Hydrogen Charging in AX21 Activated carbon-PCM-metal Foam-Based Industrial-Scale Reactor: Numerical Analysis
Hydrogen Charging in AX21 Activated carbon-PCM-metal Foam-Based Industrial-Scale Reactor: Numerical Analysis
Hydrogen Charging in AX21 Activated carbon-PCM-metal Foam-Based Industrial-Scale Reactor: Numerical Analysis
ScienceDirect
highlights
Article history: A computational fluid dynamics (CFD) model based on the mass, momentum, and energy
Received 12 November 2022 conservation equations is used to simulate the industrial-scale hydrogen storage in
Received in revised form activated carbon (AC: AX-21) bottle surrounded by a layer of metal foam (MF)-phase
20 February 2023 change material (PCM: RT 22 HC) latent thermal unit. The aim is to boost the recuper-
Accepted 6 March 2023 ation (storage) of the heat liberated from the H₂‘s exothermic (adsorption). Following the
Available online 18 May 2023 model's validation, several numerical simulations were performed to evaluate the
impact of various physical features of the MF (copper), at variable porosity (ε ¼ 0.80e1.0),
Keywords: on heat transfer in the hole reactor. Independently of the MF porosity, the AC-bed
Hydrogen storage temperature suddenly increased (from 295 K), reaching a maximum (at about 500 s)
Industrial-scale and decreased afterward. The temperature's intensity was dependent on the probe's
Adsorption position in the AC-bed (i.e. several positions were studied). The H2 concentration in the
PCM-MF unit AC-bed may reach 25 mmol/g. The PCM-based unit received the discharged heat from
Heat and mass transfer the AC-bed slowly, but with PCM incorporation in MF, the heat was quickly recovered
CFD (stored). Thanks to the MF-induced PCM's increased thermal conductivity, the heat flux,
the heat transfer coefficient, and the melting rate of the PCM were all accelerated (during
the charging phase) several times by decreasing the MF porosity (increasing MF mass)
from 1 (pure PCM) to 0.8. The temperature and the melting contours throughout the
absorption process (up 10,000 s) supported all these findings. It is obvious from the re-
sults of the current study that improving the reactor geometry and the solid bed's
* Corresponding author. Laboratory of Environmental Process Engineering, Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Process
Engineering, University Salah Boubnider Constantine 3, P.O. Box 72, 25000, Constantine, Algeria.
E-mail address: chibaniatef@gmail.com (A. Chibani).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2023.03.049
0360-3199/© 2023 Hydrogen Energy Publications LLC. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
32026 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 8 ( 2 0 2 3 ) 3 2 0 2 5 e3 2 0 3 8
tanks (either for H2-charging or-discharging). Literature is the vertical cross-section of our hydrogen storage system. The
particularly rare when the PCM unit is used with metal foams. computational domain of the numerical simulation is given in
The design and modelling of large-scale AC-PCM-MF setups Fig. 1(left). The computational domain was symmetrical with
are essential for comprehending the thermal behavior of respect to the vertical axis. Therefore, only the right half of the
hydrogen storage and PCM response in such structures and for domain was simulated. The steel bottle height (H) is 150 cm
extrapolating the lab-scale findings to the industry. (1.50 m), with internal (R1) and external (R2) radii of 11.5 and
In this paper, the adsorption of hydrogen in activated 18.0 cm, respectively (Fig. 1(right). The feeding entrance of the
carbon is analyzed in the presence-of PCM embedded in reactor is of 1.5 cm in radius and 10 cm in height (expansion
copper MF of different porosities. The entire (active carbon, volume in Fig. 1(right). In this system, the AX-21 of activated
bed and MF-PCM) is used to study a large size bottle with carbon is packed in the bottle's interne (of R1 ¼ 11.5 cm),
typical dimensions. Fluent software was used to developed a whereas the PCM (or MF-PCM with different porosity) systems
computational bottle dynamics (CFD) model (based on finite was loaded in the annular section (11.5 cm < R < 18 cm)
bottle-volume method) and study the behaviors of a AC-bed Fig. 1(right). It is worth mentioning that the used copper is
and MF-PCM jacket. frequently adopted as MF because of their high thermal con-
ductivity [48e53]. For the temperature and heat flow moni-
toring, eight positions are selected along the axial axis (P1eP6)
Reactor configuration and mathematical model and in the vicinity of the inner wall (from P8, P4, and P7) of the
reactor. Thermalephysical parameters of copper-MF in addi-
The schematic diagram of the suggested activated carbon tion to those of the activated carbon, hydrogen, phase change
hydrogen storage bottle is shown in Fig. 1. (right) illustrates material (RT 22 HC), and the steel wall are shown in Table 1,
Fig. 1 e Schematic of physical model, computational domain and grid structure with MF-PCM-activated carbon based
reactor.
32028 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 8 ( 2 0 2 3 ) 3 2 0 2 5 e3 2 0 3 8
activated carbon. The energy source term (Se, W/m3) is related The phase change is accounted for by the porosity model
to the mass source term (Sm, kg m3 s1) and represents the that treats the transition zone as a porous zone with a liquid
heat's amount created per unit volume. Overall, for the mixing percentage of 0e1. In Eq. (2), the source term is defined as [59]:
features of the porous medium, the FLUENT™ software ex- 2
! 1 fl !
amines just two components. The specific heat is expressed as S ¼ A!
v ¼ Amush 3 v (12)
the volumetric average of the gas and solid phases: fl þ 0:001
where Amush refers to the consecutive number in the mushy
rcp m
ps
¼ εb rg cpg þ ð1 εb Þrp c (6)
region. This constant is often between 105 and 107 [60]. The
approximation of Boussinesq is utilized, and Amush is taken as
ps ¼ cps þ qa cpa zcps þ qa cpg
c (7)
105 [60].
ps is the modified specific heat for the solid phase (adsor-
c Energy equations [61]:
bent and adsorbate), where the influence of the hydrogen
vhsens ðTÞ dhlat ! !
adsorbed phase is included. r þ V:hsens ðTÞr!
v ¼ VðlVTÞ r þ V :V:hlat (13)
vt dt
!
v! ! ! ! V: V ¼ 0 (19)
v Þrref !
v
rref þ ð!
v V:!
v Þ ¼ V P þVðmV:! g ð1 b:ðT Tm ÞÞ þ S
vt Momentum conservation [63]:
(11) In the x-direction
32030 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 8 ( 2 0 2 3 ) 3 2 0 2 5 e3 2 0 3 8
Fig. 4 e Temperature monitoring points for different MF-porosities, ε ¼ 0.95, 0.90, 0.85, 0.80 and pure based metal foam-
PCM-AX-21 during adsorption process.
with P1eP4. Obviously, the lowest temperature is obtained at temperature until reaching the value ~300e320 K this
P7, this point is placed for from the center (just at the wall's decrease is mainly due to the sloppiness of the adsorption
AC-bed) which means that it easily loses its heat to the PCM process accomplished by the absorption of heat by the PCM as
system. I all case, beyond 1000 s, a sudden decrease in well as the inlet H2 induced cooling effect.
i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 8 ( 2 0 2 3 ) 3 2 0 2 5 e3 2 0 3 8 32033
Hydrogen adsorption capacity and PCM melting degrees result, the low area (mass) occupied by the PCM (30%) as
opposed to that of the AC metal (70%), might instead be used
The average quantity of hydrogen adsorbed (per unit mass of to justify the MF porosity's independence from hydrogen
AC) and the-melting percentage of PCM under the identical adsorption capability. The heat absorbed by the PCM,
circumstances as in Fig. 4 are presented in Fig. 5(a)-(b) regardless of its value, could not considerably affect the
throughout the periods of 0e600 s and 0e10000s, respectively thermal heat produced from the exothermic process of
(i.e. adequate time for both processes to stabilize). In terms of hydrogen adsorption. This statement has been previously
hydrogen adsorption capability, changing the MF porosity stated for the case of hydrogen storage in metal hydride
(from ¼ 100% [pure PCM] to 80%] has no noticeable effect. In storage material (chemisorption process).
fact, a little effect doesn't really start to show up until 300 s in, The melt percentage of PCM, on the other hand, rose when
and after 600 s of operation, the adsorption capacity has only the MF's porosity decreased, as seen in Fig. 5(b). In the time
increased by around 7% (24 mmol/g for 0,80e1 and 25 mmol/g period of 0e1000 s, the melt fraction sharply rose to 12% (ε ¼ 1)
for ¼ (0,85e0,90)). This is because the heat absorption's rate by and 15e20% (ε s 1). The copper MF porosity clearly affects the
the PCM is slow due to the very low PCM thermal conductivity. melt fraction after a prolonged period of operation. Melting
These findings are in agreement with several studies from the fractions of 24, 30, and 35% were observed at 4000 s while 30,
literature for various reactor designs. The high feeding ve- 35, and 40% were reached at 10,000 s for ε a decrease from 1 to
locity (1 m/s), which causes a rapid sorption of the gas in 0.9 and 0.85, successively. It is important to point out here the
porous material, is the cause of the rapid thermal and kinet- slow recuperation rate of heat by the PCM (latent storage),
ical processes that take place in the AC bed [Fig. 5(a)e(b)]. As a since the process continues to happen for 10,000 s. The MF-
PCM system improved heat transmission (and subsequently
melting rate), which is primarily attributable to the MF superior
PCM's thermal conductivity compared to PCM alone [37e39,64].
The MF-PCM system's conductivity might also be improved by
reducing the MF porosity [65,66], which would increase the
thermal exchange between the heated AC bed and the PCM
(heat storage system). However, because it reduces the PCM
amount, which is the latent heat's storage matrix, researchers
did not advise a drastic reduction the MF porosity [65,66].
For the charging and cooling phases of the reactor, the influ-
ence of MF porosity on the heat transfer coefficient of the MF-
PCM system, the total surface heat flow, and the average bed
temperature (AC) are examined in Fig. 6(a)-(c) for 10,000 s.
According to Fig. 6(b), in the presence of MF and during the
loading process of H2, the heat transfer coefficient jumps to
~400 W m2 K1 (for ε ¼ (0,90e0,95)) and 460 W m2 K1 (for ε ¼
(0,80e0,85)), against ~55 Wm2K1 for pure PCM) at ~ 500 s,
then, it goes down rapidly at the end of the charging period
(1000 s). These data reflect an important boosting of the
thermal conductivity of the pure PCM with MF incorporation
at gradual decreased porosity (increased MF fraction from 5%
to 20%). Thereafter, the heat transfer coefficient fluctuated
until the end of the dormancy phase (10,000 s). The same trend
was observed for the surface heat flux with a lower-
magnitude, Fig. 6(a). The acquired trend in Fig. 6 (b) is a
direct translation of the AC-bed temperature evolution
(Fig. 6(c)). Due to H2 compression and adsorption, the AC-bed
temperature rose throughout the charging phase, resulting in
a significant heat flow (2800 W/m2 at 550s, Fig. 6(b)) being
evacuated towards the MF-PCM unit. In contrast to the
charging phase, the bed temperature progressively drops
during the resting interval (1000e10000 s). Our results are
consistent with many literature publications's results that
show that MF has a positive impact on the thermal perfor-
mance of the PCM in a variety of thermal unit's configurations
Fig. 5 e Adsorbed quantity and melt fraction for ε ¼ 0.95, [37e39,64]. The results of Fig. 6 (b)e(c) explain well the melt
0.90, 0.85, 0.80 and pure based metal foam-PCM-AX-21 fraction behaviors of Fig. 5(b); the higher the heat flux received
during adsorption process. by the MF-PCM block, the higher was the melting rate.
32034 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 8 ( 2 0 2 3 ) 3 2 0 2 5 e3 2 0 3 8
Fig. 6 e Average bed temperature, Heat transfer coefficient and surface heat flux of ε¼0.95, 0.90, 0.85, 0.80 and pure based
metal foam-PCM-AX-21 during adsorption process.
Consequently, massive stored heat (in the PCM material) these evolutions over the time interval ranging from 600 to
could be achieved. By considering the impact of heat transfer 10,000 s. These-maps were determined in the absence (pure
coefficient on the heat flux and the bed temperature (AC), PCM) or presence of MF at various porosities (ε ¼ 0.85e0.95).
Fig. 6(a)e(c), it can be noticed that according to the literature This graphic shows that the same explanation holds true both
findings, the variation of heat transfer coefficient (by the when MF is present and when it is not. The only exception is
change of HTF fluid) or the changing of the wall material have that decreasing the porosity's-MF accelerated the displace-
negligible impact on the maximal temperature of adsorbent ment of the liquid layer from the AC- wall to the MF-PCM
[20,56,67]. This outcome was linked to the PCM solid bed's poor external wall. During the charging regime, maximum heat-
heat conductivity. Consequently, future-research on H2 ing (T z 420 K at t ¼ 600 s) is observed at the bed center, where
adsorptive-storage tanks should focus-primarily on the compression and H2 adsorption heats are hardly-
improving the solid bed's thermal conductivity. evacuated (outside the reactor) to the low thermal conduc-
tivity of solid bed and the-farness of its core from the inlet and
Temperature and melt fraction contours of the MF-PCM the enclosure's wall. In contrast, this temperature is gradually
system decreased as we get closer to the reactor entrance where the
cooling effect of fresh H2 takes place. Due to the limited
The 2D distribution of the temperature and PCM liquid frac- thermal conductivity of the activated carbon, the bed core gets
tion during the paraffin melting in the AC-PCM-MF storage substantially colder with a difficult dissipation of heat energy
unit can better illustrate the thermal storage issue and the as time passes (t ¼ 5000 and 10,000 s). Till the completion of
contribution of each reactor's part in the process. Fig. 7 show the dormancy phase (10,000 s), the temperature for the MF-
i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 8 ( 2 0 2 3 ) 3 2 0 2 5 e3 2 0 3 8 32035
PCM (or PCM alone) system remains nearly constant (295 K),
whereas a modest increase in temperature (299 K) is seen in
the area around the reactor wall. The liquid percentage of
PCM, where in each case the melt paraffin progressively grows
over time, serves as evidence that the temperature of MF-PCM
(or PCM) varies over time. Moreover, the thickness of liquid
PCM becomes somewhat wider at the top as time increases
(t > 600 s). This is clearly attributable to the reactor's top area
being heated greater during the dormant period. According to
the previous findings, the changes in bed temperature and
PCM liquid fractions demonstrate that the hydrogen storage
reactor's thermal performance and storage capacity are both
enhanced by using MFs [68e74].
Conclusion
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