Production Engineering II Questions & Solutions

Solutions for Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing, 4/e (published by Wiley)  MPGroover 2010
21 THEORY OF METAL MACHINING

Review Questions
21.1 What are the three basic categories of material removal processes?
Answer. As organized in this text, the three basic categories of material removal processes are (1)
conventional machining, (2) abrasive processes, and (3) nontraditional processes.
21.2 What distinguishes machining from other manufacturing processes?
Answer. In machining, material is removed from the workpart so that the remaining material is the
desired part geometry.
21.3 Identify some of the reasons why machining is commercially and technologically important.
Answer. The reasons include the following: (1) it is applicable to most materials; (2) it can produce
a variety of geometries to a part; (3) it can achieve closer tolerances than most other processes; and
(4) it can create good surface finishes.
21.4 Name the three most common machining processes.
Answer. The three common machining processes are (1) turning, (2) drilling, and (3) milling.
21.5 What are the two basic categories of cutting tools in machining? Give two examples of machining
operations that use each of the tooling types.
Answer. The two categories are (1) single-point tools, used in operations such as turning and
boring; and (2) multiple-edge cutting tools, used in operations such as milling and drilling.
21.6 What are the parameters of a machining operation that are included within the scope of cutting
conditions?
Answer. Cutting conditions include speed, feed, depth of cut, and whether or not a cutting fluid is
used.
21.7 Explain the difference between roughing and finishing operations in machining.
Answer. A roughing operation is used to remove large amounts of material rapidly and to produce a
part geometry close to the desired shape. A finishing operation follows roughing and is used to
achieve the final geometry and surface finish.
21.8 What is a machine tool?
Answer. A machine tool can be defined as a power-driven machine that positions and moves a tool
relative to the work to accomplish machining or other metal shaping process.
21.9 What is an orthogonal cutting operation?
Answer. Orthogonal cutting involves the use of a wedge- shaped tool in which the cutting edge is
perpendicular to the direction of speed motion into the work material.
21.10 Why is the orthogonal cutting model useful in the analysis of metal machining?
Answer. Orthogonal cutting is useful in the analysis of metal machining because it simplifies the
rather complex three-dimensional machining situation to two dimensions. In addition, the tooling in
the orthogonal model has only two parameters (rake angle and relief angle), which is a simpler
geometry than a single-point tool.
21.11 Name and briefly describe the four types of chips that occur in metal cutting.
Excerpts from this work may be reproduced by instructors for distribution on a not-for-profit basis for testing or instructional purposes only to
students enrolled in courses for which the textbook has been adopted. Any other reproduction or translation of this work beyond that permitted
by Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act without the permission of the copyright owner is unlawful.
131
Answer. The four types are (1) discontinuous, in which the chip is formed into separated segments;
(2) continuous, in which the chip does not segment and is formed from a ductile metal; (3)
continuous with built-up edge, which is the same as (2) except that friction at the tool-chip interface
causes adhesion of a small portion of work material to the tool rake face, and (4) serrated, which are
semi-continuous in the sense that they possess a saw-tooth appearance that is produced by a cyclical
chip formation of alternating high shear strain followed by low shear strain.
21.12 Identify the four forces that act upon the chip in the orthogonal metal cutting model but cannot be
measured directly in an operation.
Answer. The four forces that act upon the chip are (1) friction force, (2) normal force to friction, (3)
shear force, and (4) normal force to friction.
21.13 Identify the two forces that can be measured in the orthogonal metal cutting model.
Answer. The two forces that can be measured in the orthogonal metal cutting model are (1) cutting
force and (2) thrust force.
21.14 What is the relationship between the coefficient of friction and the friction angle in the orthogonal
cutting model?
Answer. The relationship is that the coefficient of friction is the tangent of the friction angle (µ =
tan β).
21.15 Describe in words what the Merchant equation tells us.
Answer. The Merchant equation states that the shear plane angle increases when rake angle is
increased and friction angle is decreased.
21.16 How is the power required in a cutting operation related to the cutting force?
Answer. The power required in a cutting operation is equal to the cutting force multiplied by the
cutting speed.
21.17 What is the specific energy in metal machining?
Answer. Specific energy is the amount of energy required to remove a unit volume of the work
material.
21.18 What does the term size effect mean in metal cutting?
Answer. The size effect refers to the fact that the specific energy increases as the cross-sectional
area of the chip (to x w in orthogonal cutting or f x d in turning) decreases.
21.19 What is a tool-chip thermocouple?
Answer. A tool-chip thermocouple is comprised of the tool and chip as the two dissimilar metals
forming the thermocouple junction; as the tool-chip interface heats up during cutting, a small
voltage is emitted from the junction that can be measured to indicate cutting temperature.
Multiple Choice Quiz
There are 17 correct answers in the following multiple choice questions (some questions have multiple
answers that are correct). To attain a perfect score on the quiz, all correct answers must be given. Each
correct answer is worth 1 point. Each omitted answer or wrong answer reduces the score by 1 point, and
each additional answer beyond the correct number of answers reduces the score by 1 point. Percentage score
on the quiz is based on the total number of correct answers.
21.1 Which of the following manufacturing processes are classified as material removal processes (two
correct answers): (a) casting, (b) drawing, (c) extrusion, (d) forging, (e) grinding, (f) machining, (g)
molding, (h) pressworking, and (i) spinning?
132
Answer. (e) and (f).

21.2 A lathe is used to perform which one of the following manufacturing operations: (a) broaching, (b)
drilling, (c) lapping, (d) milling, or (e) turning?
Answer. (e).
21.3 With which one of the following geometric forms is the drilling operation most closely associated:
(a) external cylinder, (b) flat plane, (c) round hole, (d) screw threads, or (e) sphere?
Answer. (c).
21.4 If the cutting conditions in a turning operation are cutting speed = 300 ft/min, feed = 0.010 in/rev,
and depth of cut = 0.100 inch, which one of the following is the material removal rate: (a) 0.025
in3/min, (b) 0.3 in3/min, (c) 3.0 in3/min, or (d) 3.6 in3/min?
Answer. (d).
21.5 A roughing operation generally involves which one of the following combinations of cutting
conditions: (a) high v, f, and d; (b) high v, low f and d; (c) low v, high f and d; or (d) low v, f, and d,
where v = cutting speed, f = feed, and d = depth?
Answer. (c).
21.6 Which of the following are characteristics of the orthogonal cutting model (three best answers): (a)
a circular cutting edge is used, (b) a multiple-cutting-edge tool is used, (c) a single-point tool is
used, (d) only two dimensions play an active role in the analysis, (e) the cutting edge is parallel to
the direction of cutting speed, (f) the cutting edge is perpendicular to the direction of cutting speed,
and (g) the two elements of tool geometry are rake and relief angle?
Answer. (d), (f), and (g).
21.7 The chip thickness ratio is which one of the following: (a) tc/to, (b) to/tc, (c) f/d, or (d) to/w, where tc =
chip thickness after the cut, to = chip thickness before the cut, f = feed, d = depth, and w = width of
cut?
Answer. (b).
21.8 Which one of the four types of chip would be expected in a turning operation conducted at low
cutting speed on a brittle work material: (a) continuous, (b) continuous with built-up edge, (c)
discontinuous, or (d) serrated?
Answer. (c).
21.9 According to the Merchant equation, an increase in rake angle would have which of the following
results, all other factors remaining the same (two best answers): (a) decrease in friction angle, (b)
decrease in power requirements, (c) decrease in shear plane angle, (d) increase in cutting
temperature, and (e) increase in shear plane angle?
Answer. (b) and (e).
21.10 In using the orthogonal cutting model to approximate a turning operation, the chip thickness before
the cut to corresponds to which one of the following cutting conditions in turning: (a) depth of cut d,
(b) feed f, or (c) speed v?
Answer. (b).
21.11 Which one of the following metals would usually have the lowest unit horsepower in a machining
operation: (a) aluminum, (b) brass, (c) cast iron, or (d) steel?
Answer. (a).
133
21.12 For which one of the following values of chip thickness before the cut to would you expect the
specific energy in machining to be the greatest: (a) 0.010 inch, (b) 0.025 inch, (c) 0.12 mm, or (d)
0.50 mm?
Answer. (c).
21.13 Which of the following cutting conditions has the strongest effect on cutting temperature: (a) feed
or (b) speed?
Answer. (b).
Problems
Chip Formation and Forces in Machining
21.1 In an orthogonal cutting operation, the tool has a rake angle = 15°. The chip thickness before the cut
= 0.30 mm and the cut yields a deformed chip thickness = 0.65 mm. Calculate (a) the shear plane
angle and (b) the shear strain for the operation.
Solution: (a) r = to/tc = 0.30/0.65 = 0.4615
φ = tan-1(0.4615 cos 15/(1 - 0.4615 sin 15)) = tan-1(0.5062) = 26.85°
(b) Shear strain γ = cot 26.85 + tan (26.85 - 15) = 1.975 + 0.210 = 2.185
21.2 In Problem 21.1, suppose the rake angle were changed to 0°. Assuming that the friction angle
remains the same, determine (a) the shear plane angle, (b) the chip thickness, and (c) the shear strain
for the operation.
Solution: From Problem 21.1, α = 15° and φ = 26.85°. Using the Merchant Equation, Eq. (21.16):
φ = 45 + α/2 - β/2; rearranging, β = 2(45) + α - 2φ
β = 2(45) + α - 2(φ) = 90 + 15 – 2(26.85) = 51.3°
Now, with α = 0 and β remaining the same at 51.3°, φ = 45 + 0/2 – 51.3/2 = 19.35°
(b) Chip thickness at α = 0: tc = to/tan φ = 0.30/tan 19.35 = 0.854 mm
(c) Shear strain γ = cot 19.35 + tan (19.35 - 0) = 2.848 + 0.351 = 3.199
21.3 In an orthogonal cutting operation, the 0.250 in wide tool has a rake angle of 5°. The lathe is set so
the chip thickness before the cut is 0.010 in. After the cut, the deformed chip thickness is measured
to be 0.027 in. Calculate (a) the shear plane angle and (b) the shear strain for the operation.
Solution: (a) r = to/tc = 0.010/0.027 = 0.3701
φ = tan-1(0.3701 cos 5/(1 - 0.3701 sin 5)) = tan-1(0.3813) = 20.9°
(b) Shear strain γ = cot 20.9 + tan (20.9 – 5) = 2.623 + 0.284 = 2.907
21.4 In a turning operation, spindle speed is set to provide a cutting speed of 1.8 m/s. The feed and depth
of cut of cut are 0.30 mm and 2.6 mm, respectively. The tool rake angle is 8°. After the cut, the
deformed chip thickness is measured to be 0.49 mm. Determine (a) shear plane angle, (b) shear
strain, and (c) material removal rate. Use the orthogonal cutting model as an approximation of the
turning process.
Solution: (a) r = to/tc = 0.30/0.49 = 0.612
φ = tan-1(0.612 cos 8/(1 – 0.612 sin 8)) = tan-1(0.6628) = 33.6°
(b) γ = cot 33.6 + tan (33.6 - 8) = 1.509 + 0.478 = 1.987
(c) RMR = (1.8 m/s x 103 mm/m)(0.3)(2.6) = 1404 mm3/s
134
21.5 The cutting force and thrust force in an orthogonal cutting operation are 1470 N and 1589 N,
respectively. The rake angle = 5°, the width of the cut = 5.0 mm, the chip thickness before the cut =
0.6, and the chip thickness ratio = 0.38. Determine (a) the shear strength of the work material and
(b) the coefficient of friction in the operation.
Solution: (a) φ = tan-1(0.38 cos 5/(1 - 0.38 sin 5)) = tan-1(0.3916) = 21.38°
Fs = 1470 cos 21.38 – 1589 sin 21.38 = 789.3 N
As = (0.6)(5.0)/sin 21.38 = 3.0/.3646 = 8.23 mm2
S = 789.3/8.23 = 95.9 N/mm2 = 95.9 MPa
(b) φ = 45 + α/2 - β/2; rearranging, β = 2(45) + α - 2φ
β = 2(45) + α - 2(φ) = 90 + 5 – 2(21.38) = 52.24°
µ = tan 52.24 = 1.291
21.6 The cutting force and thrust force have been measured in an orthogonal cutting operation to be 300
lb and 291 lb, respectively. The rake angle = 10°, width of cut = 0.200 in, chip thickness before the
cut = 0.015, and chip thickness ratio = 0.4. Determine (a) the shear strength of the work material
and (b) the coefficient of friction in the operation.
Solution: φ = tan-1(0.4 cos 10/(1 - 0.4 sin 10)) = tan-1(0.4233) = 22.94°
Fs = 300 cos 22.94 - 291sin 22.94 = 162.9 lb.
As = (0.015)(0.2)/sin 22.94 = 0.0077 in2
S = 162.9/0.0077 = 21,167 lb/in2
β = 2(45) + α - 2(φ) = 90 + 10 - 2(22.94) = 54.1°
µ = tan 54.1 = 1.38
21.7 An orthogonal cutting operation is performed using a rake angle of 15°, chip thickness before the
cut = 0.012 in and width of cut = 0.100 in. The chip thickness ratio is measured after the cut to be
0.55. Determine (a) the chip thickness after the cut, (b) shear angle, (c) friction angle, (d) coefficient
of friction, and (e) shear strain.
Solution: (a) r = to/tc, tc = to/r = 0.012/0.55 = 0.022 in
(b) φ = tan-1(0.55 cos 15/(1 - 0.55 sin 15)) = tan-1(0.6194) = 31.8°
(c) β = 2(45) + α - 2(φ) = 90 + 15 - 2(31.8) = 41.5°
(d) µ = tan 41.5 = 0.88
(e) γ = cot 31.8 + tan(31.8 - 15) = 1.615 + 0.301 = 1.92
21.8 The orthogonal cutting operation described in previous Problem 21.7 involves a work material
whose shear strength is 40,000 lb/in2. Based on your answers to the previous problem, compute (a)
the shear force, (b) cutting force, (c) thrust force, and (d) friction force.
Solution: (a) As = (0.012)(0.10)/sin 31.8 = 0.00228 in2.
Fs = AsS = 0.00228(40,000) = 91.2 lb
(b) Fc = 91.2 cos (41.5 - 15)/cos (31.8 + 41.5 -15) = 155 lb
(c) Ft = 91.2 sin (41.5 - 15)/cos (31.8 + 41.5 -15) = 77.2 lb
(d) F = 155 sin 15 - 77.2 cos 15 = 115 lb
21.9 In an orthogonal cutting operation, the rake angle = -5°, chip thickness before the cut = 0.2 mm and
width of cut = 4.0 mm. The chip ratio = 0.4. Determine (a) the chip thickness after the cut, (b) shear
angle, (c) friction angle, (d) coefficient of friction, and (e) shear strain.
Solution: (a) r = to/tc, tc = to/r = 0.2/.4 = 0.5 mm
135
(b) φ = tan-1(0.4 cos(–5)/(1 - 0.4 sin(–5))) = tan-1(0.3851) = 21.1°

(c) β = 2(45) + α - 2(φ) = 90 + (-5) - 2(21.8) = 42.9°
(d) µ = tan 42.9 = 0.93
(e) γ = cot 31.8 + tan(31.8 - 15) = 2.597 + 0.489 = 3.09
21.10 The shear strength of a certain work material = 50,000 lb/in2. An orthogonal cutting operation is
performed using a tool with a rake angle = 20° at the following cutting conditions: cutting speed =
100 ft/min, chip thickness before the cut = 0.015 in, and width of cut = 0.150 in. The resulting chip
thickness ratio = 0.50. Determine (a) the shear plane angle, (b) shear force, (c) cutting force and
thrust force, and (d) friction force.
(b) As = (0.015)(0.15)/sin 29.5 = 0.00456 in2.
Fs = AsS = 0.00456(50,000) = 228 lb
(c) β = 2(45) + α - 2(φ) = 90 + 20 - 2(29.5) = 50.9°
Fc = 228 cos (50.9 - 20)/cos (29.5 + 50.9 -20) = 397 lb
Ft = 228 sin (50.9 - 20)/cos (29.5 + 50.9 -20) = 238 lb
(d) F = 397 sin 20 + 238 cos 20 = 359 lb
21.11 Consider the data in Problem 21.10 except that rake angle is a variable, and its effect on the forces
in parts (b), (c), and (d) is to be evaluated. (a) Using a spreadsheet calculator, compute the values of
shear force, cutting force, thrust force, and friction force as a function of rake angle over a range of
rake angles between the high value of 20° in Problem 21.10 and a low value of -10°. Use intervals
of 5° between these limits. The chip thickness ratio decreases as rake angle is reduced and can be
approximated by the following relationship: r = 0.38 + 0.006α, where r = chip thickness and α =
rake angle. (b) What observations can be made from the computed results?
Solution: (a) The author’s spreadsheet calculations (using Excel) returned the following results:
α r Fs (lb) Fc (lb) Ft (lb) F (lb)
20 0.5 228 397 238 359
15 0.47 245 435 309 411
10 0.44 265 480 399 476
5 0.41 288 531 515 559
0 0.38 317 592 667 667
-5 0.35 351 665 870 809
-10 0.32 393 754 1150 1001
(b) Observations: (1) All forces increase as rake angle decreases. (2) The change in forces with rake
angle increases at an accelerating rate as rake angle is reduced. (3) Thrust force is less than cutting
force at high rake angles (e.g., 20°) but increases at a faster rate than cutting force so that its value is
greater at low and negative rake angles. (4) Chip thickness ratio decreases with decreasing rake
angle, as indicated by the given relationship r = 0.38 + 0.006α.
21.12 Solve previous Problem 21.10 except that the rake angle has been changed to -5° and the resulting
chip thickness ratio = 0.35.
Solution: (a) φ = tan-1(0.35 cos(–5)/(1 - 0.35 sin(-5))) = tan-1(0.3384) = 18.7°
(b) As = (0.015)(0.15)/sin 18.7 = 0.00702 in2.
Fs = AsS = 0.00702(50,000) = 351 lb
136
(c) β = 2(45) + α - 2(φ) = 90 + (-5) - 2(18.7) = 47.6°

Fc = 351 cos(47.6 - (-5))/cos(18.7 + 47.6 - (-5)) = 665 lb
Ft = 351 sin(47.6 - (-5))/cos(18.7 + 47.6 - (-5)) = 870 lb
(d) F = 665 sin (-5) + 870 cos (-5) = 809 lb
21.13 A carbon steel bar with 7.64 in diameter has a tensile strength of 65,000 lb/in2 and a shear strength
of 45,000 lb/in2. The diameter is reduced using a turning operation at a cutting speed of 400 ft/min.
The feed is 0.011 in/rev and the depth of cut is 0.120 in. The rake angle on the tool in the direction
of chip flow is 13°. The cutting conditions result in a chip ratio of 0.52. Using the orthogonal model
as an approximation of turning, determine (a) the shear plane angle, (b) shear force, (c) cutting force
and feed force, and (d) coefficient of friction between the tool and chip.
(b) As = tow/sin φ = (0.011)(0.12)/sin 29.8 = 0.00265 in2.
Fs = AsS = 0.00587(40,000) = 119.4 lb
(c) β = 2(45) + α - 2(φ) = 90 + 10 - 2(29.8) = 43.3°
Fc = Fscos (β – α)/cos (φ + β – α)
Fc = 264.1 cos (43.3 - 13)/cos (29.8 + 43.3 - 13) = 207 lb
Ft = Fssin (β – α)/cos (φ + β – α)
Ft = 264.1 sin (43.3 - 13)/cos (29.8 + 43.3 - 13) = 121 lb
(d) μ = tan β = tan 43.3 = 0.942
21.14 Low carbon steel having a tensile strength of 300 MPa and a shear strength of 220 MPa is cut in a
turning operation with a cutting speed of 3.0 m/s. The feed is 0.20 mm/rev and the depth of cut is
3.0 mm. The rake angle of the tool is 5° in the direction of chip flow. The resulting chip ratio is
0.45. Using the orthogonal model as an approximation of turning, determine (a) the shear plane
angle, (b) shear force, (c) cutting force and feed force.
(b) As = tow/sin φ = (0.2)(3.0)/sin 25.0 = 1.42 mm2.
Fs = AsS = 1.42(220) = 312 N
(c) β = 2(45) + α - 2(φ) = 90 + 5 - 2(25.0) = 45.0°
Fc = Fscos (β – α)/cos (φ + β – α)
Fc = 312 cos(45 - 5)/cos(25.0 + 45.0 - 5) = 566 N
Ft = Fssin(β – α)/cos(φ + β – α)
Ft = 312 sin(45 - 5)/cos(25.0 + 45.0 - 5) = 474 N
21.15 A turning operation is made with a rake angle of 10°, a feed of 0.010 in/rev and a depth of cut =
0.100 in. The shear strength of the work material is known to be 50,000 lb/in2, and the chip
thickness ratio is measured after the cut to be 0.40. Determine the cutting force and the feed force.
Use the orthogonal cutting model as an approximation of the turning process.
Solution: φ = tan-1(0.4 cos 10/(1 - 0.4 sin 10)) = tan-1(0.4233) = 22.9°
As = (0.010)(0.10)/sin 22.9 = 0.00257 in2
Fs = AsS = 0.00256(50,000) = 128 lb
β = 2(45) + α - 2(φ) = 90 + 10 - 2(22.9) = 54.1°
Fc = 128 cos (54.1 - 10)/cos (22.9 + 54.1 - 10) = 236 lb
Ft = 128 sin (54.1 - 10)/cos (22.9 + 54.1 - 10) = 229 lb
21.16 Show how Eq. (21.3) is derived from the definition of chip ratio, Eq. (21.2), and Figure 21.5(b).
Solution: Begin with the definition of the chip ratio, Eq. (21.2): r = to/tc = sin φ/cos (φ - α)
137
Rearranging, r cos (φ - α) = sin φ

Using the trigonometric identity cos(φ - α) = cos φ cos α + sin φ sin α
r (cos φ cos α + sin φ sin α) = sin φ
Dividing both sides by sin φ, we obtain r cos α/tan φ + r sin α = 1
r cos α/tan φ = 1 - r sin α
Rearranging, tan φ = r cos α/(1 - r sin α) Q.E.D.
21.17 Show how Eq. (21.4) is derived from Figure 21.6.
Solution: In the figure, γ = AC/BD = (AD + DC)/BD = AD/BD + DC/BD
AD/BD = cot φ and DC/BD = tan (φ - α)
Thus, γ = cot φ + tan (φ - α) Q.E.D.
21.18 Derive the force equations for F, N, Fs, and Fn (Eqs. (21.9) through (21.12) in the text) using the
force diagram of Figure 21.11.
Solution: Eq. (21.9): In Figure 23.11, construct a line starting at the intersection of Ft and Fc that is
perpendicular to the friction force F. The constructed line is at an angle α with Fc. The vector F is
divided into two line segments, one of which = Fc sin α and the other = Ft cos α.
Thus, F = Fc sin α + Ft cos α. Q.E.D.
Eq. (21.10): In Figure 23.11, translate vector N vertically upward until it coincides with the
previously constructed line, whose length = Fc cos α. Next, translate vector Ft to the right and
downward at an angle α until its base is at the arrowhead of F. Ft now makes an angle α with F.
The arrowhead of Ft will now be at the base of the translated base of N. The distance along the
previously constructed line between the Ft arrowhead (base of translated N vector) and F is Ft sinα.
Hence, N = Fc cos α - Ft sin α Q.E.D.
Eq. (21.11): In Figure 23.11, extend vector Fs in the opposite direction of its arrowhead, and from
the intersection of Ft and Fc construct a line that is perpendicular to vector Fs. A right triangle now
exists in which Fc is the hypotenuse and the two sides are (1) the extended Fs vector and (2) the
constructed line that runs between Fs and the intersection of Fc and Ft. The extended Fs vector is
related to Fc as Fc cos φ. The length difference between the extended Fs vector and the original Fs
vector is Ft sin φ.
Thus Fs (original) = Fc cos φ - Ft sin φ Q.E.D.
Eq. (21.12): In Figure 23.11, construct a line from the intersection of Ft and Fc that is perpendicular
to and intersects with vector Fn. Vector Fn is now divided into two line segments, one of which = Ft
cos φ and the other = Fc sin φ.
Hence, Fn = Fc sin φ + Ft cos φ Q.E.D.
Power and Energy in Machining
21.18 In a turning operation on stainless steel with hardness = 200 HB, the cutting speed = 200 m/min,
feed = 0.25 mm/rev, and depth of cut = 7.5 mm. How much power will the lathe draw in
performing this operation if its mechanical efficiency = 90%. Use Table 21.2 to obtain the
appropriate specific energy value.
Solution: From Table 21.2, U = 2.8 N-m/mm3 = 2.8 J/mm3
RMR = vfd = (200 m/min)(103 mm/m)(0.25 mm)(7.5 mm) = 375,000 mm3/min = 6250 mm3/s
Pc = (6250 mm3/s)(2.8 J/mm3) = 17,500 J/s = 17,500 W = 17.5 kW
Accounting for mechanical efficiency, Pg = 17.5/0.90 = 19.44 kW
21.19 In Problem 21.18, compute the lathe power requirements if feed = 0.50 mm/rev.
138
Solution: This is the same basic problem as the previous, except that a correction must be made for
the “size effect.” Using Figure 21.14, for f = 0.50 mm, correction factor = 0.85.
From Table 21.2, U = 2.8 J/mm3. With the correction factor, U = 2.8(0.85) = 2.38 J/mm3.
RMR = vfd = (200 m/min)(103 mm/m)(0.50 mm)(7.5 mm) = 750,000 mm3/min = 12,500 mm3/s
Pc = (12,500 mm3/s)(2.38 J/mm3) = 29,750 J/s = 29,750 W = 29.75 kW
Accounting for mechanical efficiency, Pg = 29.75/0.90 = 33.06 kW
21.20 In a turning operation on aluminum, cutting speed = 900 ft/min, feed = 0.020 in/rev, and depth of
cut = 0.250 in. What horsepower is required of the drive motor, if the lathe has a mechanical
efficiency = 87%? Use Table 21.2 to obtain the appropriate unit horsepower value.
Solution: From Table 21.2, HPu = 0.25 hp/(in3/min) for aluminum. Since feed is greater than 0.010
in/rev in the table, a correction factor must be applied from Figure 21.14. For f = 0.020 in/rev = to,
correction factor = 0.9.
HPc = HPu x RMR, HPg = HPc/E
RMR = vfd = 900 x 12(.020)(0.250) = 54 in3/min
HPc = 0.9(0.25)(54) = 12.2 hp
HPg = 12.2/0.87 = 14.0 hp
21.21 In a turning operation on plain carbon steel whose Brinell hardness = 275 HB, the cutting speed is
set at 200 m/min and depth of cut = 6.0 mm. The lathe motor is rated at 25 kW, and its mechanical
efficiency = 90%. Using the appropriate specific energy value from Table 21.2, determine the
maximum feed that can be set for this operation. Use of a spreadsheet calculator is recommended
for the iterative calculations required in this problem.
RMR = vfd = (200 m/min)(103 mm/m)(6 mm)f = 1200(103)f mm3/min = 20(103)f mm3/s
Available power Pc = Pg E = 25(103)(0.90) = 22.5 (103) = 22,500W = 22,500 N-m/s
Required power Pc = (2.8 N-m/mm3)( 20 x 103) f = 56,000 f (units are N-m/s)
Setting available power = required power, 22,500 = 56,000 f
f = 22,500/56,000 = 0.402 mm (this should be interpreted as mm/rev for a turning operation)
However, for this feed, correction factor in Figure 21.14 = 0.9. Thus U = 2.8(0.90) = 2.52 N-m/mm3
and an iterative calculation procedure is required to match the unit power value with the feed, taking
the correction factor into account.
Required Pc = (2.52)(20 x 103) f = 50,400 f
Again setting available power = required power, 22,500 = 50,400 f
f = 22,500/50,400 = 0.446 mm/rev
One more iteration using the correction factor yields a value around f = 0.45 mm/rev.
The author’s spreadsheet calculations (using Excel) returned a value closer to f = 0.46 mm/rev.
However, whether a spreadsheet is used or not, the difficulty that remains is reading the values of
the feed and the correction factor in Figure 21.14.
21.22 A turning operation is to be performed on a 20 hp lathe that has an 87% efficiency rating. The
roughing cut is made on alloy steel whose hardness is in the range 325 to 335 HB. The cutting
speed is 375 ft/min, feed is 0.030 in/rev, and depth of cut is 0.150 in. Based on these values, can the
job be performed on the 20 hp lathe? Use Table 21.2 to obtain the appropriate unit horsepower
value.
Solution: From Table 21.2, HPu = 1.3 hp/(in3/min)
Since the uncut chip thickness (0.030 in) is different from the tabular value of 0.010, a correction
factor must be applied. From Figure 21.14, the correction factor is 0.8. Therefore, the corrected HPu
= 0.8*1.3 = 1.04 hp/(in3/min)
RMR = vfd = 375 ft/min(12 in/ft)(0.03 in)(0.150 in) = 20.25 in3/min
HPc = (20.25 in3/min)(1.04 hp/(in3/min)) = 21.06 hp required.
139
At efficiency E = 87%, available horsepower = 0.87(20) = 17.4 hp

Since required horsepower exceeds available horsepower, the job cannot be accomplished on the 20
hp lathe, at least not at the specified cutting speed of 375 ft/min.
21.23 Suppose the cutting speed in Problems 21.7 and 21.8 is 200 ft/min. From your answers to those
problems, find (a) the horsepower consumed in the operation, (b) metal removal rate in in3/min, (c)
unit horsepower (hp-min/in3), and (d) the specific energy (in-lb/in3).
Solution: (a) From Problem 21.8, Fc = 155 lb. HPc = 155(200)/33,000 = 0.94 hp
(b) RMR = vfd = (200 x 12)(0.012)(0.100) = 2.88 in3/min
(c) HPu = 0.94/2.88 = 0.326 hp/(in3/min)
(d) U = 155(200)/2.88 = 10,764 ft-lb/in3 = 129,167 in-lb/in3
21.24 For Problem 21.12, the lathe has a mechanical efficiency = 0.83. Determine (a) the horsepower
consumed by the turning operation; (b) horsepower that must be generated by the lathe; (c) unit
horsepower and specific energy for the work material in this operation.
Solution: (a) From Problem 21.12, Fc = 207 lb.
HPc = Fcv/33,000 = 207(400)/33,000 = 2.51 hp
(b) HPg = HPc/E = 2.51/0.83 = 3.02 hp
(c) RMR = 12 vfd = (400 x 12)(0.011)(0.120) = 6.336 in3/min
HPu = HPc/RMR = 2.51/6.336 = 0.396 hp/(in3/min)
U = Fcv/RMR = 207(400 x 12)/6.336 = 157,000 in-lb/in3
21.25 In a turning operation on low carbon steel (175 BHN), cutting speed = 400 ft/min, feed = 0.010
in/rev, and depth of cut = 0.075 in. The lathe has a mechanical efficiency = 0.85. Based on the unit
horsepower values in Table 21.2, determine (a) the horsepower consumed by the turning operation
and (b) the horsepower that must be generated by the lathe.
Solution: (a) From Table 21.2, HPu = 0.6 hp/(in3/min) for low carbon steel.
HPc = HPu x RMR
RMR = vfd = 400 x 12(.010)(0.075) = 3.6 in3/min
HPc = 0.6(3.6) = 2.16 hp
(b) HPg = 2.16/0.85 = 2.54 hp
21.26 Solve Problem 21.25 except that the feed = 0.0075 in/rev and the work material is stainless steel
(Brinell Hardness = 240 HB).
Solution: (a) From Table 21.2, HPu = 1.0 hp/(in3/min) for stainless steel. Since feed is lower than
0.010 in/rev in the table, a correction factor must be applied from Figure 21.14. For f = 0.0075
in/rev = to, correction factor = 1.1.
HPc = HPu x RMR
RMR = 400 x 12(0.0075)(0.12) = 4.32 in3/min
HPc = 1.1(1.0)(4.32) = 4.75 hp
(b) HPg = 5.01/0.83 = 5.73 hp
21.27 A turning operation is carried out on aluminum (100 BHN). Cutting speed = 5.6 m/s, feed = 0.25
mm/rev, and depth of cut = 2.0 mm. The lathe has a mechanical efficiency = 0.85. Based on the
specific energy values in Table 21.2, determine (a) the cutting power and (b) gross power in the
turning operation, in Watts.
Solution: (a) From Table 21.2, U = 0.7 N-m/mm3 for aluminum.
RMR = vfd = 5.6(103)(.25)(2.0) = 2.8(103) mm3/s.
140
Pc = U RMR = 0.7(2.8)(103) = 1.96(103) N-m/s = 1960 W

(b) Gross power Pg = 1960/0.85 = 2306 W
21.28 Solve Problem 21.27 but with the following changes: cutting speed = 1.3 m/s, feed = 0.75 mm/rev,
and depth = 4.0 mm. Note that although the power used in this operation is only about 10% greater
than in the previous problem, the metal removal rate is about 40% greater.
Solution: (a) From Table 21.2, U = 0.7 N-m/mm3 for aluminum. Since feed is greater than 0.25
mm/rev in the table, a correction factor must be applied from Figure 21.14. For f = 0.75 mm/rev =
to, correction factor = 0.80.
RMR = vfd = 1.3(103)(.75)(4.0) = 3.9(103) mm3/s.
Pc = U RMR = 0.8(0.7)(3.9)(103) = 2.184(103) N-m/s = 2184 W
(b) Gross power Pg = 2184/0.85 = 2569 W
21.29 A turning operation is performed on an engine lathe using a tool with zero rake angle in the
direction of chip flow. The work material is an alloy steel with hardness = 325 Brinell hardness.
The feed is 0.015 in/rev, depth of cut is 0.125 in and cutting speed is 300 ft/min. After the cut, the
chip thickness ratio is measured to be 0.45. (a) Using the appropriate value of specific energy from
Table 21.2, compute the horsepower at the drive motor, if the lathe has an efficiency = 85%. (b)
Based on horsepower, compute your best estimate of the cutting force for this turning operation.
Use the orthogonal cutting model as an approximation of the turning process.
Solution: (a) From Table 21.2, U = Pu = 520,000 in-lb/in3 for alloy steel of the specified hardness.
Since feed is greater than 0.010 in/rev in the table, a correction factor must be applied from Figure
21.14. For f = 0.015 in/rev = to, correction factor = 0.95. Thus,
U = 520,000(0.95) = 494,000 in-lb/in3 = 41,167 ft-lb/in3.
RMR = 300 x 12(.015)(0.125) = 6.75 in3/min
Pc = U RMR = 41,167(6.75) = 277,875 ft-lb/min
HPc = 277,875/33,000 = 8.42 hp
HPg = 8.42/0.85 = 9.9 hp
(b) HPc = vFc/33,000. Rearranging, Fc = 33,000 (HPc/v) = 33,000(8.42/300) = 926 lb.
Check: Use unit horsepower from Table 21.2 rather than specific energy. HPu = 1.3 hp/(in3/min).
Applying the correction factor correction factor = 0.95, HPu = 1.235 hp/(in3/min).
RMR = 300 x 12(.015)(0.125) = 6.75 in3/min, same as before
HPc = 1.235(6.75) = 8.34 hp
HPg = 8.34/0.85 = 9.8 hp
(b) Fc = 33,000 (8.3/300) = 913 lb.
21.30 A lathe performs a turning operation on a workpiece of 6.0 in diameter. The shear strength of the
work is 40,000 lb/in2 and the tensile strength is 60,000 lb/in2. The rake angle of the tool is 6°. The
cutting speed = 700 ft/min, feed = 0.015 in/rev, and depth = 0.090 in. The chip thickness after the
cut is 0.025 in. Determine (a) the horsepower required in the operation, (b) unit horsepower for this
material under these conditions, and (c) unit horsepower as it would be listed in Table 21.2 for a to
of 0.010 in. Use the orthogonal cutting model as an approximation of the turning process.
Solution: (a) Must find Fc and v to determine HP.
r = 0.015/0.025 = 0.6
φ = tan-1(0.6 cos 6/(1 - 0.6 sin 6)) = tan-1 (0.6366) = 32.5°
β = 2(45) + α - 2(φ) = 90 + 6 -2(32.5) = 31.0°
As = tow/sin φ = (0.015)(0.09)/sin 32.5 = 0.00251 in2
Fs = SAs = 40,000(0.00251) = 101 lb.
Fc = Fs cos (β – α)/cos (φ + β – α)
141
Fc = 101 cos(31 - 6)/cos(32.5 + 31.0 – 6) = 170 lb.

HPc = Fcv/33,000 = 170(700)/33,000 = 3.61 hp.
(b) RMR = 700 x 12(0.0075)(0.075) = 11.3 in3/min
HPu = HPc /RMR = 3.61/11.3 = 0.319 hp/(in3/min)
(c) Correction factor = 0.85 from Fig. 21.14 to account for the fact that f = 0.015 in/rev instead of
0.010 in/rev. Taking this correction factor into account, HPu = 0.375/0.85 = 0.441 hp/(in3/min) as it
would appear in Table 21.2 for a feed (to) = 0.010 in/rev.
21.31 In a turning operation on an aluminum alloy workpiece, the feed = 0.020 in/rev, and depth of cut =
0.250 in. The motor horsepower of the lathe is 20 hp and it has a mechanical efficiency = 92%. The
unit horsepower value = 0.25 hp/(in3/min) for this aluminum grade. What is the maximum cutting
speed that can be used on this job?
Solution: From Table 21.3, HPu = 0.25 hp/(in3/min) for aluminum. Since feed is greater than 0.010
in/rev in the table, a correction factor must be applied from Figure 21.14. For f = 0.020 in/rev = to,
correction factor = 0.9.
HPc = HPu x RMR, HPg = HPc/E
RMR = vfd = 12v(.020)(0.250) = 0.06 v in3/min
HPc = 0.9(0.25)(0.06 v) = 0.0135 v hp
HPg = 0.0135 v /0.92 = 0.014674 v = 20 hp
v = 20/0.014674 = 1363 ft/min
Cutting Temperature
21.32 Orthogonal cutting is performed on a metal whose mass specific heat = 1.0 J/g-C, density = 2.9
g/cm3, and thermal diffusivity = 0.8 cm2/s. The cutting speed is 4.5 m/s, uncut chip thickness is 0.25
mm, and width of cut is 2.2 mm. The cutting force is measured at 1170 N. Using Cook's equation,
determine the cutting temperature if the ambient temperature = 22°C.
Solution: ρC = (2.9 g/cm3)(1.0 J/g-°C) = 2.90 J/cm3-°C = (2.90x10-3) J/mm3-°C
K = 0.8 cm2/s = 80 mm2/s
U = Fcv/RMR = 1170 N x 4.5 m/s/(4500 mm/s x 0.25 mm x 2.2 mm) = 2.127 N-m/mm3
T = 0.4U/(ρC) x (vto/K)0.333
T = 22 + (0.4 x 2.127 N-m/mm3/(2.90x10-3) J/mm3-C) [4500 mm/s x 0.25 mm/80 mm2/s]0.333
T = 22 + (0.2934 x 103 C)(14.06).333 = 22 + 293.4(2.41) = 22° + 707° = 729°C
21.33 Consider a turning operation performed on steel whose hardness = 225 HB at a speed = 3.0 m/s,
feed = 0.25 mm, and depth = 4.0 mm. Using values of thermal properties found in the tables and
definitions of Section 4.1 and the appropriate specific energy value from Table 21.2, compute an
estimate of cutting temperature using the Cook equation. Assume ambient temperature = 20°C.
From Table 4.1, ρ = 7.87 g/cm3 = 7.87(10-3) g/mm3
From Table 4.1, C = 0.11 Cal/g-°C. From note “a” at the bottom of the table, 1 cal = 4.186 J.
Thus, C = 0.11(4.186) = 0.460 J/ g-°C
ρC = (7.87 g/cm3)(0.46 J/g-°C) = 3.62(10-3) J/mm3-°C
From Table 4.2, thermal conductivity k = 0.046 J/s-mm-°C
From Eq. (4.3), thermal diffusivity K = k/ρC
K = 0.046 J/s-mm-°C /[(7.87 x 10-3 g/mm3)(0.46 J/g-°C)] = 12.7 mm2/s
Using Cook’s equation, to = f = 0.25 mm
T = (0.4(2.2)/3.62(10-3))[3(103)(0.25)/12.7]0.333 = 0.2428(103)(59.06)0.333
= 242.8(3.89) = 944.4 C°
Final temperature, taking ambient temperature in account T = 20 + 944 = 964°C
142
21.34 An orthogonal cutting operation is performed on a certain metal whose volumetric specific heat =
110 in-lb/in3-F, and thermal diffusivity = 0.140 in2/sec. The cutting speed = 350 ft/min, chip
thickness before the cut = 0.008 in, and width of cut = 0.100 in. The cutting force is measured at
200 lb. Using Cook's equation, determine the cutting temperature if the ambient temperature =
70°F.
Solution: v = 350 ft/min x 12 in/ft/60 sec/min = 70 in/sec.
U = Fcv/vtow = 200(70)/(70 x 0.008 x 0.100) = 250,000 in-lb/in3.
T = 70 + (0.4U/ρC)(vto/K)0.333 =
T = 70 + (0.4 x 250,000/110)[70 x 0.008/0.14]0.333 = 70 + (909)(4)0.333 = 70 + 1436 = 1506°F
21.35 It is desired to estimate the cutting temperature for a certain alloy steel whose hardness = 240
Brinell. Use the appropriate value of specific energy from Table 21.2 and compute the cutting
temperature by means of the Cook equation for a turning operation in which the cutting speed is
500 ft/min, feed is 0.005 in/rev, and depth of cut is 0.070 in. The work material has a volumetric
specific heat of 210 in lb/in3-F and a thermal diffusivity of 0.16 in2/sec. Assume ambient
temperature = 88°F.
Solution: From Table 21.2, U for alloy steel (310 BHN) = 320,000 in-lb/in3.
Since f = 0.005 in/rev, correction factor = 1.25.
Therefore U = 320,000(1.25) = 400,000 in-lb/in3.
v = 500 ft/min x 12 in/ft/60 sec/min = 100 in/sec.
T = Ta + (0.4U/ρC)(vto/K)0.333 = 88 + (0.4 x 400,000/210)(100 x 0.005/0.16)0.333
= 88 + (762)(3.125)0.333 = 88 + 1113 = 1201°F
21.36 An orthogonal machining operation removes metal at 1.8 in3/min. The cutting force in the process =
300 lb. The work material has a thermal diffusivity = 0.18 in2/sec and a volumetric specific heat =
124 in-lb/in3-F. If the feed f = to = 0.010 in and width of cut = 0.100 in, use the Cook formula to
compute the cutting temperature in the operation given that ambient temperature = 70°F.
Solution: RMR = vtow, v = RMR/tow = 1.8/(0.01 x 0.100) = 1800 in/min = 30 in/sec
U = Fcv/vtow = 300(30)/(30 x 0.010 x 0.100) = 300,000 in-lb/in3.
T = 70 + (0.4U/ρC)(vto/K)0.333 = 70 + (0.4 x 300,000/124)(30 x 0.010/0.18)0.333
= 70 + (968)(1.667)0.333 = 70 + 1147 = 1217°F
21.37 A turning operation uses a cutting speed = 200 m/min, feed = 0.25 mm/rev, and depth of cut = 4.00
mm. The thermal diffusivity of the work material = 20 mm2/s and the volumetric specific heat = 3.5
(10-3) J/mm3-C. If the temperature increase above ambient temperature (20°F) is measured by a
tool-chip thermocouple to be 700°C, determine the specific energy for the work material in this
operation.
Solution: Rearranging the Cook equation, U = T(ρC/0.4)(K/vto)0.333
U = (700 – 20)(3.5 x 10-3/0.4)(20/{(200/60)(103)(0.25)})0.333
U = 680(8.75 x 10-3)(0.024)0.333 = 5.95(0.2888) = 1.72 N-m/mm3
21.38 During a turning operation, a tool-chip thermocouple was used to measure cutting temperature. The
following temperature data were collected during the cuts at three different cutting speeds (feed and
depth were held constant): (1) v = 100 m/min, T = 505°C, (2) v = 130 m/min, T = 552°C, (3) v =
160 m/min, T = 592°C. Determine an equation for temperature as a function of cutting speed that is
in the form of the Trigger equation, Eq. (21.23).
Solution: Trigger equation T = Kvm
Choose points (1) and (3) and solve simultaneous equations using T = Kvm as the model.
(1) 505 = K(100)m and (3) 592 = K(160)m
(1) ln 505 = ln K + m ln 100 and (3) ln 592 = ln K + m ln 160
143
Combining (1) and (3): ln 505 - m ln 100 = ln 592 - m ln 160

6.2246 – 4.6052 m = 6.3835 – 5.0752 m
0.47 m = 0.1589 m = 0.338
(1) K = 505/1000.338 = 505/4.744 = 106.44
(2) K = 592/1600.338 = 592/5.561 = 106.45 Use K = 106.45
Check equation with data point (2): T = 106.45(130)0.338 = 551.87°C (pretty close to the given value
of 552°C).
144
02-07-09
22 MACHINING OPERATIONS AND MACHINE

TOOLS
Review Questions
22.1 What are the differences between rotational parts and prismatic parts in machining?
Answer. Rotational parts are cylindrical or disk-shaped and are machined on a turning machine
(e.g., a lathe); prismatic parts are block-shaped or flat and are generally produced on a milling
machine, shaper, or planer.
22.2 Distinguish between generating and forming when machining workpart geometries.
Answer. Generating refers to the creation of work geometry due to the feed trajectory of the cutting
tool; examples include straight turning, taper turning, and profile milling. Forming involves the
creation of work geometry due to the shape of the cutting tool; common examples include form
turning and drilling.
22.3 Give two examples of machining operations in which generating and forming are combined to
create workpart geometry.
Answer. The two examples given in the text are thread cutting on a lathe and slot milling.
22.4 Describe the turning process.
Answer. Turning is a machining process in which a single-point tool removes material from the
surface of a rotating cylindrical workpiece, the tool being fed in a direction parallel to the axis of
work rotation.
22.5 What is the difference between threading and tapping?
Answer. A threading operation is performed on a turning machine and produces an external thread,
while tapping is normally performed on a drilling machine and produces an internal thread.
22.6 How does a boring operation differ from a turning operation?
Answer. Boring produces an internal cylindrical shape from an existing hole, while turning
produces an external cylindrical shape.
22.7 What is meant by the designation 12 x 36 inch lathe?
Answer. A 12 x 36 lathe has a 12 inch swing (maximum work diameter that can be accommodated)
and a 36 inch distance between centers (indicating the maximum work length that can be held
between centers).
22.8 Name the various ways in which a workpart can be held in a lathe.
Answer. Methods of holding the work in a lathe include: (1) between centers, (2) chuck, (3) collet,
and (4) face plate.
22.9 What is the difference between a live center and a dead center, when these terms are used in the
context of workholding in a lathe?
Answer. A center holds the work during rotation at the tailstock end of the lathe. A live center is
mounted in bearings and rotates with the work, while a dead center does not rotate - the work
rotates about it.
22.10 How does a turret lathe differ from an engine lathe?
1
02-07-09
Answer. A turret lathe has a toolholding turret in place of a tailstock; the tools in the turret can be
brought to work to perform multiple cutting operations on the work without the need to change
tools as in operating a conventional engine lathe.
22.11 What is a blind hole?
Answer. A blind hole does not exit the work; by comparison, a through hole exits the opposite side
of the workpart.
22.12 What is the distinguishing feature of a radial drill press?
Answer. A radial drill has a long radial arm along which the drill head can be positioned to allow
the drilling of large work parts. The radial arm can also be swiveled about the column to drill parts
on either side of the worktable.
22.13 What is the difference between peripheral milling and face milling?
Answer. In peripheral milling, cutting is accomplished by the peripheral teeth of the milling cutter
and the tool axis is parallel to the work surface; in face milling, cutting is accomplished by the flat
face of the cutter whose axis is perpendicular to the work surface.
22.14 Describe profile milling.
Answer. Profile milling generally involves the milling of the outside periphery of a flat part.
22.15 What is pocket milling?
Answer. Pocket milling uses an end milling cutter to machine a shallow cavity (pocket) into a flat
workpart.
22.16 Describe the difference between up milling and down milling?
Answer. In up milling, the cutter speed direction is opposite the feed direction; in down milling, the
direction of cutter rotation is the same as the feed direction.
22.17 How does a universal milling machine differ from a conventional knee-and-column machine?
Answer. The universal milling machine has a worktable that can be rotated about a vertical axis to
present the part at any specified angle to the cutter spindle.
22.18 What is a machining center?
Answer. A machining center is a CNC machine tool capable of performing multiple types of
cutting operations involving rotating spindles (e.g., milling, drilling); the machine is typically
equipped with automatic tool-changing, pallet shuttles to speed workpart changing, and automatic
workpart positioning.
22.19 What is the difference between a machining center and a turning center?
Answer. A machining center is generally confined to rotating spindle operations (e.g., milling,
drilling); while a turning center performs turning type operations, generally with single-point tools.
22.20 What can a mill-turn center do that a conventional turning center cannot do?
Answer. The mill-turn center has the capacity to position a rotational workpart at a specified
angular location, permitting milling or drilling to be performed at a location on the periphery of the
part.
22.21 How do shaping and planing differ?
Answer. In shaping, the work is stationary during the cut, and the speed motion is performed by the
cutting tool; while in planing, the cutting tool is stationary, and the workpart is moved past the tool
in the speed motion.
2
02-07-09
22.22 What is the difference between internal broaching and external broaching?
Answer. Internal broaching is accomplished on the inside surface (hole) of a workpart; while
external broaching is performed on one of the outside surfaces of the part.
22.23 Identify the three basic forms of sawing operation?
Answer. The three forms of sawing are: (1) hacksawing, (2) bandsawing, and (3) circular sawing.
22.24 (Video) For what types of parts are VTLs (vertical turret lathes) used?
Answer: VTLs are used to turn large diameter round parts that are too large to be held in a
horizontal lathe.
22.25 (Video) List the four axes for a vertical machining center (VMC) with a rotational axis on the
table.
Answer: The four axes are the three linear axes: X, Y, and Z; and the rotational axis: B.
22.26 (Video) What is the purpose of a tombstone that is used with a horizontal machining center
(HMC)?
Answer: The tombstone is a multi-sided work holding device (often rectangular) that rotates into
position for machining to occur. Parts are clamped to each of the sides of the tombstone. The
tombstone rotates the next part towards the spindle before the cycle starts.
22.27 (Video) List the three parts of a common twist drill.
Answer: The three parts of a common twist drill are the: 1) shank, 2) flutes, and 3) point.
22.28 (Video) What is a gang-drilling machine?
Answer: A gang drilling machine consist of two or more common drilling machines mounted on
a common base or table. Each machine is setup to perform a different operation on a part. The
operator can move down the line performing each operation in succession.
Multiple Choice Questions
22.1 Which of the following are examples of generating the workpart geometry in machining, as
opposed to forming the geometry (two best answers): (a) broaching, (b) contour turning, (c) drilling,
(d) profile milling, and (e) thread cutting?
Answer. (b) and (d).
22.2 In a turning operation, the change in diameter of the workpart is equal to which one of the
following: (a) 1 x depth of cut, (b) 2 x depth of cut, (c) 1 x feed, or (d) 2 x feed?
Answer. (b).
22.3 A lathe can be used to perform which of the following machining operations (three correct
answers): (a) boring, (b) broaching, (c) drilling, (d) milling, (e) planing, and (f) turning?
Answer. (a), (c), and (f).
22.4 A facing operation is normally performed on which one of the following machine tools: (a) drill
press, (b) lathe, (c) milling machine, (d) planer, or (e) shaper?
3
02-07-09
Answer. (b).
22.5 Knurling is performed on a lathe, but it is not a metal cutting operation: (a) true or (b) false?
Answer. (a). It is a metal forming operation.
22.6 Which one of the following cutting tools cannot be used on a turret lathe: (a) broach, (b) cutoff tool,
(c) drill bit, (d) single-point turning tool, or (e) threading tool?
Answer. (a).
22.7 Which one of the following turning machines permits very long bar stock to be used: (a) chucking
machine, (b) engine lathe, (c) screw machine, (d) speed lathe, or (e) turret lathe?
Answer. (c).
22.8 The twist drill is the most common type of drill bit: (a) true or (b) false?
Answer. (a).
22.9 A tap is a cutting tool used to create which one of the following geometries: (a) external threads, (b)
flat planar surfaces, (c) holes used in beer kegs, (d) internal threads, or (e) square holes?
Answer. (d).
22.10 Reaming is used for which of the following functions (three correct answers): (a) accurately locate a
hole position, (b) enlarge a drilled hole, (c) improve surface finish on a hole, (d) improve tolerance
on hole diameter, and (e) provide an internal thread?
Answer. (b), (c), and (d).
22.11 End milling is most similar to which one of the following: (a) face milling, (b) peripheral milling,
(c) plain milling, or (d) slab milling?
Answer. (a).
22.12 The basic milling machine is which one of the following: (a) bed type, (b) knee-and-column, (c)
profiling mill, (d) ram mill, or (e) universal milling machine?
Answer. (b).
22.13 A planing operation is best described by which one of the following: (a) a single-point tool moves
linearly past a stationary workpart, (b) a tool with multiple teeth moves linearly past a stationary
workpart, (c) a workpart is fed linearly past a rotating cutting tool, or (d) a workpart moves linearly
past a single-point tool?
Answer. (d).
22.14 A broaching operation is best described by which one of the following: (a) a rotating tool moves
past a stationary workpart, (b) a tool with multiple teeth moves linearly past a stationary workpart,
(c) a workpart is fed past a rotating cutting tool, or (d) a workpart moves linearly past a stationary
single-point tool?
Answer. (b).
22.15 The three basic types of sawing, according to type of blade motion involved, are (a) abrasive cutoff,
(b) bandsawing, (c) circular sawing, (d) contouring, (e) friction sawing, (f) hacksawing, and (g)
slotting?
Answer. (b), (c), and (f).
22.16 Gear hobbing is a special form of which one of the following machining operations: (a) grinding,
(b) milling, (c) planing, (d) shaping, or (e) turning?
4
02-07-09
Answer. (b).
Problems
Turning and Related Operations
22.1 A cylindrical workpart 200 mm in diameter and 700 mm long is to be turned in an engine lathe.
Cutting speed = 2.30 m/s, feed = 0.32 mm/rev, and depth of cut = 1.80 mm. Determine (a) cutting
time, and (b) metal removal rate.
Solution: (a) N = v/(πD) = (2.30 m/s)/0.200π = 3.66 rev/s
fr = Nf = 6.366(.3) = 1.17 mm/s
Tm = L/fr = 700/1.17 = 598 s = 9.96 min
Alternative calculation using Eq. (22.5), Tm = 200(700)π/(2,300 x 0.32) = 597.6 sec = 9.96 min
(b) RMR = vfd = (2.30 m/s)(103)(0.32 mm)(1.80 mm) = 1320 mm3/s
22.2 In a production turning operation, the foreman has decreed that a single pass must be completed on
the cylindrical workpiece in 5.0 min. The piece is 400 mm long and 150 mm in diameter. Using a
feed = 0.30 mm/rev and a depth of cut = 4.0 mm, what cutting speed must be used to meet this
machining time requirement?
Solution: Starting with Eq. (22.5): Tm = πDoL/vf.
Rearranging to determine cutting speed: v = πDoL/fTm
v = π(0.4)(0.15)/(0.30)(10-3)(5.0) = 0.1257(103) m/min = 125.7 m/min
22.3 A facing operation is performed on an engine lathe. The diameter of the cylindrical part is 6 in and
the length is 15 in. The spindle rotates at a speed of 180 rev/min. Depth of cut = 0.110 in, and feed
= 0.008 in/rev. Assume the cutting tool moves from the outer diameter of the workpiece to exactly
the center at a constant velocity. Determine (a) the velocity of the tool as it moves from the outer
diameter towards the center and (b) the cutting time.
Solution: (a) fr = fN = (0.008 in/rev)(180 rev/min) = 1.44 in/min
(b) L = distance from outside to center of part = D/2; Tm = L/fr = D/(2fr) = 6/(2 x 1.44) = 2.083 min
22.4 A tapered surface is to be turned on an automatic lathe. The workpiece is 750 mm long with
minimum and maximum diameters of 100 mm and 200 mm at opposite ends. The automatic
controls on the lathe permit the surface speed to be maintained at a constant value of 200 m/min by
adjusting the rotational speed as a function of workpiece diameter. Feed = 0.25 mm/rev and depth
of cut = 3.0 mm. The rough geometry of the piece has already been formed, and this operation will
be the final cut. Determine (a) the time required to turn the taper and (b) the rotational speeds at the
beginning and end of the cut.
Solution: (a) RMR = vfd = (200 m/min)(103 mm/m)(0.25 mm)(3.0 mm) = 150,000 mm3/min
Area of frustrum of cone A = π(R1 + R2){h2 + (R1 – R2)2}0.5
Given R1 = 100 mm, R2 = 50 mm, and h = 750 mm,
A = π(100 + 50){7502 + (100 – 50)2}0.5 = 150π(565,000)0.5 = 354,214 mm2
Given depth of cut d = 3.0 mm, volume cut V = Ad = (354,214 mm2)(3.0 mm) = 1,062,641 mm3
Tm = V/RMR = (1,062,641 mm3)/(150,000 mm3/min) = 7.084 min
(b) At beginning of cut (D1 = 100 mm), N = v/πD = 200,000/100π = 636.6 rev/min
At end of cut (D2 = 200 mm), N = 200,000/200π = 318.3 rev/min
22.5 In the taper turning job of Problem 22.4, suppose that the automatic lathe with surface speed control
is not available and a conventional lathe must be used. Determine the rotational speed that would be
required to complete the job in exactly the same time as your answer to part (a) of that problem.
5
02-07-09
Solution: At a constant rotational speed and feed, feed rate fr is constant and Eqs. (22.3) and (22.4)
can be used. Combining, Tm = L/Nf and then rearranging to obtain rotational speed N = L/fTm
Given L = 750 mm, f = 0.25 mm/rev, and Tm = 7.084 min from Problem 22.3,
N = 750/(0.25)(7.084) = 423.5 rev/min
22.6 A cylindrical work bar with 4.5 in diameter and 52 in length is chucked in an engine lathe and
supported at the opposite end using a live center. A 46.0 in portion of the length is to be turned to a
diameter of 4.25 in one pass at a speed of 450 ft/min. The metal removal rate should be 6.75
in3/min. Determine (a) the required depth of cut, (b) the required feed, and (c) the cutting time.
Solution: (a) depth d = (4.50 - 4.25)/2 = 0.125 in
(b) RMR = vfd; f = RMR/(12vd) = 6.75/(12 x 450 x 0.125) = 0.010 in
f = 0.010 in/rev
(c) N = v/πD = 450 x 12/4.5π = 382 rev/min
fr = 382(0.010) = 3.82 in/min
Tm = 46/3.82 = 12.04 min
22.7 A 4.00-in-diameter workpiece that is 25 in long is to be turned down to a diameter of 3.50 in, using
two passes on an engine lathe using a cutting speed = 300 ft/min, feed = 0.015 in/rev, and depth of
cut = 0.125 in. The bar will be held in a chuck and supported on the opposite end in a live center.
With this workholding setup, one end must be turned to diameter; then the bar must be reversed to
turn the other end. Using an overhead crane available at the lathe, the time required to load and
unload the bar is 5.0 minutes, and the time to reverse the bar is 3.0 minutes. For each turning cut an
allowance must be added to the cut length for approach and overtravel. The total allowance
(approach plus overtravel) = 0.50 in. Determine the total cycle time to complete this turning
operation.
Solution: First end: cut 15 in of 25 in length.
N = 300 x 12/4π = 286.4 rev/min, fr = 286.4(0.015) = 4.297 in/min
Tm = (15 + 0.5)/4.297 = 3.61 min; this reduces diameter to 3.75 in
N = 300 x 12/3.75π = 305.5 rev/min, fr = 305.5(0.015) = 4.583 in/min
Tm = 15.5/4.583 = 3.38 min to reduce the diameter to 3.50 in
Reverse bar, which takes 3.0 min and cut remaining 10 in of 25 in length.
N = 300 x 12/4π = 286.4 rev/min, fr = 286.4(0.015) = 4.297 in/min
Tm = (10 + 0.5)/4.297 = 2.44 min; this reduces diameter to 3.75 in
N = 300 x 12/3.75π = 305.5 rev/min, fr = 305.5(0.015) = 4.583 in/min
Tm = 10.5/4.583 = 2.29 min to reduce the diameter to 3.50 in
Loading and unloading bar takes 5.0 min.
Total cycle time = 5.0 + 3.61 + 3.38 + 3.0 + 2.44 + 2.29 = 19.72 min
22.8 The end of a large tubular workpart is to be faced on a NC vertical boring mill. The part has an
outside diameter of 38.0 in and an inside diameter of 24.0 in. If the facing operation is performed at
a rotational speed of 40.0 rev/min, feed of 0.015 in/rev, and depth of cut of 0.180 in, determine (a)
the cutting time to complete the facing operation and the cutting speeds and metal removal rates at
the beginning and end of the cut.
Solution: (a) Distance traveled L = (Do - Di)/2 = (38 - 24)/2 = 7.0 in
fr = (40 rev/min)(0.015 in/rev) = 0.60 in/min
Tm = 7.0/0.60 = 11.67 min
(b) At Do = 38 in, N = v/πD, v = NπD = (40 rev/min)(π38/12) = 398 ft/min
RMR = vfd = (398 x 12)(0.015)(0.18) = 12.89 in3/min
6
02-07-09
At Di = 24 in, N=v/πD, v = NπD = (40 rev/min)(π24/12) = 251 ft/min
RMR = vfd = (251 x 12)(0.015)(0.18) = 8.14 in3/min
22.9 Solve Problem 22.8 except that the machine tool controls operate at a constant cutting speed by
continuously adjusting rotational speed for the position of the tool relative to the axis of rotation.
The rotational speed at the beginning of the cut = 40 rev/min, and is continuously increased
thereafter to maintain a constant cutting speed.
Solution: (a) Total metal removed VMR = 0.25πd(Do2 - Di2) = 0.25π(0.180)(38.02 – 24.02)
= 122.7 in3
RMR is constant throughout cutting if v is constant.
N=v/πD; v = NπD = (40 rev/min)(π38/12) = 398 ft/min
RMR = vfd = (398 x 12)(0.015)(0.18) = 12.89 in3/min
Tm = VMR/RMR = 122.7/12.89 = 9.52 min
Drilling
22.10 A drilling operation is to be performed with a 12.7 mm diameter twist drill in a steel workpart. The
hole is a blind hole at a depth of 60 mm and the point angle is 118°. The cutting speed is 25 m/min
and the feed is 0.30 mm/rev. Determine (a) the cutting time to complete the drilling operation, and
(b) metal removal rate during the operation, after the drill bit reaches full diameter.
Solution: (a) N = v/πD = 25(103) / (12.7π) = 626.6 rev/min
fr = Nf = 626.6(0.30) = 188 mm/min
A = 0.5D tan (90 – θ/2) = 0.5(12.7)tan(90 – 118/2) = 3.82 mm
Tm = (d + A)/fr = (60 + 3.82)/188 = 0.339 min
(b) RMR = 0.25πD2fr = 0.25π(12.7)2(188) = 23,800 mm3/min
22.11 A two-spindle drill simultaneously drills a ½ in hole and a ¾ in hole through a workpiece that is 1.0
inch thick. Both drills are twist drills with point angles of 118°. Cutting speed for the material is 230
ft/min. The rotational speed of each spindle can be set individually. The feed rate for both holes
must be set to the same value because the 2 spindles lower at the same rate. The feed rate is set so
the total metal removal rate does not exceed 1.50 in3/min. Determine (a) the maximum feed rate
(in/min) that can be used, (b) the individual feeds (in/rev) that result for each hole, and (c) the time
required to drill the holes.
Solution: (a) Total RMR = 1.50 = 0.25πD12fr + 0.25πD22fr = 0.25π( D12 + D22 )fr
1.50 = 0.25π( 0.52 + 0.752 )fr = 0.638fr
fr = 1.50/0.638 = 2.35 in/min
(b) For 1/2 in hole, N = v/πD = 230/(0.50π/12) = 1757
For 3/4 in hole, N = v/πD = 230/(0.75π/12) = 1171
f = fr/N. For 1/2 hole, f = 2.35/1757 = 0.0013 in/rev
For 3/4 hole, f = 2.35/1171 = 0.0020 in/rev
(c) Must use maximum Allowance for the 2 drills.
For 1/2 in hole, A = 0.5D tan (90 – θ/2) = 0.5(0.50) tan(90 – 118/2) = 0.150 in
For 3/4 in hole, A = 0.5D tan (90 – θ/2) = 0.5(0.75) tan (90 – 118/2) = 0.225 in
Tm= (t + A)/fr = (1.00 + 0.225)/2.35 = 0.522 min = 31.2 seconds
22.12 A NC drill press is to perform a series of through-hole drilling operations on a 1.75 in thick
aluminum plate that is a component in a heat exchanger. Each hole is 3/4 in diameter. There are 100
holes in all, arranged in a 10 by 10 matrix pattern, and the distance between adjacent hole centers
(along the square) = 1.5 in. The cutting speed = 300 ft/min, the penetration feed (z-direction) =
0.015 in/rev, and the traverse rate between holes (x-y plane) = 15.0 in/min. Assume that x-y moves
are made at a distance of 0.50 in above the work surface, and that this distance must be included in
7
02-07-09
the penetration feed rate for each hole. Also, the rate at which the drill is retracted from each hole is
twice the penetration feed rate. The drill has a point angle = 100°. Determine the time required from
the beginning of the first hole to the completion of the last hole, assuming the most efficient drilling
sequence will be used to accomplish the job.
Solution: Time to drill each hole:
N = 300 x 12/0.75π = 1527.7 rev/min
fr = 1527.7(0.015) = 22.916 in/min
Distance per hole = 0.5 + A + 1.75
A = 0.5(0.75) tan(90 – 100/2) = 0.315 in
Tm = (0.5 + 0.315 + 1.75)/22.916 = 0.112 min
Time to retract drill from hole = 0.112/2 = 0.056 min
All moves between holes are at a distance = 1.5 in using a back and forth path between rows of
holes. Time to move between holes = 1.5/15 = 0.1 min. With 100 holes, the number of moves
between holes = 99.
Total cycle time to drill 100 holes = 100(0.112 + 0.056) + 99(0.1) = 26.7 min
22.13 A gundrilling operation is used to drill a 9/64-in diameter hole to a certain depth. It takes 4.5
minutes to perform the drilling operation using high pressure fluid delivery of coolant to the drill
point. The current spindle speed = 4000 rev/min, and feed = 0.0017 in/rev. In order to improve the
surface finish in the hole, it has been decided to increase the speed by 20% and decrease the feed by
25%. How long will it take to perform the operation at the new cutting conditions?
Solution: fr = Nf = 4000 rev/min (0.0017 in/rev) = 6.8 in/min
Hole depth d = 4.5 min (6.8 in/min) = 30.6 in
New speed v = 4000(1 + 0.20) = 4800 rev/min
New feed f = 0.0017(1- 0.25) = 0.001275 in/min
New feed rate fr = 4800(0.001275) = 6.12 in/min
New drilling time Tm = 30.6/6.12 in/min = 5.0 min
Milling
22.14 A peripheral milling operation is performed on the top surface of a rectangular workpart which is
400 mm long by 60 mm wide. The milling cutter, which is 80 mm in diameter and has five teeth,
overhangs the width of the part on both sides. Cutting speed = 70 m/min, chip load = 0.25
mm/tooth, and depth of cut = 5.0 mm. Determine (a) the actual machining time to make one pass
across the surface and (b) the maximum material removal rate during the cut.
Solution: (a) N = v/πD = 70,000 mm/80π = 279 rev/min
fr = Nntf = 279(5)(0.25) = 348 mm/min
A = (d(D-d))0.5 = (5(80-5))0.5 = 19.4 mm
Tm = (400 + 19.4)/348 = 1.20 min
(b) RMR = wdfr = 60(5)(348) = 104,400 mm3/min
22.15 A face milling operation is used to machine 6.0 mm from the top surface of a rectangular piece of
aluminum 300 mm long by 125 mm wide in a single pass. The cutter follows a path that is centered
over the workpiece. It has four teeth and is 150 mm in diameter. Cutting speed = 2.8 m/s, and chip
load = 0.27 mm/tooth. Determine (a) the actual machining time to make the pass across the surface
and (b) the maximum metal removal rate during cutting.
Solution: (a) N = v/πD = (2800 mm/s)/150π = 5.94 rev/s
fr = Nntf = 5.94(4)(0.27) = 6.42 mm/s
8
02-07-09
(
A = 0.5 D − D 2 − w2 ) = 0.5(150 − 1502 − 1252 ) = 0.5(150 – 82.9) = 33.5 mm
Tm = (L + A)/fr = (300 + 33.5))/6.42 = 52 s = 0.87 min
(b) RMR = wdfr = 125(6)(6.42) = 4813 mm3/s
22.16 A slab milling operation is performed on the top surface of a steel rectangular workpiece 12.0 in
long by 2.5 in wide. The helical milling cutter, which has a 3.0 in diameter and ten teeth, is set up to
overhang the width of the part on both sides. Cutting speed is 125 ft/min, feed is 0.006 in/tooth, and
depth of cut = 0.300 in. Determine (a) the actual machining time to make one pass across the
surface and (b) the maximum metal removal rate during the cut. (c) If an additional approach
distance of 0.5 in is provided at the beginning of the pass (before cutting begins), and an overtravel
distance is provided at the end of the pass equal to the cutter radius plus 0.5 in, what is the duration
of the feed motion.
Solution: (a) N= v/πD = 125(12)/3π = 159.15 rev/min
fr = Nntf = 159.15(10)(0.006) = 9.55 in/min
A = (d(D-d))0.5 = (0.30(3.0-0.30))0.5 = 0.90 in
Tm = (L + A)/fr = (12.0 + 0.9)/9.55 = 1.35 min
(b) RMR = wdfr = 2.5(0.30)(9.55) = 7.16 in3/min
(c) The cutter travels 0.5 in before making contact with the work. It moves 0.90 in before reaching
full depth of cut. It then feeds the length of the work (12.0 in). The overtravel consists of the cutter
radius (1.5 in) plus an additional 0.5 in. Thus,
Tf = (0.5 + 0.9 + 12.0 + 1.5 + 0.5)/9.55 = 1.56 min
22.17 A face milling operation is performed on the top surface of a steel rectangular workpiece 12.0 in
long by 2.5 in wide. The milling cutter follows a path that is centered over the workpiece. It has five
teeth and a 3.0 in diameter. Cutting speed = 250 ft/min, feed = 0.006 in/tooth, and depth of cut =
0.150 in. Determine (a) the actual cutting time to make one pass across the surface and (b) the
maximum metal removal rate during the cut. (c) If an additional approach distance of 0.5 in is
provided at the beginning of the pass (before cutting begins), and an overtravel distance is provided
at the end of the pass equal to the cutter radius plus 0.5 in, what is the duration of the feed motion.
Solution: (a) N = v/πD = 250(12)/3π = 318.3 rev/min
fr = 318.3(5)(0.006) = 9.55 in/min
(
A = 0.5 D − D 2 − w2 ) = 0.5(3 − 32 − 2.52 = )
0.671 in
Tm = (12.0 + 0.671)/9.55 = 1.33 min
(b) RMR = 2.5(0.150)(9.55) = 3.58 in3/min
(c) The cutter travels 0.5 in before making contact with the work. It moves 1.50 in before its center
is aligned with the starting edge of the 12.0 in workpiece. It then feeds the length of the work (12.0
in). The overtravel consists of the cutter radius (1.5 in) plus an additional 0.5 in. Thus,
Tf = (0.5 + 1.5 + 12.0 + 1.5 + 0.5)/9.55 = 1.68 min
22.18 Solve Problem 22.17 except that the workpiece is 5.0 in wide and the cutter is offset to one side so
that the swath cut by the cutter = 1.0 in wide. This is called partial face milling, Figure 22.20(b).
Solution: (a) N = 250(12)/3π = 318.3 rev/min
fr = 318.3(5)(0.006) = 9.55 in/min
A = (1(3-1)).5 = 1.414 in
Tm = (12.0 + 1.414)/9.55 = 1.405 min
(b) RMR = 1.0(.150)(9.55) = 1.43 in3/min
9
02-07-09
(c) The cutter travels 0.5 in before making contact with the work. It moves 1.414 in before reaching
full width of cut. It then feeds the length of the work (12.0 in). The overtravel consists of the cutter
radius (1.5 in) plus an additional 0.5 in. Thus,
Tf = (0.5 + 1.414 + 12.0 + 1.5 + 0.5)/9.55 = 1.67 min
22.19 A face milling operation removes 0.32 in depth of cut from the end of a cylinder that has a diameter
of 3.90 in. The cutter has a 4-in diameter with 4 teeth, and its feed trajectory is centered over the
circular face of the work. The cutting speed is 375 ft/min and the chip load is 0.006 in/tooth.
Determine (a) the time to machine, (b) the average metal removal rate (considering the entire
machining time), and (c) the maximum metal removal rate.
Solution: (a) N = v/πD = 375(12)/4π = 358 rev/min
fr = Nntf = 358(4)(0.006) = 8.59 in/min
Tm = L/fr = 3.9/8.59 = 0.454 min
(b) RMRaverage = total removed/total time = 0.25πD2d/Tm = 0.25π(3.9)2(0.32)/0.454 = 8.42 in3/min
(c) RMRmax = point where the cutter just about covers the entire cylinder. In this case it would be the
same as milling a rectangle so RMR = wdfr
RMR = wdfr = 3.9(0.32)8.59 = 10.73 in3/min
22.20 The top surface of a rectangular workpart is machined using a peripheral milling operation. The
workpart is 735 mm long by 50 mm wide by 95 mm thick. The milling cutter, which is 60 mm in
diameter and has five teeth, overhangs the width of the part equally on both sides. Cutting speed =
80 m/min, chip load = 0.30 mm/tooth, and depth of cut = 7.5 mm. (a) Determine the time required
to make one pass across the surface, given that the setup and machine settings provide an approach
distance of 5 mm before actual cutting begins and an overtravel distance of 25 mm after actual
cutting has finished. (b) What is the maximum material removal rate during the cut?
Solution: (a) N = v/πD = 80,000 mm/60π = 424.4 rev/min
fr = Nntf = 424.4(5)(0.3) = 636.6 mm/min
A = (d(D-d))0.5 = (7.5(60-7.5))0.5 = 19.84 mm
Tm = (735 + 5 + 19.84 + 25)/636.6 = 1.233 min
(b) RMR = wdfr = 60(7.5)(636.6) = 286,470 mm3/min
Machining and Turning Centers
22.21 A three-axis CNC machining center is tended by a worker who loads and unloads parts between
machining cycles. The machining cycle takes 5.75 min, and the worker takes 2.80 min using a hoist
to unload the part just completed and load and fixture the next part onto the machine worktable. A
proposal has been made to install a two-position pallet shuttle at the machine so that the worker and
the machine tool can perform their respective tasks simultaneously rather than sequentially. The
pallet shuttle would transfer the parts between the machine worktable and the load/unload station in
15 sec. Determine (a) the current cycle time for the operation and (b) the cycle time if the proposal
is implemented. What is the percentage increase in hourly production rate that would result from
using the pallet shuttle?
Solution: (a) The current cycle time is the machine cycle time plus the load unload time.
Tc = 5.75 + 2.80 = 8.55 min
(b) The cycle time under the proposal is Tc = Max{5.75, 2.80} + 0.25 = 6.00 min
(c) The current hourly production rate Rp = 60/8.55 = 7.02 pc/hr
The production rate under the proposal Rp = 60/6.0 = 10 pc/hr
This is an increase of (10 – 7.02)/7.02 = 0.425 = 42.5%
10
02-07-09
22.22 A part is produced using six conventional machine tools consisting of three milling machines and
three drill presses. The machine cycle times on these machines are 4.7 min, 2.3 min, 0.8 min, 0.9
min, 3.4 min, and 0.5 min. The average load/unload time for each of these operations is 1.25 min.
The corresponding setup times for the six machines are 1.55 hr, 2.82 hr, 57 min, 45 min, 3.15 hr,
and 36 min, respectively. The total material handling time to carry one part between the machines
is 20 min (consisting of five moves between six machines). A CNC machining center has been
installed, and all six operations will be performed on it to produce the part. The setup time for the
machining center for this job is 1.0 hr. In addition, the machine must be programmed for this part
(called “part programming”), which takes 3.0 hr. The machine cycle time is the sum of the
machine cycle times for the six machines. Load/unload time is 1.25 min. (a) What is the total time
to produce one of these parts using the six conventional machines if the total consists of all
setups, machine cycle times, load/unload times, and part transfer times between machines? (b)
What is the total time to produce one of these parts using the CNC machining center if the total
consists of the setup time, programming time, machine cycle time, and load/unload time, and
what are the percent savings in total time compared to your answer in (a)? (c) If the same part is
produced in a batch of 20 pieces, what is the total time to produce them under the same
conditions as in (a) except that the total material handling time to carry the 20 parts in one unit
load between the machines is 40 min? (d) If the part is produced in a batch of 20 pieces on the
CNC machining center, what is the total time to produce them under the same conditions as in
part (b), and what are the percent savings in total time compared to your answer in (c)? (e) In
future orders of 20 pieces of the same part, the programming time will not be included in the total
time because the part program has already been prepared and saved. In this case, how long does it
take to produce the 20 parts using the machining center, and what are the percent savings in total
time compared to your answer in (c)?
Solution: (a) TT = ΣTsu + ΣTm + ΣTL + ΣTMH
ΣTsu = 60(1.55 + 2.82 + 3.15) + 57 + 45 + 36 = 589.2 min
ΣTm = 4.7 + 2.3 + 0.8 + 0.9 + 3.4 + 0.5 = 12.6 min
ΣTL + ΣTMH = 6(1.25 )+ 20 = 27.5 min
TT = 589.2 + 12.6 + 27.5 = 629.3 min = 10.49 hr
(b) TT = Tpp + Tsu + ΣTm + TL
TT = 180 + 60 + 12.6 + 1.25 = 253.85 min = 4.23 hr
% savings = (10.49 – 4.23)/10.49 = 6.26/10.49 = 0.597 = 59.7%
(c) TT = ΣTsu + 20ΣTm + 20ΣTL + ΣTMH
ΣTsu = 60(1.55 + 2.82 + 3.15) + 57 + 45 + 36 = 589.2 min
20ΣTm = 20(4.7 + 2.3 + 0.8 + 0.9 + 3.4 + 0.5) = 20(12.6) = 252 min
20ΣTL + ΣTMH = 20(6)(1.25) + 40 = 150 + 40 = 190 min
TT = 589.2 + 252 + 190 = 1031.2 min = 17.19 hr
(d) TT = Tpp + Tsu + 20ΣTm + 20TL
TT = 180 + 60 + 20(12.6) + 20(1.25) = 517 min = 8.62 hr
% savings = (17.19 – 8.62)/17.19 = 8.57/17.19 = 0.499 = 49.9%
(e) TT = Tsu + 20ΣTm + 20TL
TT = 60 + 20(12.6) + 20(1.25) = 337 min = 5.62 hr
% savings = (17.19 – 5.62)/17.19 = 11.57/17.19 = 0.673 = 67.3%
Other Operations
22.23 A shaper is used to reduce the thickness of a 50 mm part to 45 mm. The part is made of cast iron
and has a tensile strength of 270 MPa and a Brinell hardness of 165 HB. The starting dimensions of
the part are 750 mm x 450 mm x 50 mm. The cutting speed is 0.125 m/sec and the feed is 0.40
11
02-07-09
mm/pass. The shaper ram is hydraulically driven and has a return stroke time that is 50% of the
cutting stroke time. An extra 150 mm must be added before and after the part for acceleration and
deceleration to take place. Assuming the ram moves parallel to the long dimension of the part, how
long will it take to machine?
Solution: Time per forward stroke = (150 + 750 + 150)/(0.125 x 1000) = 8.4 sec
Time per reverse stroke = 0.50(8.4) = 4.2 sec
Total time per pass = 8.4 + 4.2 = 12.6 sec = 0.21 min
Number of passes = 450/0.40 = 1125 passes
Total time Tm = 1125(0.21) = 236 min
22.24 An open side planer is to be used to plane the top surface of a rectangular workpart, 20.0 in by 45.0
in. The cutting speed is 30 ft/min, the feed is 0.015 in/pass, and the depth of cut is 0.250 in. The
length of the stroke across the work must be set up so that 10 in are allowed at both the beginning
and end of the stroke for approach and overtravel. The return stroke, including an allowance for
acceleration and deceleration, takes 60% of the time for the forward stroke. The workpart is made
of carbon steel with a tensile strength of 50,000 lb/in2 and a Brinell hardness of 110 HB. How long
will it take to complete the job, assuming that the part is oriented in such a way as to minimize the
time?
Solution: Orient work so that its length (L = 45 in) is in direction of stroke. This will minimize the
number of passes required which will minimize time in this case. Time per forward stroke = (10 +
45 + 10)/(30 x 12) = 0.18 min
Time per reverse stroke = 0.60(.18) = 0.11 min
Total time per pass = 0.18 + 0.11 = 0.29 min
Number of passes = 20.0/0.015 = 1333 passes
Total time Tm = 1333(0.29) = 387 min
Check: orient work so that its width (w = 20 in) is in direction of stroke.
Time per forward stroke = (10 + 20 + 10)/(30 x 12) = 0.11 min
Time per reverse stroke = 0.60(.11) = 0.067 min
Total time per pass = 0.11 + 0.067 = 0.177 min
Number of passes = 45.0/0.015 = 3000 passes
Total time = 3000(0.177) = 531 min
22.25 High-speed machining (HSM) is being considered to produce the aluminum part in Problem
22.15. All cutting conditions remain the same except for the cutting speed and the type of insert
used in the cutter. Assume the cutting speed will be at the limit given in Table 22.1. Determine
(a) the new time to machine the part and (b) the new metal removal rate. (c) Is this part a good
candidate for high-speed machining? Explain.
Solution: Assume the same indexable tool (face mill with appropriate inserts) will be used in the
new operation. For aluminum, the HSM cutting speed will be 3,600 m/min
(a) N = v/πD = (3600(103) mm/min)/(150π mm/rev) = 7639 rev/min
fr = Nntf = 7639(4)(0.27) = 8250.6 mm/min
A = D/2 = 150/2 = 75 mm
Tm = (L+A)/fr = (300 + 75)/8250.6 = 0.0454 min = 2.73 sec
(b) RMR = wdfr = 125(6)(8250.6) = 5.157 x 106 mm3/min = 6,187,950 mm3/sec
(c) This is probably not a good candidate because the machining time is so small and it is a single,
simple-geometry operation. The time to load and unload the part will be about as long as the
machining time and the machine will be idle while that is happening. It would become a better
choice if another part could be loaded and unloaded while the machining was taking place. Then
the only delay would be bringing the new part into position. Generally, HSM is justified by at
12
02-07-09
least one of the following conditions: (1) large volumes of metal removed from large parts, (2)
multiple cutting operations requiring many different tools, and (3) complex shapes and hard
materials (as in the die and mold industry).
13
08-18-08
23 CUTTING TOOL TECHNOLOGY

Review Questions
23.1 What are the two principal aspects of cutting-tool technology?
Answer. The two main aspects of cutting tool technology are (1) tool material and (2) tool
geometry.
23.2 Name the three modes of tool failure in machining.
Answer. The three tool failure modes are (1) fracture failure, (2) temperature failure, and (3)
gradual wear.
23.3 What are the two principal locations on a cutting tool where tool wear occurs?
Answer. Wear occurs on the top face of the cutting tool as crater wear and on the side or flank of
the tool, called flank wear. Portions of flank wear are often identified separately as notch wear,
corresponding to the surface of the work; and nose radius wear, corresponding to the tool point.
23.4 Identify the mechanisms by which cutting tools wear during machining.
Answer. The important tool wear mechanisms are (1) abrasion, (2) adhesion, (3) diffusion, and (4)
plastic deformation of the cutting edge.
23.5 What is the physical interpretation of the parameter C in the Taylor tool life equation?
Answer. The parameter C is the cutting speed corresponding to a one-minute tool life. C is the
speed-axis intercept on the log-log plot of the tool life data.
23.6 In addition to cutting speed, what other cutting variables are included in the expanded version of the
Taylor tool life equation?
Answer. The expanded version of the Taylor equation can include any of the following: feed, depth
of cut, and/or work material hardness.
23.7 What are some of the tool life criteria used in production machining operations?
Answer. As identified in the text, tool life criteria used in production include (1) complete failure of
the tool, (2) visual observation of flank or crater wear, (3) fingernail test to feel flank wear, (4)
sound of the tool, (5) chip disposal problems, (6) degradation of finish, (7) power increase, (8)
workpiece count, and (9) length of cutting time for the tool.
23.8 Identify three desirable properties of a cutting-tool material.
Answer. Three desirable properties are (1) toughness to resist fracture failure, (2) hot hardness to
resist temperature failure, and (3) wear resistance to prolong the life of the tool during gradual wear.
23.9 What are the principal alloying ingredients in high-speed steel?
Answer. Principal alloying ingredients in HSS are (1) either tungsten or a combination of tungsten
and molybdenum, (2) chromium, (3) vanadium, and (4) carbon. Some grades of HSS also contain
cobalt.
23.10 What is the difference in ingredients between steel cutting grades and nonsteel-cutting grades of
cemented carbides?
Answer. In general, non-steel cutting grades contain only WC and Co. Steel cutting grades contain
TiC and/or TaC in addition to WC-Co.
1
08-18-08
23.11 Identify some of the common compounds that form the thin coatings on the surface of coated
carbide inserts.
Answer. The common coatings are: TiN, TiC, and Al2O3.
23.12 Name the seven elements of tool geometry for a single point cutting tool.
Answer. The seven elements of single-point tool geometry are (1) back rake angle, (2) side rake
angle, (3) end relief angle, (4) side relief angle, (5) end cutting edge angle, (6) side cutting edge
angle, and (7) nose radius.
23.13 Why are ceramic cutting tools generally designed with negative rake angles?
Answer. Ceramics possess low shear and tensile strength but good compressive strength. During
cutting, this combination of properties is best exploited by giving the tool a negative rake angle to
load the tool in compression.
23.14 Identify the alternative ways by which a cutting tool is held in place during machining.
Answer. There are three principal ways: (1) solid shank, in which the cutting edge is an integral
part of the tool shank, an example being high speed steel tooling; (2) brazed inserts, used for some
cemented carbides; and (3) mechanically clamped inserts, used for most hard tool materials
including cemented carbides, coated carbides, cermets, ceramics, SPD, and CBN.
23.15 Name the two main categories of cutting fluid according to function.
Answer. The two functional categories of cutting fluids are: (1) coolants and (2) lubricants.
23.16 Name the four categories of cutting fluid according to chemistry.
Answer. The four categories of cutting fluids according to chemistry are (1) cutting oils, (2)
emulsified oils, (3) chemical fluids, and (4) semi-chemical fluids.
23.17 What are the principal lubricating mechanisms by which cutting fluids work?
Answer. There are two lubricating mechanisms that are believed to be effective in metal cutting: (1)
boundary lubrication, which involves the formation of a thin fluid film to help separate and protect
the contacting surfaces; and (2) extreme pressure lubrication, in which a thin solid layer of a salt
such as iron sulfide is formed on the tool surface to provide lubrication.
23.18 What are the methods by which cutting fluids are applied in a machining operation?
Answer. The most common method of application is flooding, in which a steady stream of fluid is
direct at the operation. Other methods include mist application, fluid-hole delivery through the tool,
and manual application (e.g., using a paint brush).
23.19 Why are cutting fluid filter systems becoming more common and what are their advantages?
Answer. Cutting fluid filter systems are becoming more common due to the environmental
protection laws and the need to prolong the life of the fluid before disposal. Advantages of filter
systems include longer fluid life, reduced disposal costs, better hygiene, lower machine tool
maintenance, and longer cutting tool life.
23.20 Dry machining is being considered by machine shops because of certain problems inherent in the
use of cutting fluids. What are those problems associated with the use of cutting fluids?
Answer. Cutting fluids become contaminated over time with a variety of contaminants, including
tramp oil, garbage, small chips, molds, fungi, and bacteria. In addition to causing odors and health
hazards, contaminated cutting fluids do not perform their lubricating function as well as when they
are fresh and clean.
23.21 What are some of the new problems introduced by machining dry?
2
08-18-08
Answer. Problems with dry machining include (1) overheating the tool, (2) operating at lower
cutting speeds and production rates to prolong tool life, and (3) absence of chip removal benefits
that are provided by cutting fluids in grinding and milling.
23.22 (Video) List the two principal categories of cutting tools.
Answer: The two principal categories of cutting tools are (1) single-point cutting tools (used on
lathes) and (2) multi point cutting tools (used on mills, drills, reamers, and taps).
23.23 (Video) According to the video clip, what is the objective in selection of cutting tools for a given
operation?
Answer: The objective when choosing a cutting tool is to safely machine a workpiece in the
shortest amount of time while meeting the part’s quality requirement. Furthermore, the tooling
should be the least costly and least complex to meet the production demands.
23.24 (Video) What are the factors a machinist should know in order to select the proper tooling? List
at least five.
Answer: The factors a machinist must know in order to select the proper tooling are (1)
workpiece starting and finished shape, (2) workpiece hardness, (3) workpiece tensile strength, (4)
material abrasiveness, (5) whether the material breaks into short chips or long stringy chips, (6)
workholding setup, and (6) power and speed capacity of the machine tool.
23.25 (Video) List five characteristics of a good tool material.
Answer: The characteristics of a good tool material are the following, as indicated in the video:
(1) it is harder than the workpiece, (2) it retains hardness at high temperatures, (3) it resists wear
and thermal shock, (4) it has impact resistant, and (5) it is chemically inert.
There are 19 correct answers in the following multiple-choice questions (some questions have multiple
23.1 Of the following cutting conditions, which one has the greatest effect on tool wear: (a) cutting
speed, (b) depth of cut, or (c) feed?
Answer. (a).
23.2 As an alloying ingredient in high-speed steel, tungsten serves which of the following functions (two
best answers): (a) forms hard carbides to resist abrasion, (b) improves strength and hardness, (c)
increases corrosion resistance, (d) increases hot hardness, and (e) increases toughness?
Answer. (a) and (d).
23.3 Cast cobalt alloys typically contain which of the following main ingredients (three best answers):
(a) aluminum, (b) cobalt, (c) chromium, (d) iron, (e) nickel, (f) steel, and (g) tungsten?
Answer. (b), (c), and (g).
23.4 Which of the following is not a common ingredient in cemented carbide cutting tools (two correct
answers): (a) Al2O3, (b) Co, (c) CrC, (d) TiC, and (e) WC?
Answer. (a) and (c).
3
08-18-08
23.5 An increase in cobalt content has which of the following effects on WC-Co cemented carbides (two
best answers): (a) decreases hardness, (b) decreases transverse rupture strength, (c) increases
hardness, (d) increases toughness, and (e) increases wear resistance?
Answer. (a) and (d).
23.6 Steel-cutting grades of cemented carbide are typically characterized by which of the following
ingredients (three correct answers): (a) Co, (b) Fe, (c) Mo, (d) Ni, (e) TiC, and (f) WC?
Answer. (a), (e), and (f).
23.7 If you had to select a cemented carbide for an application involving finish turning of steel, which
C-grade would you select (one best answer): (a) C1, (b) C3, (c) C5, or (d) C7?
Answer. (d).
23.8 Which of the following processes are used to provide the thin coatings on the surface of coated
carbide inserts (two best answers): (a) chemical vapor deposition, (b) electroplating, (c) physical
vapor deposition, (d) pressing and sintering, and (e) spray painting?
23.9 Which one of the following materials has the highest hardness: (a) aluminum oxide, (b) cubic boron
nitride, (c) high-speed steel, (d) titanium carbide, or (e) tungsten carbide?
Answer. (b).
23.10 Which of the following are the two main functions of a cutting fluid in machining (two best
answers): (a) improve surface finish on the workpiece, (b) reduce forces and power, (c) reduce
friction at the tool-chip interface, (d) remove heat from the process, and (e) wash away chips?
Answer. (c) and (d).
Problems
Tool Life and the Taylor Equation
23.1 Flank wear data were collected in a series of turning tests using a coated carbide tool on hardened
alloy steel at a feed of 0.30 mm/rev and a depth of 4.0 mm. At a speed of 125 m/min, flank wear =
0.12 mm at 1 min, 0.27 mm at 5 min, 0.45 mm at 11 min, 0.58 mm at 15 min, 0.73 at 20 min, and
0.97 mm at 25 min. At a speed of 165 m/min, flank wear = 0.22 mm at 1 min, 0.47 mm at 5 min,
0.70 mm at 9 min, 0.80 mm at 11 min, and 0.99 mm at 13 min. The last value in each case is when
final tool failure occurred. (a) On a single piece of linear graph paper, plot flank wear as a function
of time for both speeds. Using 0.75 mm of flank wear as the criterion of tool failure, determine the
tool lives for the two cutting speeds. (b) On a piece of natural log-log paper, plot your results
determined in the previous part. From the plot, determine the values of n and C in the Taylor Tool
Life Equation. (c) As a comparison, calculate the values of n and C in the Taylor equation solving
simultaneous equations. Are the resulting n and C values the same?
Solution: (a) and (b) Student exercises. For part (a), at v1 = 125 m/min, T1 = 20.4 min using
criterion FW = 0.75 mm, and at v2 = 165 m/min, T2 = 10.0 min using criterion FW = 0.75 mm. In
part (b), values of C and n may vary due to variations in the plots. The values should be
approximately the same as those obtained in part (c) below.
(c) Two equations: (1) 125(20.4)n = C, and (2) 165(10.0)n = C
(1) and (2) 125(20.4)n = 165(10.0)n
ln 125 + n ln 20.4 = ln 165 + n ln 10.0
4.8283 + 3.0155 n = 5.1059 + 2.3026 n
0.7129 n = 0.2776 n = 0.3894
4
08-18-08
(1) C = 125(20.4)0.3894 = 404.46
(2) C = 165(10.0)0.3894 = 404.46 C = 404.46
23.2 Solve Problem 23.1 except that the tool life criterion is 0.50 mm of flank land wear rather than 0.75
mm.
Solution: (a) and (b) Student exercises. For part (a), at v1 = 125 m/min, T1 = 13.0 min using
criterion FW = 0.50 mm, and at v2 = 165 m/min, T2 = 5.6 min using criterion FW = 0.50 mm. In
part (b), values of C and n may vary due to variations in the plots. The values should be
approximately the same as those obtained in part (c) below.
(c) Two equations: (1) 125(13.0)n = C, and (2) 165(5.6)n = C
(1) and (2) 125(13.0)n = 165(5.6)n
ln 125 + n ln 13.0 = ln 165 + n ln 5.6
4.8283 + 2.5649 n = 5.1059 + 1.7228 n
0.8421 n = 0.2776 n = 0.3296
(1) C = 125(13.0)0.3894 = 291.14
(2) C = 165(5.6)0.3894 = 291.15 C = 291.15
23.3 A series of turning tests were conducted using a cemented carbide tool, and flank wear data were
collected. The feed was 0.010 in/rev and the depth was 0.125 in. At a speed of 350 ft/min, flank
wear = 0.005 in at 1 min, 0.008 in at 5 min, 0.012 in at 11 min, 0.0.015 in at 15 min, 0.021 in at 20
min, and 0.040 in at 25 min. At a speed of 450 ft/min, flank wear = 0.007 in at 1 min, 0.017 in at 5
min, 0.027 in at 9 min, 0.033 in at 11 min, and 0.040 in at 13 min. The last value in each case is
when final tool failure occurred. (a) On a single piece of linear graph paper, plot flank wear as a
function of time. Using 0.020 in of flank wear as the criterion of tool failure, determine the tool
lives for the two cutting speeds. (b) On a piece of natural log-log paper, plot your results determined
in the previous part. From the plot, determine the values of n and C in the Taylor Tool Life
Equation. (c) As a comparison, calculate the values of n and C in the Taylor equation solving
simultaneous equations. Are the resulting n and C values the same?
Solution: (a)
Flank Wear vs Time
0.045
0.040
0.035
Flank Wear (in)
0.030
0.025
0.020
0.015
0.010 Flank v = 350 ft/min
0.005 Flank v = 450 ft/min
0.000
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min)
Using the graph, at 350 ft/min the tool last about 6.2 min; at 450 ft/min, it lasts 19.0 min.
(b) The points are graphed in Excel and the line connecting the two points is extended to the axis.
5
08-18-08
Taylor Tool Life
1000
Cutting Speed (ft/min)
100
10
1 10 100
Tool Life (min)
C is read from the Y-intercept and is approximately 680 ft/min. The slope, n, can be determined by
taking the ln of the x and y coordinates of any 2 points and determining ΔY/ΔX. It is positive
because the Taylor tool life equation is derived assuming the slope is negative. Using the points
(1,680) and (19,350) the slope is about 0.226.
(c) Depending on the values of tool life read from the flank wear graph, the values of n and C will
vary. Two equations: (1) 350(19.0)n = C, and (2) 450(6.2)n = C
(1) and (2) 350(19.0)n = 450(6.2)n
ln 350 + n ln 19.0 = ln 450 + n ln 6.2
5.8579 + 2.9444 n = 6.1092 + 1.8245 n
1.1199 n = 0.2513 n = 0.224
(1) C = 350(19.0)0.224 = 677
(2) C = 450(6.2)0.224 = 677 C = 677
23.4 Solve problem 23.3 except the tool life wear criterion is 0.015 in of flank wear. What cutting speed
should be used to get 20 minutes of tool life?
Solution: Reading the time of tool failure on the Flank Wear vs Time plot yields the following data
points. Note the values of n and C will change based on the estimates for time of failure. v1 = 350
ft/min, T1 = 15 min and v2 = 450 ft/min, T2 = 4.2 min
Two equations: (1) 350(15.0)n = C, and (2) 450(4.2)n = C
(1) and (2) 350(15.0)n = 450(4.2)n
ln 350 + n ln 15.0 = ln 450 + n ln 4.2
5.8579 + 2.7081 n = 6.1092 + 1.4351 n
1.2730 n = 0.2513 n = 0.197
(1) C = 350(15.0)0.197 = 597
(2) C = 450(4.2)0.197 = 597 C = 597
To achieve 20 min of tool life: v = C/Tn = 597/200.197 = 597/1.8065 = 330 ft/min
6
08-18-08
23.5 Tool life tests on a lathe have resulted in the following data: (1) at a cutting speed of 375 ft/min, the
tool life was 5.5 min; (2) at a cutting speed of 275 ft/min, the tool life was 53 min. (a) Determine the
parameters n and C in the Taylor tool life equation. (b) Based on the n and C values, what is the
likely tool material used in this operation? (c) Using your equation, compute the tool life that
corresponds to a cutting speed of 300 ft/min. (d) Compute the cutting speed that corresponds to a
tool life T = 10 min.
Solution: (a) VTn = C; Two equations: (1) 375(5.5)n = C and (2) 275(53)n = C
375(5.5)n = 275(53)n
375/275 = (53/5.5)n
1.364 = (9.636)n
ln 1.364 = n ln 9.636
0.3102 = 2.2655 n n = 0.137
C = 375(5.5)0.137 = 375(1.2629) C = 474
Check: C = 275(53)0.137 = 275(1.7221) = 474
(b) Comparing these values of n and C with those in Table 23.2, the likely tool material is high
speed steel.
(c) At v = 300 ft/min, T = (C/v)1/n = (474/300)1/0.137 = (1.579)7.305 = 28.1 min
(d) For T = 10 min, v = C/Tn = 474/100.137 = 474/1.371 = 346 ft/min
23.6 Tool life tests in turning yield the following data: (1) when cutting speed is 100 m/min, tool life is
10 min; (2) when cutting speed is 75 m/min, tool life is 30 min. (a) Determine the n and C values in
the Taylor tool life equation. Based on your equation, compute (b) the tool life for a speed of 110
m/min, and (c) the speed corresponding to a tool life of 15 min.
Solution: (a) Two equations: (1) 120(7)n = C and (2) 80(28)n = C.
120(7)n = 80(28)n
ln 120 + n ln 7 = ln 80 + n ln 28
4.7875 + 1.9459 n = 4.3820 + 3.3322 n
4.7875 - 4.3820 = (3.3322 – 1.9459) n
0.4055 = 1.3863 n n = 0.2925
C = 120(7)0.2925 = 120(1.7668) C = 212.0
0.2925
Check: C = 80(28) = 80(2.6503) = 212.0
(b) 110 T0.2925 = 212.0
T0.2925 = 212.0/110 = 1.927
T = 1.9271/0.2925 = 1.9273.419 = 9.42 min
(c) v (15)0.2925 = 212.0
v = 212.0/(15)0.2925 = 212.0/2.2080 = 96.0 m/min
23.7 Turning tests have resulted in 1-min tool life at a cutting speed = 4.0 m/s and a 20-min tool life at a
speed = 2.0 m/s. (a) Find the n and C values in the Taylor tool life equation. (b) Project how long
the tool would last at a speed of 1.0 m/s.
Solution: (a) For data (1) T = 1.0 min, then C = 4.0 m/s = 240 m/min
For data (2) v = 2 m/s = 120 m/min
120(20)n = 240
20n = 240/120 = 2.0
n ln 20 = ln 2.0
2.9957 n = 0.6931 n = 0.2314
(b) At v = 1.0 m/s = 60 m/min
60(T)0.2314 = 240
7
08-18-08
(T)0.2314 = 240/60 = 4.0
T = (4.0)1/0.2314 = (4)4.3215 = 400 min
23.8 A 15.0-in-by-2.0-in-workpart is machined in a face milling operation using a 2.5 in diameter fly
cutter with a single carbide insert. The machine is set for a feed of 0.010 in/tooth and a depth of
0.20 in. If a cutting speed of 400 ft/min is used, the tool lasts for 3 pieces. If a cutting speed of 200
ft/min is used, the tool lasts for 12 parts. Determine the Taylor tool life equation.
Solution: N1 =v/πD = 400(12)/2.5π = 611 rev/min

fr = Nfnt = 611(0.010)(1) = 6.11 in/min
From Eq. (22.18) in the previous chapter, A = 0.5(2.5 – (2.52 – 2.02)0.5) = 0.5 in
Tm = (L+A)/fr = (15 + 0.5))/6.11 = 2.537 min
T1 = 3Tm = 3(2.537) = 7.61 min when v1 = 400 ft/min
N2 = 200(12)/2.5π = 306 rev/min
fr = Nfnt = 306(0.010)(1) = 3.06 in/min
Tm = (15 + 0.5))/3.06 = 5.065 min
T2 = 12Tm = 12(5.065) = 60.78 min when v2 = 200 ft/min
n = ln (v1/v2)/ln(T2/T1) = ln (400/200)/ln (60.78/7.61) = 0.3336
C = vTn = 400(7.61 )0.3336 = 787.2
23.9 In a production turning operation, the workpart is 125 mm in diameter and 300 mm long. A feed of
0.225 mm/rev is used in the operation. If cutting speed = 3.0 m/s, the tool must be changed every 5
workparts; but if cutting speed = 2.0 m/s, the tool can be used to produce 25 pieces between tool
changes. Determine the Taylor tool life equation for this job.
Solution: (1) Tm = π(125 mm)(0.3 m)/(3.0 m/s)(0.225 mm) = 174.53 s = 2.909 min
T = 5(2.909) = 14.54 min
(2) Tm = π(125 mm)(0.3 m)/(2.0 m/s)(0.225 mm) = 261.80s = 4.363 min
T = 25(4.363) = 109.08 min
(1) v = 3 m/s = 180 m/min
(2) v = 2 m/s = 120 m/min
(1) 180(14.54)n = C
(2) 120(109.08)n = C
180(14.54)n = 120(109.08)n
ln 180 + n ln(14.54) = ln 120 + n ln(109.08)
5.1929 + 2.677 n = 4.7875 + 4.692 n
5.1929 - 4.7875 = (4.692 - 2.677) n
0.4054 = 2.0151 n n = 0.2012
C = 180 (14.54)0.2012 C = 308.43
23.10 For the tool life plot of Figure 23.5, show that the middle data point (v = 130 m/min, T = 12 min) is
consistent with the Taylor equation determined in Example Problem 23.1.
Solution: Taylor equation calculated in Example 23.1 is: vT0.223 = 229. Consistency would be
demonstrated by using the values from the middle data point (T = 12 min at v = 130 ft/min) in the
equation and obtaining the same value of C as above (C = 229).
130(12)0.223 = 130(1.7404) = 226.3
This represents a difference of less than 1.2%, which is close enough and well within expected
random variation in typical tool life data.
23.11 In the tool wear plots of Figure 23.4, complete failure of the cutting tool is indicated by the end of
each wear curve. Using complete failure as the criterion of tool life instead of 0.50 mm flank wear,
the resulting data are: (1) v = 160 m/min, T = 5.75 min; (2) v = 130 m/min, T = 14.25 min; and (3) v
8
08-18-08
= 100 m/min, T = 47 min. Determine the parameters n and C in the Taylor tool life equation for this
data.
Solution: Let us use the two extreme data points to calculate the values of n and C, then check the
resulting equation against the middle data point.
(1) 160(5.75)n = C and (3) 100(47)n = C
160(5.75)n = 100(47)n
ln 160 + n ln 5.75 = ln 100 + n ln 47
5.0752 + 1.7492 n = 4.6052 + 3.8501 n
0.4700 = 2.1009 n n = 0.224
(1) C = 160(5.75)0.224 = 236.7
(3) C = 100(47)0.224 = 236.9 use average: C = 236.8
Check against data set (2): 130(14.25)0.224 = 235.7. This represents a difference of less than 0.5%,
which would be considered good agreement for experimental data. Better results on determining the
Taylor equation would be obtained by using regression analysis on all three data sets to smooth the
variations in the tool life data. Note that the n value is very close to the value obtained in Example
23.1 (n = 0.224 here vs. n = 0.223 in Example 23.1), and that the C value is higher here (C = 236.8
here vs. C = 229 in Example 23.1). The higher C value here reflects the higher wear level used to
define tool life (complete failure of cutting edge here vs. a flank wear level of 0.50 mm in Example
23.1).
23.12 The Taylor equation for a certain set of test conditions is vT.25 = 1000, where the U.S. customary
units are used: ft/min for v and min for T. Convert this equation to the equivalent Taylor equation in
the International System of units (metric), where v is in m/sec and T is in seconds. Validate the
metric equation using a tool life = 16 min. That is, compute the corresponding cutting speeds in
ft/min and m/sec using the two equations.
Solution: vT0.25 = 1000(Tref)0.25
C = 1000 ft/min for a 1.0 min tool life; ft/min converts to m/s as (1000 ft/min)(0.3048m/ft)(1
min/60 s) = 5.08 m/s
Tref = 1 min = 60 s.
(Tref)0.25 = (60)0.25 = 2.78316
The converted value of C = 5.08(2.78316) = 14.14
The converted equation is: vT0.25 = 14.14, where v = m/s and T = s.
Check both equations at T = 16 min = 960 s.
USCU: v = 1000/160.25 = 1000/2 = 500 ft/min
SI: v = 14.14/9600.25 = 14.14/5.566 = 2.54 m/s
Check: (500 ft/min)( 0.3048m/ft)(1 min/60 s) = 2.54 m/s Q.E.D.
23.13 A series of turning tests are performed to determine the parameters n, m, and K in the expanded
version of the Taylor equation, Eq. (23.4). The following data were obtained during the tests: (1)
cutting speed = 1.9 m/s, feed = 0.22 mm/rev, tool life = 10 min; (2) cutting speed = 1.3 m/s, feed =
0.22 mm/rev, tool life = 47 min; and (3) cutting speed = 1.9 m/s, feed = 0.32 mm/rev, tool life = 8
min. (a) Determine n, m, and K. (b) Using your equation, compute the tool life when the cutting
speed is 1.5 m/s and the feed is 0.28 mm/rev.
Solution: Three equations to be solved simultaneously:
(1) (1.9 x 60)(10)n(0.22)m = K
(2) (1.3 x 60)(47)n(0.22)m = K
(3) (1.9 x 60)(8)n(0.32)m = K
(1) and (2): ln 114 + n ln 10 + m ln 0.22 = ln 78 + n ln 47 + m ln 0.22
ln 114 + n ln 10 = ln 78 + n ln 47
9
08-18-08
4.7362 + 2.3026 n = 4.3567 + 3.8501 n
0.3795 = 1.548 n n = 0.245
(1) and (3): ln 114 + 0.245 ln 10 + m ln 0.22 = ln 114 + 0.245 ln 8 + m ln 0.32
0.5646 + m (-1.5141) = 0.5099 + m (-1.1394)
-0.3747 m = -0.0547 m = 0.146
(1) K = 114(10)0..245(0.22)0.146 =114(1.7588)(0.8016) = K = 160.7
(b) v = 1.5 m/s, f = 0.28 mm/rev
(1.5 x 60)(T)0.245(0.28)0.146 = 160.7
90(T)0.245(0.8304) = 160.7
(T)0.245 = 2.151
T = 2.1511/0.245 = 22.7 min
23.14 Eq. (23.4) in the text relates tool life to speed and feed. In a series of turning tests conducted to
determine the parameters n, m, and K, the following data were collected: (1) v = 400 ft/min, f =
0.010 in/rev, T = 10 min; (2) v = 300 ft/min, f = 0.010 in/rev, T = 35 min; and (3) v = 400 ft/min, f =
0.015 in/rev, T = 8 min. Determine n, m, and K. What is the physical interpretation of the constant
K?
Solution: Three equations to be solved simultaneously:
(1) 400(10)n(0.010)m = K
(2) 300(35)n(0.010)m = K
(3) 400(8)n(0.015)m = K
ln 400 + n ln 10 = ln 300 + n ln 35
5.9915 + 2.3026 n = 5.7038 + 3.5553 n
0.2877 = 1.2527 n n = 0.2297
n ln 10 + m ln 0.010 = n ln 8 + m ln 0.015
0.2297(2.3026) + m (-4.6052) = 0.2297(2.0794) + m (-4.1997)
0.2297(2.3026 - 2.0794) = m(-4.1997 + 4.6052)
0.05127 = 0.4055 m m = 0.1264
(1) K = 400(10)0.2297(0.010)0.1264 = 400(1.6971)(0.5587) = 379.3
(2) K = 300(35)0.2297(0.010)0.1264 = 300(2.2629)(0.5587) = 379.3
(3) K = 400(8)0.2297(0.015)0.1264 = 400(1.6123)(0.5881) = 379.3 K = 379.3
The constant K represents the cutting speed (ft/min) for a 1.0 minute tool life at a feed rate of 1.0
in/rev. This feed is of course an extrapolation and not a real possible feed value.
23.15 The n and C values in Table 23.2 are based on a feed rate of 0.25 mm/rev and a depth of cut = 2.5
mm. Determine how many cubic mm of steel would be removed for each of the following tool
materials, if a 10-min tool life were required in each case: (a) plain carbon steel, (b) high speed
steel, (c) cemented carbide, and (d) ceramic. Use of a spreadsheet calculator is recommended.
Solution: (a) Plain carbon steel: n = 0.10, C = 20 m/min
v = 20/100.1 = 20/1.259 = 15.886 m/min
RMR = 15.886(103)(0.25)(2.50) = 9.9288(103) m3/min
For 10 min, metal removed = 10(9.9288)(103) = 99.288(103) mm3
(b) HSS: n = 0.125, C = 70 m/min
v = 70/100.125 = 70/1.333 = 52.513 m/min
RMR = 52.513(103)(0.25)(2.50) = 32.821(103) mm3/min
10
08-18-08
For 10 min, metal removed = 10(32.821(103)) = 328.21(103) mm3
(c) Cemented carbide: n = 0.25, C = 500 m/min
v = 500/100.25 = 500/1.778 = 281.215 m/min
RMR = 281.215(103)(0.25)(2.50) = 175.759(103) mm3/min
For 10 min, metal removed = 10(175.759(103)) = 1,757.59(103)) mm3
(d) Ceramic: n = 0.60, C = 3000 m/min
v = 3000/100.6 = 3000/3.981 = 753.58 m/min
RMR = 753.58 (103)(0.25)(2.50) = 470.987(103) mm3/min
For 10 min, metal removed = 10(470.987 (103)) = 4,709.87(103) mm3
23.16 A drilling operation is performed in which 0.5 in diameter holes are drilled through cast iron plates
that are 1.0 in thick. Sample holes have been drilled to determine the tool life at two cutting speeds.
At 80 surface ft/min, the tool lasted for exactly 50 holes. At 120 surface ft/min, the tool lasted for
exactly 5 holes. The feed of the drill was 0.003 in/rev. (Ignore effects of drill entrance and exit from
the hole. Consider the depth of cut to be exactly 1.00 in, corresponding to the plate thickness.)
Determine the values of n and C in the Taylor tool life equation for the above sample data, where
cutting speed v is expressed in ft/min, and tool life T is expressed in min.
Solution: (1) v = 80 ft/min, N = (80)/(0.5π/12) = 611 rev/min
feed rate fr = (0.003)(611) = 1.833 in/min
time per hole Tm = 1.0 in/(1.833 in/min) = 0.545 min
for 50 holes, T = 50(0.545 min) = 27.25 min
Formulating the data as vTn = C, we have: 80(27.25)n = C
(2) v = 120 ft/min, N = (120)/(.5π/12) = 917 rev/min
feed rate fr = (0.003)(917) = 2.75 in/min
time per hole Tm = 1.0 in/(2.75 in/min) = 0.364 min
for 5 holes, T = 5(0.364 min) = 1.82 min
Formulating the data as vTn = C, we have: 120(1.82)n = C
Setting (1) = (2): 80(27.25)n = 120(1.82)n
ln 80 + n ln 27.25 = ln 120 + n ln 1.82
4.382 + 3.3051 n = 4.7875 + 0.5978 n
2.7073 n = 0.4055 n = 0.15
C = 80(27.25)0.15 = 80(1.6417) = 131.34
C = 120(1.82)0.15 = 120(1.094) = 131.29 C = 131.32
23.17 The outside diameter of a cylinder made of titanium alloy is to be turned. The starting diameter is
400 mm and the length is 1100 mm. The feed is 0.35 mm/rev and the depth of cut is 2.5 mm. The
cut will be made with a cemented carbide cutting tool whose Taylor tool life parameters are: n =
0.24 and C = 450. Units for the Taylor equation are min for tool life and m/min for cutting speed.
Compute the cutting speed that will allow the tool life to be just equal to the cutting time for this
part.
Solution: In this problem we want Tm = T, where Tm = machining time per piece and T = tool life.
Both of these times must be expressed in terms of cutting speed.
Tm = πDL/fv and T = (C/v)1/n
Tm = π(400)(1100)(10-6)/0.35(10-3)v = 3949/v = 3949 (v)-1
T = (450/v)1/.24 = (450/v)4.1667 = 4504.1667(v)-4.1667 = 1135(108)(v)-4.1667
Setting Tm = T: 3949 v-1 = 1135(108)(v)-4.1667
v3.1667 = 0.2874(108)
v = {0.2874(108)}1/3.1667 = {0.2874(108)}0.3158 = 226.6 m/min
Check: Tm = 3949 (226.6)-1 = 17.4 min
11
08-18-08
T = (450/226.6)1/.24 = (450/226.6)4.1667 = 17.4 min
23.18 The outside diameter of a roll for a steel rolling mill is to be turned. In the final pass, the starting
diameter = 26.25 in and the length = 48.0 in. The cutting conditions will be: feed = 0.0125 in/rev,
and depth of cut = 0.125 in. A cemented carbide cutting tool is to be used and the parameters of the
Taylor tool life equation for this setup are: n = 0.25 and C = 1300. Units for the Taylor equation are
min for tool life and ft/min for cutting speed. It is desirable to operate at a cutting speed so that the
tool will not need to be changed during the cut. Determine the cutting speed that will make the tool
life equal to the time required to complete the turning operation.
Solution: In this problem we want Tm = T, where Tm = machining time per piece and T = tool life.
Tm = πDL/12fv and T = (C/v)1/n
Tm = π(26.25)(48.0)/12(0.0125)v = 26,389.38/v = 26,389.38(v)-1
T = (1300/v)1/.25 = (1300/v)4.0 = 13004.0(v)-4.0 = 2.8561(1012)(v)-4.0
Setting Tm = T: 26,389.38(v)-1= 2.8561(1012)(v)-4.0
v3.0 = 1.08229(108)
v = {1.08229(108)}1/3 = {1.08229(108)}0.3333 = 476.56 ft/min
Check: Tm = 26,389.38 (476.56)-1= 55.375 min
T = (1300/476.56)1/.25 = (1300/476.56)4.0 = 55.375 min
23.19 The workpart in a turning operation is 88 mm in diameter and 400 mm long. A feed of 0.25 mm/rev
is used in the operation. If cutting speed = 3.5 m/s, the tool must be changed every 3 workparts; but
if cutting speed = 2.5 m/s, the tool can be used to produce 20 pieces between tool changes.
Determine the cutting speed that will allow the tool to be used for 50 parts between tool changes.
Solution: (1) v = 3.5 m/s = 210 m/min
Tm = π(0.088 m)(0.4 m)/(210 m/min)(0.00025 m) = 2.106 min
T = 3(2.106) = 6.32 min
(2) v = 2.5 m/s = 150 m/min
Tm = π(0.088 m)(0.4 m)/(150 m/min)(0.00025 mm) = 2.949 min
T = 20(2.949) = 58.98 min
(1) 210(6.32)n = C
(2) 150(58.98)n = C
210(6.32)n = 150(58.98)n
ln 210 + n ln(6.32) = ln 150 + n ln(58.98)
5.347 + 1.844 n = 5.011 + 4.077 n
5.347 – 5.011 = (4.077 – 1.844) n
0.336 = 2.233 n n = 0.150
C = 210 (6.32)0.150 C = 277.15
Check: 150(58.98)0.150 = 277.03 ) Close enough. use C = 277.1
Set T = 50 Tm
vT0.15 = 277.1, T0.15 = 277.1/v, T = (277.1/v)1/0.15 = (277.1/v)6.646 = 1.711415(10)16/v6.646
Tm = π(0.088)(0.4)/0.00025 v = 442.34/v
1.711415(10)16/v6.646 = 50(442.34/v) = 22116.8/v
1.711415(10)16/v5.646 = 22116.8
v5.646 = 1.711415(10)16/22116.8= 7.738075(10)11 = 773,807,500,000
v = (773,807,500,000)1/5.646 = (773,807,500,000)0.177122 = 127.57 m/min
Check: Tm = 442.34/127.57 = 3.468 min, 50 Tm = 173.4 min
T = (277.1/127.57)6.646 = (2.172)6.646 = 173.3 min (Close enough!)
12
08-18-08
23.20 In a production turning operation, the steel workpart has a 4.5 in diameter and is 17.5 in long. A
feed of 0.012 in/rev is used in the operation. If cutting speed = 400 ft/min, the tool must be changed
every four workparts; but if cutting speed = 275 ft/min, the tool can be used to produce 15 pieces
between tool changes. A new order for 25 pieces has been received but the dimensions of the
workpart have been changed. The new diameter is 3.5 in, and the new length is 15.0 in. The work
material and tooling remain the same, and the feed and depth are also unchanged, so the Taylor tool
life equation determined for the previous workparts is valid for the new parts. Determine the cutting
speed that will allow one cutting tool to be used for the new order.
Solution: (1) v = 400 ft/min
Tm = π(4.5 in)(17.5 in)/(400 x 12 in/min)(0.012 in) = 4.295 min
T = 4(4.295) = 17.18 min
(2) v = 275 ft/min
Tm = π(4.5 in)(17.5 in)/(275 x 12 in/min)(0.012 in) = 6.247 min
T = 15(6.247) = 93.71 min
(1) 400(17.18)n = C
(2) 275(93.71)n = C
400(17.18)n = 275(93.71)n
ln 400 + n ln(17.18) = ln 275 + n ln(93.71)
5.991 + 2.844 n = 5.617 + 4.540 n
5.991 - 5.617 = (4.540 - 2.844) n
0.374 = 1.696 n n = 0.2205
C = 400 (17.18)0.2205 C = 748.87 (ft/min)
Check: 275(93.71)0.2205 = 748.43, use C = 748.65
Set T = 25 Tm
vT0.2205 = 748.65, T0.2205 = 748.65/v, T = (748.65/v)1/0.2205 = (748.65/v)4.535
T = 10.8184(10)12/v4.535
For the new part dimensions, Tm = π(3.5 in)(15 in)/(12v in/min)(0.012 in) = 1145.37/v
10.8184(10)12/v4.535 = 25(1145.37/v) = 28634.25/v
10.8184(10)12/v3.535 = 28634.25
v3.535 = 10.8184(10)12/28634.25= 377,813,096.3
v = (377,813,096.3)1/3.535 = (377,813,096.3)0.2829 = 267.025 ft/min
Check: Tm = 1145.37/267.025 = 4.289 min, 25 Tm = 107.23 min
T = (748.65/267.025)4.535 = (2.804)4.535 = 107.23 min
23.21 The outside diameter of a cylinder made of a steel alloy is to be turned. The starting diameter is 300
mm and the length is 625 mm. The feed is 0.35 mm/rev and the depth of cut is 2.5 mm. The cut will
be made with a cemented carbide cutting tool whose Taylor tool life parameters are: n = 0.24 and C
= 450. Units for the Taylor equation are min for tool life and m/min for cutting speed. Compute the
cutting speed that will allow the tool life to be just equal to the cutting time for three of these parts.
Solution: In this problem we want 3Tm = T, where Tm = machining time per piece and T = tool life.
Tm = πDL/fv and T = (C/v)1/n
Tm = π(300)(625)(10-6)/0.35(10-3)v = 1683/v = 1683 (v)-1
3Tm = 3(1683 (v)-1) = 5049(v)-1
T = (450/v)1/.24 = (450/v)4.1667 = 4504.1667(v)-4.1667 = 1135(108)(v)-4.1667
Setting 3Tm = T: 5049v-1 = 1135(108)(v)-4.1667
v3.1667 = 0.2248(108)
v = {0.2248(108)}1/3.1667 = {0.2248(108)}0.3158 = 209.747 m/min
13
08-18-08
Check: 3Tm = 5049 (209.747)-1 = 24.07 min
T = (450/209.747)1/.24 = (450/209.747)4.1667 = 24.06 min (close enough)
Tooling Applications
23.22 Specify the ANSI C-grade or grades (C1 through C8 in Table 23.5) of cemented carbide for each of
the following situations: (a) turning the diameter of a high carbon steel shaft from 4.2 in to 3.5 in,
(b) making a final face milling pass using a shallow depth of cut and feed on a titanium part, (c)
boring out the cylinders of an alloy steel automobile engine block prior to honing, and (d) cutting
the threads on the inlet and outlet of a large brass valve.
Solution: (a) High carbon steel limits choice to grades C5-C8. A large amount of material is being
removed so it is a roughing cut. C5 or C6 could be used, depending on the finish required after the
process is complete.
(b) Titanium limits the choice of grades to C1-C4. Small feed and depth of cut indicate a finish
pass. Depending on the finish requirements, C3 or C4 would be selected.
(c) Alloy steel limits the choice of grades to C5-C8. Boring cylinders requires precision finishing.
Choose either C7 or C8
(d) Brass limits the choice of grades to C1-C4. This is a finishing operation that could use C3 or C4.
23.23 A certain machine shop uses four cemented carbide grades in its operations. The chemical
composition of these grades are as follows: Grade 1 contains 95% WC and 5% Co; Grade 2
contains 82% WC, 4% Co, and 14% TiC; Grade 3 contains 80% WC, 10% Co, and 10% TiC; and
Grade 4 contains 89% WC and 11% Co. (a) Which grade should be used for finish turning of
unhardened steel? (b) Which grade should be used for rough milling of aluminum? (c) Which grade
should be used for finish turning of brass? (d) Which of the grades listed would be suitable for
machining cast iron? For each case, explain your recommendation.
Solution: (a) Finish turning of unhardened steel. Specify a steel-cutting grade suitable for finishing.
This is a grade with TiC and low cobalt. Choose grade 2.
(b) Rough milling of aluminum. Specify a non-steel roughing grade. This is a grade with no TiC
and high cobalt. Choose grade 4.
(c) Finish turning of brass. Specify a non-steel finishing grade. This is a grade with no TiC and low
cobalt. Choose grade 1.
(d) Machining cast iron. Cast iron is included with the non-steel grades. Specify grade 1 for
finishing and grade 4 for roughing.
23.24 List the ISO R513-1975(E) group (letter and color in Table 23.6) and whether the number would be
toward the lower or higher end of the ranges for each of the following situations: (a) milling the
head gasket surface of an aluminum cylinder head of an automobile (cylinder head has a hole for
each cylinder and must be very flat and smooth to mate up with the block), (b) rough turning a
hardened steel shaft, (c) milling a fiber-reinforced polymer composite that requires a precise finish,
and (d) milling the rough shape in a die made of steel before it is hardened.
Solution: (a) Aluminum would be the K (red) group. Milling the surface with large holes in it will
create shock loading on the tool. This will require higher toughness. Because it is a finish cut, it will
require higher hardness. A mid-range number will provide both. Move towards the low numbers for
higher hardness if possible.
(b) Hardened steel shaft would indicate group P (blue). Rough cut would require higher toughness
so choose a higher number
14
08-18-08
(c) Composite is a nonmetallic and would use group K (red). Precise machining would require a
high hardness (lower number).
(d) Steel would indicate the P (blue) group. Rough milling would indicate a higher toughness and
thus a high number.
23.25 A turning operation is performed on a steel shaft with diameter = 5.0 in and length = 32 in. A slot or
keyway has been milled along its entire length. The turning operation reduces the shaft diameter.
For each of the following tool materials, indicate whether it is a reasonable candidate to use in the
operation: (a) plain carbon steel, (b) high-speed steel, (c) cemented carbide, (d) ceramic, and (e)
sintered polycrystalline diamond. For each material that is not a good candidate, give the reason
why it is not.
Solution: The lengthwise slot results in an interrupted cut, so toughness is important in the tool
material.
(a) Plain carbon steel: not economical because of low cutting speeds.
(b) HSS: this is a reasonable candidate; it has good toughness for the interrupted cut.
(c) Cemented carbide: this is a reasonable candidate; it must be a steel cutting grade with high
toughness (high cobalt content).
(d) Ceramic: this is not a good candidate because of its low toughness; it is likely to fracture during
interrupted cutting.
(e) Sintered polycrystalline diamond: SPD is not suitable for cutting steel.
Cutting Fluids
23.26 In a milling operation with no coolant, a cutting speed of 500 ft/min is used. The current cutting
conditions (dry) yield Taylor tool life equation parameters of n = 0.25 and C = 1300 (ft/min). When
a coolant is used in the operation, the cutting speed can be increased by 20% and still maintain the
same tool life. Assuming n does not change with the addition of coolant, what is the resulting
change in the value of C?
Solution: Find the present tool life T
vTn = C; T = (C/v)(1/n)
T = (1300/500)(1/.25) = 2.604.0 = 45.7 min
After coolant, the new cutting speed would be 500(1+.20) = 600
If the tool life stays the same, C = vTn = 600(45.7).25 = 1560
% increase in C = (1560-1500)/1500 = 20%
Note: When viewing the log-log plot of the Taylor tool life curve, it is a straight line. Since n, the
slope, is not affected by the coolant, the coolant effectively raises the line on the graph. Raising the
curve so that it increases the value of v by a certain percentage will increase C by the same
percentage. This is true independent of the values of n and C.
23.27 In a turning operation using high-speed steel tooling, cutting speed = 110 m/min. The Taylor tool
life equation has parameters n = 0.140 and C = 150 (m/min) when the operation is conducted dry.
When a coolant is used in the operation, the value of C is increased by 15%. Determine the percent
increase in tool life that results if the cutting speed is maintained at 110 m/min.
Solution: Dry: 110(T)0.14 = 150
T = (150/110)1/.14 = (1.364)7.143 = 9.18 min
With coolant: 110(T)0.14 = 150(1 + 15%) = 150(1.15) = 172.5
T = (172.5/110)1/.14 = (1.568)7.143 = 24.85 min
Increase = (24.85 – 9.18)/9.18 = 1.71 = 171%
15
08-18-08
23.28 A production turning operation on a steel workpiece normally operates at a cutting speed of 125
ft/min using high-speed steel tooling with no cutting fluid. The appropriate n and C values in the
Taylor equation are given in Table 23.2 in the text. It has been found that the use of a coolant type
cutting fluid will allow an increase of 25 ft/min in the speed without any effect on tool life. If it can
be assumed that the effect of the cutting fluid is simply to increase the constant C by 25, what
would be the increase in tool life if the original cutting speed of 125 ft/min were used in the
operation?
Solution: From Table 23.2, n = 0.125 and C = 200 for dry cutting.
With cutting fluid, C = 200 + 25 = 225.
Dry: at v = 125 ft/min, T = (200/125)1/.125 = (1.6)8 = 42.95 min
With cutting fluid: at v = 125 ft/min, T = (225/125)1/.125 = (1.8)8 = 110.2 min
Increase = (110.2 - 42.95) = 67.25 min = 156.6%
23.29 A high speed steel 6.0 mm twist drill is being used in a production drilling operation on mild steel.
A cutting oil is applied by the operator by brushing the lubricant onto the drill point and flutes prior
to each hole. The cutting conditions are: speed = 25 m/min, and feed = 0.10 mm/rev, and hole depth
= 40 mm. The foreman says that the "speed and feed are right out of the handbook" for this work
material. Nevertheless, he says, "the chips are clogging in the flutes, resulting in friction heat, and
the drill bit is failing prematurely due to overheating." What's the problem? What do you
recommend to solve it?
Solution: There are several problems here. First, the depth-to-diameter ratio is 1.75:0.25 = 7:1,
which is greater than the 4:1 which is usually recommended. As a consequence the chips produced
in the hole are having difficulty exiting, thus causing overheating of the drill. Second, the manual
method of applying the cutting oil may not be particularly effective. Third, with overheating as a
problem, the cutting oil may not be removing heat from the operation effectively.
Recommendation: The 7:1 depth-to-diameter ratio is a given, a requirement of the drilling
operation, and we assume it cannot be changed. The twist drill might be operated in a peck-drilling
mode to solve the chip clogging problem. Peck-drilling means drilling for a distance approximately
equal to one drill diameter, then retract the drill, then drill some more, etc. A twist drill with a fluid
hole could be used to more effectively deliver the cutting fluid to the drill point to help extract the
chips. Finally, an emulsified oil might be tried in the operation, one with good lubricating qualities,
as a substitute for the cutting oil. Since overheating is a problem, it makes sense to try a coolant.
16
08-22-09, 05-11-09
24 ECONOMIC AND PRODUCT DESIGN

CONSIDERATIONS IN MACHINING
Review Questions
24.1 Define machinability.
Answer. Machinability can be defined as the relative ease with which a material can be machined
using an appropriate cutting tool under appropriate cutting conditions.
24.2 What are the criteria by which machinability is commonly assessed in a production machining
operation?
Answer. The machinability criteria include (1) tool wear and tool life, (2) forces and power, (3)
surface finish, and (4) ease of chip disposal.
24.3 Name some of the important mechanical and physical properties that affect the machinability of a
work material.
Answer. The properties mentioned in the text include hardness, strength, and thermal diffusivity.
24.4 Why do costs tend to increase when better surface finish is required on a machined part?
Answer. Costs tend to increase when better surface finish is required because additional operations
such as grinding, lapping, or similar finishing processes must be included in the manufacturing
sequence.
24.5 What are the basic factors that affect surface finish in machining?
Answer. The factors that affect surface finish are (1) geometric factors such as type of operation,
feed, and tool shape (nose radius in particular); (2) work material factors such as built-up edge
effects, and tearing of the work surface when machining ductile materials, which factors are
affected by cutting speed; and (3) vibration and machine tool factors such as setup and workpart
rigidity, and backlash in the feed mechanism.
24.6 What are the parameters that have the greatest influence in determining the ideal surface roughness
Ri in a turning operation?
Answer. The ideal surface roughness is determined by the following geometric parameters of the
machining operation: (1) tool nose radius and (2) feed. In some cases, the end cutting edge and end
cutting edge angle of the single-point tool affects the feed mark pattern on the work surface.
24.7 Name some of the steps that can be taken to reduce or eliminate vibrations in machining.
Answer. Steps to reduce vibration in machining include (1) increase stiffness or damping in the
setup; (2) operate at speeds away from the natural frequency of the machine tool system; (3) reduce
forces in machining by changing feed or depth and cutter design (e.g., reduced rake angle), and (4)
change the cutter design to reduce forces.
24.8 What are the factors on which the selection of feed in a machining operation should be based?
Answer. The factors are (1) type of tooling (e.g., a cemented carbide tool should be used at a lower
feed than a high-speed steel tool), (2) whether the operation is roughing or finishing (e.g., higher
feeds are used in roughing operations), (3) cutting forces limitations that would require lower feeds,
and (4) surface roughness requirements.
1
08-22-09, 05-11-09
24.9 The unit cost in a machining operation is the sum of four cost terms. The first three terms are: (1)
part load/unload cost, (2) cost of time the tool is actually cutting the work, and (3) cost of the time
to change the tool. What is the fourth term?
Answer. The fourth term is the cost of the tool itself (purchasing the tool and grinding it, if
applicable).
24.10 Which cutting speed is always lower for a given machining operation, cutting speed for minimum
cost or cutting speed for maximum production rate? Why?
Answer. Cutting speed for minimum cost is always lower because of the fourth term in the unit cost
equation, which deals with the actual cost of the cutting edge. This term tends to push the U-shaped
function toward a lower value in the case of cutting speed for minimum cost.
24.1 Which of the following criteria are generally recognized to indicate good machinability (four best
answers): (a) ease of chip disposal, (b) high cutting temperatures, (c) high power requirements, (d)
high value of Ra, (e) long tool life, (f) low cutting forces, and (g) zero shear plane angle?
Answer. (a), (d), (e), and (f).
24.2 Of the various methods for testing machinability, which one of the following is the most important:
(a) cutting forces, (b) cutting temperature, (c) horsepower consumed in the operation, (d) surface
roughness, (e) tool life, or (f) tool wear?
Answer. (e).
24.3 A machinability rating greater than 1.0 indicates that the work material is (a) easier to machine than
the base metal or (b) more difficult to machine than the base metal, where the base metal has a rating
= 1.0?
Answer. (a).
24.4 In general, which one of the following materials has the highest machinability: (a) aluminum, (b)
cast iron, (c) copper, (d) low carbon steel, (e) stainless steel, (f) titanium alloys, or (g) unhardened
tool steel?
Answer. (a).
24.5 Which one of the following operations is generally capable of the closest tolerances: (a) broaching,
(b) drilling, (c) end milling, (d) planing, or (e) sawing?
Answer. (a).
24.6 When cutting a ductile work material, an increase in cutting speed will generally (a) degrade surface
finish, which means a higher value of Ra or (b) improve surface finish, which means a lower value of
Ra?
Answer. (b).
24.7 Which one of the following operations is generally capable of the best surface finishes (lowest value
of Ra): (a) broaching, (b) drilling, (c) end milling, (d) planing, or (e) turning?
Answer. (a).
2
08-22-09, 05-11-09
24.8 Which of the following time components in the average production machining cycle is affected by
cutting speed (two correct answers): (a) part loading and unloading time, and (b) setup time for the
machine tool, (c) time the tool is engaged in cutting, and (d) average tool change time per piece?
24.9 Which cutting speed is always lower for a given machining operation: (a) cutting speed for
maximum production rate, or (b) cutting speed for minimum cost?
Answer. (b).
24.10 A high tooling cost and/or tool change time will tend to (a) decrease, (b) have no effect on, or (c)
increase the cutting speed for minimum cost?
Answer. (a).
Problems
Machinability
24.1 A machinability rating is to be determined for a new work material using the cutting speed for a 60-
min tool life as the basis of comparison. For the base material (B1112 steel), test data resulted in
Taylor equation parameter values of n = 0.29 and C = 500, where speed is in m/min and tool life is
min. For the new material, the parameter values were n = 0.21 and C = 400. These results were
obtained using cemented carbide tooling. (a) Compute a machinability rating for the new material.
(b) Suppose the machinability criterion were the cutting speed for a 10-min tool life rather than the
present criterion. Compute the machinability rating for this case. (c) What do the results of the two
calculations show about the difficulties in machinability measurement?
Solution: (a) Base material: v60 = 500/600.29 = 152.5 m/min
New material: v60 = 400/600.21 = 169.3 m/min
MR = 169.3/152.5 = 1.11 = 111%
(b) Base material: v10 = 500/100.29 = 256.4 m/min
MR = 246.6/256.4 = 0.96 = 96%
(c) Different test conditions often result in different machinability results.
24.2 A small company uses a band saw to cut through 2-inch metal bar stock. A material supplier is
pushing a new material that is supposed to be more machinable while providing similar mechanical
properties. The company does not have access to sophisticated measuring devices, but they do have
a stopwatch. They have acquired a sample of the new material and cut both the present material and
the new material with the same band saw settings. In the process, they measured how long it took to
cut through each material. To cut through the present material, it took an average of 2 minutes, 20
seconds. To cut through the new material, it took an average of 2 minutes, 6 seconds. (a) Develop a
machinability rating system based on time to cut through the 2.0-inch bar stock, using the present
material as the base material. (b) Using your rating system, determine the machinability rating for
the new material.
Solution: (a) Since a material with a shorter cutting time is better, it should have a higher
machinability rating. To achieve this the cutting time of the base material needs to be in the
numerator and the time of the tested material needs to be in the denominator. Therefore, if the test
material has a shorter cutting time, the rating will be greater than 100%. The appropriate MR
equation is the following: MR = Tm(base material)/Tm(test material) x 100%
(b) Convert times to minutes
For the base material, Tm = 2 + 20/60 = 2.333 min
3
08-22-09, 05-11-09
For the test material, Tm = 2 + 6/60 = 2.1 min
MR = 2.333/2.1 = 1.11 = 111 %
24.3 A machinability rating is to be determined for a new work material. For the base material (B1112),
test data resulted in a Taylor equation with parameters n = 0.29 and C = 490. For the new material,
the Taylor parameters were n = 0.23 and C = 430. Units in both cases are: speed in m/min and tool
life in min. These results were obtained using cemented carbide tooling. (a) Compute a
machinability rating for the new material using cutting speed for a 30-min tool life as the basis of
comparison. (b) If the machinability criterion were tool life for a cutting speed of 150 m/min, what
is the machinability rating for the new material?
Solution: (a) Base material: v30 = 490/30.29 = 182.7 m/min
MR = 196.7/182.7 = 1.08 = 108%
(b) Base material: T150 = (490/150)1/.29 = (3.27)3.448= 59.3 min
New material: v10 = (430/150)1/.23 = (2.87)4.348 = 97.4 min
MR = 97.4/59.3 = 1.64 = 164%
24.4 Tool life turning tests have been conducted on B1112 steel with high-speed steel tooling, and the
resulting parameters of the Taylor equation are: n = 0.13 and C = 225. B1112 is the base metal and
has a machinability rating = 1.00 (100%). During the tests, feed = 0.010 in/rev, and depth of cut =
0.100 in. Based on this information, and machinability data given in Table 24.1, determine the
cutting speed you would recommend for the following work materials, if the tool life desired in
operation is 30 min (the same feed and depth of cut are to be used): (a) C1008 low carbon steel with
150 Brinell hardness, (b) 4130 alloy steel with 190 Brinell hardness, and (c) B1113 steel with 170
Brinell hardness.
Solution: First determine v30 for the base material: v30 = 225/30.13 = 225/1.556 = 144.6 ft/min
(a) From Table 24.1, MR for C1008 = 0.50. Recommended v30 = 0.50(144.6) = 72 ft/min
(b) From Table 24.1, MR for 4130 = 0.65. Recommended v30 = 0.65(144.6) = 94 ft/min
(c) From Table 24.1, MR for B1113 = 1.35. Recommended v30 = 1.35(144.6) = 195 ft/min
Surface Roughness
24.5 In a turning operation on cast iron, the nose radius on the tool = 1.5 mm, feed = 0.22 mm/rev, and
speed = 1.8 m/s. Compute an estimate of the surface roughness for this cut.
Solution: Ri = f2/32NR = (0.22)2/(32 x 1.5) = 0.00101 mm. = 1.01 µm.
From Fig. 24.2, rai = 1.25
Ra = 1.01 x 1.25 = 1.26 µm.
24.6 A turning operation uses a 2/64 in nose radius cutting tool on a free machining steel with a feed rate
= 0.010 in/rev and a cutting speed = 300 ft/min. Determine the surface roughness for this cut.
Solution: Ri = f2/32NR = (0.010)2/(32 x 2/64) = 0.0001 in = 100 µin
From Fig. 24.2, rai = 1.02
Ra = 1.02 x 100 = 102 µin
24.7 A single-point HSS tool with a 3/64 in nose radius is used in a shaping operation on a ductile steel
workpart. The cutting speed is 120 ft/min. The feed is 0.014 in/pass and depth of cut is 0.135 in.
Determine the surface roughness for this operation.
Solution: Ri = f2/32NR = (0.014)2/(32 x 3/64) = 0.000131 in = 131 µin
From Fig. 24.2, rai = 1.8
Ra = 1.8 x 131 = 235 µin
4
08-22-09, 05-11-09
24.8 A part to be turned in an engine lathe must have a surface finish of 1.6 µm. The part is made of a
free-machining aluminum alloy. Cutting speed = 150 m/min, and depth of cut = 4.0 mm. The nose
radius on the tool = 0.75 mm. Determine the feed that will achieve the specified surface finish.
Solution: For free-machining aluminum at 150 m/min, from Figure 24.2 ratio rai = 1.0 in Eq. (24.3),
so Ra = Ri
Ra = Ri = f2/32NR
Rearranging, f2 = Ri(32NR) = 1.6(10-6)(32)(0.75)(10-3) = 38.4(10-9) = 3.84(10-8) m2
f = (3.84(10-8) m2)0.5 = 1.96(10-4) m = 0.196 mm (mm is interpreted mm/rev)
24.9 Solve previous Problem 24.8 except that the part is made of cast iron instead of aluminum and the
cutting speed is reduced to 100 m/min.
Solution: For cast iron at 150 m/min, extrapolating Figure 24.2 ratio rai = 1.2 in Eq. (24.3),
so Ra = 1.2 Ri = 1.2f2/32NR
Rearranging, f2 = Ri(32NR)/1.2 = 1.6(10-6)(32)(0.75)(10-3)/1.2 = 31.96(10-9) = 3.196(10-8) m2
f = 3.196(10-8) m2)0.5 = 1.79(10-4) m = 0.179 mm (mm is interpreted mm/rev)
24.10 A part to be turned in an engine lathe must have a surface finish of 1.5 µm. The part is made of a
aluminum. The cutting speed is 1.5 m/s and the depth is 3.0 mm. The nose radius on the tool = 1.0
mm. Determine the feed that will achieve the specified surface finish.
Solution: For aluminum, a ductile material at 90 m/min, from Figure 24.2 ratio rai = 1.25.
Therefore, the theoretical requirement is Ri = Ra /rai = 1.5 / 1.25 = 1.2 µm
Ri = f2/32NR; f = (32 (NR) Ri )0.5 = (32(10-3)(1.2x10-6))0.5 = 3.84x10-8 m2
f = (3.84(10-8) m2)0.5 = 1.96(10-4) m = 0.196 mm (here, mm is interpreted mm/rev)
24.11 The surface finish specification in a turning job is 0.8 µm. The work material is cast iron. Cutting
speed = 75 m/min, feed = 0.3 mm/rev, and depth of cut = 4.0 mm. The nose radius of the cutting
tool must be selected. Determine the minimum nose radius that will obtain the specified finish in
this operation.
Solution: For cast iron at 75 m/min, from Figure 24.2 ratio rai = 1.35 in Eq. (24.3),
so Ra = 1.35Ri = 1.35f2/32NR
Rearranging, NR = 1.35f2/(32Ra)
NR = 1.35(0.3 x 10-3)2/(32)(0.8)(10-6) = 0.00475 m = 4.75 mm
24.12 A face milling operation is to be performed on a cast iron part to finish the surface to 36 µ-in. The
cutter uses four inserts and its diameter is 3.0 in. The cutter rotates at 475 rev/min. To obtain the
best possible finish, a type of carbide insert with 4/64 in nose radius is to be used. Determine the
required feed rate (in/min) that will achieve the 36 µ-in finish.
Solution: v = πDN = π(3/12)(475) = 373 ft/min
For cast iron at 373 ft/min, from Figure 24.2 ratio rai = 1.26, so Ra = 1.26 Ri
Ri = Ra/1.26 = 36/1.26 = 28.6 µin
Ri = f2/32 NR
Rearranging, f2 = 32Ra(NR) = 32(28.6 x 10-6)(4/64) = 57.1 x 10-6 in2
f = (57.1 x 10-6).5 = 7.56 x 10-3 = 0.00756 in/tooth.
fr = Nntf = 475(4)(0.00756) = 14.4 in/min
24.13 A face milling operation is not yielding the required surface finish on the work. The cutter is a
four-tooth insert type face milling cutter. The machine shop foreman thinks the problem is that the
work material is too ductile for the job, but this property tests well within the ductility range for the
material specified by the designer. Without knowing any more about the job, what changes in (a)
cutting conditions and (b) tooling would you suggest to improve the surface finish?
5
08-22-09, 05-11-09
Solution: (a) Changes in cutting conditions: (1) decrease chip load f, (2) increase cutting speed v,
(3) use cutting fluid.
(b) Changes in tooling: (1) increase nose radius NR, (2) increase rake angle, and (3) increase relief
angle. Items (2) and (3) will have a marginal effect.
24.14 A turning operation is to be performed on C1010 steel, which is a ductile grade. It is desired to
achieve a surface finish of 64 µ-in, while at the same time maximizing the metal removal rate. It has
been decided that the speed should be in the range 200 ft/min to 400 ft/min, and that the depth of cut
will be 0.080 in. The tool nose radius = 3/64 in. Determine the speed and feed combination that
meets these criteria.
Solution: Increasing feed will increase both RMR and Ra. Increasing speed will increase RMR and
reduce Ra. Therefore, it stands to reason that we should operate at the highest possible v.
Try v = 400 ft/min. From Fig. 25.45, rai = 1.15.
Ra = 1.15 Ri
Ri = Ra/1.15 = 64/1.15 = 55.6 µin
Ri = f2/32NR
f2 = 32Ra(NR) = 32(55.6 x 10-6)(3/64) = 83.4 x 10-6 in2
f = (83.4 x 10-6).5 = 0.0091 in/rev
RMR = 3.51 in3/min
Compare at v = 300 ft/min. From Fig. 25.45, rai = 1.26.
Ra = 1.26 Ri
Ri = Ra/1.26 = 64/1.26 = 50.8 µin
Ri = f2/32NR
f2 = 32Ra(NR) = 32(50.8)(10-6)(3/64) = 76.2(10-6)in2
f = (76.2 x 10-6).5 = 0.0087 in/rev
RMR = 2.51 in3/min
Optimum cutting conditions are: v = 400 ft/min and f = 0.0091 in/rev, which maximizes RMR = 3.51
in3/min
Machining Economics
24.15 A high-speed steel tool is used to turn a steel workpart that is 300 mm long and 80 mm in diameter.
The parameters in the Taylor equation are: n = 0.13 and C = 75 (m/min) for a feed of 0.4 mm/rev.
The operator and machine tool rate = $30.00/hr, and the tooling cost per cutting edge = $4.00. It
takes 2.0 min to load and unload the workpart and 3.50 min to change tools. Determine (a) cutting
speed for maximum production rate, (b) tool life in min of cutting, and (c) cycle time and cost per
unit of product.
Solution: (a) Co = $30/hr = $0.50/min
vmax = 75/[(1/0.13 - 1)(3.5)].13 = 75/[6.692 x 3.5].27 = 49.8 m/min
(b) Tmax = (75/49.8)1/.13 = (1.506)7.692 = 23.42 min
(c) Tm = πDL/fv = π(80)(300)/(.4 x 49.8 x 103) = 3.787 min
np = 23.42/3.787 = 6.184 pc/tool life Use np = 6 pc/tool life
Tc = Th + Tm + Tt/np = 2.0 + 3.787 + 3.5/6 = 6.37 min/pc.
Cc = 0.50(6.37) + 4.00/6 = $3.85/pc
24.16 Solve Problem 24.15 except that in part (a), determine cutting speed for minimum cost.
vmin = 75[0.50/((1/0.13 - 1)(.50 x 3.5 + 4.00))].13 = 75[.50/(6.692 x 5.75)].13 = 42.6 m/min
(b) Tmin = (75/42.6)1/.13 = (1.76)7.692 = 76.96 min
6
08-22-09, 05-11-09
(c) Tm = πDL/fv = π(80)(300)/(.4 x 42.6 x 103) = 4.42 min/pc.
Cc = 0.50(6.63) + 4.0/17 = $3.55/pc
24.17 A cemented carbide tool is used to turn a part with a length of 14.0 in and diameter = 4.0 in. The
parameters in the Taylor equation are: n = 0.25 and C = 1000 (ft/min). The rate for the operator and
machine tool = $45.00/hr, and the tooling cost per cutting edge = $2.50. It takes 2.5 min to load and
unload the workpart and 1.50 min to change tools. The feed = 0.015 in/rev. Determine (a) cutting
speed for maximum production rate, (b) tool life in min of cutting, and (c) cycle time and cost per
unit of product.
Solution: (a) vmax = C/((1/n-1)Tt)n = 1000/[(1/0.25 - 1)(1.5)].25
= 1000/[(4.0-1) x 1.5].25 = 687 ft/min
(b) Tmax = (1000/687)1/.25 = (1.456)4.0 = 4.5 min or (1/n -1) Tt = (4-1)1.5 = 4.5 min
(c) Tm = πDL/fv = π(4)(14)/(.015 x 687 x 12) = 1.42 min
np = 4.5/1.42 = 3.17 pc/tool Use np = 3 pc/tool life
Co = $45/hr = $0.75/min
Cc = Co (Th + Tm + Tt/np) + Ct/np = 0.75(4.42 ) + 2.5/3 = $4.15/pc
24.18 Solve Problem 24.17 except that in part (a), determine cutting speed for minimum cost.
vmin = C[(n/(1-n))(Co/(CoTt + Ct))]n = 1000[(0.25/(1-0.25))(0.75/(0.75(1.5) + 2.5))]0.25 =
1000[.3333*0.75/(1.125+2.5)].25 = 1000[ .333*0.75/3.625]0.25 = 1000 [ 0.06897]0.25 = 512 ft/min
(b) Tmin = (1000/512)1/.25 = (1.953)4.0 = 14.55 min
(c) Tm = πDL/fv = π(4)(14)/(0.015 x 512 x 12) = 1.91 min
np = 14.55/1.91 = 7.62 pc/tool Use np = 7 pc/tool life
Cc = Co (Th + Tm + Tt/np) + Ct/np = 0.75(4.62) + 2.5/7 = $3.83/pc
24.19 Compare disposable and regrindable tooling. The same grade of cemented carbide tooling is
available in two forms for turning operations in a certain machine shop: disposable inserts and
brazed inserts. The parameters in the Taylor equation for this grade are: n = 0.25 and C = 300
(m/min) under the cutting conditions considered here. For the disposable inserts, price of each insert
= $6.00, there are four cutting edges per insert, and the tool change time = 1.0 min (this is an
average of the time to index the insert and the time to replace it when all edges have been used). For
the brazed insert, the price of the tool = $30.00 and it is estimated that it can be used a total of 15
times before it must be scrapped. The tool change time for the regrindable tooling = 3.0 min. The
standard time to grind or regrind the cutting edge is 5.0 min, and the grinder is paid at a rate =
$20.00/hr. Machine time on the lathe costs $24.00/hr. The workpart to be used in the comparison is
375 mm long and 62.5 mm in diameter, and it takes 2.0 min to load and unload the work. The feed
= 0.30 mm/rev. For the two tooling cases, compare (a) cutting speeds for minimum cost, (b) tool
lives, (c) cycle time and cost per unit of production. Which tool would you recommend?
Solution: Disposable inserts: (a) Co = $24/hr = $0.40/min, Ct = $6/4 = $1.50/edge
vmin = 300[0.40/((1/0.25 - 1)(0.40 x 1.0 + 1.50))].25 = 300[0.40/(3 x 1.9)].25 = 154.4 m/min
(b) Tmin = (1/0.25 - 1)(0.4 + 1.5)/0.4 = 3(1.9/0.4) = 14.25 min
(c) Tm = π(62.5)(375)/(0.30)(10-3)(154.4) = 1.59 min/pc
np = 14.25/1.59 = 8.96 pc/tool life Use np = 8 pc/tool
7
08-22-09, 05-11-09
Tc = 2.0 + 1.59 + 1.0/8 = 3.72 min/pc.
Cc = 0.40(3.72) + 1.50/8 = $1.674/pc
Regrindable tooling: (a) Co = $24/hr = $0.40/min, Ct = $30/15 + 5($20/60) = $3.67/edge
vmin = 300[0.40/((1/0.25 - 1)(0.40 x 3.0 + 3.67))].25 = 300[0.40/(3 x 4.87)].25 = 122.0 m/min
(b) Tmin = (1/0.25 - 1)(0.4 x 3 + 3.67)/0.4 = 3(4.87/0.4) = 36.5 min
(c) Tm = π(62.5)(375)/(0.30)(10-3)(122) = 2.01 min/pc
Tc = 2.0 + 2.01 + 3.0/18 = 4.18 min/pc
Cc = 0.40(4.18) + 3.67/18 = $1.876/pc
Disposable inserts are recommended. Cycle time and cost per piece are less.
24.20 Solve Problem 24.19 except that in part (a), determine the cutting speeds for maximum production
rate.
Solution: Disposable inserts: (a) Co = $24/hr = $0.40/min, Ct = $6/4 = $1.50/edge
vmax = 300[1.0/((1/0.25 - 1)(1.0)].25 = 300[1.0/(3 x 1.0)].25 = 228.0 m/min
(b) Tmax = (1/0.25 - 1)(1.0) = 3(1.0) = 3.0 min
(c) Tm = π(62.5)(375)/(0.30)(10-3)(228) = 1.08 min/pc
Tc = 2.0 + 1.08 + 1.0/2 = 3.58 min/pc.
Cc = 0.40(3.58) + 1.50/2 = $2.182/pc
Regrindable tooling: (a) Co = $24/hr = $0.40/min, Ct = $30/15 + 5($20/60) = $3.67/edge
vmax = 300[1.0/((1/0.25 - 1)(3.0))].25 = 300[1.0/(3 x 3.0)].25 = 173.2 m/min
(b) Tmax = (1/0.25 - 1)(3) = 3(3.0) = 9.0 min
(c) Tm = π(62.5)(375)/(0.30)(10-3)(173.2) = 1.42 min/pc
Tc = 2.0 + 1.42 + 3.0/6 = 3.92 min/pc.
Cc = 0.40(3.92) + 3.67/6 = $2.180/pc
Disposable inserts are recommended. Cycle time and cost per piece are less. Comparing the results
in this problem with those of the previous problem, note that with the maximum production rate
objective in the current problem, cycle times are less, but that unit costs are less in the previous
problem where the objective is minimum cost per piece.
24.21 Three tool materials are to be compared for the same finish turning operation on a batch of 150 steel
parts: high-speed steel, cemented carbide, and ceramic. For the high-speed steel tool, the Taylor
equation parameters are: n = 0.130 and C = 80 (m/min). The price of the HSS tool is $20.00 and it is
estimated that it can be ground and reground 15 times at a cost of $2.00 per grind. Tool change time
is 3 min. Both carbide and ceramic tools are in insert form and can be held in the same mechanical
toolholder. The Taylor equation parameters for the cemented carbide are: n = 0.30 and C = 650
(m/min); and for the ceramic: n = 0.6 and C = 3,500 (m/min). The cost per insert for the carbide is
$8.00 and for the ceramic is $10.00. There are 6 cutting edges per insert in both cases. Tool change
time is 1.0 min for both tools. The time to change a part is 2.5 min. The feed is 0.30 mm/rev, and
depth of cut is 3.5 mm. The cost of machine time is $40/hr. The part is 73.0 mm in diameter and
250 mm in length. Setup time for the batch is 2.0 hr. For the three tooling cases, compare: (a)
cutting speeds for minimum cost, (b) tool lives, (c) cycle time, (d) cost per production unit, (e) total
time to complete the batch and production rate. (f) What is the proportion of time spent actually
cutting metal for each tooling? Use of a spreadsheet calculator is recommended.
8
08-22-09, 05-11-09
Solution: HSS tooling: (a) Ct = $20/15 + 2.00 = $3.33/edge. Co = $40/hr = $0.667/min
vmin = 80[0.667/((1/.13 - 1)(0.667 x 3.0 + 3.33))].130 = 47.7 m/min
(b) Tmin = (1/.13 - 1)(0.667 x 3 + 3.33)/0.667 = 6.69(5.33/.667) = 53.4 min
(c) Tm = π(73)(250(10-6))/(0.30(10-3)47.7) = 4.01min/pc
Tc = 2.5 + 4.01 + 3.0/13 = 6.74 min/pc.
(d) Cc = 0.667(6.74) + 3.33/13 = $4.75/pc
(e) Time to complete batch = 2.5(60) + 150(6.74) = 1161 min = 19.35 hr.
Production rate Rp = 100 pc/13.8 hr = 7.75 pc/hr.
(f) Proportion of time spent cutting = 100(4.81)/828 = 0.518 = 51.8%
Cemented carbide tooling: (a) Ct = $8/6 = $1.33/edge. Co = $40/hr = $0.667/min
vmin = 650[0.667/((1/.30 - 1)(0.667 x 1.0 + 1.333))].30 = 363 m/min
(b) Tmin = (1/.30 - 1)(0.667 x 1 + 1.333)/0.667 = 2.333(2.0/0.667) = 7 min
(c) Tm = π(73)(250(10-6))/(0.30(10-3)363) = 0.53 min/pc
np = 7/0.53 = 13.2 pc/tool life Use np = 13 pc/tool life
Tc = 2.5 + 0.53 + 1.0/13 = 3.11 min/pc.
(d) Cc = 0.667(3.11) + 1.333/13 = $2.18/pc
(e) Time to complete batch = 2.5(60) + 150(3.11) = 616.5 min = 10.28 hr.
(f) Proportion of time spent cutting = 150(0.53)/616.5 = 0.129 = 12.9%
Ceramic tooling: (a) Ct = $10/6 = $1.67/edge. Co = $40/hr = $0.667/min
vmin = 3,500[0.667/((1/.6 - 1)(0.667 x 1.0 + 1.67))].6 = 2105 m/min
(b) Tmin = (1/0.6 - 1)(0.667 x 1 + 1.67)/0.667 = 0.667(2.33/0.667) = 2.33 min
(c) Tm = π(73)(250(10-6))/(0.30(10-3)2105) = 0.091 min/pc
Tc = 2.5 + 0.091 + 1.0/25 = 2.63 min/pc.
(d) Cc = 0.667(2.63) + 1.67/25 = $1.82/pc
Comment: One might conclude that such a low proportion of time spent cutting would argue
against the use of the calculated cutting speed for ceramic tooling. However, note that ceramic
tooling provides a significant advantage in terms of unit cost, batch time, and production rate
compared to HSS tooling and even carbide tooling. The very small cutting time Tm and resulting
low proportion of time spent cutting for ceramic tooling focuses attention on the nonproductive
work elements in the batch time, specifically, setup time and workpart handling time; and puts
pressure on management to seek ways to reduce these nonproductive elements.
24.22 Solve Problem 24.21 except that in parts (a) and (b), determine the cutting speeds and tool lives for
maximum production rate. Use of a spreadsheet calculator is recommended.
Solution: HSS tooling: (a) Ct = $20/15 + 2.00 = $3.33/edge. Co = $40/hr = $0.667/min
9
08-22-09, 05-11-09
vmax = 80/[(1/.13 - 1)(3.0)].130 = 80/[6.69 x 3)].130 = 54 m/min
(b) Tmax = (1/0.13 - 1)(3) = 6.69(3) = 20.0 min
(c) Tm = π(73)(250(10-6))/(0.30(10-3)54) = 3.53 min/pc
Tc = 2.5 + 3.53 + 3.0/5 = 6.63 min/pc.
(d) Cc = 0.667(6.63) + 3.33/5 = $5.09/pc
(e) Time to complete batch = 2.5(60) + 150(6.63) = 1144.5 min = 19.08 hr.
(f) Proportion of time spent cutting = 150(3.53)/1144.5 = 0.463 = 46.3%
Cemented carbide tooling: (a) Ct = $8/6 = $1.33/edge. Co = $40/hr = $0.667/min
vmax = 650/[(1/.30 - 1)(1.0)].30 = 650/[(2.33 x 1.0)].30 = 504 m/min
(b) Tmax = (1/0.30 - 1)(1.0) = 2.33(1.0) = 2.33 min
(c) Tm = π(73)(250(10-6))/(0.30(10-3)504) = 0.38 min/pc
Tc = 2.5 + 0.38 + 1.0/6 = 3.05 min/pc.
(d) Cc = 0.667(3.05) + 1.33/6 = $2.25/pc
Ceramic tooling: (a) Ct = $10/6 = $1.67/edge. Co = $40/hr = $0.667/min
vmax = 3,500/[(1/.6 - 1)(1.0)].6 = 3,500/[.667 x 1.0].6 = 4464 m/min
(b) Tmax = (1/0.6 - 1)(1) = 0.667(1) = .667 min
(c) Tm = π(73)(250(10-6))/(0.30(10-3)4464) = 0.043 min/pc
Tc = 2.5 + 0.043 + 1.0/15 = 2.61 min/pc.
(d) Cc = 0.667(2.61) + 1.67/15 = $1.85/pc
Comment: One might conclude that such a low proportion of time spent cutting would argue
against the use of the calculated cutting speed for ceramic tooling. However, note that ceramic
tooling provides a significant advantage in terms of unit cost, batch time, and production rate
compared to HSS tooling and even carbide tooling. The very small cutting time Tm and resulting
low proportion of time spent cutting for ceramic tooling focuses attention on the nonproductive
work elements in the batch time, specifically, setup time and workpart handling time; and puts
pressure on management to seek ways to reduce these nonproductive elements.
24.23 A vertical boring mill is used to bore the inside diameter of a large batch of tube-shaped parts. The
diameter = 28.0 in and the length of the bore = 14.0 in. Current cutting conditions are: speed = 200
ft/min, feed = 0.015 in/rev, and depth = 0.125 in. The parameters of the Taylor equation for the
cutting tool in the operation are: n = 0.23 and C = 850 (ft/min). Tool change time = 3.0 min, and
tooling cost = $3.50 per cutting edge. The time required to load and unload the parts = 12.0 min,
10
08-22-09, 05-11-09
and the cost of machine time on this boring mill = $42.00/hr. Management has decreed that the
production rate must be increased by 25%. Is that possible? Assume that feed must remain
unchanged in order to achieve the required surface finish. What is the current production rate and
the maximum possible production rate for this job?
Solution: At the current operating speed v = 200 ft/min:
T = (850/200)1/.23 = 540 min
Tm = π(28)(14)/(200 x 12 x 0.015) = 34.2 min/pc
np = 540/34.2 = 15 pc/tool life
Tc = 12 + 34.2 + 3/15 = 46.4 min
Rc = 60/46.4 = 1.293 pc/hr
Find vmax to compare with current operating speed.
vmax = 850/[(1/.23 - 1)(3.0)].23 = 850/[(3.348 x 3.0)].23 = 500 ft/min
Tmax = (1/.23 - 1)(3.0) = 3.348(3.0) = 10.0 min
Tm = π(28)(14)/(500 x 12 x 0.015) = 13.7 min/pc
np = 10/13.7 = 0.73 pc/tool life
Tc = 12 + 13.7 + 3/.73 = 29.8 min
Rc = 60/29.8 = 2.01 pc/hr
This is a 56% increase in production rate relative to the 200 ft/min cutting speed.
24.24 An NC lathe cuts two passes across a cylindrical workpiece under automatic cycle. The operator
loads and unloads the machine. The starting diameter of the work is 3.00 in and its length = 10 in.
The work cycle consists of the following steps (with element times given in parentheses where
applicable): 1 - Operator loads part into machine, starts cycle (1.00 min); 2 - NC lathe positions tool
for first pass (0.10 min); 3 - NC lathe turns first pass (time depends on cutting speed); 4 - NC lathe
repositions tool for second pass (0.4 min); 5 - NC lathe turns second pass (time depends on cutting
speed); and 6 - Operator unloads part and places in tote pan (1.00 min). In addition, the cutting tool
must be periodically changed. This tool change time takes 1.00 min. The feed rate = 0.007 in/rev
and the depth of cut for each pass = 0.100 in. The cost of the operator and machine = $39/hr and the
tool cost = $2.00/cutting edge. The applicable Taylor tool life equation has parameters: n = 0.26 and
C = 900 (ft/min). Determine (a) the cutting speed for minimum cost per piece, (b) the average time
required to complete one production cycle, (c) cost of the production cycle. (d) If the setup time for
this job is 3.0 hours and the batch size = 300 parts, how long will it take to complete the batch?
vmin = 900[.65/((1/.26 - 1)(.65 x 1.0 + 2.00))].26 = 900[.65/(2.846 x 2.65)].26 = 476 ft/min
(b) Tmin = (1/.26 - 1)(.65 x 1 + 2.0)/.65 = 2.846(2.65/.65) = 11.6 min
Tm = π(3)(10)/(476 x 12 x 0.007) = 2.36 min/pc. Assume both passes have equal Tm.
np = 11.6/2.36 = 4.9 passes/tool life
Since there are two passes/workpiece, np = 2.45 pc/tool life
Tc = 2.5 + 2 x 2.36 + 1.0/2.45 = 7.63 min/pc.
(c) Cc = 0.65(2.5 + 2 x 2.36) + (0.65 x 1 + 2.00)/2.45 = $5.77/pc
(d) Time to complete batch Tb = 3.0(60) + 300(7.63) = 2469 min = 41.15 hr.
24.25 As indicated in Section 23.4, the effect of a cutting fluid is to increase the value of C in the Taylor
tool life equation. In a certain machining situation using HSS tooling, the C value is increased from
C = 200 to C = 225 due to the use of the cutting fluid. The n value is the same with or without fluid
at n = 0.125. Cutting speed used in the operation is v = 125 ft/min. Feed = 0.010 in/rev and depth =
0.100 in. The effect of the cutting fluid can be to either increase cutting speed (at the same tool life)
or increase tool life (at the same cutting speed). (a) What is the cutting speed that would result from
using the cutting fluid if tool life remains the same as with no fluid? (b) What is the tool life that
11
08-22-09, 05-11-09
would result if the cutting speed remained at 125 ft/min? (c) Economically, which effect is better,
given that tooling cost = $2.00 per cutting edge, tool change time = 2.5 min, and operator and
machine rate = $30/hr? Justify you answer with calculations, using cost per cubic in of metal
machined as the criterion of comparison. Ignore effects of workpart handling time.
Solution: Cutting dry, the Taylor tool life equation parameters are n = 0.125 and C = 200.
At v = 125 ft/min, tool life T = (200/125)1/.125 = (1.6)8 = 43 min
With a cutting fluid, the Taylor tool life equation parameters are n = 0.125 and C = 225.
The corresponding cutting speed for a 43 min tool life v = 225/430.125 = 140.6 ft/min
(b) Cutting at v = 125 ft/min with a cutting fluid gives a tool life T = (225/125)8.0 = 110 min
(c) Which is better, (1) cutting at a speed of 140.6 ft/min to give a 43 min tool life, or (2) cutting at
125 ft/min to give a 110 min tool life. Use 1.0 in3 of metal cut as the basis of comparison, with cost
and time parameters as follows: Ct = $2.00/cutting edge, Tt = 2.5 min, and Co = $30/hr = $0.50/min
(1) At v =140.6 ft/min, Tm = 1.0 in3/RMR = 1.0/(140.6 x 12 x 0.010 x 0.100) = 0.5927 min
For T = 43 min, volume cut per tool life = 43/0.5927 = 72.5 in3 between tool changes.
Ignoring work handling time, cost/in3 = 0.50(.5927) + (0.50 x 2.5 + 2.00)/72.5 = $0.341/in3.
(2) At 125 ft/min, Tm = 1.0 in3/RMR = 1.0/(125 x 12 x 0.010 x 0.100) = 0.6667 min
For T = 110 min, volume cut per tool life = 110/0.6667 = 164.9 in3 between tool changes.
Ignoring work handling time, cost/in3 = 0.50(.6667) + (0.50 x 2.5 + 2.00)/164.9 = $0.353/in3.
Conclusion: it is better to take the benefit of a cutting fluid in the form of increased cutting speed.
24.26 In a turning operation on ductile steel, it is desired to obtain an actual surface roughness of 63 µ-in
with a 2/64 in nose radius tool. The ideal roughness is given by Eq. (24.1) and an adjustment will
have to be made using Figure 24.2 to convert the 63 µ-in actual roughness to an ideal roughness,
taking into account the material and cutting speed. Disposable inserts are used at a cost of $1.75 per
cutting edge (each insert costs $7.00 and there are four edges per insert). Average time to change
each insert = 1.0 min. The workpiece length = 30.0 in and its diameter = 3.5 in. The machine and
operator’s rate = $39.00 per hour including applicable overheads. The Taylor tool life equation for
this tool and work combination is given by: vT0.23 f0.55 = 40.75, where T = tool life, min; v = cutting
speed, ft/min; and f = feed, in/rev. Solve for (a) the feed in in/rev that will achieve the desired actual
finish, (b) cutting speed for minimum cost per piece at the feed determined in (a). Hint: To solve (a)
and (b) requires an iterative computational procedure. Use of a spreadsheet calculator is
recommended for this iterative procedure.
Solution: Cost and time parameters: Co = $39/hr = $0.65/min, Ct = $1.75/cutting edge,
Tt = 1.0 min
Iteration 1: assume Ri = Ra = 63 µ-in = 63 x 10-6 in
Rearranging Eq. (24.1), f2 = 32NR(Ri) = 32(2/64)(63 x 10-6) in2 = 63(10-6) in2
f = (63 x 10-6)0.5 = 0.00794 in (interpreted as in/rev for turning)
C = vT0.23 = 40.75/f0.55 = 40.75/0.007940.55 = 582.5
vmin = 582.5{(0.23/(1-0.23))(0.65/(0.65 x 1.0 + 1.75)}0.23 = 582.5{0.0809}0.23 = 326.8 ft/min
Iteration 2: At v = 326.8 ft/min, the ratio from Figure 24.2 rai = 1.24.
Thus, Ri = Ra/1.24 = 63/1.24 = 52.5 µ-in = 50.8(10-6) in
f2 = 32NR(Ri) = 32(2/64)(50.8 x 10-6) in2 = 50.8(10-6) in2
f = (50.8 x 10-6)0.5 = 0.00713 in
C = vT0.23 = 40.75/f0.55 = 40.75/0.007130.55 = 617.9
vmin = 617.9{(0.23/(1-0.23))(0.65/(0.65 x 1.0 + 1.75)}0.23 = 617.9{0.0809}0.23 = 346.5 ft/min
Iteration 3: At v = 346.5 ft/min, the ratio from Figure 24.2 rai = 1.21.
Thus, Ri = Ra/1.2 = 63/1.21 = 52.1 µ-in = 52.1(10-6) in
12
08-22-09, 05-11-09
f2 = 32NR(Ri) = 32(2/64)(52.1 x 10-6) in2 = 52.1(10-6) in2
f = (52.1 x 10-6)0.5 = 0.00722 in
C = vT0.23 = 40.75/f0.55 = 40.75/0.007220.55 = 613.9
vmin = 613.9{(0.23/(1-0.23))(0.65/(0.65 x 0.5 + 1.75)}0.23 = 613.9{0.0809}0.23 = 344.3 ft/min
Select v = 344.3 ft/min and f = 0.0072 in/rev.
The author’s spreadsheet calculator (Excel) returned values of v = 344.3 ft/min and f = 0.00722
in/rev after three iterations. The challenge in these calculations is reading the ratio values from
Figure 24.2 with sufficient precision.
24.27 Solve Problem 24.26 only using maximum production rate as the objective rather than minimum
piece cost. Use of a spreadsheet calculator is recommended.
Solution: The author’s spreadsheet calculator (Excel) returned values of v = 451.8 ft/min and f =
0.0076 in/rev after two iterations. The challenge in these calculations is reading the ratio values
from Figure 24.2 with sufficient precision.
24.28 Verify that the derivative of Eq. (24.6) results in Eq. (24.7).
Solution: Starting with Eq. (24.6): Tc = Th + πDL/fv + Tt(πDLv1/n-1)/fC1/n
Tc = Th + (πDL/f)v-1 + (TtπDL/fC1/n)v1/n-1
dTc/dv = 0 - (πDL/f)v-2 + (1/n – 1)(TtπDL/fC1/n)v1/n-2 = 0
(πDL/f)v-2 = (1/n – 1)(TtπDL/fC1/n)v1/n-2 = 0
(πDL/f) = (1/n – 1)(Tt πDL/fC1/n)v1/n
1 = (1/n – 1)(Tt /C1/n)v1/n
v1/n = C1/n/[(1/n-1)Tt]
vmax = C/[(1/n-1)Tt]n Q.E.D
24.29 Verify that the derivative of Eq. (24.12) results in Eq. (24.13).
Solution: Starting with Eq. (24.12): Tc = Th + πDL/fv + (CoTt + Ct)(πDLv1/n-1)/fC1/n
Tc = Th + (πDL/f)v-1 + (CoTt + Ct)(πDL/fC1/n)v1/n-1
dTc/dv = 0 - (πDL/f)v-2 + (1/n – 1)(CoTt + Ct)(πDL/fC1/n)v1/n-2 = 0
(πDL/f)v-2 = (1/n – 1)(CoTt + Ct)(πDL/fC1/n)v1/n-2 = 0
(πDL/f) = (1/n – 1)(CoTt + Ct)πDL/fC1/n)v1/n
1 = (1/n – 1)((CoTt + Ct)/C1/n)v1/n
v1/n = C1/n/[(1/n-1)(CoTt + Ct)]
vmax = C/[(1/n-1)(CoTt + Ct)]n Q.E.D
13
01-27-09, 01-29-09
25 GRINDING AND OTHER ABRASIVE PROCESSES

Review Questions
25.1 Why are abrasive processes technologically and commercially important?
Answer. Important reasons include (1) applications on all types of materials, (2) very fine finishes,
and (3) close tolerances.
25.2 What are the five principal parameters of a grinding wheel?
Answer. The parameters are (1) abrasive material, (2) grit size, (3) bonding material, (4) wheel
structure, which refers to the relative spacing of grains, and (5) wheel grade, which refers to the
bond strength of the wheel in retaining abrasive grains.
25.3 What are some of the principal abrasive materials used in grinding wheels?
Answer. The principal abrasive grit materials include (1) aluminum oxide, (2) silicon carbide, (3)
cubic boron nitride, and (4) diamond.
25.4 Name some of the principal bonding materials used in grinding wheels.
Answer. The bonding materials in grinding wheels are (1) vitrified bond - clay and ceramics, (2)
silicate, (3) rubber, (4) resinoid, (5) shellac, and (6) metallic.
25.5 What is wheel structure?
Answer. Wheel structure indicates the relative spacing of the abrasive grains in the wheel. An open
structure is one in which the grains are far apart, and a dense structure indicates that the grains are
close together.
25.6 What is wheel grade?
Answer. Wheel grade refers to the wheel's ability to retain abrasive grains during cutting. It
indicates the bond strength of the bonding material used to shape the wheel. A soft grade indicates
that the grains are released easily from the bonding material. A hard wheel is one which retains the
abrasive grains.
25.7 Why are specific energy values so much higher in grinding than in traditional machining processes
such as milling?
Answer. Reasons for higher specific energy in grinding include: (1) size effect - smaller chip size
means higher specific energy; (2) extremely negative rake angles on the abrasive particles in a
grinding wheel; and (3) not all of the grains in the wheel surface are engaged in cutting; some are
plowing or deforming the surface while others are simply rubbing and creating friction at the
surface of the work.
25.8 Grinding creates high temperatures. How is temperature harmful in grinding?
Answer. High temperatures in grinding create surface burns and cracks. High temperatures can
also soften the surfaces of workparts that have been heat treated for high hardness.
25.9 What are the three mechanisms of grinding wheel wear?
Answer. The mechanisms are (1) grain fracture, in which a portion of the grain breaks off during
cutting; (2) attritious wear, in which the grains become dull during cutting; and (3) bond fracture, in
which the grains are pulled out of the bonding material.
25.10 What is dressing, in reference to grinding wheels?
1
01-27-09, 01-29-09
Answer. Dressing is a procedure applied to worn grinding wheels to break off dull grits and expose
fresh grits, and to remove chips of work material that have become clogged in the wheel. It uses a
rotating disk or abrasive stick held against the wheel while it rotates.
25.11 What is truing, in reference to grinding wheels?
Answer. Truing is similar to dressing, but it also restores the ideal cylindrical shape to the wheel. It
uses a diamond-pointed tool fed slowly and precisely across the wheel while it rotates.
25.12 What abrasive material would one select for grinding a cemented carbide cutting tool?
Answer. Choose a diamond wheel.
25.13 What are the functions of a grinding fluid?
Answer. Functions of a grinding fluid include (1) reducing friction, (2) removing heat, (3) washing
away chips, and (4) reducing workpiece temperature.
25.14 What is centerless grinding?
Answer. Centerless grinding is a grinding operation in which cylindrical workparts (e.g., rods) are
fed between two rotating wheels: (1) a high speed grinding wheel and (2) a low speed regulating
wheel which is tilted at a slight angle to control the feed-through rate.
25.15 How does creep feed grinding differ from conventional grinding?
Answer. In creep feed grinding, the depth of cut is very high - several thousand times higher than
conventional grinding - and the feed rates are lower by about the same proportion.
25.16 How does abrasive belt grinding differ from a conventional surface grinding operation?
Answer. Instead of a grinding wheel, abrasive belt grinding uses abrasive particles bonded to a
flexible cloth belt loop which is moved around a pulley system to obtain the speed motion. Parts
are pressed against the belt to accomplish grinding.
25.17 Name some of the abrasive operations available to achieve very good surface finishes.
Answer. High finish abrasive processes include honing, lapping, superfinishing, buffing, and
polishing.
25.18 (Video) Describe a wheel ring test.
Answer: A wheel ring test is performed by suspending the wheel and lightly striking it with a
solid, non-metal object, similar to striking a bell. The wheel should ring a clear long tone. If it has
cracks, it will not ring properly.
25.19 (Video) List two purposes of dressing a grinding wheel.
Answer: Two purposes of dressing a grinding wheel are (1) to renew the wheel surface by
fracturing abrasive particles and (2) to remove tiny pieces of embedded workpiece material.
25.20 (Video) What is the purpose of using a coolant in the grinding process?
Answer: According to the video, the purpose of using coolant in the grinding process are
threefold: (1) to reduce grinding power required, (2) to maintain work quality, and (3) to stabilize
part dimensions over long production runs.
2
01-27-09, 01-29-09
25.1 Which one of the following conventional machining processes is closest to grinding: (a) drilling, (b)
milling, (c) shaping, or (d) turning?
Answer. (b).
25.2 Of the following abrasive materials, which one has the highest hardness: (a) aluminum oxide, (b)
cubic boron nitride, or (c) silicon carbide?
Answer. (b).
25.3 Smaller grain size in a grinding wheel tends to (a) degrade surface finish, (b) have no effect on
surface finish, or (c) improve surface finish?
Answer. (c).
25.4 Which of the following would tend to give higher material removal rates: (a) larger grain size, or (b)
smaller grain size?
Answer. (a).
25.5 Which of the following will improve surface finish in grinding (three best answers): (a) denser
wheel structure, (b) higher wheel speed, (c) higher workspeeds, (d) larger infeed, (e) lower infeed,
(f) lower wheel speed, (g) lower workspeed, and (h) more open wheel structure?
Answer. (a), (b), and (g).
25.6 Which one of the following abrasive materials is most appropriate for grinding steel and cast iron:
(a) aluminum oxide, (b) cubic boron nitride, (c) diamond, or (d) silicon carbide?
Answer. (a).
25.7 Which one of the following abrasive materials is most appropriate for grinding hardened tool steel:
Answer. (b).
25.8 Which one of the following abrasive materials is most appropriate for grinding nonferrous metals:
Answer. (d).
25.9 Which of the following will help to reduce the incidence of heat damage to the work surface in
grinding (four correct answers): (a) frequent dressing or truing of the wheel, (b) higher infeeds, (c)
higher wheel speeds, (d) higher workspeeds, (e) lower infeeds, (f) lower wheel speeds, and (g)
lower workspeeds?
Answer. (a), (d), (e), and (g).
25.10 Which one of the following abrasive processes achieves the best surface finish: (a) centerless
grinding, (b) honing, (c) lapping, or (d) superfinishing?
Answer. (d).
25.11 The term deep grinding refers to which one of the following: (a) alternative name for any creep feed
grinding operation, (b) external cylindrical creep feed grinding, (c) grinding operation performed at
the bottom of a hole, (d) surface grinding that uses a large crossfeed, or (e) surface grinding that
uses a large infeed?
Answer. (b).
3
01-27-09, 01-29-09
Problems
25.1 In a surface grinding operation wheel diameter = 150 mm and infeed = 0.07 mm. Wheel speed =
1450 m/min, workspeed = 0.25 m/s, and crossfeed = 5 mm. The number of active grits per area of
wheel surface = 0.75 grits/mm2. Determine (a) average length per chip, (b) metal removal rate, and
(c) number of chips formed per unit time for the portion of the operation when the wheel is engaged
in the work.
Solution: (a) lc = (Dd)0.5 = (150 x 0.07)0.5 = 3.24 mm
(b) RMR = vwwd = (0.25 m/s)(103 mm/m)(5.0 mm)(0.07 mm) = 87.5 mm3/s = 5250 mm3/min
(c) nc = vwC = (1450 m/min)( 103 mm/m)(5.0 mm)(0.75 grits/mm2) = 5,437,500 chips/min
25.2 The following conditions and settings are used in a certain surface grinding operation: wheel
diameter = 6.0 in, infeed = 0.003 in, wheel speed = 4750 ft/min, workspeed = 50 ft/min, and
crossfeed = 0.20 in. The number of active grits per square inch of wheel surface = 500. Determine
(a) average length per chip, (b) metal removal rate, and (c) number of chips formed per unit time for
the portion of the operation when the wheel is engaged in the work.
Solution: (a) lc = (Dd)0.5 = (6.0 x 0.003)0.5 = (0.018)0.5 = 0.1342 in
(b) RMR = vwwd = (50 x 12)(0.20)(0.003) = 0.36 in3/min
(c) nc = vwC = (4750 x 12)(0.2)(500) = 5,700,000 chips/min
25.3 An internal cylindrical grinding operation is used to finish an internal bore from an initial diameter
of 250.00 mm to a final diameter of 252.5 mm. The bore is 125 mm long. A grinding wheel with an
initial diameter of 150.00 mm and a width of 20.00 mm is used. After the operation, the diameter of
the grinding wheel has been reduced to 149.75 mm. Determine the grinding ratio in this operation.
Solution: GR = (volume of work material removed)/(volume of wheel removed)
Volume of work material removed = (π/4)(125)(252.52 – 250.02) = 123,332 mm3
Volume of wheel removed = (π/4)(20)(1502 – 149.752) = 1177 mm3
GR = 123,332/1177 = 104.8
25.4 In a surface grinding operation performed on hardened plain carbon steel, the grinding wheel has a
diameter = 200 mm and width = 25 mm. The wheel rotates at 2400 rev/min, with a depth of cut
(infeed) = 0.05 mm/pass and a crossfeed = 3.50 mm. The reciprocating speed of the work is 6
m/min, and the operation is performed dry. Determine (a) length of contact between the wheel and
the work and (b) volume rate of metal removed. (c) If there are 64 active grits/cm2 of wheel surface,
estimate the number of chips formed per unit time. (d) What is the average volume per chip? (e) If
the tangential cutting force on the work = 25 N, compute the specific energy in this operation?
Solution: (a) lc = (Dd)0.5 = (200 x 0.05)0.5 = 3.16 mm
(b) RMR = vwwd = (6 m/min)(103 mm/m)(3.5 mm)(0.05 mm) = 1050 mm3/min
(c) nc = vwC
v = NπD = (2400 rev/min)(200π mm/rev) = 1,507,964 mm/min
nc = (1,507,964 mm/min)(3.5 mm)(64 grits/cm2)(10-2 cm2/mm2)
= 3,377,840 grits/min (= chips/min)
(d) 3,377,840 grits/min = 3,377,840 chips/min
Average volume per chip = (1050 mm3/min)/( 3,377,840 chips/min) = 0.00031 mm3/chip
(e) U = Fcv/RMR
v = 1,507,964 mm/min = 1,508 m/min
U = 25(1508)/1050 = 35.9 N-m/mm3
4
01-27-09, 01-29-09
25.5 An 8-in diameter grinding wheel, 1.0 in wide, is used in a surface grinding job performed on a flat
piece of heat-treated 4340 steel. The wheel rotates to achieve a surface speed of 5000 ft/min, with a
depth of cut (infeed) = 0.002 in per pass and a crossfeed = 0.15 in. The reciprocating speed of the
work is 20 ft/min, and the operation is performed dry. (a) What is the length of contact between the
wheel and the work? (b) What is the volume rate of metal removed? (c) If there are 300 active
grits/in2 of wheel surface, estimate the number of chips formed per unit time. (d) What is the
average volume per chip? (e) If the tangential cutting force on the workpiece = 7.3 lbs, what is the
specific energy calculated for this job?
Solution: (a) lc = (Dd)0.5 = (8 x 0.002)0.5 = (0.016)0.5 = 0.1265 in
(b) RMR = vwwd = (20 x 12)(0.15)(0.002) = 0.072 in3/min
(c) nc = vwC = (5000 x 12)(0.15)(300) = 2,700,000 chips/min
(d) Avg volume/chip = (0.072 in3/min)/(2,700,000 chips/min) = 0.000000026 in3 = 26 x 10-9 in3
(e) U = Fcv/RMR = 7.3(5000 x 12)/0.072 = 6,083,333 in-lb/in3 = 15.4 hp/(in3/min)
25.6 A surface grinding operation is being performed on a 6150 steel workpart (annealed, approximately
200 BHN). The designation on the grinding wheel is C-24-D-5-V. The wheel diameter = 7.0 in and
its width = 1.00 in. Rotational speed = 3000 rev/min. The depth (infeed) = 0.002 in per pass, and the
crossfeed = 0.5 in. Workspeed = 20 ft/min. This operation has been a source of trouble right from
the beginning. The surface finish is not as good as the 16 µ-in specified on the part print, and there
are signs of metallurgical damage on the surface. In addition, the wheel seems to become clogged
almost as soon as the operation begins. In short, nearly everything that can go wrong with the job
has gone wrong. (a) Determine the rate of metal removal when the wheel is engaged in the work.
(b) If the number of active grits per square inch = 200, determine the average chip length and the
number of chips formed per time. (c) What changes would you recommend in the grinding wheel to
help solve the problems encountered? Explain why you made each recommendation.
Solution: (a) RMR = vwwd = (20 x 12)(0.5)(0.002) = 0.24 in3/min
(b) lc = (Dd)0.5 = (7.0 x .002)0.5 = 0.1183 in
v = πDN = π(7.0/12)(3000) = 5498 ft/min = 65,973 in/min
nc = vwC = 65,973(0.5)(200) = 6,597,300 grits/min
(c) Changes in wheel to help solve problems cited: (1) use Al2O3 oxide abrasive rather than silicon
carbide; (2) use smaller grain size than 24; (3) use shellac bond rather than vitrified bond; and (4)
use more open structure than number 5 to reduce wheel clogging.
25.7 The grinding wheel in a centerless grinding operation has a diameter = 200 mm, and the regulating
wheel diameter = 125 mm. The grinding wheel rotates at 3000 rev/min and the regulating wheel
rotates at 200 rev/min. The inclination angle of the regulating wheel = 2.5°. Determine the
throughfeed rate of cylindrical workparts that are 25.0 mm in diameter and 175 mm long.
Solution: From Eq. (25.11), fr = πDrNr sin I
fr = π(125)(200) sin 2.5° = 25,000π(0.04362) = 3426 mm/min
Parts through-feed rate = (3426 mm/min)/(175 mm/pc) = 19.58 pc/min
25.8 A centerless grinding operation uses a regulating wheel that is 150 mm in diameter and rotates at
500 rev/min. At what inclination angle should the regulating wheel be set, if it is desired to feed a
workpiece with length = 3.5 m and diameter = 18 mm through the operation in exactly 30 sec?
Solution: From Eq. (25.11), fr = πDrNr sin I
fr = 3.5 m per 30 sec = 0.11667 m/s = 7.0 m/min
fr = π(150 x 10-3)(500 rev/min) sin I = 235.62 sin I (units are m/min)
7.0 m/min = 235.62 sin I m/min
5
01-27-09, 01-29-09
sin I = 7.0/235.62 = 0.0297 I = 1.70°
25.9 In a certain centerless grinding operation, the grinding wheel diameter = 8.5 in, and the regulating
wheel diameter = 5.0 in. The grinding wheel rotates at 3500 rev/min and the regulating wheel
rotates at 150 rev/min. The inclination angle of the regulating wheel = 3°. Determine the
throughfeed rate of cylindrical workparts that have the following dimensions: diameter = 1.25 in
and length = 8.0 in.
Solution: From Eq. (25.11), fr = πDrNr sin I = π(5.0)(150) sin 3° = 123.33 in/min
Parts feed at (8.0 in/part)/(123.33 in/min) = 0.0649 min/part = 3.9 sec/part
Throughfeed rate = 1/0.0649 = 15.4 parts per min
25.10 It is desired to compare the cycle times required to grind a particular workpiece using traditional
surface grinding and using creep feed grinding. The workpiece is 200 mm long, 30 mm wide, and
75 mm thick. To make a fair comparison, the grinding wheel in both cases is 250 mm in diameter,
35 mm in width, and rotates at 1500 rev/min. It is desired to remove 25 mm of material from the
surface. When traditional grinding is used, the infeed is set at 0.025 mm, and the wheel traverses
twice (forward and back) across the work surface during each pass before resetting the infeed.
There is no crossfeed since the wheel width is greater than the work width. Each pass is made at a
workspeed of 12 m/min, but the wheel overshoots the part on both sides. With acceleration and
deceleration, the wheel is engaged in the work for 50% of the time on each pass. When creep feed
grinding is used, the depth is increased by 1000 and the forward feed is decreased by 1000. How
long will it take to complete the grinding operation (a) with traditional grinding and (b) with creep
feed grinding?
Solution: (a) Conventional surface grinding:
Time of engagement/pass = 200 x 10-3 m/(12 m/min) = 0.01667 min = 1 s
Forward and backward stroke = 2(1 s)/50% = 4 s
Number of passes to remove 25 mm = 25/0.025 = 1000 passes
Time to complete 1000 passes = 1000(4) = 4000 s = 66.67 min
(b) Creep feed grinding:
Total length of feed = 200 mm + approach = 200 + (d(D-d))0.5
Given D = 250 mm and d = 25 mm, Total feed length = 200 + (25(250-25))0.5 = 275 mm
fr = (12 x 103 mm/min)/1000 = 12 mm/min
Time to feed = 275/12 = 22.917 min
Note: Creep feed grinding requires about 1/3 the time of conventional surface grinding for the
situation defined here.
25.11 In a certain grinding operation, the grade of the grinding wheel should be “M” (medium), but the
only available wheel is grade “T” (hard). It is desired to make the wheel appear softer by making
changes in cutting conditions. What changes would you recommend?
Solution: A hard wheel means that the grains are not readily pulled from the wheel bond. The
wheel can be made to appear softer by increasing the force on the individual grits as given by Eq.
(25.8). According to this equation, the force on the abrasive grains will be increased by increasing
work speed vw, decreasing wheel speed v, and increasing infeed d.
25.12 An aluminum alloy is to be ground in an external cylindrical grinding operation to obtain a good
surface finish. Specify the appropriate grinding wheel parameters and the grinding conditions for
this job.
Solution: Grinding wheel specification:
Abrasive type: silicon carbide
Grain size: small - high grit size number
6
01-27-09, 01-29-09
Bond material: shellac bond
Wheel structure: dense
Wheel grade: medium to hard
Wheel specification: C-150-E-5-B
Grinding conditions:
Wheel speed: high speed, around 1800 m/min (6000 ft/min)
Work speed: low, around 10 m/min (30 ft/min)
Infeed (depth of cut): low, around 0.012 mm (0.0005 in)
Crossfeed: low, around 1/6 of wheel width.
25.13 A high-speed steel broach (hardened) is to be resharpened to achieve a good finish. Specify the
appropriate parameters of the grinding wheel for this job.
Solution: Grinding wheel specification:
Abrasive type: cubic boron nitride
Grain size: small - high grit size number
Bond material: vitrified bond
Wheel grade: soft to medium
Wheel specification: XX-B-150-P-XY-V-XZ-1/8, where XX, XY, and XZ are manufacturer’s
symbols.
25.14 Based on equations in the text, derive an equation to compute the average volume per chip formed
in the grinding process.
Solution: From Eq. (25.3), RMR = vwwd (in3/min)
From Eq. (25.6), nc = vwC (chips/min)
Volume per chip = RMR/nc = vwwd/vwC = vwd/vC
7
01-29-09, 02-06-09
26 NONTRADITIONAL MACHINING AND THERMAL

CUTTING PROCESSES
Review Questions
26.1 Why are the nontraditional material removal processes important?
Answer. Reasons for importance of are nontraditional material removal processes (1) the need to
shape new metal alloys and non-metals that are difficult to machine by conventional processes; (2)
the requirement of unusual and complex workpart geometries; and (3) the need to avoid surface
damage which is often associated with conventional machining.
26.2 There are four categories of nontraditional machining processes, based on principal energy form.
Name the four categories.
Answer. The four categories are (1) mechanical, but not including conventional machining; (2)
electrical; (3) thermal; and (4) chemical.
26.3 How does the ultrasonic machining process work?
Answer. In ultrasonic machining, abrasives contained in a slurry are driven at high velocity against
the work by a tool vibrating at low amplitude and high frequency. The tool oscillates in a direction
perpendicular to the work surface, and is fed slowly into the work, so that the shape of the tool is
formed in the part. The abrasives, impinging against the work surface, perform the chip removal.
26.4 Describe the water jet cutting process.
Answer. Water jet cutting uses a high-pressure, high-velocity stream of water directed at the work
surface to cut the work.
26.5 What is the difference between water jet cutting, abrasive water jet cutting, and abrasive jet cutting?
Answer. WJC cuts with a narrow, high velocity water stream; AWJC adds abrasive grits to the
water stream; and AJM cuts with abrasive particles that have been added to a high velocity air
stream.
26.6 Name the three main types of electrochemical machining.
Answer. The three types are electrochemical machining, deburring, and grinding.
26.7 Identify the two significant disadvantages of electrochemical machining.
Answer. Disadvantages of ECM include (1) cost of electrical power to operate the process, and (2)
cost of disposal of electrolyte sludge.
26.8 How does increasing discharge current affect metal removal rate and surface finish in electric
discharge machining?
Answer. As discharge current increases, metal removal rate increases and surface finish is
degraded.
26.9 What is meant by the term overcut in electric discharge machining?
Answer. Overcut refers to the gap between the electrode (tool) in EDM on each side of the tool and
the machined hole, cavity, or kerf (in wire EDM).
26.10 Identify two major disadvantages of plasma arc cutting.
1
01-29-09, 02-06-09
Answer. Two disadvantages of PAC are (1) rough surface on cut edge and (2) metallurgical
damage to cut surface.
26.11 What are some of the fuels used in oxyfuel cutting?
Answer. Principal fuels are acetylene, MAPP (methylacetylene-propadiene), propylene, propane,
and natural gas.
26.12 Name the four principal steps in chemical machining.
Answer. The four steps are (1) cleaning, (2) masking, (3) etching, and (4) demasking.
26.13 What are the three methods of performing the masking step in chemical machining?
Answer. The three masking methods are (1) cut and peel, (2) screen resist, and (3) photographic
resist.
26.14 What is a photoresist in chemical machining?
Answer. A photoresist is a masking material that is sensitive to light. When exposed, it chemically
transforms and can be removed from the surface of the work, leaving the desired surface
unprotected by the maskant.
26.15 (Video) What are the three layers of a part’s surface after undergoing EDM.
Answer: The three layers are the following: (1) Spheres attached to the surface made of part
material and electrode material that have spattered the surface. This layer is easily removed. (2)
Recast or white layer where EDM has altered the workpiece metallurgical structure. It can be
reduced by specifying the proper settings and removed by polishing. (3) Heat affected zone or
annealed layer. It has only been heated, not melted.
26.16 (Video) What are two other names for ram type EDMs?
Answer: A ram type EDM machines is also called a die sinker and a vertical EDM machine.
26.17 (Video) Name the four subsystems in a RAM EDM process.
Answer: The four subsystems in a RAM EDM process are (1) power supply, (2) dielectric
system, (3) electrode, and (4) servo system.
26.18 (Video) Name the four subsystems in a wire EDM process.
Answer: The four subsystems in a wire EDM process are (1) power supply, (2) dielectric system,
(3) wire feeding system, and (4) positioning system.
26.1 Which of the following processes use mechanical energy as the principal energy source (three
correct answers): (a) electrochemical grinding, (b) laser beam machining, (c) conventional milling,
(d) ultrasonic machining, (e) water jet cutting, and (f) wire EDM?
Answer. (c), (d), and (e).
26.2 Ultrasonic machining can be used to machine both metallic and nonmetallic materials: (a) true or
(b) false?
2
01-29-09, 02-06-09
Answer. (a).
26.3 Applications of electron beam machining are limited to metallic work materials due to the need for
the work to be electrically conductive: (a) true or (b) false?
Answer. (b).
26.4 Which one of the following is closest to the temperatures used in plasma arc cutting: (a) 2750°C
(5000°F), (b) 5500°C (10,000°F), (c) 8300°C (15,000°F), (d) 11,000°C (20,000°F), or (e) 16,500°C
(30,000°F)?
Answer. (d).
26.5 Chemical milling is used in which of the following applications (two best answers): (a) drilling
holes with high depth-to-diameter ratio, (b) making intricate patterns in thin sheet metal, (c)
removing material to make shallow pockets in metal, (d) removing metal from aircraft wing panels,
and (e) cutting of plastic sheets?
26.6 Etch factor is equal to which of the following in chemical machining (more than one): (a)
anisotropy, (b) CIt, (c) d/u, and (d) u/d; where C = specific removal rate, d = depth of cut, I =
current, t = time, and u = undercut?
26.7 Of the following processes, which one is noted for the highest material removal rates: (a) electric
discharge machining, (b) electrochemical machining, (c) laser beam machining, (d) oxyfuel cutting,
(e) plasma arc cutting, (f) ultrasonic machining, or (g) water jet cutting?
Answer. (e).
26.8 Which one of the following processes would be appropriate to drill a hole with a square cross
section, 0.25 inch on a side and 1-inch deep in a steel workpiece: (a) abrasive jet machining, (b)
chemical milling, (c) EDM, (d) laser beam machining, (e) oxyfuel cutting, (f) water jet cutting, or
(g) wire EDM?
Answer. (c).
26.9 Which of the following processes would be appropriate for cutting a narrow slot, less than 0.015
inch wide, in a 3/8-in-thick sheet of fiber-reinforced plastic (two best answers): (a) abrasive jet
machining, (b) chemical milling, (c) EDM, (d) laser beam machining, (e) oxyfuel cutting, (f) water
jet cutting, and (g) wire EDM?
Answer. (d) and (f).
26.10 Which one of the following processes would be appropriate for cutting a hole of 0.003 inch
diameter through a plate of aluminum that is 1/16 in thick: (a) abrasive jet machining, (b) chemical
milling, (c) EDM, (d) laser beam machining, (e) oxyfuel cutting, (f) water jet cutting, and (g) wire
EDM?
Answer. (d).
26.11 Which of the following processes could be used to cut a large piece of 1/2-inch plate steel into two
sections (two best answers): (a) abrasive jet machining, (b) chemical milling, (c) EDM, (d) laser
beam machining, (e) oxyfuel cutting, (f) water jet cutting, and (g) wire EDM?
Answer. (e) and (g).
3
01-29-09, 02-06-09
Problems
Application Problems
26.1 For the following application, identify one or more nontraditional machining processes that might
be used, and present arguments to support your selection. Assume that either the part geometry or
the work material (or both) preclude the use of conventional machining. The application is a matrix
of 0.1 mm (0.004 in) diameter holes in a plate of 3.2 mm (0.125 in) thick hardened tool steel. The
matrix is rectangular, 75 by 125 mm (3.0 by 5.0 in) with the separation between holes in each
direction = 1.6 mm ( 0.0625 in).
Solution: Application: matrix of holes in 0.125 inch thick hardened steel, hole diameter = 0.004 in,
separation between holes = 0.0625 in. Possible processes: EBM and LBM can make holes of this
size with depth-to-diameter ratios as large as 0.125/0.004 = 31.25.
the work material (or both) preclude the use of conventional machining. The application is an
engraved aluminum printing plate to be used in an offset printing press to make 275 by 350 mm (11
by 14 in) posters of Lincoln's Gettysburg address.
Solution: Application: engraved aluminum printing press plate for 11 in by 14 in posters. Possible
process: photochemical engraving; making a negative of the speech and transferring this to either a
silk screen or directly to the photoresist would seem to be the most straightforward methods.
the work material (or both) preclude the use of conventional machining. The application is a
through-hole in the shape of the letter L in a 12.5 mm (0.5 in) thick plate of glass. The size of the
"L" is 25 by 15 mm (1.0 by 0.6 in) and the width of the hole is 3 mm (1/8 in).
Solution: Application: through-hole in the shape of the letter “L” drilled through 0.5-in thick plate
glass. Possible process: USM works on glass and other brittle non-metallic materials. This is
probably the best process.
the work material (or both) preclude the use of conventional machining. The application is a
blind-hole in the shape of the letter G in a 50 mm (2.0 in) cube of steel. The overall size of the "G"
is 25 by 19 mm (1.0 by 0.75 in), the depth of the hole is 3.8 mm (0.15 in), and its width is 3 mm
(1/8 in).
Solution: Application: the letter “G” drilled to a depth of 0.15 in in block of steel. Possible
processes: ECM and EDM would be useful for pocketing operations such as this.
26.5 Much of the work at the Cut-Anything Company involves cutting and forming of flat sheets of
fiber-glass for the pleasure boat industry. Manual methods based on portable saws are currently
used to perform the cutting operation, but production is slow and scrap rates are high. The foreman
says the company should invest in a plasma arc cutting machine, but the plant manager thinks it
would be too expensive. What do you think? Justify your answer by indicating the characteristics of
the process that make PAC attractive or unattractive in this application.
Solution: In plasma arc cutting, the workpart must be an electrically conductive material. Fiber
glass is not electrically conductive. PAC is therefore not an appropriate process for this application.
26.6 A furniture company that makes upholstered chairs and sofas must cut large quantities of fabrics.
Many of these fabrics are strong and wear-resistant, which properties make them difficult to cut.
4
01-29-09, 02-06-09
What nontraditional process(es) would you recommend to the company for this application? Justify
your answer by indicating the characteristics of the process that make it attractive.
Solution: Water jet cutting would be an ideal process for this application. WJC cuts through fabrics
quickly and cleanly, and the process could be readily automated.
Electrochemical Machining
26.7 The frontal working area of the electrode in an ECM operation is 2000 mm2. The applied current =
1800 amps and the voltage = 12 volts. The material being cut is nickel (valence = 2), whose specific
removal rate is given in Table 26.1. (a) If the process is 90% efficient, determine the rate of metal
removal in mm3/min. (b) If the resistivity of the electrolyte = 140 ohm-mm, determine the working
gap.
Solution: (a) From Table 26.1, C = 3.42 x 10-2 mm3/A-s
From Eq. (26.6) RMR = frA = (CI/A)A = CI = (3.42 x 10-2 mm3/A-s)(1800 A)
= 6156 x 10-2 mm3/s = 61.56 mm3/s = 3693.6 mm3/min
At 90% efficiency RMR = 0.9(3693.6 mm3/min) = 3324.2 mm3/min
(b) Given resistivity r = 140 ohm-mm, I = EA/gr in Eq. (26.2). Rearranging, g = EA/Ir
g = (12 V)(2000 mm2)/(1800 A)(140 ohm-mm) = 0.095 mm
26.8 In an electrochemical machining operation, the frontal working area of the electrode is 2.5 in2. The
applied current = 1500 amps, and the voltage = 12 volts. The material being cut is pure aluminum,
whose specific removal rate is given in Table 26.1. (a) If the ECM process is 90 percent efficient,
determine the rate of metal removal in in3/hr. (b) If the resistivity of the electrolyte = 6.2 ohm-in,
determine the working gap.
Solution: (a) From Table 26.1, C = 0.000126 in3/A-min
RMR = frA = (CI/A)(A) = CI
RMR = CI = 0.000126(1500) = 0.189 in3/min at 100% efficiency.
At 90% efficiency RMR = 0.189(0.90) = 0.1701 in3/min = 10.206 in3/hr.
(b) I = EA/gr; Rearranging, g = EA/Ir = 12(2.5)/(1500 x 6.2) = 0.0032 in
26.9 A square hole is to be cut using ECM through a plate of pure copper (valence = 1) that is 20 mm
thick. The hole is 25 mm on each side, but the electrode used to cut the hole is slightly less that 25
mm on its sides to allow for overcut, and its shape includes a hole in its center to permit the flow of
electrolyte and to reduce the area of the cut. This tool design results in a frontal area of 200 mm2.
The applied current = 1000 amps. Using an efficiency of 95%, determine how long it will take to
cut the hole.
Solution: From Table 26.1, C = 7.35 x 10-2 mm3/A-s
From Eq. (26.6) fr = CI/A = (7.35 x 10-2 mm3/A-s)(1000 A)/(200 mm2) = 0.3675 mm/s
At 95% efficiency, fr = 0.95(0.3675 mm/s) = 0.349 mm/s
Time to machine = (20 mm)/(0.349 mm/s) = 57.3 s
26.10 A 3.5 in diameter through hole is to be cut in a block of pure iron (Valence = 2) by electrochemical
machining. The block is 2.0 in thick. To speed the cutting process, the electrode tool will have a
center hole of 3.0 in which will produce a center core that can be removed after the tool breaks
through. The outside diameter of the electrode is undersized to allow for overcut. The overcut is
expected to be 0.005 in on a side. If the efficiency of the ECM operation is 90%, what current will
be required to complete the cutting operation in 20 minutes?
Solution: Electrode frontal gap area A = 0.25π(3.52 - 3.02) = 2.553 in2
From Table 26.1, C = 0.000135 in3/A-min
fr = CI/A = 0.000135 I/2.553 = 0.0000529 I in/min at 100% efficiency.
5
01-29-09, 02-06-09
At 90% efficiency fr = 0.9(0.0000529 I) = 0.0000476 I in/min
To cut through a 2.0 inch thickness in 20 minutes requires a feed rate fr = 2.0/20 = 0.1 in/min
fr = 0.1 = 0.0000476 I
I = 0.1/0.0000476 = 2101 A.
Electric Discharge Machining
26.11 An electric discharge machining operation is being performed on two work materials: tungsten and
tin. Determine the amount of metal removed in the operation after one hour at a discharge current of
20 amps for each of these metals. Use metric units and express the answers in mm3/hr. From Table
4.1, the melting temperatures of tungsten and tin are 3410°C and 232°C, respectively.
Solution: For tungsten, using Eq. (26.7), RMR = KI/Tm1.23 = 664(20)/(34101.23) = 13,280/22,146
= 0.5997 mm3/s = 2159 mm3/hr
For tin, RMR = KI/Tm1.23 = 664(20)/(2321.23) = 13,280/812 = 16.355 mm3/s = 58,878 mm3/hr
26.12 An electric discharge machining operation is being performed on two work materials: tungsten and
zinc. Determine the amount of metal removed in the operation after one hour at a discharge
amperage = 20 amps for each of these metals. Use U.S. Customary units and express the answer in
in3/hr. From Table 4.1, the melting temperatures of tungsten and zinc are 6170°F and 420°F,
respectively.
Solution: For tungsten, using Eq. (26.7), RMR = KI/Tm1.23 = 5.08(20)/(61701.23) = 101.6/45,925
= 0.00221 in3/s = 0.1327 in3/hr
For Zinc, RMR = KI/Tm1.23 = 5.08(20)/(4201.23) = 101.6/1685 = 0.0603 in3/s = 3.62 in3/hr
26.13 Suppose the hole in Problem 26.10 were to be cut using EDM rather than ECM. Using a discharge
current = 20 amps (which would be typical for EDM), how long would it take to cut the hole? From
Table 4.1, the melting temperature of iron is 2802°F.
Solution: Using Eq. (26.7), RMR = 5.08 I/Tm1.23 = 5.08(20)/28021.23 = 101.6/17,393
= 0.00584 in3/min
Cross-sectional area of tool from previous problem A = 2.553 in2
fr = RMR/A = 0.00584/2.553 = 0.002293 in/min
Time to machine the 2.0 inch thickness Tm = 2.0/0.002293 = 874.3 min = 14.57 hr.
26.14 A metal removal rate of 0.01 in3/min is achieved in a certain EDM operation on a pure iron
workpart. What metal removal rate would be achieved on nickel in this EDM operation, if the same
discharge current were used? The melting temperatures of iron and nickel are 2802°F and 2651°F,
respectively.
Solution: For iron, RMR = 5.08 I/28021.23 = 5.08 I/17,393 = 0.000292 I in3/min
Given that RMR = 0.01 in3/min
0.000292 I = 0.01
I = 0.01/0.000292 = 34.24 A.
For = nickel, RMR = 5.08(34.24)/26511.23 = 173.93/16,248 = 0.0107 in3/min
26.15 In a wire EDM operation performed on 7-mm-thick C1080 steel using a tungsten wire electrode
whose diameter = 0.125 mm, past experience suggests that the overcut will be 0.02 mm, so that the
kerf width will be 0.165 mm. Using a discharge current = 10 amps, what is the allowable feed rate
that can be used in the operation? Estimate the melting temperature of 0.80% carbon steel from the
phase diagram of Figure 6.4.
Solution: From Figure 6.4, Tm = 1500°C for 1080 steel
Using Eq. (26.7), RMR = 664(10)/(15001.23) = 6640/8065 = 0.8233 mm3/s
Frontal area of kerf A = 0.165(7.0) = 1.155 mm2
6
01-29-09, 02-06-09
fr = 49.4/1.155 = 42.79 mm/min
26.16 A wire EDM operation is to be performed on a slab of ¾-in-thick aluminum using a brass wire
electrode whose diameter = 0.005 in. It is anticipated that the overcut will be 0.001 in, so that the
kerf width will be 0.007 in. Using a discharge current = 7 amps, what is the expected allowable feed
rate that can be used in the operation? The melting temperature of aluminum is 1220°F.
Solution: Using Eq. (26.7), RMR = 5.08(7)/12201.23 = 35.56/6255 = 0.005685 in3/min
Frontal area of kerf A = 0.75(0.007) = 0.00525 in2
fr = 0.005685/0.00525 = 1.083 in/min
26.17 A wire EDM operation is used to cut out punch-and-die components from 25-mm-thick tool steel
plates. However, in preliminary cuts, the surface finish on the cut edge is poor. What changes in
discharge current and frequency of discharges should be made to improve the finish?
Solution: As indicated in Figure 26.8(a), surface finish in EDM could be improved by reducing
discharge current and increasing frequency of discharges.
Chemical Machining
26.18 Chemical milling is used in an aircraft plant to create pockets in wing sections made of an
aluminum alloy. The starting thickness of one workpart of interest is 20 mm. A series of
rectangular-shaped pockets 12 mm deep are to be etched with dimensions 200 mm by 400 mm. The
corners of each rectangle are radiused to 15 mm. The part is an aluminum alloy and the etchant is
NaOH. The penetration rate for this combination is 0.024 mm/min and the etch factor is 1.75.
Determine (a) metal removal rate in mm3/min, (b) time required to etch to the specified depth, and
(c) required dimensions of the opening in the cut and peel maskant to achieve the desired pocket
size on the part.
Solution: (a) Neglecting the fact that the initial area would be less than the given dimensions of 200
mm by 400 mm, and that the material removal rate (RMR) would therefore increase during the cut as
the area increased, area A = 200 x 400 – (30 x 30 - π(15)2) = 80,000 – 193 = 79,807 mm2
RMR = (0.024 mm/min)(79,807 mm2) = 1915.4 mm3/min
(b) Time to machine (etch) Tm = 12/0.024 = 500 min = 8.33 hr.
(c) Given Fe = 1.75, undercut u = d/Fe = 12/1.75 = 6.86 mm
Maskant opening length = L – 2u = 400 – 2(6.86) = 386.28 mm
Maskant opening width = W – 2u = 200 – 2(6.86) = 186.28 mm
Radius on corners = R – u = 15 – 6.86 = 8.14 mm
26.19 In a chemical milling operation on a flat mild steel plate, it is desired to cut an ellipse-shaped pocket
to a depth of 0.4 in. The semiaxes of the ellipse are a = 9.0 in and b = 6.0 in. A solution of
hydrochloric and nitric acids will be used as the etchant. Determine (a) metal removal rate in in3/hr,
(b) time required to etch to depth, and (c) required dimensions of the opening in the cut and peel
maskant required to achieve the desired pocket size on the part.
Solution: (a) Neglecting the fact that the initial area would be less than the given dimensions of 9 in
by 6 in, and that the material removal rate (RMR) would therefore increase during the cut as the area
increased, area of an ellipse A = πab = π(9.0)(6.0) = 54π = 169.65 in2
RMR = (0.001 in/min)(169.65 in2) = 0.16965 in3/min = 10.18 in3/hr
(b) Time to machine (etch) Tm = 0.4/0.001 = 400 min = 6.67 hr.
(c) Given Fe = 2.0, undercut u = d/Fe = 0.4/2.0 = 0.2 mm
This must be doubled to determine the effect on a and b.
Maskant opening a’ = a – u = 9.0 – 2(0.2) = 8.6 in
Maskant opening b’ = b – u = 6.0 – 2(0.2) = 5.6 in
7
01-29-09, 02-06-09
26.20 In a certain chemical blanking operation, a sulfuric acid etchant is used to remove material from a
sheet of magnesium alloy. The sheet is 0.25 mm thick. The screen resist method of masking was
used to permit high production rates to be achieved. As it turns out, the process is producing a large
proportion of scrap. Specified tolerances of ±0.025 mm are not being achieved. The foreman in the
CHM department complains that there must be something wrong with the sulfuric acid. "Perhaps
the concentration is incorrect," he suggests. Analyze the problem and recommend a solution.
Solution: The problem in this chemical blanking operation is that the screen resist method of
masking cannot achieve the tolerances specified. The photoresist method should have been used,
and the process should be changed over to adopt this method.
26.21 In a chemical blanking operation, stock thickness of the aluminum sheet is 0.015 in. The pattern to
be cut out of the sheet is a hole pattern, consisting of a matrix of 0.100 in diameter holes. If
photochemical machining is used to cut these holes, and contact printing is used to make the resist
(maskant) pattern, determine the diameter of the holes that should be used in the pattern.
Solution: From Table 26.2, Fe = 1.75.
In chemical blanking, etching will occur on both sides of the part. Therefore, the effective hole
depth on each side = one-half of the stock thickness = 0.015/2 = 0.0075 in.
Undercut u = 0.0075/1.75 = 0.0043 in
Diameter of opening = 0.100 - 2(0.0043) = 0.0914 in
8

Production Engineering II Questions & Solutions

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Production Engineering II Questions & Solutions

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Production Engineering II Questions & Solutions

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Solutions for Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing, 4/e (published by Wiley)  MPGroover 2010

21 THEORY OF METAL MACHINING

Answer. (e) and (f).

(b) φ = tan-1(0.4 cos(–5)/(1 - 0.4 sin(–5))) = tan-1(0.3851) = 21.1°

(c) β = 2(45) + α - 2(φ) = 90 + (-5) - 2(18.7) = 47.6°

Rearranging, r cos (φ - α) = sin φ

At efficiency E = 87%, available horsepower = 0.87(20) = 17.4 hp

Pc = U RMR = 0.7(2.8)(103) = 1.96(103) N-m/s = 1960 W

Fc = 101 cos(31 - 6)/cos(32.5 + 31.0 – 6) = 170 lb.

Combining (1) and (3): ln 505 - m ln 100 = ln 592 - m ln 160

22 MACHINING OPERATIONS AND MACHINE

23 CUTTING TOOL TECHNOLOGY

Flank Wear vs Time

Taylor Tool Life

Cutting Speed (ft/min)

To achieve 20 min of tool life: v = C/Tn = 597/200.197 = 597/1.8065 = 330 ft/min

Solution: N1 =v/πD = 400(12)/2.5π = 611 rev/min

24 ECONOMIC AND PRODUCT DESIGN

25 GRINDING AND OTHER ABRASIVE PROCESSES

26 NONTRADITIONAL MACHINING AND THERMAL

You might also like