration
on the rights of indigenous peoples, produced in 1993-1994 based on eight years of
documentation of reports to the working group. Among its major achievements, the
working group developed a Draft United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous
peoples, which is being submitted to the United Nations Commission on Human Rights
(through another ad hoc working group of the latter). The working group consists of
more than 200 indigenous organisations which participate and meet once a year. The
process should lead to the adoption of the Declaration by the United Nations General
Assembly (UNGA).
Another declaration on the rights of indigenous peoples is also being developed at the
regional level, within the Inter-American system.
In the year 1985, the UNGA established the Voluntary Fund for Indigenous Populations
to enable representatives of indigenous organisations to attend the sessions of the relevant
U.N. bodies dealing with indigenous issues. The 1992 Rio Conference on Environment
and Development (UNCED), commonly referred to as the Earth Summit, was a turning
point for indigenous peoples. Not only were they recognised as a “major group” of
civil society but, for the first time, they were able to participate and influence processes
relating to the environment.
Agenda 21 adopted by the UNCED in 1992 recognises the actual and potential
contribution of indigenous and tribal peoples to sustainable development. The 1992
Convention on Biodiversity calls on contracting parties to respect traditional indigenous
knowledge with regard to biodiversity and its sustainable use. The Vienna Declaration
and Programme of Action emerging from the 1993 World Conference on Human
Rights recognise the dignity and unique cultural contributions of indigenous peoples,
and strongly reaffirm the commitment of the international community to the economic,
social, and cultural well-being of indigenous peoples and their enjoyment of the fruits
of sustainable development.
As a sign of the increasing importance of indigenous issues, August 9 was proclaimed
International Day of the World’s Indigenous Peoples by the United Nations, first in
1994, to promote and protect the rights of the World’s Indigenous Population. This
day also commemorates the achievements and contributions that Indigenous peoples
make in the world. August 9 also marks the first time the UN Working Group on
Indigenous Populations met in Geneva in 1982. Its goal was to facilitate the General
Assembly’s adoption of the Declaration by 2004. In 1995, it launched the International
Decade of the World’s Indigenous peoples (1995-2004). The International Day of the 35
Anthropology of Indian World’s Indigenous peoples is observed on August 9 every year during the International
Tribes
Decade of the World’s Indigenous peoples (resolution 49/214).
The period of 1995-2004 was proclaimed as the International Decade of Indigenous
peoples with the theme “Indigenous peoples: partnership in action”. In 2001, a “Special
Rapporteur on the situation of human rights and fundamental freedoms of indigenous
peoples” was appointed to receive information and communications on violations of
indigenous peoples’ rights.
A U.N. Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues has also been established (as an
advisory body to ECOSOC) in order to focus on global issues related to indigenous
peoples, especially in the fields of human rights, economic and social development,
culture, education, health, and the environment. After taking more than 20 years to
draft and to accept the draft, The Declaration was adopted by UN General Assembly
in September 2007. It establishes the rights of Indigenous peoples to the protection of
their cultural property as well as the rights to education, employment, health, religion,
language, and more. The adoption of the Declaration caused controversies, especially
regarding its regulations relating to land rights for indigenous communities. However, it
represents a global instrument of indigenous peoples’ rights protection.
Moreover, apart from ad hoc initiatives and instruments, the diversity of indigenous
peoples has been taken into account by other general instruments on human rights, as
well as within the realm of international environmental law and cultural diversity. The
process of drafting engaged the representatives of indigenous communities who got
the possibility to promote their own views on the rights that should be granted to them
(Alessandro Fodella 2006).
The Draft Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous peoples: This is the most
comprehensive statement of the rights of indigenous peoples to date, establishing
collective rights to a greater extent than any other document in international human
rights law. It establishes the rights of indigenous peoples to the protection of their
cultural property as well as the rights to education, employment, health, religion, language,
and more. It also protects the rights of the indigenous peoples to own land collectively.
The Declaration testifies to the commitment of the international community to the
protection of both the individual and collective rights of indigenous peoples. It emphasises
their right to maintain and strengthen their institutions, cultures and traditions and to
pursue their development in accordance with their aspirations and needs. It has become
a major tool for Indigenous peoples to defend themselves against discrimination, racism,
oppression, marginalisation and exploitation.
Among the human rights the Declaration defines and protects, the following are of
particular importance to indigenous peoples:
 The right to self-determination.
 The right to collective rights.
 The right to development.
The full text of the draft Declaration, consisting of 46 Articles, was divided into 9 parts
as given below.
 Part 1. Fundamental Rights: Non-discrimination, equality, self-determination
36 (Articles 1-3)
 Part 2. Life and Security (Articles 4-7) Idea of Indigenous
Communities *
 Part 3. Culture, Religion, and Language Laws (Articles 8-13)
 Part 4. Education, Media, and Employment (Articles 14-16)
 Part 5. Participation and Development (Articles 17-24)
 Part 6. Land and Resources (Articles 25-29)
 Part 7. Self-Government and Indigenous peoples (Articles 30-36)
 Part 8. Implementation (Articles 37-42)
 Part 9. Minimum Standards (Articles 43-46)
Many human rights advocates regard Article 3, the right of self-determination, as the
most significant feature of the Declaration, with all other rights supporting that essential
freedom. The complete text of the Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous peoples
can be downloaded at http://www1.umn.edu/humanrts/instree/declaration.html.
The issue of the rights of indigenous peoples has thus slowly but steadily gained
importance for the international community. This has led to an international legal
framework that is comprised of individual and collective rights stemming from general
and ad hoc instruments, deriving from different sources, and belonging to different
areas of international law.
Check Your Progress
4) Name the organisations that contributed to the rights of indigenous peoples.
........................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................

5) Explain briefly about the definition related problems in international law.

2.4 SUMMARY
There are approximately 370 million indigenous peoples in the world, belonging to
5,000 different groups, in 90 countries. Indigenous peoples live in every region of the
world, but about 70 per cent live in Asia. Indigenous peoples have historically been
among the poorest and most excluded demographic group in the world. They have not
only faced serious discrimination in terms of their basic rights to their ancestral property,
languages, cultures, and forms of governance, but also in terms of access to basic
social services (education, health and nutrition, water and sanitation, housing, etc.) and
the essential material conditions for a satisfying life. 37
Anthropology of Indian Presently, there is no universally accepted definition of the word “indigenous peoples.”
Tribes
However, many development agencies and institutions have developed their own
definitions with different elements to characterise indigenous peoples. Considering the
diversity of indigenous peoples, any specific definition may have the effect of excluding
some indigenous groups from the category. A strict definition may also serve as an
excuse for governments not to recognise indigenous peoples in their jurisdiction. Hence,
no legal definition of indigenous peoples is either necessary or desirable, remains a
prevailing view.
As a global reality, efforts of indigenous peoples to have their rights recognised or
further developed are relevant in both developing and developed countries. Indigenous
peoples suffered from historic injustices due to colonisation and dispossession of their
lands, territories and resources, preventing them from exercising their right to
development that meets their own needs and interests.
In general, indigenous peoples are disproportionately represented among the poorest
of the poor in both industrialised and developing countries. The rights of indigenous
peoples are significantly recognised through various international declarations or
conventions, such as
 The 1989 International Labour Organization Convention No. 169 concerning the
indigenous and tribal peoples in independent countries,
 The 1992 United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity,
 The Draft UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous peoples, and
 The 2007 United Nations (UN) Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous peoples.
The above international laws are particularly relevant to the recognition and protection
of the rights of indigenous peoples.
The landmark document ‘The 2007 United Nations (UN) Declaration on the Rights of
Indigenous Peoples is the culmination of decades of drafting and negotiations by the
Working Group on Indigenous Populations in which more than one hundred indigenous
organisations and thousands of indigenous individuals participated. The Declaration
testifies to the commitment of the international community to protect both individual
and collective rights of indigenous peoples. It emphasises the right of indigenous peoples
to maintain and strengthen their institutions, cultures, and traditions and to pursue their
development in accordance with their aspirations and needs. It has become a major
tool for indigenous peoples to defend themselves against discrimination, racism,
oppression, marginalisation and exploitation. Among the human rights the Declaration
defines and protects indigenous peoples, these are of particular importance to indigenous
peoples.

2.5 REFERENCES
Anaya, J. (2009). International Human Rights and Indigenous Peoples. New York:
Aspen Publishers.
Anaya, J., & Wiessner, S. (2000). The UN Declaration on the rights of indigenous
peoples: Towards re-empowerment. Jurist, para 13. Retrieved from <http://
jurist.law.pitt.edu/forumy/2007/10/undeclaration- on-rights-of-indigenous.php >
38
Bijoy, C.R., and Tiplut Nongbri. Country Technical Note on Indigenous Peoples’ Issues: Idea of Indigenous
Communities *
Republic of India. IFAD, January 2013.
Cobo, J. M., (1986). Study of the Problem of Discrimination Against Indigenous
Populations, UN Document E/CN.4/Sub.2/1986/7Add.4, Paragraph 379.
Colchester, M. (1995). Indigenous peoples’ rights and sustainable resource use in
South and Southeast Asia. R.H., Barnes, A., Gray, & B., Kingsbury (Eds.). Indigenous
Peoples of Asia. Ann Arbor: Association for Asian Studies.
Convention Concerning Indigenous and Tribal Peoples in Independent Countries.
(1989 June27). 28 ILM 1382, (entered into force 5 September 1991) [ILO Convention
No 169] Retrieved from < http://www.ilo.org/ilolex/cgi-lex/convde.pl?C169>
Convention concerning the protection and integration of indigenous and other
tribal and semi-tribal populations in independent countries. (1957 June 26).
(entered into force 02 June 1959). [ILO Convention No 107] Retrieved from http://
w w w. i l o . o rg / d yn / n o r m l e x / e n / f ? p = 1 0 0 0 : 1 2 1 0 0 : 0 : : N O : : P 1 2 1 0 0 _
INSTRUMENT_ID:312252
E/CN.4/Sub.2/1983/ 21 Adds. Para. 379. As cited in Tapan K. Bose, Definition and
delimitation of the indigenous peoples of Asia. C., Erni, (Ed.). Vines that wont Bind:
Indigenous Peoples of Asia (Copenhagen: IWGIA Document No. 80, 1996) 46,
para 1.
E/CN.4/Sub.2/1984/2/Add.2; For Bangladesh, Report of the Working Group on
indigenous populations on its fourteenth session, UN Doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/1996/21,
para. 34. As cited in Kingsbury, f 77.
Fodella, A. (2006) International law and the diversity of indigenous peoples. Vermont
Law Review, Vol. 30
Ian, M. (2000 September). Are there indigenous peoples in Asia? Cultural Survival
Quarterly Magazine.
Indigenous Voices fact sheet, Retrieved from ttp://www.un.org/esa/socdev/unpfii/
documents/5session_factsheet1.pdf
International Labour Organisation. For ratifications of the C169. Retrieved from http:/
/www.ilo.org/dyn/normlex/en/f?p=1000:11300:0::NO:11300:P11300_
INSTRUMENT_ID:312314
International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs. Retrieved from http://www.iwgia.org/
culture-and-identity/identification-of-indigenous-people.
Kingsbury, B. (2000). Operational policies of international institutions as part of the
law-making process: The World Bank and indigenous peoples. G.S., Goodwin-Gill &
S., Talmon (Eds.). The reality of international law: Essays in honor of Ian Brownlie
(329, para 2). Oxford University Press.
Kingsbury, ibid, at 434, para 2. Salt-Water colonialism means classical European
colonial rule, or a situation in which a colonial power (European) is geographically
separated from its colonies by ocean water.
Kingsbury, supra note 52, at 434, para 2. Government of India, observations, UN
Doc.
39
Anthropology of Indian Operational Policy 4.10. (para 3). The World Bank. Retrievd from http://
Tribes
web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/PROJECTS/EXTPOLICIES/
EXTOPMANUAL/0,contentMDK:20553653~menuPK:4564187~page
PK:64709096~piPK:64709108~theSitePK:502184~isCURL: Y,00.html
Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity (2005 September 21-23) The
convention on biological diversity and traditional knowledge. Conference Room Paper
for the Workshop on Traditional Knowledge, Panama.
Sylvie Motard. (2007) Indigenous People and Sustainable Development: How Has
UNEP Contributed?, in (edit book) Indigenous Knowledge Systems and Tribes and
Tribals, Special Volume No. 1: 241-251 (2007) Sustainable Development: Relevance
for Africa Emmanuel K. Boon and Luc Hens, Editors, Kamla-Raj Enterprises.
Tauli-Corpuz, V. (2001). Indigenous peoples and the millennium development goals.
Indigenous Perspectives.
UN Doc. E/CN.4/WG.15/2. (1995). Consideration of a draft United Nations
Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, as cited in Kingsbury, ibid, at 417-
418.
UN Document A/61/L.67. (2007 September 12) The United Nations Declaration
on the Rights of Indigenous peoples, adopted by the UN General Assembly.
https://ir.lib.uwo.ca/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2219&context=etd

2.6 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1) Refer to Sub-section 2.1.1
2) Refer to Section 2.2
3) Refer to Section 2.2
4) Refer to Section 2.3

Refer to Section 2.3

40
Idea of Indigenous
UNIT 3 CHARACTERISTICS AND Communities *

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION
OF TRIBES*
Structure

3.0 Introduction
3.1 Northern Himalayan Zone
3.2 Eastern Zone
3.3 Western Zone
3.4 Central Zone
3.5 Southern Zone
3.6 Island’s Zone
3.7 Summary
3.8 References
3.9 Answers to Check Your Progress
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, students will be able to:
 understand the geographical distribution of tribes in India along with their cultural
characteristics in the present context;
 get a holistic view of the ethnic diversity of different eco-cultural zones including
Union territories and island communities; and
 compare the similarities and differences of the culture of the northern, southern,
eastern, western, and central regions in India.

3.0 INTRODUCTION
More than seven hundred tribal communities constitute 8.6% of the total population in
India who are unequally distributed in India with exceptions to Delhi, Punjab, and
Haryana. For better understanding, ethnic groups are divided on the basis of
geographical, linguistic, racial, and economic characteristics that they share in their
ecological set up. However, even within the same eco-cultural zone, there exist
differences in terms of physical appearance, customs and traditions, socio-cultural
processes, etc. Hence, the present chapter attempts to highlight the socio-cultural
characteristics of tribal communities that are distributed in different geographical regions
of the country, such as

i) Northern zone extending from Jammu and Kashmir, Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh
to Uttar Pradesh.

*Contributor: Dr. D.V. Prasad, Assistant Professor, Department of Sociology & Social
Anthropology, Indira Gandhi National Tribal University, Amarkantak 41
Anthropology of Indian ii) North-East zone consists of Tripura, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Manipur, Arunachal
Tribes
Pradesh, Mizoram and Assam.
iii) Central/Middle zone represents the states of, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, and
parts of Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, etc.
iv) Western zone includes the states of Rajasthan, Gujarat and Maharashtra.
v) Eastern zone represents West Bengal, Bihar, Jharkhand, and Odisha
vi) Southern zone includes newly created Telangana state along with Andhra Pradesh,
Tamil Nadu, Kerala, and Karnataka
vii) Island’s zone: Andaman Nicobar Islands and Lakshadweep.
Major tribes like Gond, Bhil, Santhal, and so on are distributed in more than one
region with the growth of population, migration, industrialisation, etc. Variations of
socio-cultural processes are distinct with the influence of regional or local cultures. For
example, Gond of Bastar are still leading a very primitive way of life whereas Raj
Gonds of Madhya Pradesh are totally assimilated in Hinduism who claim kshatriya
identity. Taking ecological and cultural factors into consideration, the present unit
highlights the socio-cultural characteristics of the tribes who are residing in the above
regions.
Activity
Identify the distribution of major tribal communities in various states on a map of
India including Andaman & Nicobar and Lakshadweep Islands. For this, Scheduled
Tribes distribution map prepared by Anthropological Survey of India on the
distribution of tribal communities with census data will be useful to the students.

Check Your Progress

1) Discuss the geographical classification of tribes given by Indian anthropologists
with suitable examples.
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3.1 NORTHERN HIMALAYAN ZONE

The northern region covers Jammu and Kashmir, Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand, and
Himachal Pradesh. This zone falls in the Himalayan ranges where tribes inhabit the hilly
areas and possess a rich culture which is distinct from that of the plains’ population. It
is covered with mountain valleys on the eastern and western frontiers having border
with Pakistan, Afghanistan, Tibet, and Nepal. The high lands of this region facilitate
nomadism and tribes such as Gujjar, Bakarwal, Bhedi, Balti, Changpa, and Dogra
resort to pastoral mode of economy for survival. Though majority of them resort to
similar kind of pastoral subsistence i.e., rearing of sheep, goat, cows, buffalos, there
exists a major difference in their cultural characteristics.
42
Characteristics and
Activity Geographical Distribution
of Tribes*
Whenever students confront a trans humane along with their flock, they may
interact to understand their way of life, seasonal route, permanent settlement, and
the challenges that they face while moving from one place to another place
especially during Covid-19 pandemic lockdown.

The geographical and climatic conditions of Jammu and Kashmir facilitate pastoralism
as means of subsistence strategy. In this mode of economy, they resort to seasonal
migration in hilly terrains by arranging temporary habitats. For example, Bhotias move
from their mati situated at the upper reaches of the river valleys in summer to gunshas
situated at lower altitudes in winter. They observe peculiar funeral rites known as dudung
which is an admixture of Hindu shraddha and native customary practices. But now
days this practice is slowly vanishing in favour of purely Hindu form of shraddha
which is conducted by Brahmin priests. Rangbang is a dormitory system of Bhotiyas
of Darma, Byans, Chaudanspattis Gujjar who are also trans humancing between two
distinct ecological zones without much change in their subsistence.
The pastoral communities in Himalaya are adapting to the precarious climatic conditions
of high altitudes through animal husbandry. Barter exchange is still practiced with local
communities for sharing the grazing lands. Further, these pastoral communities are
possessing rich traditional knowledge of medicinal herbs that are immensely used for
controlling the diseases affecting humans as well as livestock. They used to construct
their summer dwellings (kachakotha) where women engaged in processing of milk
produces and the men flock their cattle in alpine areas.
Gujjar and Bakerwals belong to the same tribe but they got separated on the grounds
of subsistence as the former rear cattle and the latter rear sheep and goat. Even settled
Gujjars also migrate in summers to the slopes of Himalayan dhoks (lower elevations)
and margs (higher elevations). Some patches of land are fenced with wooden twigs
and they grow maize and vegetables.
Gaddis of Himachal Pradesh are semi-nomadic who move with their sheep to higher
elevations though they have permanent villages at lower heights. At higher elevations
they do possess temporary structures like Bakerwals. Since their dwellings are so near
to forests, they possess knowledge about medicinal herbs.
The tribes of Uttarakhand also depend on pastoral economy as well as cultivation by
women. The pure pristine living off the forests relies on transportation of goods on the
small backs of goats and sheep. Besides pastoralism, they also engaged in handicraft
making, and rearing of livestock. Though forest is lifeline to the cattle bearers, the
afforestation programmes under joint forest management, climate change, terrorism
are limiting the age-old pastoral economy.
North-East Region/Zone
River Brahmaputra divided the regions, north of which falls the tribal belt of Bhutan
and North East Frontier Agency; while south of it is the important belt of Naga and
Lushai. The valley of Manipur is the meeting point of both tribal and Hindu castes.
Northern border coincides with China while eastern with Burma; in north-west are
Bhutan, Sikkim and Nepal; in south west Assam border of Garo coincides with
international border of Bangladesh. Majority of the tribes of north-eastern region are
43
Anthropology of Indian of mongoloid origin. However, the presence of austric race such as Khasi and Jaintiya
Tribes
of Meghalaya, Moran of Assam also exists. The Negroids, who are believed to have
migrated via China constitute the present day Naga of Nagaland.
Tribes living in hilly areas practice jhum (shifting cultivation). Though Buddhism and
Christianity have made inroads into tribal society, but still glimpses of animism can be
found. Among the tribes of Arunachal Pradesh mithun (wild ox or domesticated gaur)
is revered as a sacrificial animal. Hinduism made great inroads into Manipur with its
unique character of indigenity. They eat fish but will not touch flesh and profess to be
very particular in their social and religious observances. Maibaism is related to the
traditional Manipuri faith. Enghah, reenanai, oodooeeyung are some of the traditional
festivals of Manipur. The unique feature of reenanai, is separate cooking in the absence
of their spouses. Weaving and handmade embroidery is a household activity for both
men and women.
Nagas of Nagaland are ferocious whose war dance is famous in north east which gives
insight into their rich cultural heritage. They follow clan exogamy but Konyak Naga
chiefs who are considered so sacrosanct that their principle wife must be women of the
same clan. Tattooing is practiced by Konyak, Chang, and Phom Naga. Moatsu festival
is celebrated after sowing is over. Sekrenyi, sankarni, tsukhenye, kundanglem and
naknyulem, tsokum are some of the important festivals celebrated with pomp and
show by Naga.
Lepcha, Bhotiya and Nepalese of Sikkim believe in bone or Mune faith which is based
on spirits or good or bad. The polyandry marriages are permitted amongst Lepchas.
Assamese local Bihu and Satriya folk dances are a part of great traditions. Bamboo
and cane made handicrafts such as mats, baskets of various sizes and shapes, winnowing,
fishing traps, musical instruments, and so on are popular through-out north east. Matai-
katar the supreme deity of Tripura is identified with Shiv Mahadev. In Karchiadker
puja, all entrances to the capital are closed for two days and all people obliged to
remain in their houses. On this occasion, they were allowed to go outside only twice
that too for a few hours only, without putting on shoes, to light a fire, to dance and sing.
Similar kind of tradition is observed by Nicobarese of Nicobar Islands who generally
do not venture outside the village in case of funeral rites of the village.
Kur (clan) is the matrilineally related exogamous unit of Khasi and play an important
function in marriage. Since the tribe is matriarchal, women are socially and politically
dominant. Traditionally kakhadduh (youngest daughter) is eligible to inherit the ancestral
property. Maternal uncle play an important role in upbringing of the children. U Blei is
referred as Khasi main deity. Rings or betel nut bags are exchanged between the bride
and bridegroom to mark the sacred union. Similarly, Garo are also matrilineal and the
line of inheritance is traced through females. Nokpante is a youth dormitory where
boys are trained to become mature adults. Jaintias of Jaintia hills share the customs and
traditions of Khasi with little variations. Making spirit from the distillation of rice or
millets is common among them.
Mizo society is ruled by traditional chiefs and the presents given to him are treated as
common property. Zaulbuk is a youth dormitory, where common pass time activities,
story-telling, singing, dancing, wrestling, etc. are held. Tlaumngaihua is a custom by
which people are bound to help others who are in need. With different nomenclature,
such cooperation mechanism exists at lineage, clan, or village level among the majority
of the tribes in India.
44
Check Your Progress Characteristics and
Geographical Distribution
of Tribes*
2) Mention the geographical characteristics of Himalayan region with special reference
to north-east tribes.
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3.2 EASTERN ZONE

States like Bihar, Jharkhand, West Bengal, and Odisha fall under this zone. Tribes of
Odisha linguistically belong to Indo-Aryan, Dravidian, Tibeto-Burmese and Austric
family. Despite this, they have lots of commonalities in their socio-cultural life.
Classificatory kinship system, patrilineal inheritance is the rule of law. Position of priest
village headman is hereditary. Marriage by capture, elopement, purchase, service and
negotiation are found among them, of which, marriage by negotiation is preferred by
majority tribes. Religion is an admixture of animism, naturism, fetishism, shamanism
where they practice animistic practices. Dormitory system such as the majang of
Juangs, dindaghar of Kondhs, dhangarabasa of Bhuyans and ingersin of Bondos is
most popular. Gaur, gotar, pushpenei, kedu, karam, chaitparab, maghaparab are
some of the important ceremonial activities observed with utmost faith.
Juang, Santhal, Kondh, Gadaba and Paraja are well known for their exogamous
patrilineal totemic dan (clan) organisation. Saoras have an extended family called birinda
descended from a common ancestor and not a dan system. Saora women belong to
their father’s family after marriage and not to her husband’s dan. Sarul is important
festival and each tribe has a distinct style of performing it. They reckon descent through
male line wherein daughters are deprived of the right to property. Every village has in
one of its corners a sacred grove called jahel or sarna. The village priests who officiate
at sacred groves are known as pathan, deuri, naik, kelo, and so on. Most of the
tribes worship Singh Bonga who creates and destroys the world whenever he likes.
In Santhal bapla (marriage) it is forbidden to marry within his or her own parish (sept
or sub-division of clan) but there is no restriction with regard to marriage age of the
bride or groom.

3.3 WESTERN ZONE

Gujarat, Rajasthan, Maharashtra, and the union territories such as Goa, Dadra and
Nagar Haveli come under this zone. Major portion of it is covered with arid regions
and Thar Desert but towards central India hilly forests are inhabited by majority of
tribes. Rabaris are cattle breeders who claim Rajput ancestry and are believed to have
migrated from Sindh and Marwar. Banni is a place where Rabari art work represents
varieties of embroidered patterns and designs where one can witness their socio-cultural
rubric. Bhils of Gujarat are socially organised into Valvi Bhils, Vasava Bhils, Garasia
Bhils and Bhilala since each has a distinct culture and mode of living. They are organised
into a number of large patrilineal clan groups known as Atak, Odakh, Got, or Kul
45
Anthropology of Indian who claim descent from the same mythical ancestor. Family is the basic unit of social
Tribes
and religious life among Bhils. Mainly their social life is controlled by traditional councils
known as panch.
Dhodia are located in extreme southeastern district of Gujarat. Now majority of them
have given up nomadic lifestyle and settled into farming. Forest labours, trade labour,
hunting, and fishing are practiced during the leisure of agriculture. Kunbis inhabit the
Dangs forest regions and their women are fascinated for jewelry. Warli, is a sub-tribe
of Bhil, are a primitive tribe living in the same forested regions. Each tribe has its
ancestral god and goddess and offer novej at particular hours. Holi, gokul, aatham,
akhatrij, divaso, and vasantotsav are the festivals of seasonal importance.
Plateau region in central Maharashtra is largely populated by major tribes such as
Bhils, Mahadeo Kolis, Gonds, and Warlis. Once food gatherers, Warlis are now
engaged in modern livelihoods. They believe in the power of mother goddess. Their
wall paintings represent typical human figures, and are a clear expression of daily and
social events of the Warli tribe of Maharastra.
Union Territories such as Goa, Dadra and Nagar Haveli, Daman and Diu are having
distinct identity in terms of its geographical location as well as cultural features. Goan
tribes live in segregated villages and are engaged in agriculture, fishing and animal
husbandry. The endogamy principles at group level, exogamy at population level, are
the rules of marriage. Family is the basic social unit. The form of marriage prevalent in
Goa is monogamy among Hindus and Christians whereas it is social contract among
the Muslims. In northern part of Goa, Saddo ceremony is observed to cut the cloth to
be worn by the bride in the house after the wedding.
Dadra and Nagar Haveli is a land locked union territory which lies besides Gujarat and
Maharashtra. Major tribes of Maharastra and Gujarat are found here. Four-fifth of the
population belongs to ethnic communities who attract major income in the form of
tribal tourism. Though agriculture is the major economic activity, tribal tourism is the
major attraction in Silvassa where gheria of Dubla is the centre of attraction. Daman
and Diu lie on the sea side and both are enclosed by Gujarat. Like Dadra and Nagar
Haveli, Dhodia, Dubla, Naikda, Siddi, and Varli are the major tribes of this union
territory. Most of the tribes are concentrated in heavily forested areas and are dependent
on subsistence agriculture, hunting and gathering, etc.
Check Your Progress
3) Distinguish the geographical characteristics of eastern and western India.
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3.4 CENTRAL ZONE

Geographically speaking central India covers Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh and its
contagious areas including South-eastern Rajasthan, northern Telangana and Andhra
46 Pradesh, south-western West Bengal, Bihar, Jharkhand, Orissa, southern Uttar Pradesh,
and northern Maharashtra. Of which, Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh contain Characteristics and
Geographical Distribution
majority of tribal population whereas Odisha contains more number of tribal groups. of Tribes*

The Gond are the largest ethnic population found throughout central region when
compared to Baiga, Kol, Panika, and Agaria. Bastar which falls in Dandakaranya
region is predominantly occupied by sub-tribes of Gond known as Maria and Muria.
The tribal populations can distinguish themselves from one another in terms of physical
appearance, material culture, language, folklore, myths and legends, etc. Though south
Indian tribes belong to Dravidian linguistic family, some of the tribes from central region
also speak the same language especially Gond and Khond who live on shifting cultivation.
The tribes of central India possess rich cultural heritage which is depicted through
various socio-cultural activities. Generally, they used to worship their gods and
goddesses in the form of natural resources such as hill, forest, streams, trees and animals.
Religion is a mechanism to cure the diseases, protection from natural calamities and
wild animals, good harvest, and prosperous living. Most of their rituals are related to
their economy and satisfaction of psychological and spirituals needs. Usually, family
and lineage deities are worshipped by the head of family at individual level whereas the
clan members worship at village level collectively. Conventionally, each tribe has its
own supreme god followed by its tribal pantheon. For example, the Bada-dev is
considered as supreme god of Gond; the Aadamma (the mother goddess) is the major
deity Panika, etc. Baiga is Dravidian tribe inhabiting the eastern hills of Satpura have
peculiar customs to testify the marriage ceremony. To ascertain whether the union will
be auspicious, two grains of paddy are dropped into a pot of water. If the points of
grain meet almost intermittently, it is considered that marriage will be highly auspicious.
Cross cousin marriage is popular as doodh lautawa among Gonds. As Majumdar
explained, that these kinds of cross cousin marriages are observed to avoid exorbitant
bride-prices and to protect the familial property. But due to industrialisation and
modernisation, majority of the animistic beliefs and rituals are changing and slowly they
are adopting Hinduism, Christianity, and other cults surrounded by tribes of central
India. Tribes of Bastar region do observe marriage ceremony wherein it is customary
to observe neerchaparana by bringing water from the earmarked aquifers and sprinkle
over the newly married couple. Economic organisation of some of the tribes still revolves
around gathering, shifting cultivation, and settled cultivation.

3.5 SOUTHERN ZONE

This zone located in south of the Vindhya ranges covering both Eastern and Western
Ghats. The newly created Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamilnadu,
and the Union Territory of Pondicherry fall under this zone. Majority of the tribes are
of Dravidian origin except Coorgs of Karnataka and the Toda of Nilgiri hills who still
retain their distinct identities.
In Andhra, once the nomadic Lambadis who are also known as Sugali originally migrated
from Rajasthan and are distributed in rural areas of Telangana and Andhra Pradesh,
whose hamlets are popular as ‘thandas’. Agriculture is the mainstay of all the tribes.
Some of the vulnerable groups such as Chenchu, Kolam, Konda Reddy, and so on still
rely on forest for their subsistence besides agriculture. The nomadic hunting gathering
tribe Chenchu is now settled in plain areas. Besides Hindu deities, they do worship
local deities. Nuclear family is their basic social unit which consists of husband, wife
and their children. Konda Reddy inhabit the highlands of Godavari still surviving on 47
Anthropology of Indian podu (slash and burn cultivation). They are highly cooperative which is evident from
Tribes
the management of common property resources and celebration of joint ritual activities.
Kolam, inhabiting northern most districts live in similar conditions to Konda Reddy
who speak gondi dialect. Their social organisation is based on a system of exogamous
septs. Ayak is their cult deity but refereed to be as Bhimal or Bhimana. Naikpods of
Adilabad district had their own language known as kolami but majority are well versed
in telugu.
In Karnataka, typical Coorg exhibit distinct physical and cultural characteristics when
compared to other tribal communities. Jenu Kuruba have their own dialect known as
jenunudi. Tribal households are mostly nuclear in nature but cultivation is organised
jointly. Wayanad in Kerala has predominant tribal population with distinct language
and culture. Majority of them are matrilineal in nature but maternal uncle plays an
important role in socialising the child in a family. Many tribes had their language or
dialect, traditions, customs, myths, ritual practices etc. Tribes of Kerala today are
mainly agriculturalists although forest is still an important part of their lives. Endogamous
marriages are considered as taboo and severe punishments are meted out to those
who deviate the rule. Among Irular of Palghat, the whole community performs a type
of group dance which is famous as kurumbalam during marriage and death. Among
Kurichyar, bow and arrow are compulsory in all life cycle rituals. Paniyar scare about
the dead souls and hence observe nikalattam to pacify the dead spirit. Tattooing
among tribes of Kerala is unique in nature as ink used is made from the mixture of
human breast milk, castor oil, and carbon collected from oil lamps. In Tamil Nadu,
Todas of Nilgiri hills are distinct from the rest of tribal community as they still depend
on pastoralism for survival. They are interdependent with Kurumba, Kota and Badaga
and exchange milk products to procure other essentials.
The tribes of south India observe clan exogamy which is based on the settlement and
territory. But Kadar have no such clanship and their temporary local groups and families
are the units of social organisation. They place emphasis on the members than any
institutional mechanism. Even the Mal Pandarams are also not having any such clans,
marital alliances were held with the distant people who have little or no blood relation.
Among Toda, social organisation is divided into endogamous moieties such as
tharthazoll and thevelioll. Each moiety again consists of number of exogamous clans.
These clans are further divided into kudrs and polms for ceremonial purposes.
Fraternal as well as non-fraternal polyandry is the marked feature of Toda, Kota, Nair
communities in south India. But with the changing conditions in and around Todas of
Nilgiri hills, the present generation is showing interest towards monogamy as they feel
embarrassed when compared to their neighbouring marriage customs. Demography,
infanticide, bride wealth are factors for this matrimonial custom. In this groom agrees
to give an amount in the form of cash or kind to the parents of the bride. To prevent the
exorbitant rates of bride wealth and uneconomic agriculture in mountains by a single
husband, this mode of marriage system might have come into existence. Among Toda,
sociological fatherhood is considered most important one than the biological fatherhood.
To fix such kind of fatherhood, they observe bow and arrow ceremony. On this occasion,
all the brothers and a common wife gather in presence of whole village in the fourth or
fifth month of pregnancy. On consensus, one of the brothers presents a set of bow and
arrow to the wife as a part of declaration of sociological fatherhood to the ensuing
child.
48
Check Your Progress Characteristics and
Geographical Distribution
of Tribes*
4) Classify the tribal communities of south India based on western and eastern ghats.
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3.6 ISLAND’S ZONE

Besides the mainland India, there exists some indigenous communities in far-away
regions like Andaman and Nicobar Islands and Lakshwadeep that are very much part
of Indian subcontinent.
Tribes of Andaman and Nicobar Region
The union territory of Andaman Island consists of more than 572 islands both inhabited
and uninhabited lying in south eastern part of the Bay of Bengal. The topography is
generally hilly and the soil with little water holding capacity. The islands are home to the
paleolithic tribes such as Great Andamanese, Ang (Jarawa), Onge, Sentinelese who
are the remnants of negrito stock. They are typically live-in bands foraging in the
forests in search of food, in similarity with neighbouring Semans of Malaya and Aeta of
Philippines. In 1888, Great Andamanese were having more than 2,000 population and
occupied major portion of Andaman Island. But now they are having 74 individuals, of
which 56 constitute Mendalian stock and remaining 18 are having mixed population
physical characters. Due to their endangerment, they are now rehabilitated in Strait
Island by providing pucca built houses and supply of ration. Now they have undertaken
employment and are cultivating coconut, betel nut, vegetables along with poultry farming.
According to 2011 census, Jarawa tribe is having a total population of 380 with 194
males and 186 females inhabiting the coastline of south and middle Andaman whereas
Sentinelese inhabit north Sentinel Island. Onge of Little Andaman are having a population
of 101 with 52 males and 49 females. The Sentinelese are not head counted so far due
to their hostility and isolation. Majority of them are forest nomads who rely on gathering
mode of economy. Great Andamanese and Onge rely on government aid and are
engaged in horticultural activities. Varieties of fish, octopus, turtle, crabs, molluscus,
edible roots and tubers, and so on mainly come from the island coastal ecology. Jarawa
used to live in bands and build temporary thatched huts which are popular as chadda.
The settlements consist of one comparatively semi-permanent community hut mainly
used by the family members surrounded by two small semi-permanent huts on either
side. One belongs to adolescent boys’ dormitory (dahchadda) and the latter belongs
to the adolescent girls’ dormitory (abelachadda). One small hut like structure is found
at the backside with the storage of fishing materials and dried honey combs.
In the main hut, there exists one big center fire place along with multiple fire places
besides sleeping beds. It indicates the cohabitation of band in semi-permanent hut with
clear demarcation of nuclear families. The day-to-day functional materials like fishing
nets, large number of Tohad (knives) pierced on the thatch roof, sleeping beds with
wooden logs, cane baskets, wooden buckets, huge number of skulls of hunted wild 49
Anthropology of Indian pigs tied in nets which are suspended from the thatch roof and wooden post, iron
Tribes
plates, bunches of empty mineral water bottles, fuel wood, utensils packed gunny
bags, elevated structures for keeping articles etc., are also found in the main Chadda.
There exists some open fire place where boulders are kept beneath the fire place
where jack fruit is roasted and preserved underground for consumption is lean season.
Whenever they hunt wild pig or gather wild produces in large quantity, they are shared
within band members. The honey collected with beehive combs by the members of the
Chadda is stored nearer to the camp which is to be consumed on the ceremonial
occasion like marriage or get together of two bands simultaneously. Now administration
is providing vessels used for boiling collected fish, crab, molluscus. Contact with settler
community made them to consume banana, coconut, rice, and other consumable items.
The Nicobarese and Shompen are the inhabitants of Nicobar Island. It is a
conglomeration of twenty- two islands that are categorised into north, central and
southern groups. Majority of the Nicobarese dwell in Car Nicobar which is having 14
villages. Chowra, Teressa, Bompuka, Katchal, Camorta, Nancowry and Trinket islands
constitute the Middle group. The southern group islands are known as Kondul, Pulo
Milo, Little Nicobar, and Great Nicobar. Nicobarese dwell in all these islands whereas
deep forest areas of Great Nicobar are inhabited by Shompen. Compared to other
islands, Car Nicobar is flat whereas the central and southern islands are having uplands
towards interior. Hence population is sparsely distributed in these islands.
The Nicobarese language is classified as Austro-Asiatic sub-family. Whitehead (1924)
classified the Nicobarese into six linguistic groups. The Roman script introduced in
Car by Bishop John Richardson along with George Whitehead with the assistance of
Bishop Richardson has become a ‘linguafranca’. Horticulture is the mainstay of the
Nicobarese. All the Nicobarese resemble similarity in physical features, culturally they
are distinct. Nicobarese society is organised as maximal lineage system which is popular
as tuhet which facilitate the collective cooperation and group cohesion. Inlom’ is a
kind of bi-local residence which is paving for in and out migration. Nicobarese possess
art of making baskets and canoes. Though majority of them converted to Christianity
and Islam, they still maintain animistic practices. They have belief in magical powers
despite of conversion to Christianity. Southern group is characterised by animistic belief
in fetishes known ashentukui and kareava and offer worship along with animal sacrifice.
Kinrooka (reburial ceremony) is an important ceremonial activity among Central
Nicobarese which is celebrated to dig-out the bones of the dead and the same was
reburied in another place. Whenever the concerned tuhet procure sufficient resources,
they decide the date for its celebration. But the 2004 earthquake and tsunami have
made tremendous impact on the traditional culture of the Nicobarese. At present such
kind of traditional feasts are very rare as their habitat and resources were washed
away in giant tsunami waves. In the newly built rehabilitation shelters, they are facing
problems in observation of traditional ceremonial events.
Tribes of Lakshadweep Region
Laccadive, Aminidivi, and Minicoy together form a Union Territory of Lakshadweep,
220 kilometres off Calicut. The inhabitants of Minicoy are ethnically and culturally
similar to Maldive’s group. Majority of the tribes resemble the physical features of the
tribes of Kerala and the existing custom of matriliny is a testimony to this fact. Archaic
form of Malayalam with distinct Arab accent is a popular language but in Minicoy
mahl is popular. This region was divided into four divisions such as Minicoy, Kavaratti,
50
Amini, and Andrott. Koya, Malmi, and Malacheri are the major tribes of Laccadive Characteristics and
Geographical Distribution
group of islands; Manikfan, Thakur and Raverie in Minicoy; Tarwad, Tanakam-Pranaver, of Tribes*
Kudiati and Melacheri in Amini. The peculiar matrilineal kinship system followed by a
duo-local residence is a characteristic feature where husband was a night visitor to his
wife’s house where she lived with her matrilineal kin. In course of time Hinduism is
replaced with Islam, but this rare form of matriliny has survived. Islam provided flexibility
with existing matrilineal system in Lakshadweep. Most of the settlers belong to four
major ethnic groups of Kerala i.e., Nair, Nambodri, Mukuvaan, and Tiyya. Koya
were the land-owning class who own boats and claim origin from Nair and Nambodri
Brahmin. The Malmi who are navigators and tenants the Melacheri are coconut pluckers
and toddy tappers descended from tiyya. Relations between high and low groups
were marked by a kind of discrimination and social distance but not by notions of ritual
purity and pollution. Membership in tharvad is traced through female line and on
property no individual has exclusive rights rather it is a communal one used for the
welfare of its members. Karnavar, a male member of tharvad play an important role
in maintenance of the lineage. But his authority could not normally be overbearing.
Despite of contact with new faith, the local people retain the socio-cultural moorings.
Coconut is the mainstay of the inhabitants of these islands followed by fishing.
Check Your Progress
5) Write a brief note on the Island tribes along with their topographical conditions.
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3.7 SUMMARY
Thus, the present unit provides a vivid picture of geographical and cultural characterstics
of tribes in India. Though the cultural features have largely evolved with the influence of
surrounding ecology but within the same ecological zone variation is observed from the
above- mentioned zones. The high lands in the Himalayan zone facilitate pastoralism
rather than settled cultivation and had developed barter exchange with the plains
population. More or less hill tribes of north east following jhum cultivation whereas
those in the plains have become settled cultivators. But, the Baiga of central India
resort to dabha cultivation where agriculture is undertaken in shifting cultivation high
lands. In southern zone, instances of polyandry exist among the Toda whereas the
neighbouring ones are having different structure. Even the marriage customs, rules,
worshipping patterns seem to be similar in eastern zone, but linguistic as well as religious
variations are noticed. The existence of Negroid population is still a mystery for the
anthropologists in Andaman Islands since this zone is close to south east Asian countries
where mongoloid population is predominant. With the contact of mainland population
and the introduction of alien food habits and diseases the language and culture of these
tribes are being endangered. The island ecology facilitates the horticulture ecology
among the Nicobarese and the tribes of Lakshadweep along with fishing. Thus,
geographical distribution coupled with unique cultural characterstics contributes the
cultural mosaic of the country.
51
Anthropology of Indian
Tribes 3.8 REFERENCES
Census of India. (2011). District Census Hand Book. Andaman and Nicobar Series
36 Part XII-A. Directorate of Census Operations A & N Islands.
Dube, L. (1995). Matriliny and Islam in Lakshadweep. International Journal Centre
Quarterly. Vol.22, No.2-3, pp.168-180
Haimendorf, C.V. (1982). Tribes of India: The Struggle for Survival. Oxford
University Press.
Mohanty, P.K. (2006). Encyclopedia of Scheduled Tribes in India.Vol.5, Delhi: Isha
books.
Puri, B. (2001). Major identities of Jammu and Kashmir. India International Centre
Quarterly, Vol.28. No.3, Pg.69-79
Tripathy, B., & Prasad, D.V. (2019). Tribal Religion in Central India: Continuity
and Change. New Delhi: B.R. Publishers.

3.9 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1) Refer to Section 3.0
2) Refer to Section 3.1
3) Refer to Section 3.3 and 3.4
4) Refer to Section 3.5
5) Refer to Section 3.6

52
Characteristics and
UNIT 4 ANTHROPOLOGY AND TRIBES OF Geographical Distribution
of Tribes*
INDIA*
Structure

4.0 Introduction
4.1 Defining the Tribes in India
4.2 Tribal Studies in India
4.2.1 Historical Significance
4.2.2 Academic Significance
4.2.3 Administrative Significance
4.2.4 Anthropological Significance
4.3 Classical Socio-Cultural Studies of Tribal Communities in India
4.4 Summary
4.5 References
4.6 Answers to Check Your Progress
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
In this unit, you will learn about the followings:
 importance of tribal studies from various vantage points such as historical, academic,
administrative, and anthropological;
 role of anthropology in the tribal studies in India; and
 anthropological contributions in understanding the tribes of India.

4.0 INTRODUCTION
India has 8 per cent of the total tribal population of the world. As the tribes are listed in
the fifth and sixth Schedule of the Constitution of India they came to be known as
Schedules Tribes (STs). The tribal population is spread across the country in almost all
the states in India. The tribal population in India, like anywhere else in the world, is
considered distinct from the ‘mainstream population’ of the country. Their culture,
religion, language, world views differ drastically from the ‘others.’ They are considered
to live in coherence with nature, closed, isolated, egalitarian (social, economic, and
gender) smaller communities that are mainly confined to the forest and hill areas. The
social organisation of the tribal societies is considered to be drastically different from
that of the village societies.
When anthropologists discussed the evolutionary theory, they needed societies and
cultures that they considered primitive or in infant stages of society. Placing their own
societies and cultures in advanced and civilised, the colonial anthropologists viewed
the native communities that were living in other continents as primitive. The evolutionary
theory strongly advocated that societies and cultural traits pass through specific patterns

*Contributor: Dr. Sipoy Sarveswar, Assistant Professor, Department of Anthropology, Visva-

Bharati, Central University, Santiniketan, West Bengal 53
Anthropology of Indian and progress in a particular direction. The colonial anthropologists believed that their
Tribes
society too passed through these designated stages and arrived at the complex, advanced
and civilised society stage. Nonetheless, they need to understand the primitive
communities and their social structure and organisation. Therefore, they flocked to
study the communities considered to be native in African, Australian, American, and
Asian continents. The presence of the British administrators as colonisers also favored
the anthropologists to come to India.
Those who came to India as administrators and anthropologists were flabbergasted
with the diversity of ideas, cultures, and people they encountered. They were unable to
understand why some people prefer to live far from the so-called modern infrastructure,
why some people could not comprehend the preaching of the modern religion. Why
do some tribal communities (Rampa Fithuri in Rampachodawaram in Andhra Pradesh
led byAlluri Seetha Rama Raju, or the Munda Rebellion in the Erstwhile Bengal Province
led by Birsa Munda) resist the British and their authority over them, while most of the
mainstream population accepts it? These are a few of the reasons British anthropologists
focused on understanding the society and culture of the tribal population in India. Post-
independence, our Indian Government too encouraged the studies on tribal communities
to come up with welfare measures and empowerment policies for the tribal population
in India.
The first and foremost problem that arises is defining India’s tribal population is defining
and identifying who they are and how they are different? Why administratively and
anthropologically the tribes should be considered separate categories becomes
imperative for two reasons: (i) administratively, to provide necessary assistance for
their overall welfare; and (ii) anthropologically, to understand the social structure and
organisation of the tribal societies and also to offer solutions for the problems faced by
the tribals in this modern world.

4.1 DEFINING THE TRIBES IN INDIA

An attempt to define anything results in understanding that concept significantly. Many
anthropologists spend considerable time providing definitions to their area of study.
Defining the tribes across the globe (in Australia, the Americas, and Africa) was not
necessary as there is a traceable history of non-indigenous people migrating or colonising
the indigenous lands. Apart from the traceable history, the indigenous and non-indigenous
populations’ racial features are quite stark in comparison. Hence, the anthropologists
that studied the indigenous populations in these continents never focused on defining
‘tribals’ in their respective studies.
However, the tribals in Indian society are a little different when compared with their
counterparts from the other continents. Tribal societies are different from mainstream
societies (or village societies), and tribals managed to preserve their culture and cultural
traits from the acculturation process from the mainstream societies. The tribals and
non-tribals share more or less the same regional, racial features. Tracing the history of
migration of the non-tribals to the tribal areas is next to impossible. This is because the
local population is as much indigenous as the tribals themselves. Applying the term
indigenous to the tribal population in India is also highly debatable. Many scholars and
activists are aware of it and use terms such as ‘Vanvasi,’ ‘Adivasi,’ and ‘Girijan,’
indicating their place of living and the claim that they were present in these lands much
54 before the influx of the non-tribals into their area.
Andre Beteille makes a great attempt to define tribes with special reference to India. Anthropology and Tribes
of India*
He points out that our Indian Constitution does not define who tribes are but merely
states in article 342(1) that:
‘The president by public notification, specify the tribes or tribal communities
or part of or groups within tribes or tribal communities which shall for the
purpose of this constitution be deemed to be scheduled tribes in relation to
the state of union territory as the case may be.’
He further adds that Constitution Article 342(2) states,
‘Parliament may by law include in or exclude from the list of scheduled
tribes specified in a notification issues under clause (1) any tribe of tribal
community or part of or group within any tribe or tribal community, but
save as aforesaid a notification issued under the said clause shall not be
varied by any subsequent notification.’
This article and the two clauses fail to provide the definition required to identify the
tribal communities. It is merely left to the discretion of State Government to recommend
to President through the Governor, who can be considered and who cannot be
considered as tribes in their respective states. This presents a major confusion and
makes the State Government often depend on the expert commissions to decide whether
a particular group/community is a tribe or not?
Andre Beteille also tries to analyse the vague explanations provided by the various
expert committees from time to time in identifying the tribal communities. He adds, in
1951, the commission for SCs and STs proposed common elements to the definition
of tribes as ‘tribal origin, primitive way of life, remote habitation and general
backwardness in all respects’. In 1965 Lokur Committee says ‘indication of
primitive traits, distinctive culture, geographical isolation, and shyness of contact
with the community at large and backwardness’ are the criteria for identifying a
tribe. These are considered a vague interpretation of the definition of tribes in India as
they can be counter-argued. Some examples of tribes that may be presented suggest
otherwise, other than the above provided definitions.
Andre Beteille also analyses the social conditions compared to the non-tribal societies
and tries to offer a comprehensive definition. ‘The tribes as a society with a political,
linguistic and somewhat vaguely defined cultural boundary; further, as a society
based upon kinship, where social stratification is absent.’ However, Andre Beteille
also warns us that there are no ideal types of tribes as conceptualised by anthropologists.
The tribes are evidently in transition. Therefore, the tribes in India should be defined by
considering several factors. One cannot fit them into a blanket definition that fits all the
tribal communities in India. Their ‘Historical Perspective’ should be taken into
consideration when studies attempt to understand or define the tribal population in
India.
Check Your Progress
1) What are the key aspects that one needs to keep in mind before defining tribes in
India?
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55
Anthropology of Indian ........................................................................................................................
Tribes
........................................................................................................................

4.2 TRIBAL STUDIES IN INDIA

A systematic and scientific study of the tribal areas was carried out by Western scholars
in British and post-British India. Continuing the legacy, Indian anthropologists too took
a special interest in understanding the tribal communities in India. The discipline of
anthropology emerged as synonymous with tribal studies. With anthropology venturing
into vast areas of studies, Indian academia came up with a specialisation of tribal
studies to focus their research exclusively on the tribals. The tribal studies are carried
out for various reasons in India. We can broadly divide tribal studies having significance
from historical, ccademic, administrative, and anthropological vantage points.

4.2.1 Historical Significance

Carrying out tribal studies in India has a very important historical significance as the
concept of tribe is little different from the other parts of the globe. Understanding how
India’s tribal communities and mainstream society learned to co-exist and learn from
each other cultures could be a crucial lesson for the world. The tribal and non-tribal
conflict is still a reality in most of the world. In the past, the indigenous communities
were subjected to cultural and physical genocide by the colonisers who tried to take
over indigenous lands.
In India, it is evident that the tribals are a very important part of the Indian civilisation as
they have been mentioned in famous mythologies. Moreover, there is strong evidence
suggesting that they were a part of the administration and governance in many of the
princely states before the pre-Mughal and Mughal eras.
Tribals are one of the first communities to rise in rebellion against the British administration
and their policies in various parts of India. This is during the time the mainstream societies
more or less accepted the supremacy of the British. The British, as a response, adopted
a separate tribal administration and governance policy and started to treat them as
separate entities in the Indian civilisation. British created excluded areas and partially
excluded areas to govern them. Following the British, our Constituent Assembly in
independent India tried to understand why the British came up with this governing
policy towards tribals and suggested that independent India follow the British’s footsteps
and govern the tribals separately. This study on the tribal from the historical perspective
facilitated the creation of the Fifth and Sixth Schedules, which prevent the tribals’
exploitation by the non-tribals.
Understanding tribals from a historical point of view is imperative in formulating and
implementing the policies. This will help us develop policies to help them preserve their
culture and address the rapid cultural transformation that the tribals are subjected to
through the process of modernisation and globalisation.

4.2.2 Academic Significance

Tribal studies should be incorporated as a major part of study in anthropology and
exclusive centers of tribal studies and should also be made a part of the other social
science subjects. The tribals and their contribution to the independence movement has
56
been ignored and neglected. The tribals’ way of life offers a deeper philosophical Anthropology and Tribes
of India*
understanding of how to live with nature and how to become part of nature rather than
considering ourselves as masters of nature. The tribal way of understanding life has
been pursued under various headings such as minimalism, sustainability, gender equality,
focusing on the present rather than stressing the future, and various other modern
discourses have been based on the ways of tribal communities.
The academics also benefit from understanding the indigenous knowledge and its
significance in advancing science and decolonising the mind from various aspects. Tribal
economy, tribal polity, and tribal environmentalism are undoubtedly other areas where
academicians would benefit from studying the tribal communities. It also becomes
imperative for mainstream and non-tribal societies to be educated about tribals and
their culture to minimise the conflicts that may arise because of lack of understanding
between these parties.

4.2.3 Administrative Significance

There is a dire need for tribal studies to be carried out to provide better tribal
administration. The forest department takes a cue from the colonial era laws and
conceptions about the forest and still considers and treats the tribals as trespassers and
illegal residents. With the enactment of ‘The Scheduled Tribes and other Traditional
Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006,’ the harassment against
tribal communities seems to have been minimised. However, the harassment is continuing
to date in various forms. The non-tribal population that is posted in various administrative
posts treats the tribal communities as inferior. The policy formulation and implementation
are carried out with the notion and approach that tribals do not know anything and
need to be given ‘development’ by the outside intervention.
The non-tribal functionaries working in the tribal areas need to be sensitised about the
tribal life and culture. Not unless the non-tribals understand and step into the shoes of
the tribals they will be able to provide sensible administration to the tribals. Having
realised and acknowledged the significance of tribal welare and development, many
states came up with special Tribal development programs and are alocating considerable
funds in this regard. Nonetheless, time and again, the Government reports kept on
considering and reporting that tribals are still backward compared to the general
population in various parameters such as education, health, life expectancy, etc.
In order to avoid leakage and wastage of funds, administrators are required to adopt
the decentralisation and inclusive approach. They need to talk to the tribals to find out
what they need and try to customise the administration as per the requirements of the
tribal people. One of the main hurdles for implementing the ‘The Provisions of the
Panchayats (Extension of the Scheduled Areas) Act, 1996,’ which came to be
known as the PESA Act of 1996, are politicians and the bureaucrats in the tribal
regions. PESA Act allows the formation of local governance structures in the form of
panchayats in the tribal and scheduled areas. Instead of facilitating the process of
decentralisation and self-governance among the tribal areas, the politicians and the
bureaucrats act as barriers to implementing the PESA Act. This is because of the
various misconceptions prevailing about the tribals and their culture.
‘The Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups in India: Privileges and Predicaments’
(2016) report by Anthropological Survey of India mentions that there is no baseline
survey of 35 PVTG communities in India. Base line survey provides basic information
57
Anthropology of Indian about the demographic and other important features of a community that will aide in
Tribes
the policy formulation and implementation that cater to their needs. Tribal studies are
pivotal for providing better administration for the tribals; a country can not claim to be
on the path to advancment when a considerable population is left behind.

4.2.4 Anthropological Significance

Anthropology as a discipline claims to have a fourfold approach in understanding a
concept or a topic. Studying the tribal communities from the fourfold approach offers
a comprehensive insight that any other discipline cannot provide. The anthropologists
are pioneers in studying the tribal communities across the country. The tribal studies in
anthropology started with identifying and defining tribal communities. Then, later
anthropologists advanced the tribal studies by understanding the social structure and
organisation of the tribal societies to a deeper level. Tribal communities were considered
and shown as a critical or indigenous dimension of the Indian civilisation. Furthering the
studies in tribal areas, anthropologists also focused on understanding cultural change,
transition, and transformation. They also identified the external and internal factors that
are propelling the process of cultural change among the tribal societies.
Our National Tribal Draft Policy, 2006, starts with a dilemmatic question ‘in preparing
any policy for the Scheduled Tribes in India is how to strike the right balance
between preservation of tribal identity, culture, and values, protecting the tribes
from being swamped by mainstream lifestyles while increasing and ensuring their
access to mainstream education, health care, and income generation so that the
quality of their life is improved.’ Anthropological knowledge can provide solutions
for such dilemmas with their tribal studies and strike a balance between bringing
development while preserving their culture and identity. Anthropology has been involved
in providing amicable solutions for the Government and the tribals with their extensive
knowledge of various conflicts that arise between both parties.
Check Your Progress
2) What is the anthropological significance of tribal studies in India?
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4.3 CLASSICAL SOCIO-CULTURAL STUDIES OF

TRIBAL COMMUNITIES IN INDIA
The nature of studies on the tribal communities varies from time to time. The earlier
anthropologists were mainly concerned with identifying and briefly introducing the tribal
communities to the academic and general world.
Sarat Chandra Roy, the father of Indian Ethnography with his work the Munda and
their Country (1912), has kick-started the scores of anthropological works being
carried out. SC Roy has enthused many anthropologists (both Indian and abroad) with
his meticulous explanations to emphasise tribal studies. It set the growth of anthropology
58 as a discipline and laid the foundation for tribal studies in India.
Scholars such as Ananth Krishna Iyer contributed to tribal studies in India with his Anthropology and Tribes
of India*
works, The Cochin Tribes and Caste (Vol. I & II, 1908-1912); Ethnology of South
India, a Contribution to the Encyclopedia of South India (1920); and Mysore
Tribes and Caste (Vol. I to IV, 1926-1931).
Christoph von Furer-Haimendorf, the Austrian anthropologist and ethnographer, wrote
many books on the tribal communities of India. In the researcher’s capacity and the
empowered advisor to the Nizam, he suggested various measures to address the
problems of the Raj Gond tribe in the Adilabad district of the current Telangana state.
His works include Tribes of India: The Struggle for Survival (1982); The Chenchus:
Jungle folk of Deccan (1943); The Raj Gonds of Adilabad: Myth and Ritual (1948);
The Reddis of the Bison Hills: A Study of Acculturation (1945); The Gonds of
Andhra Pradesh (1979). However, latter anthropologists also criticised him for being
ethnocentric and also for portraying the tribal communities in exotic and bad light for
the world anthropologists.
Verrier Elwin, with his extensive fieldwork among the central India tribes and tribal
communities of Odisha, has contributed enormously to tribal studies in India. Some of
his works are, The Agaria (1942); The Baiga (1939); The Muria and their Ghotul
(1974); and Tribal Myths of Orissa (1954). With his extensive knowledge of tribal
culture and society, Verrier Elwin also contributed to the formulation of the Panchasheel
in collaboration with Prime minister, Jawaharlal Nehru. Panchasheel acts as an unofficial
tribal policy to govern the tribal communities in post-independent India. He also strongly
advocated for the isolation approach in governing the tribal populations and played a
key role in the formulation of the Sixth Schedule of the Constitution that provides
autonomous Tribal Councils for some of the northeastern states in India.
W.H.R. Rivers studied the socio-cultural aspects of The Todas (1906) of Niligiri Hills.
He explains the social organisation, religious practices, polyandry, and inter-ethnic
relations the Todas share with the other communities in the Nilgiri hills of Tamil Nadu.
This book is still considered a benchmark for carrying out ethnographic work among
the Todas and many other tribal communities in India.
A.R. Radcliffe-Brown studied ‘The Andaman Islander’ (1922) and contributed to
understanding the less studied tribal communities of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
Following this study, many scholars realised the importance of studying the tribal
communities in these islands.
Following the lead of the league of scholars that have contributed enormously for the
tribal studies in India, many scholars such as N.K. Bose, D.N. Majumdar, L.P. Vidyarthi,
T.N. Madan, and so on have carried out fieldwork among the tribal studies and
contributed to the understanding of the tribal cultures and societies. Several other scholars
also focused on cultural change, problems faced by the tribal communities in the
modernisation, industrialisation, and globalisation era. Hundreds of dissertations on
tribal studies are being submitted every year across the universities in the country.
In addition to this, time and again, Government appoints committees to recommend
measures to be adopted for the overall betterment of the tribal communities in India.
‘Report of the High-Level Committee on Socio-Economic, Health and Educational
Status of Tribal Communities of India’ (2014), chaired by Prof. Virginius Xaxa
commissioned by the Ministry of Tribal Affairs, Government of India, takes into account
the current tribal conditions and suggests measures for the improvement of their condition
in India. 59
Anthropology of Indian Anthropological Survey of India carries out periodical studies on tribal communities.
Tribes
The Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups in India: Privileges and Predicaments
(2016) edited by Prof. K.K. Misra throws light on the conditions of the PVTGs in
India and emphasises the prevailing conditions and the need for the Government’s
immediate attention towards these tribal communities.
The Idate Commission Report 2017, headed by Bhiku Ramji Idate, submitted to the
National Commission for Denotified Nomadic and Semi Nomadic Tribes in India,
stressed the importance of studying the nomadic tribes, denotified nomadic tribes and
semi nomadic tribes in India.
It is next to impossible to list all the classical socio-cultural studies of tribal communities
in India. This section attempted to provide a gist of the tribal studies that have been
carried out by various scholars and anthropologists across time. These studies include
monographs on tribal communities explaining their socio-cultural issues, studies focused
on issues faced by the tribals, or cultural change and its impacting factors, as well as
the studies that have been carried out to understand predicaments of tribal population
and aim to suggest measures for the overall betterment of the tribals.

Activity
Observe the policies and acts such as National Forest Policy, Forest Right Acts,
PESA Act, and Draft National Tribal Policy. Note how the tribes are interpreted
both from administrative and the anthropological sense and keenly observe the
role of anthropology as a discipline in uncovering the cultural nuances of the tribes
and how it aided in policy formulation and implementation.

Check Your Progress

3) List any five scholars and their works that throw light on the tribal studies in India?
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4.4 SUMMARY
The tribals and their society and culture are considered to be marginalised not only
from the mainstream point of view but also from the academic point of view. There are
very few works carried among the tribal societies by the other social science and
humanities disciplines such as political science, economics, sociologists, philosophy,
and linguists. Anthropology kick-started its academic journey in India by evidently
studying the tribal communities and culture. For various reasons, the discipline of
anthropology was often equated with and used as synonymous with tribal studies in
India. As anthropology ventured into other areas of study, exclusive centers aiming at
studying the tribal communities have emerged within the academic discourses.
It is imperative to understand the tribal communities and carry out studies among the
tribal population from various vantage points such as academic, administrative, historical,
and anthropological. Either for formulating or implementing a policy or welfare measure
60 among the tribal studies, one needs to have a comprehensive understanding of the
tribal communities. Anthropology, with its contributions from various works on tribal Anthropology and Tribes
of India*
society already established that it can offer a different perception about the tribal societies
and culture with its four-fold approach.

4.5 REFERENCES
Beteille, A (1977) The Definition of Tribe. In R., Thapar (Ed.). Tribe, Caste, and
Religion in India (pp.7-14), Meerut: MacMillan.
Beteille, A (1991) Chapter-3, The concept of tribe with special reference to India (pp.
57-78). Society and Politics in India: Essays in a Comparative Perspective.
London: The Athlone Press.
Bokil, M (2002) De-notified and nomadic tribes: A perspective. Economic and
Political Weekly 37(2), 148-154.
GoI (1949) The Constitution of India. New Delhi: Ministry of Law and Justice.
GoI (2006) The National Tribal Policy. New Delhi: Ministry of Tribal Affairs.
Misra, K.K (2016) The Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups in India: Privileges
and Predicaments. New Delhi: Anthropological Survey of India & Manohar.
Singh, K.S (1985) Tribal Society in India: An Anthropological Perspective (Read,
Chapter 11- the Post-Colonial Scenario, pp. 242-291). New Delhi: New: Manohar
Publications.
Xaxa, V (1999) Transformation of tribes in India: Terms of discourse. Economic and
Political Weekly, 34(24), 1519-1524.
Xaxa, V (2014) Report of the High level committee on Socio-Economic, Health and
Educational Status of Tribal Communities of India. New Delhi: Ministry of Tribal Affairs,
GoI.

4.6 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1) A group of people who live as a society based on kinship; social stratification is
absent and they function with their own political, linguistic, and vaguely defined
cultural boundaries viewed from the historical perspective; can be defined as tribes
in India. Refer to section 4.1
2) With the fourfold approach, anthropology attempts to offer a comprehensive
understanding of the tribes, their problems, or their cultural transition and
transformation in the era of modernisation and globalisation. Refer to section 4.2.4
3) Refer to section 4.3
A.R. Radcliffe-Brown- The Andaman Islander (1922)
WHR Rivers— The Todas (1906)
Christoph Von Furer-Haimendorf— The Chenchus: Jungle folk of Deccan (1943)
Sarat Chandra Roy— Munda and their country (1912)
Verrier Elwin— The Agaria (1942) 61
Anthropology of Indian
Tribes UNIT 5 TRIBAL ORGANISATION*
Structure

5.0 Introduction
5.1 Tribal Social Organisation
5.1.1 Marriage
5.1.2 Family
5.1.3 Kinship
5.1.4 Gender Roles
5.2 Tribal Economic Organisation
5.2.1 Characteristics of Tribal Economy
5.2.2 Forms of Tribal Economy
5.3 Tribal Political Organisation
5.4 Law in Tribal Society
5.4.1 Features of Law in Tribal Community
5.4.2 Tribal Customary Laws
5.5 Tribal Religion
5.6 Tribal Literature and Art
5.7 Summary
5.8 References
5.9 Answers to Check Your Progress
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be able to:
 learn about tribal culture, importance and distinctions of tribal culture, and various
organisations within it; and
 understand about some of the important organisations like socio-cultural, economic,
law and political.

5.0 INTRODUCTION
Culture is the important component of human community, containing various aspects
of Socio-cultural life which are essential for survival and sustainability. It defines the
responsibilities and learning procedures, practices and performances. Therefore, Culture
is defined as complex whole…… by E.B. Tylor. It includes all the best experiences
that are experimented through ages and continuously being added. Tribal communities
are thought to be the earlier settlers. They are the initiators of cultures around different
geographic and climatic conditions. The kinship and egalitarian principles are the base
of their societies. The communal ownership of property, simple technology, and
household economy determines their sustainability. Varieties of economic systems

*Contributor: Dr. Meera Swain, Faculty in Anthropology, Central University of Orissa,

62 Landiguda, Koraput, Odisha
including hunting-gathering, shifting cultivation and terrace land cultivation, fishing, and Tribal Organisation*
pastoralism. Nature worship and belief in ancestor worship are the fundamental basis
of their religious life. Leadership like clan/lineage head, village head, priests/shaman
are the popular kind prevalent among tribal communities.
Towards understanding of tribal culture, we have to discuss various important
organisations like social, economic, religious, political, and law .This can give the details
of varieties of structures to make the organisations functional and the corresponding
performances by the individual members within it. In India we have diverse systems
within organisations, depending on the tribal community to which it belongs to. We will
discuss some of the vital organisations of the Indian tribes. Different geo-climatic zones
are also responsible for the varieties of organisational attitudes/behaviours and customs
within it.

5.1 TRIBAL SOCIAL ORGANISATION

5.1.1 Marriage
Marriage, family, and kinship are the main components of social organisations among
tribes. Marriage is the institution that facilitates the formation of family, the nucleus of
society. Social organisation and social structure is essential to each other. Social
structure defines the principles of social organisation/s, having the necessary
arrangements. The activities of the individual and community are regulated by the
structures. Indian caste system is the most elaborated form of socio-cultural platform.
The tribal community has different marriages like marriage by service, by exchange,
probationary marriage, marriage by capture, marriage by elopement, marriage by
intrusion, widow marriage. Incest taboo is the basic principle that guides the marriages.
Breaching of incest taboo, results in punishment like excommunication, fine of various
kinds and the like.
Apart from the above, Levirate (marrying deceased husband’s younger brother) and
Sororate (marrying deceased wife’s younger sister) marriages are also prevalent among
tribals. The varieties of marriage are in practice to facilitate the community to help
themselves in finding alternatives during the time of critical situations or unavoidable
circumstances. We have some case studies about how community members facilitate
marriage by elopement and capture if they are unable to pay the amount of bride price
required for ideal marriage. In addition to the above, marriage rules of exogamy and
endogamy are predominant. The cross cousin marriage is one of the popular one among
tribes of India. It is the marriage between the father’s sister’s children and mother’s
brother’s children.
Check Your Progress
1) What is the meaning of social organisation and social structure?
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63
Anthropology of Indian 5.1.2 Family
Tribes
Family is the centre of all socio-cultural frameworks of human society. It is one of the
universal association i.e. present in each and every human community. Tribal in India
have the nuclear family, joint family, extended, polyandrous, and polygamous families.
We have researched and also observed by many eminent anthropologists that nuclear
families are the most prevalent family type among the tribal. But the family members
are supported irrespective of the family type. Extended and joint families are best
known for the economic activities including household productions for subsistence
economy. Division of labour across the gender and age groups, are well defined within
the family for the said purpose apart from caring and sharing.
The residence is also marked for the members, particularly after marriage. Patrilocal,
Matrilocal, Virilocal, Uxorilocal, and Neolocal are the residence types found among
tribal. The locality and the numbers of embers are also significant from economic point
of view, as it requires the human resources as labour and expertise. The communal
ownership of properties, inheritance rules along with the responsibilities of socialisation,
are some of the important aspects for the family to deal with.

5.1.3 Kinship
The family and marriage are regulated by kinship. The mechanisms within these are
beautifully structured by the tribal communities as per their requirements and also
accorded by their experiences. The kin members are defined by the roles given to
them and one kin has several roles to play. Again the roles define the status of the kin
which changes from time to time, travels through different sequences, and ensues to
fulfil the obligations.
Two categories of kins, i.e. consanguine (related through blood) and affine (related
through marriage) are termed differently in different tribal communities, and taken into
consideration throughout the life and beyond that. Apart from the above, nearer members
form a group, from consanguine for example, to execute the marriage rules and rules of
inheritance. Kin terms are the best formula to identify kin members and their roles.
Kinship usages like avoidance, teknonymy, joking relationships, couvade, avunculate,
and amitate are the interesting aspects to understand the kin members and their behaviour.
The kinship obligations are based on certain principles of togetherness, mutual help,
and social networking. Reciprocity and gift exchange are the significant performances
along with the ritual performances. The lifetime education through the practices, are
responsible for the traditions maintained, and reflected in tribal cultures. The grouping
mechanisms within lineage, clan, phratries, and moieties are some the unique features
of their social structure. The clan less nature of Saora kinship is one of the interesting
types on its own. The local descent group BIRINDA regulates the kinship which is
known as Kheja or Punja. Bonda tribe of south Odisha has the moiety.

5.1.4 Gender Roles

In every society the biological differences among the individuals are manifested in the
respective roles provided. This also defines the categories of responsibilities assigned
to the different sex which are best known as gender roles. Here the biology of the
individual is attributed with specific jobs to carry for the smooth running of the socio-
cultural processes. Most of the anthropologists agree that position of women in tribal
community is relatively higher than the non-tribal communities. In this section we have
64 to consider two genders only as male and female.
Evidences from research shows that matriarchal and matrilineal societies were existed Tribal Organisation*

prior to the patriarchal and patrilineal communities. The economic contributions by the
female members make them the indispensable category apart from the child bearing
and child rearing as the primary contribution.

Gender differentiation and gender division of labour show the power and control of the
respective gender. The household is the basic unit that gives the impression of gender
roles across the community. These are exhibited in equal participation in rituals and
activities, as part of division of labour, and cultural integration of the contributors and
performers. Andaman Islanders are the one of the best example of economic participation
of the gender.

Inheritance of parental property is also regulated by the descent rules of that community.
In matrilineal societies (Khasis, Garos), female members inherit, as it happens for males
in patrilineal societies. In tribal communities in India, daughters are also eligible to
inherit the valuables of their mothers and grandmothers. Among Saora some of my
lady informants also own “Donger” the local word for the hills. Among Kuli, both the
gender has contributions in weaving.
Regarding purity and pollution, the female gender has specifications and taboos.
They are not allowed to be part of different activities/participation during the pollution
period. During menstruation, girls and married women are restricted from many
occasions. Similarly in case of mothers, pollution period is observed after child birth,
which is specific to the mothers delivered the child. During pregnancy also, some
taboos are observed in anticipation of wellbeing of both of the mother and child.
Toda of Nilgiri hills have distinct practices of pollution and they observe taboos for
females. They do not allow females to prepare milk products supposed to be supplied
to temples.
The most interesting part of gender roles are the practice of sorcery, particularly by
tribal women. Among Saora, I came across number of female shamans (Dishari) who
are also medicine women. Among tribal of Koraput district it is also observed that
medicinal practices are by the members, irrespective of gender. Tribals of central India
like Gond, and of north-east India like Angami and Ao Nagas, females have higher
status.

Thus tribal women have relatively higher status, but it varies from community to
community. Females are given significant responsibilities of child bearing and rearing,
caring of family members, managing household economy, and other kinship obligations.
However mutual cooperation and coordination are expected in every culture. Tribal
communities are the best examples as a well knitted unit of defined roles for each
gender.

Activity

a) Identify your kin members with kin terms.

b) Identify your family type.

c) List down some rules of marriage followed in your community.

d) Write about the gender roles in your society.
65
Anthropology of Indian
Tribes 5.2 TRIBAL ECONOMIC ORGANISATION
5.2.1 Characteristics of Tribal Economy
The simple technology in use among the tribes in India says about the coordination
they have engineered with the ecosystem. The non-profit principles are the main factor
for the subsistence features in the economy. But the tribal members are known for their
self-sufficiency and independence. At different times, they have adapted to the changing
situations as well. However some of them called as Particularly Vulnerable Tribal groups
(PVTGs) are characterised by simple technology, declining population, low literacy,
and subsistence economy. Functioning within a close system, the economic performances
surround
 Community specific activities within the geo-climatic conditions,
 Reciprocal exchange through barter and gift exchange,
 Non-profit motivation,
 Division of labour,
 Tribal Markets,
 Village-Kinship=Family obligations,
 Sustainability but low innovation,
 Cooperative unit of functions and interactions.
L.P. Vidyarthi and B. K. Rai (1976) have identified nine structural features that
characterise the tribal economies in India. They are as under:
i) Forest based economy;
ii) Domestic or familial/mode of production;
iii) Simple technology;
iv) Absence of profit motive in exchange;
v) Community: as a cooperative unit;
vi) Gift and ceremonial exchange;
vii) Periodical markets;
viii) Interdependence; and
ix) Economic institution of Dhangar.
On the basis of the above points, we can discuss the features of tribal economy.
a) Forest Based Economy
Tribal economy harnesses the forest resources with the help of simple implements
without much technological aid from the outer world. They collect edible roots,
fruits, vegetables, flowers, honey, insects, fish, pigeons, hares, pigs, etc., from the
forests for their consumption. The forest dependence of the tribes in the country
66 differs with their economic typology. According to Rai (1967) the Birhors of
Chotanagpur, Chenchus of Andhra Pradesh, Juangs of Orissa, Kadars of Kerala, Tribal Organisation*

the Paliyars and Paniyars of Tamil Nadu depend on forests for their survival and
sustenance.

b) Domestic or Familial Mode of Production

Family as a unit directly engaged in economic process of production and

consumption. The decision-making processes of allocation of labour and units/
items of production are governed by family requirements. Household production
is purposefully done for consumption. Both age and gender are the criterions of
division of labour.
c) Indigenous and Simple Technology
Being uninventive most of the time, the community members continue with simple
technology. They are being trained in traditional way, and indigenous knowledge is
the base of these. They nurture the nature and also exploit at the same time. The
implements are very often in-house productions of the tribal. It may be the hunting
implements of Birhor/ Mankedia, Plough of Bhil, Munda, Oraon or shifting
cultivation and terrace cultivation among Saora and in north-east tribal communities.
Each community has its own material and implements. For example the hoe culture
is present among many that can plough but not deep, and varieties of hoe we can
identify from different culture. Other implements of use also follow the same
principles.
d) Absence of Profit Motive
Kinship obligations and mutual help are the underlying principles of tribal economy.
This is why profit motive is almost absent. Reciprocal exchange and gift exchange,
are predominant than market exchange. Monetary transactions are the recent
incorporations. In India, Bhil, Santhal, Gond, Ho, Oraon have close networking
villages. Cattle herding and vigilance over forest resources are managed though
alternative responsibilities of villagers, who devote their time and energy for common
property in exchange of food and cereals throughout the year.
e) Community as a Cooperative Unit
Community activities are not for individuals but for every member within it. This
is one of the basic principles of tribal economic organisation. These are expressed
in the spheres of religious, political, kinship, and the like. The presence of
alternative labour groups as discussed below is the best example of indigenously
designed labour groups for various purposes. Besides supplying labour; it also
provides protection and safety for each other across all types of socio-economic
activities.
f) Gift and Ceremonial Exchange
This aspect already we have discussed and also we learned that gift exchange and
ceremonial exchange are traditions among tribals. Renowned anthropologists
contributed towards the discussion of various elaborated forms working among
tribals in different parts of human communities. In India different forms of the
above are present in tribal community but not that complex as it is discussed by
B.Mallinoski in case of Trobrianders.
67
Anthropology of Indian g) Periodical Markets
Tribes
Tribal communities rely on week day’s market and these are in different regions
within the district. In Koraput district, different days for different purposes also
happen like special markets. On Monday you can go for buying vegetables in
dealer price from Kunduli market. On Sundays Koraput, Sunabeda and Simiiguda
are the places for various items. Similar market days happen in Rayagada, Gajapati
and Malkanagiri districts. Market in tribal regions is more than transaction of goods.
Very often it facilitates the meeting of kin members, friends, boys, and girls for
marriage proposals, parties of inter village or intra village for conflict resolutions.
These also happen fortnightly. Locally market is called Hat, Pithia, Shandies and
the like. Mostly these are placed within maximum of 10-12 kilometres distance.
Exchange of items is still prevalent in various forms. For example agricultural
implements are exchanged for grains. Other items are woven cloths, baskets,
daily use items for personal or/ and household consumption. Thus apart from hub
of interaction market facilitates redistribution of resources takes place though in
small scale. Non-tribal members of the region are also the part of this market.
h) Interdependence
More than one tribal community facilitate each other in supplying necessary items
as they own them as producers and consumers. The discussion under market says
about the exchange of items which also says that every item of consumption (use)
are not part of every community and this is why they are dependent on other
communities for the items they don’t produce. Interesting examples are there in
almost all tribal communities, even non-tribals in the region. They may be artisan
Kotas, Badaga Toda and Kurumba of Nilagiri hills in south or Gadava, Paraja and
Dongoria Kondh in undivided Koraput district, or Saoras of Rayagada district of
South Odisha, or Rajgond and other tribes of Andhra Pradesh.
i) Economic Institutions
The land owners, particularly agriculturists possess labour groups to fulfil labour
requirements for various purposes during cultivation. Among Saora “Änteera”
does the traditionally instituted labour cooperative, comprising kin members,
neighbours, and nearer members. Relatively similar group is called Dhanger among
tribes of Jharkhand, and Bhumijs of West Bengal. Also identified in other tribes
like Tharus of Tarai area, Khasas of Himalaya, Rangma Nagas of North east
India. In some communities like Oraon, Munda, Ho, persons are also employed
on annual basis to cultivate the lands of the land owner.
Thus economic organisation is the sum total of activities that surround consumption,
production, distribution and exchange, to fulfil the basic needs of life. Culture has
incorporated every aspect of human needs along with the demand, supply, and
distributions of consumables.

5.2.2 Forms of Tribal Economy

Being one of the traditional patterns, tribal economy includes number of systems within
it. Food gathering, hunting, agriculture, pastoralism, are some of the major modes of
production. Beginning with Palaeolithic era, these evolved and largely depend on the
geo-climatic conditions. While evolving from one to another, it is not separated from
68
the earlier system but moves along with the previous form of economy. We can take Tribal Organisation*
the example of the cultivation along with food collection and fishing.
The food gathering communities are the Birhors of Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, West
Bengal, Mankedia and Kharias of Odisha, Munda of Jharkhand, and others. Pastoralism
found among Gijjars of Jammu and Kashmir, Rajasthan, Koyas of Odisha and Andhra
Pradesh, Toda of south India, Kurumba of Karnataka, and many others. Some tribes
like Dogaria Kondh, Gond Angami Naga are some of communities practicing
horticulture. In agriculture Oraon, Soara, Santhal, Bhil, Ho, Bhuiyan and others are
known for their practices. Plain land, shifting and terrace land cultivation are followed
among these cultivating tribal communities.
Apart from the above, tribal also have domestication of animals weaving, basketry,
different type of forest collections like wax, honey, roots, tubers, medicinal items and
the like.
Check Your Progress
2) Name the tribes in India practising hunting and gathering?
........................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................

5.3 TRIBAL POLITICAL ORGANISATION

Tribal community is mostly guided by customary law. The public forum/ body of the
territory of the tribes is an entity. It incorporates the leaders, territory, custom, and
maintenance of peace and order. Anthropologists E.E. Evans Pritchard and R.H. Lowie
have immense contributions towards the study of political organisations. Starting with
lineage, clan, villages, chiefdom, men’s society, secrete society, are some of the examples
of political bodies that maintain harmony within community. The various responsibilities
of these bodies include: community activities like religious performances, activities relating
to different economic systems, resolving disputes within village/ body, protecting
members from outside attack, helping members in daily activities by following norms,
and the like. In India, different communities have their own system of controlling the
members.

5.4 LAW IN TRIBAL COMMUNITIES

Law is the important part of the society and culture and it helps the political establishment
of that community/nation. B. Malinowski has clarified the significance of law. The basic
functions of law in tribal culture are:
 To control human members within the community;
 To guide the members with their rational choices; and
 To impose control on the behaviour and instincts.
69
Anthropology of Indian As mentioned above, customary laws regulate human behaviour among the tribes. The
Tribes
body of principles also is the base that allows the leaders/ authorities to enforce them
through political and socio-cultural obligations. Both the positive and negative sanctions
are the results of the existing customary law and the other. Some of the significant
aspects of the tribal communities like, female members, property, are required to be
protected for the smooth conduct of the culture specific activities. Hence law provides
the platform to ensure safety and stability.

5.4.1 Features of Law in Tribal Community

To control the members, tribal community has different platforms like the moral
education, kinship obligations, belief in supernatural forces and related rituals and festivals,
and above all the different categories of punishments. The deviations from the law are
thought to be the breach of law enforced by the supernatural forces.
Among various modes of punishments, uses of boiling water, jumping from a height,
excommunication, imposing fine, imputing body parts of the culprit, are some of the
most prevailing ones. Before giving judgements, oath and ordeals are also administered
to confirm the culprit.
Among Saora of Odisha, there is a caste like structure but no caste principles are
found. Here the leader locally addressed as Gamango, is the head who is responsible
to look into the forum of law and order. Other strata like Bhunya, Mandala, Raita,
have similar duties and status. However these are also title groups comprising the lineal
kin members within it.
S. C. Roy’s contribution started with the study of the customary law among Munda
community and he had found that it is unique and varies from the modern law.
Giving community feast as part of fine/ compensation for the misconduct is in practice
in most of the tribes of Odisha (Kharia, Saora, Kuli, Paraja and others), and the
Kamar of Madhya Pradesh. Panchayat, as the village council is popular for the dispute
resolutions and also deals with the issues of violations of socio-cultural incidences.
One of the administrative unit known as “PIRHA” among Bhuinyas and Juangs, is
known for almost all customary law among the tribes for regulatory activities, including
the management of resources.

5.4.2 Tribal Customary Laws

We have discussed above the importance of customary laws which says about the
tradition, perception about good and bad, and the practices to uphold the customs. As
it is assumed and understood, it is not punishable if one breaches the customary law
but it is a moral responsibility for each member to perform in the said directions.
The practices and performances are also not uniform in every tribal community, but it
is framed by the members themselves out of their experience. The contributions of
S.C. Roy are all about the customary law of Munda which helped him to conceptualise
the ethnography of Munda, and others in subsequent time. The customary law in social
and political spheres, land tenure, rules of inheritance, controlling erratic attitudes
leadership pattern, rules of adoption, and many others are the significant part of tribal
culture. Several documentations are made on customary law by P.K. Bhowmik, L.K.
Mohapatra, Shibani Roy and S.H.M. Rizvi, K.S. Singh, M.C. Sarkar, Mukesh
Bhargava, Sri O.S.V.D. Prasad, Walter Fernandes, N.K. Das, and many other scholars.
70
This helped a lot to understand the tribal culture and appropriate provisions for their Tribal Organisation*
welfare and integration.
L.H. Morgan (1877) and Hennery Maine (1871) observed from their empirical findings
that kinship is the main principle of controlling the behaviours of its members and also
hold them together. On the advent of modern law, customary law is no more given
importance, though it works at the local/ community level. Presently members of the
tribal community are controlled by the state law which is common to all the communities.
Check Your Progress
3) Differentiate between Customary law and Modern law.
........................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................

5.5 RELIGION AND MAGIC AMONG TRIBES

Tribal community has its own belief system in supernatural beings. Sir E.B. Tylor
proposed the theories of ‘Animism’ which is based on belief in soul and worship of
nature. It is also noted as system of symbols by Clifford Geertz and unified system of
beliefs and practice by Emile Durkheim. Scholars also assumed the power in the objects
as “MANA” and it is the factor that leads to religion perhaps. Empirical evidences
provide enough clues of belief in nature and power of both animate and inanimate
objects. The Shaman, priest, including lady specialists are also considered with respect,
and believed to have extraordinary power/capacity than normal human members.
Another important aspect is Totemism, the collection of belief in the power of Totems.
These are collective symbols that represent the community with supernatural power.
Certain restrictions called Taboos are followed for the Totems in the concerned group
or the community. In India, studies among the tribes like Munda, Ho, Garos, Saoras,
Kuli, and others, variety of systems are functional around Totems. But we cannot
ignore the impact of Hinduism on tribal religion in India. Verrier Elwin, G.S. Ghurye,
D.N. Majumdar have contributed towards tribal religion. The selection and/or inheritance
of the position of religious head depend on the community practices. The annual calendar
of the respective tribe says about the occasions of religious activities and the
corresponding engagements of its members. In each and every occasion the belief in
supernatural power can be noted along with the ancestor worship. The belief in rebirth
is satisfied with naming the new born with the names of the dead ancestors/ancestress.
Also Saora of south Odisha celebrate death rituals like, KARYA and GUAR, to appease
the souls of deceased members of the kin groups.
The theories of Animism, Animatism, Naturism, Bongaism, and Manaism are within
the belief system but Manaism and Bongaism are more prevalent among Indian tribes.
Tribal members are also known for various magical practices as well. The fields of
cultivation, the hunting expeditions, the name giving ceremonies, the house building and
many more are subject to magical practices at their beginning to avoid any negativity.
The magical practices are of two types, such as white magic and black magic. The
71
Anthropology of Indian former one is for the welfare and the later one is to harm others. Again the practices are
Tribes
of two types, such as homeopathic (like produces like) and contagious (once in contact
always in contact). In India all these practices are continuing among tribes. But the
magical practices of the negative nature are punishable.

5.6 TRIBAL LITERATURE AND ART

Among tribes, Santals are successful in identifying themselves with their own language
and literature. Presently academic departments are part of education on Santali language.
Several examples are there and some are in process also. Apart from this, non-tribal
writers also kept interest in tribal culture and tried to magnify their culture through their
literary contributions. These contain the true stories of their insurgency, socio-cultural
dynamics, and ecological concerns, aspects of gender in culture, exploitations, and the
like. These are in the form of essays, stories, narratives, and poems.
Some of the popular publications are: Paraja by Gopinath Mohanty (1945),
Mahasweta Devi’s Chotti Munda and his Arrows, Lummer Dai’s Paharor Xile Xile
(1961), Prithibir Hanhi (1963), Mon Aru Mon (1968), Y.D. Thongchi’s Saba Kota
Manuh, Mounaounth Mukher Hriday, Mamang Dai’s Legends of Pensam (2006),
J. Malasawma, a Mizo writer contributed Zo Zia: Ethics and Moral principles of
Mizo People (2003), and Zonus: Collection of Essays on Mizo Culture. There are
also literatures on tribal life produced by tribal leaders and eminent writers.
Next to literature, tribal art has its own distinctions. The performing arts like dance,
music, paintings, and folk songs are part of the tribal culture. In Odisha, Saora art,
known among the community as IDITAL, is the art form on the inside walls of the
houses and differs according to the purpose/occasion. The Idaimar is the artist for this
art form and it is not in everybody’s capacity. The different styles and shapes of the
Tattoos are observed, particularly among elderly members and in most elaborated
form among females. Various forms of crafts are also in practice among tribes. The
designs of ornaments, basketry, hunting and agricultural implements, fishing and hunting
nets, varieties of musical instruments, different designs in weaving cloths and dying
techniques, utensils, and similar efforts are some of the example of craft among tribes.
Documentations on these art and craft varieties are continuously happening by scholars
around the world.

5.7 SUMMARY
In this unit, we discussed different aspects of tribal culture such as social, economic,
and political organisations, law, religion, literature, and art. All these aspects are not
independent but interrelated with each other. The entire discussion tells about the cohesive
culture which is traditional and based on simple technology and subsistence.
The religious life is oriented towards nature, and ancestor worship. This belief system
is representation of their direct interactions with the ecosystems, and faith in traditions
and experiences of elders. The literature explains their way of life, perceptions, and
various unique patterns of culture which are different from one community culture to
the other.
Art and craft are the material aspects, distinct to the respective culture they belong to.
These are also the proof of their ideas of beauty and craftsmanship.
72
Tribal Organisation*
5.8 REFERENCES
Durkheim, E. (1933). The Division of Labour in Society, The Macmillan Company,
United States of America.
Ghurey, G.S. (1944). The Aborigines “so called” and their future. Nature June 3,
Vol 153, Pp. 668.
Madan T.N. & Majumdar D.N. (2016) An Introduction to Social Anthropology,
Mayur Paperbacks.
Majumdar, D.N. (1954). About Women in Patrilocal Societies in South Asia. in
Status of Women in South Asia, Orient Longmans Ltd.
Sanday, P.R. (1981). Female Power and Male Dominance: On the Origins of
Sexual Equality. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press.
Tylor, E.B. (1871). Primitive Culture. London.
Malinowski, B. (1922). Argonaunts of Western Pacific. London.
Malinowski, B. (1926). Crime and Custom in Savage Society. London.
Dash, K.N. (2004). Invitation to Social and Cultural Anthropology.
Mallinowski, B. (1948). Magic, Science, and Religion. Glencoe (Illinois).
Adam, L.(1949). Primitive art. Published by Penguin Pelican, GB.
Elwin, V. (1951). The Tribal Art of Middle India: A Personal Record, Oxford
University Press; 1st edition.
Boas, F. (1939). Literature, Music, and Dance. Chapter 12 in Boas, ed., General
Anthropology. Boston: D. C. Heath, pp. 589-608.
Swain, M. (2010). Saora Kinship. AMADEUS PRESS, Bhubaneswar.

5.9 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1) Refer to Sub-Section 5.1.1
2) Refer to Section 5.2
3) Refer to Section 5.4

73
Anthropology of Indian
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BANE - 143

TRIBAL CULTURES OF INDIA

School of Social Sciences

Professor S. M Patnaik Prof. Rashmi Sinha Dr. Rukshana Zaman

COURSE PREPARATION TEAM

Practical Manual Dr. K. Anil Kumar, Assistant Professor, Discipline of Anthropology,

Academic Consultant : Dr. Smarika Awasthi, Discipline of Anthropology, SOSS, IGNOU,

Cover Design : Rakesh Kumar, R K Enterprises, Kalkaji, New Delhi

BLOCK 1 ANTHROPOLOGY OF INDIAN TRIBES 9

Unit 1 Concept of Tribe in India 11

BLOCK 2 SOCIAL AND CULTURAL CHANGES AMONG 75

Unit 6 Tribe-Caste Continuum in India 77

BLOCK 3 CONTEMPORARY CHALLENGES 119

Unit 9 Tribal Displacement and Rehabilitation 121

BLOCK 4 PROBLEMS, DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME AND 155

Unit 12 Problems of Tribes 157

Practical Manual 195

Suggested Reading 214

1.1 MEANING AND CHARACTERISTICS OF TRIBE

*Contributor: Dr. Meera Swain, Faculty in Anthropology, Central University of Orissa,

Tribe and Indigenous People in India

1.2 ANTHROPOLOGICAL DEFINITIONS

 Lucy Mair: “A Tribe is an independent political division of a population with a

1.3 SOCIOLOGICAL DEFINITIONS OF TRIBE

 Oxford Dictionary of Sociology defined tribe as “a social group bound together

 According to Imperial Gazetteer of India “ATribe is a collection of families bearing

 According to Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary, “Tribe is a group of people

Check Your Progress

2) Mention the characteristics of a tribe.

a) Nomadic groups who have taken to criminal life;

a) Criminal tribes to be called as De-notified Tribes (Vimukta Jatis).

c) Resettlement in batches and gradual integration in the larger society.

d) Educational status to be proper to help their integration in the Indian Nation.

f) Collective criminal activities and individual criminal activities should be distinguished

g) Proper education and employment of the children to be ensured.

h) Economic rehabilitation should be taken care of.

1.5 PARTICULARLY VULNERABLE TRIBAL

a) Pre-agricultural level of technology and economy

c) Low rate of literacy

d) Subsistence level of economy

The PVTGs are 13 in Odisha, 12 in Andhra Pradesh, 9 in Bihar and Jharkhand, 7 in

A total number of 75 communities having a population of 27.68 lakhs have been

1.8 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

*Contributor: Dr. K. Anil Kumar, Assistant Professor, Discipline of Anthropology, School of

2.1 THE MEANING AND DEFINITION OF

2.1.2 Defining Indigenous People

2.2 INTERNATIONAL ORGANISATIONS AND THE

Source: United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues, Indigenous peoples

According to Siegfried Wiessner and James Anaya, indigenous peopless’ “right to

3) Describe a few definitions of indigenous peoples.

2.3 HISTORY OF INDIGENOUS PEOPLES’ RIGHTS

5) Explain briefly about the definition related problems in international law.

2.6 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Refer to Section 2.3

Check Your Progress

3.1 NORTHERN HIMALAYAN ZONE

3.2 EASTERN ZONE

3.3 WESTERN ZONE

3.4 CENTRAL ZONE

3.5 SOUTHERN ZONE

3.6 ISLAND’S ZONE

3.9 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

*Contributor: Dr. Sipoy Sarveswar, Assistant Professor, Department of Anthropology, Visva-

4.1 DEFINING THE TRIBES IN INDIA

4.2 TRIBAL STUDIES IN INDIA

4.2.1 Historical Significance

4.2.2 Academic Significance

4.2.3 Administrative Significance

4.2.4 Anthropological Significance

4.3 CLASSICAL SOCIO-CULTURAL STUDIES OF

Check Your Progress

4.6 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

*Contributor: Dr. Meera Swain, Faculty in Anthropology, Central University of Orissa,

5.1 TRIBAL SOCIAL ORGANISATION

5.1.4 Gender Roles

a) Identify your kin members with kin terms.