BASICS OF ACOUSTICS

CONTENTS

1. preface 03

2. Room acoustics versus building acoustics 04

3. fundamentals of acoustics 05

3.1 Sound 05
3.2 Sound pressure 06
3.3 Sound pressure level and decibel scale 06
3.4 Sound pressure of several sources 07
3.5 Frequency 08
3.6 Frequency ranges relevant for room planning 09
3.7 Wavelengths of sound 09
3.8 Level values 10

4. Room aCoustic parameters 11

4.1 Reverberation time 11
4.2 Sound absorption 14
4.3 Sound absorption coefficient and reverberation time 16
4.4 Rating of sound absorption 16

5. index 18

2
 1. PREFACE

Noise or unwanted sounds is perceived as disturbing and annoying in many fields of life. This can be observed in
private as well as in working environments. Several studies about room acoustic conditions and annoyance through
noise show the relevance of good room acoustic conditions. Decreasing success in school class rooms or affecting
efficiency at work is often related to inadequate room acoustic conditions. Research results from class room acoustics
have been one of the reasons to revise German standard DIN 18041 on “Acoustic quality of small and medium-sized
room” from 1968 and decrease suggested reverberation time values in class rooms with the new 2004 version of the
standard. Furthermore the standard gave a detailed range for the frequency dependence of reverberation time and also
extended the range of rooms to be considered in room acoustic design of a building.

The acoustic quality of a room, better its acoustic adequacy for each usage, is determined by the sum of all equipment
and materials in the rooms. In the sense of good acoustics the rooms should contribute to perceive speech, music or
other sounds as not too loud or too quiet and the we can communicate with much effort and feel comfortable.

This brochure has been developed by Création Bauman with the intention to give an introduction and professional
support in the field of room acoustics that sometimes has the connotation of being confusing or too multi-dimensional.
It illuminates important terms and explains basics and interrelationships of room acoustics.

With its palette of creative textiles for rooms Création Baumann delivers acoustically effective as well as artistic
attractive solutions for room acoustic questions. The bandwidth of the acoustic efficiency of textile applications is
often underestimated. For this Création Baumann offers with its large documentation of acoustic properties for its
materials - that is available separately – a great potential in modern solutions for acoustics by textile design in a room.

3
2. ROOM ACOUSTICS VERSUS BUILDING ACOUSTICS

The difference between the fields of room acoustics and building acoustics becomes obvious only when we take a
closer look at acoustical questions. In building acoustics, the question always is:

What portion of the sound reaches the other side of the component in question?
The key property is the sound insulation of the component. Essentially, it is about the ability of components – walls,
ceilings, doors, windows, etc. – to minimise the sound transmission between two rooms. A high degree of sound
insulation is usually achieved using solid, heavy components which hinder the propagation of sound.

Sound level Transmitted Sound level

Sound level
80 dB
60 dB

Building acoustics:
Sound transmission between
adjacent rooms

Background noise level

The sound insulation of partitions for airborne sound is described by the sound transmission loss or rated sound
reduction loss R’w that can be measured on site or in laboratory or even calculated.

The question in room acoustics, on the other hand, is:

What surfaces help to create optimum listening conditions in a room?

The key property in this case is the sound absorption provided by the materials used in the room. Sound absorption
describes the ability of materials to absorb sound or to convert the incident sound energy into other forms of energy.
Sound absorption is achieved by means of sound absorbers

Room acoustics:
Acoustic quality within a room

Background noise level

The sound absorption of a surface is described by the frequency dependent sound absorption coefficient or simplified
by a average values such as α w or NRC. The sound absorption coefficient usually is measured in special laboratory
room, so-called reverberation chambers.

The terms “sound insulation” and “sound absorption” are well-defined and relate to the fields of building acoustics
and room acoustics respectively. If we feel annoyed by noise from an adjacent room, increasing the sound insulation
essentially helps to improve this situation.
The sound absorption in a room can generally only decrease the level in room by a small amount. Decreasing sound
levels in a room by room acoustic means is in principle much smaller than any optimization of the partion.

4
 3. FUNDAMENTALS OF ACOUSTICS

3.1 SOUND

Sound can comprise harmonious tones, music, bangs, noise, crackling, but also spoken words. All of these sound events
cause a slight variation in air pressure which propagates within the surroundings of its source. We therefore refer to the
sound pressure of a tone, of noise, speech or music. The louder the sound event, the heavier is this pressure variation
and the higher is the sound pressure.

As a rule, sound always propagates into all three directions of space. With many sound sources the sound radiation de-
pends on the orientation of the source; in most cases it is sufficient, however, to assume roughly a uniform, omnidirec-
tional sound radiation. Sound sources of this type are referred to as omnidirectional sound sources. Today it is also pos-
sible to select very tightly restricted sound radiation directions by means of special loudspeakers so that the radiated
sound can be directed specifically to a particular position. This method is used, for example, when fitting lecture rooms
with electroacoustic equipment. Here, it has to be taken into account that the sound energy decreases considerably
with increasing distance from the sound source. In the areas occupied by the audience, however, the sound distribution
should be as uniform as possible. To achieve this effect, a larger number of loudspeakers may have to be used.

As a rule, sound always propagates into all three directions of space. With many sound sources the sound radiation
depends on the orientation of the source; in most cases it is sufficient, however, to assume roughly a uniform, omnidi-
rectional sound radiation. Sound sources of this type are referred to as omnidirectional sound sources.
In principal one has to differentiate between airborne sound, sound in liquids and sound in solid bodies. Generally
sound is a propagation of pressure and density variation in an elastic medium. If sound travels through a wall or
another partition the airborn sound is converted to vibration of the wall and then radiated from the vibrating wall as
airborn sound to the room.

Unwanted sound events can be named as noise. This definition shows that the perception of sounds has strong
subjective aspects. Psychoacoustics as a branch of acoustics, or also noise effect research, deals with the relationship
between our subjective perception and the sound signals which are objectively present. Often a difference between
wanted sound such as music in a concert or a voice of a speaker und unwanted sound like traffic noise or music of the
neighbour is made.

5
3.2 Sound pressure

Sound can comprise harmonious tones, music, bangs, Sound pressure in Pascal
noise, crackling, but also spoken words. All of these
sound events cause a slight variation in air pressure
which propagates within the surroundings of its source.
We therefore refer to the sound pressure of a tone, of
noise, speech or music. The louder the sound event, the
heavier is this pressure variation and the higher is the Time (sec)
sound pressure.
The minimum sound pressure that a human being can
perceive is around 20 µPa = 0.00002 Pascal, a very low
value showing high sensitivity of the human auditory
system. Sound pressure values of 20 Pascal will damage
the hearing system for very short exposure times.

3.3 SOUND PRESSURE LEVEL AND DECIBEL SCALE

The strength of a sound, the sound pressure, usually is given as sound pressure level or sound level. A sound pressure
level of 0 decibel refers by definition to the sound pressure level where human perception begins. This definition
provides a scale between 0 decibel (abbr.: dB) and about 140 dB.
Constant sound levels of more than 80 dB or very short noises of more than 120 dB can irreversibly damage the
auditory system.

Decibel

aircraft engine 140 dB (A)

*

discotheque,
intolerable 120 dB (A)
jackhammer

heavy
traffic 100 dB (A)

very loud
loud communication, 80 dB (A)
busy office

loud
60 dB (A)
quiet communication
quiet library quiet
40 dB (A)
whispering

very quiet
ticking 20 dB (A)
watch

breathing
inaudiable 0 dB (A)
absolute silence

* Definition see Chapter 5

6
 3.4 SOUND PRESSURE OF SEVERAL SOURCES

An increase in the number of sound sources by a factor of two always results in an increase of the level by 3 dB, a
factor of ten in an increase by 10 dB, and a factor of one hundred in an increase by 20 dB.

SOUND PRESSURE INCREASE FOR IDENTICAL SOUND SOURCES

Example Alarm clock Increase of dB value

1 62 dB
2 62 + 3 = 65 dB
3 62 + 5 = 67 dB
4 62 + 6 = 68 dB
5 62 + 7 = 69 dB
10 62 + 10 = 72 dB
15 62 + 12 = 74 dB
20 62 + 13 = 75 dB
50 62 + 17 = 79 dB
100 62 + 20 = 82 dB

Number of identical sound sources Sound power Sound pressure Sound pressure level

× 100 × 10 + 20 dB

× 10 × 3,2 + 10 dB

×4 × 2 + 6 dB

×2 × 1,4 + 3 dB

×1 × 1 0 dB

The following table gives a simple rule of thumb for the addition of two sound levels. First of all the difference
between the two levels should be calculated.

Sound pressure level difference 0 to 1 2 to 3 4 to 9 more than 10

Level increase (to be added to the higher value) + 3 dB + 2 dB + 1 dB + 0 dB

Example:
For two sources of 45 dB and 52 dB, respectively, the difference of 7 dB means an increase by 1 dB, which is added to
52 dB and thus results in a total level of 53 dB.

7
3.5 FrequenCY

The frequency of a sound wave describes the number if pressure changes or oscillations per second. It is often abbrevi-
ated by the letter f and has the unit 1 Hertz (short: Hz). A frequency of 1000 Hz means 1000 oscillations per second.
The sound pressure or sound level is perceived as loudness and is one important dimension for the perception of sound.
Equally important is the frequency content of the sound or spectrum. Pure tones are sound with only one frequency.

The sensitivity of the human auditory system is highly dependent on frequency. It is particularly pronounced in the
frequency range of human speech between 250 Hz and 2000 Hz. This is very useful when we listen to someone speak,
but disruptions in this frequency range are perceived as particularly annoying and can strongly affect communication.
With too high or low frequencies, our hearing ability decreases.

Frequencies – measured in Hertz (Hz)

Bat

Triangle

Organ

Violin

Contrabass

Grand piano

Male voice

Female voice

Phone

Infrasound Audible range [ 20 – 20.000 Hz ] Ultrasound

10 Hz 100 Hz 1.000 Hz 10.000 Hz 100.000 Hz

A noise loudness rating which is to meet the demands of the human auditory
system needs to take into account the frequency characteristic of the human
auditory system. The medium frequencies, at which the human auditory system
is particularly sensitive, are weighted more heavily than the high and low
frequencies. This weighting results in the term dB(A) for sound pressure levels,
i.e. the so-called A-weighted sound pressure level. Nearly all regulations,
guidelines, standard values, limit values, recommendations and references to
sound pressure levels use values expressed in dB(A).

8
 3.6 FrequenCY RANGES RELEVANT FOR ROOM PLANNING

The frequency range to be taken into account when planning a room is based on the human auditory system on the
one hand and what is technically sensible and feasible on the other. Frequencies above 5000 Hz are attenuated by the
air to such a degree that it is not sensible to take them into account when planning the acoustics of a room. Below 100
Hz, other physical implications of sound propagation need to be taken into account.

The internationally standardised test methods for determining the sound absorption by particular materials are based
on the frequency range from 100 Hz to 5000 Hz. Correspondingly it has been decided to focus room acoustic planning
on the frequency range between 100 Hz and 5000 Hz, as a rule.

Relevant frequency ranges

Relevant frequency Bat

ranges from 100 up
to 5.000 Hz forTriangle
room
planning.
Organ

Violin

Contrabass

Grand piano

Male voice

Female voice

Phone

Infrasound Audible range [ 20 – 20.000 Hz ] Ultrasound

10 Hz 100 Hz 1.000 Hz 10.000 Hz 100.000 Hz

3.7 WAVELENGTHS OF SOUND

Each frequency of sound is associated with a sound wave of a particular wavelength. In air, a 100 Hz wave has an
extension of 3.40 meters, whereas a 5000 Hz wave has an extension of only about 7 centimeters. Accordingly, the
sound waves relevant for room acoustics have a length of between 0.07 m and 3.40 m. As we can see, the dimensions
of sound waves are well within the range of the dimensions of rooms and furnishings. The following figure shows the
range of all sound wavelengths relevant for room acoustics.

Wavelengths l

Sound pressure in Pascal

l
Time (sec)

9
3.8 LEVEL VALUES

The relevant parameter for an objective assessment of the noise impact at a work station is the so-called rating level,
which consists, on the one hand, of the measured, time-averaged sound pressure level in a room and, on the other
hand, of adjustments in accordance with the characteristic of the noise as well as its duration of impact.

The rating level is usually based on a rating period of 8 hours.

High background noise levels in office rooms will likely affect the intellectual efficiency. For this reason, several regula-
tions and standards contain recommendations regarding the maximum permissible background sound pressure level.

The following table shows the values of the recommended background noise level in
accordance with DIN EN 11690:

dB (A)

100

65-70 dB(A)

50

35-45 dB(A)
30-40 dB(A)
30-35 dB(A)

Conference room Office room Open plan office Industrial

workplace

10
 4. ROOM ACOUSTIC PARAMETERS

4.1 REVERBERATION TIME

The reverberation time is the basis for ratings of room acoustic quality. Put simply, the reverberation time indicates the
period of time it takes for a sound event to become inaudible. Technically, the reverberation time T has been defined as
the time required for the sound pressure level in space to decay by 60 dB. This means that, if a room is excited with a
bang of 95 dB, the reverberation time indicates the period of time within which the noise level drops to 35 dB. This can
be a few tenths of a second up to several seconds.
The reverberation time can be determined for each enclosed space.

Reverberation time
Sound pressure level
in (dB)

100

typical reverberation time for office rooms: 0,5 – 0,8 sec

60 dB(A)
50

Reverberation time: 1,8 sec

0 1,0 2,0 Time (sec)

This objectively measurable quantity allows different rooms to be compared with each other and their room acoustic
quality to be assessed. While a reverberation of 4 to 8 seconds is quite normal for a church, the values aimed at for the
reverberation time in conference or office rooms are quite different. The following table provides an overview of the
typical reverberation times of different room types.

Type of room Reverberation time (exemplary)

Church approx. 4 – 8 seconds
Class room – medium sized 0,6 seconds
Office room – depending on size 0,5 – 0,8 seconds
Concert hall for classical music approx. 1,5 seconds

It has a direct effect on speech intelligibility in a room. In general, speech intelligibility in a room decreases with in-
creasing reverberation time. This does not mean, however, that the shortest possible reverberation time is always the
best solution! Very poor speech intelligibility usually does suggest, though, that the reverberation time is too long.

The subjective impression of the sound quality of a room allows even the non-expert to draw conclusions as to how
the reverberation time progresses within the different frequency ranges. If, for example, speech in a room sounds
blurred, and if it is very difficult to understand each other, it can be assumed that the reverberation time is too long.
Acoustically “dry” in this context means that the sound is absorbed unnaturally fast. If this happens only at high
frequencies, the room sounds “hollow” or “booming”, whereas at low frequencies it sounds “piercing” and “sharp”.

Performance Reverberation time Reverberation time Subjective impression

at low frequencies at high frequencies

speech too long too long blurred, difficult to understand

too long too short hollow, but easy to understand
too short too long piercing, clanking, sharp, difficult to understand
too short too short dry, but easy to understand

11
On which factors does the reverberation time depend?
The reverberation time depends mainly on three factors:
- the volume of the room,
- the surfaces of the room and
- the furniture in the room.

A room usually becomes more reverberant with increasing height. Absorbing surfaces – such as carpets, curtains and
sound absorbing ceilings, but also furniture or people present in the room – reduce the reverberation time.

Sound level
in dB

100

Reverberation time: 1,2 sec WITHOUT products of Création Baumann

50
Reverberation time: 0,5  sec WITH products of Création Baumann

0 0,5 1,0 1,2 Time (sec)

12
 The shape of a room is usually of minor importance for the reverberation time. Only if the room acoustic require-
ments are very high (e.g. in concert halls) or if the shape is very unusual, e.g. vaulted surfaces or heavily varying room
heights, does shape become an essential factor.
The recommendations given in DIN 18041 should always form the basis for any room acoustic planning. DIN 18041
“Acoustic quality in small to medium-sized rooms” forms the basis for the recommendations regarding the acoustic
design of small to medium-sized rooms.
With regard to the optimum reverberation time, DIN 18041 distinguishes between three different room categories:
“music”, “speech” and “communication and teaching”. Rooms of the usage type “music” are music class rooms and
halls for music presentations.
“Speech” in the broadest sense comprises all rooms where a speaker speaks in front of an audience.
“Communication and teaching” comprises all types where several people speak at the same time, i.e. teaching rooms
as well as conference rooms, multiple occupancy offices, service points, call centers and rooms with audiovisual
presentations or electroacoustic uses.

2,6

2,4

2,2

2,0
Reverberation time TSOLL in s

1,8

1,6

1,4

1,2

1,0

0,8

0,6

0,4

0,2

30 100 1.000 5.000 10.000 30.000

Roomvolume V in m3

Music
Speech
Teaching, Communication

Two examples:

Example 1:
A conference room (usage type: “communication and teaching”) with a volume of 250 m3 should have a reverberation
time of 0.60 s.

Example 2:
A chamber music hall (usage type: “music”) with a volume o 550 m3 should have a reverberation time of 1.30 s.

13
4.2 SOUND ABSORPTION

The sound absorption coefficient α describes the property of a material to convert incident sound into other forms of
energy – e.g. thermal or kinetic energy – and thus to absorb it.

Case 1: Sound completely absorbed (sound absorption coefficient α = 1) no reflection

Sound completely absorbed

The other extreme is full sound reflection. All the incident sound is reflected.

Case 2: Sound completely reflected (sound absorption coefficient α = 0)

Sound completely reflected

Case 3: Sound partly absorbed (sound absorption coefficient α = between 0 and 1)

Sound partially absorbed

The frequency-dependent sound absorption coefficient of a material is determined by means of a special acoustic
material test method – the so-called reverberation room method. For this test, a material sample is placed into the
reverberation room, whose reverberation time has been determined previously without the sample. From the change in
the reverberation time with the sample present in the room, the sound absorption coefficient α S can be determined for
each one-third octave between 100 Hz and 5000 Hz.
This yields 18 one-third octave values which uniquely describe the absorption behavior of the material, i.e. to what
extent and at what frequencies the material absorbs the sound.

Solving room acoustic problems with measurements should always use on-third octave band resolution in frequency as
many problems occur in small frequency bands and require adequate solutions.

14
 Octave average frequency

Relevant frequency Bat

ranges from 100 up
to 5.000 Hz forTriangle
room
planning.
Organ

Violin

Contrabass

Grand piano

Male voice

Female voice

Phone

Infrasound Audible range [ 20 – 20.000 Hz ] Ultrasound

10 Hz 100 Hz 1.000 Hz 10.000 Hz 100.000 Hz

100 125 160 200 250 315 400 500 630 800 1.000 1.250 1.600 2.000 2.500 3.150 4.000 5.000

one-third octave band step octave band step

It is not only the choice of material, however, which is responsible for the sound absorption in a room. What is most
important is the total area of this material present in the room. The equivalent sound absorption area has been intro-
duced to provide a measure for the sound absorbing performance of a sound absorber actually present in the room. It
is defined as the product of the sound absorption coefficient α S of a material and the surface of this material.

Calculation of the equivalent sound absorption of surfaces in a room:

A = s1 α1 + s 2 α 2 + s 3 α 3 + … + s n + α n + A1 + A 2 + … + A n
A – total equivalent sound absorption area in a room
s1 – surface size of material 1, e.g. acoustic ceiling
α1 – sound absorption coefficient of material 1
s 2 – surface size of material 2, e.g. carpet
α 2 – sound absorption coefficient of material 2
…
S n – surface size of material n
α n – sound absorption coefficient of material n

15
4.3 Sound absorption coefficient and reverberation time

In a fully furnished room with different surfaces, for example, each material (e.g. carpets, plaster, acoustic ceiling, cur-
tains, windows, shelves, etc.) can be allocated a sound absorption coefficient, and by multiplying this coefficient by the
surface of this material, the equivalent sound absorption area can be calculated. The equivalent sound absorption areas
of all materials are then added to determine the total equivalent sound absorption area of the room. The reverberation
time of a room can be derived from the calculated total equivalent sound absorption area using the Sabine formula.

Sabine formula:

V
T = 0,163 ×
A
T – Reverberation time
V – Volume of the room
A – Total equivalent sound absorption area

A sound absorber of 10 m2 with a sound absorption coefficient of 0.50 has an equivalent sound absorption area of
5 m2 and thus has the same effect as a sound absorber of 20 m2 with a sound absorption coefficient of 0.25 or a sound
absorber of 5 m2 with a sound absorption coefficient of 1.00.
In a fully furnished room with different surfaces, for example, each material (e.g. carpets, plaster, acoustic ceiling,
curtains, windows, shelves, etc.) can be allocated a sound absorption coefficient, and by multiplying this coefficient by
the surface of this material, the equivalent sound absorption area can be calculated. The equivalent sound absorption
areas of all materials are then added to determine the total equivalent sound absorption area of the room.

4.4 rating of sound absorption

In the previous sections the advantages of looking at the sound, the reverberation time and the sound absorption coef-
ficient in a frequency-dependent context have been explained in great detail. Several interested parties have, however,
expressed their desire for simplified values, which might not permit differentiated planning, but would allow rough
comparisons to be made between different sound absorbers or preliminary statements regarding the basic suitability
of products for particular applications. Such values should also enable a simplified planning of rooms with low require-
ments regarding their acoustic quality.
Against this backdrop, single values of sound absorption have been defined in Europe and the US which differ slightly.
The most common single value of sound absorption in Europe is the so-called weighted sound absorption coefficient
α w, whereas in the English-speaking world it is the Noise Reduction Coefficient (NRC) or the Sound Absorption Aver-
age (SAA).

All procedures to determine of single number ratings rely on tests in the reverberation chamber with on-third octave
band resolution.

Weighted sound absorption coefficient α w (DIN EN ISO 11654): In order to determine the weighted sound absorption
coefficient αw, the mean value for the octave centre frequency between 125 Hz and 4000 Hz is determined from three
one-third octave values. 18 one-third octave values are thus converted into 6 octave values.
The mean value of the respective octave is then rounded to the nearest 0.05; it is referred to as the practical sound
absorption coefficient α p. The practical sound absorption coefficient αp between 250 Hz and 4000 Hz is compared
to the reference curve given in DIN EN 11654. This comparison gives a single value of the weighted sound absorption
coefficient αw.
Deviations by more than 0.25 between the curve and the reference curve are indicated by means of the shape indicators
L, M or H, depending on whether they occur at 250 Hz (L), at 500 Hz or 1000 Hz (M), or at 2000 Hz or 4000 Hz (H).
The resulting values are, for example, α w = 0.65 (H), αw = 0.20 or αw = 0.80 (LM).

16
 Deviations by more than 0.25 between the curve and the reference curve are indicated by means of the shape indicators
L, M or H, depending on whether they occur at 250 Hz (L), at 500 Hz or 1000 Hz (M), or at 2000 Hz or 4000 Hz (H).
The resulting values are, for example, α w = 0.65 (H), αw = 0.20 or αw = 0.80 (LM).

Based on the αw value, sound absorbers can be classified into different sound absorber classes. αw values of more than
0.90, for example, belong to sound absorber class A, values of between 0.15 and 0.25 belong to class E.

Sound absorber class αw- value

A 0,90 – 1,00

B 0,80 – 0,85

C 0,60 – 0,75

D 0,30 – 0,55

E 0,15 – 0,25

not classified 0,00 – 0,10

Single-number values commonly used in the US

NRC (ASTM 423):

The NRC (Noise Reduction Coefficient), which is widely used in the US, is determined by calculating the mean value
from four one-third octave values of the sound absorption coefficient (250 Hz, 500 Hz, 1000 Hz and 2000 Hz) and
rounding the result to the nearest 0.05. If the number is at the exact mid-point of the numbers divisible by 0.05, the
value is always rounded up (example: 0.625 => 0.65; 0.675 => 0.70).

SAA (ASTM 423):

Another value used in the US is the SAA (Sound Absorption Average). It is determined by calculating the mean value
from twelve one-third octave values of the sound absorption coefficient between 200 Hz and 2500 Hz and then
rounding the result to the nearest 0.01.

advantage of single-number values:

Sound absorbers can be roughly classified and thus
compared with one another.

disadvantage of single-number values:

A single-number sound absorption value is always an
extremely simplified value. Sound absorbers with very
different absorption spectra can have identical single-
number values. This may sometimes result in the use of
a sound absorber which is not suitable for the existing
conditions. Frequencies below 200 Hz are not taken into
account.

17
5. index

A-weighted sound pressure level – single number values of sound

dB(A) absorption
The A-weighted sound pressure level is the weighted So-called “single number values” are used for a simplified
average value of the sound pressure level (dB) as a function representation of the frequency-dependent parameter of
of the frequency of a sound. The weighting takes into ac- the sound absorption coefficient as well as for a rough
count the ability of the human auditory system to perceive comparison of different sound absorbers. In Europe, the
sound pressure levels or tones of different frequencies to a “weighted sound absorption coefficient” αw in accordance
different degree. This sensitivity is particularly pronounced with DIN EN ISO 11654 is commonly used. In the US, the
in the medium frequency range, i.e. the range of human NRC and SAA values are widely used. All of the above
speech. Nearly all regulations and guidelines indicate values values are based on measurements of the sound absorption
expressed in dB(A). in one-third octave and octave increments.
For a detailed acoustic planning of a room it is necessary to
know these sound absorption values precisely in one-third
equivalent sound absorption area octave or at least in octave increments (see “octaves”).
The equivalent sound absorption area A is defined as the
product of the sound absorption coefficient α of a material
and the surface S of this material. Frequency
Frequency indicates the number of sound pressure changes
per second. Sound events with a high frequency are
Auralisation perceived by the human ear as high-pitched tones, sound
Auralisation is a method for simulating the acoustic proper- events with a low frequency as low-pitched tones. Sounds
ties of a room. With this method, the effects of certain such as noise, road traffic, etc., normally comprise a great
acoustic treatments can be “auralised” as early as the number of frequencies. The measurement unit of frequency
design stage. is hertz (Hz), 1 Hz = 1/s. Human speech is in the range
between 250 Hz and 2000 Hz. The audible range of human
beings is between 20 Hz and 20000 Hz.
building acoustics
Building acoustics is a branch of building physics, or acous-
tics, which deals with the effect of the structural conditions reverberation room
on the propagation of sound between the rooms of a build- Reverberation rooms are special laboratory rooms with walls
ing or between the interior of a room and the outside of the which reflect the incident sound waves to a very high degree.
building. Reverberation rooms have particularly long reverberation
times across the entire frequency range.

rating level (Lr )

The rating level Lr (L for “level”, r for “rating”) is the reverberation room method
relevant parameter for objectively assessing the noise impact The reverberation room method is used for determining the
at a workplace. Apart from weighting the sound pressure frequency-dependent sound absorption coefficient.
level as a function of the frequency (see A-weighted sound A sample of the material to be tested is placed into the
pressure level), a determination of the sound pressure level reverberation room. The sound absorption of a material can
takes into account certain adjustments which depend on then be calculated from the change in the reverberation time
the characteristic of the sound (e.g. impulsiveness or clear of the room.
prominence of individual tones) and its duration of impact.
The rating level is also expressed in dB(A).
background noise level
Usually, sounds which do not contain any meaningful
Decibel (dB) information are referred to as background noise (e.g. noise
Logarithmically defined unit of measurement which ex- from air conditioning or traffic). The background noise level
presses the sound pressure level. The relevant scale for is measured in dB or, by weighting its frequencies in accor-
human beings is 0 dB to 140 dB. 0 dB refers to a sound dance with the human auditory system, in dB(A).
pressure of 20 µPa. The background noise level indicates the sound pressure level
which has been exceeded during 95 % of the measurement
period. It has a direct effect on speech intelligibility.

18
 acoustic quality Psychoacoustics
The acoustic quality of a room refers to its suitability for a Branch of acoustics or noise effect research which deals
particular use. with the subjective perception of objectively present sound
It is influenced by the properties of the boundary surfaces signals. Furthermore, psychoacoustics studies the influence
(walls, ceiling, floor) and the furnishings and by persons of a listener’s personal attitudes and expectations on the
present in the room. perception of sound events.

noise resonance absorber

Noise comprises all sounds which, due to their loudness and This term comprises all types of absorbers using a resonance
structure, are considered as harmful or annoying or stress- mechanism such as an enclosed air volume or a vibrating
ful for human beings and the environment. It depends on surface. Resonance absorbers are mainly suitable for ab-
the condition, preferences and mood of a person whether sorbing sound of medium to low frequencies. The maximum
sounds are perceived as noise or not. The perception of effect of resonance absorbers is usually restricted to a cer-
sounds as noise and the way in which people are affected tain frequency range (see also “porous absorbers”).
by it depend, on the one hand, on physically measurable
quantities such as the sound pressure level, pitch of a tone,
tonality and impulsiveness. On the other hand, certain sound absorber
subjective factors also play a role: at bedtime noise is per- Sound absorbers are materials which attenuate incident
ceived as extremely annoying. The same is true for activities sound or convert it into other forms of energy. A distinction
which require a high level of concentration. If we like certain has to be made between porous absorbers and resonance
sounds, we will not perceive them as annoying even at high absorbers or combinations of these absorber types.
volumes; sounds which we do not like are annoying to us
even at low volumes (e.g. certain types of music). Further-
more, how we feel at a particular time also influences our sabine formula
sensitivity to noise. If an activity is disrupted or disturbed If the volume and the total equivalent sound absorption
by one or more sounds, this is referred to as noise pollution. area of a room are known, the reverberation time can be
We are particularly sensitive to noise if verbal communica- estimated using the Sabine formula, where “T” is the rever-
tion is affected, e.g. if a loud conversation at the neighbor- beration time, “V” is the volume of the room and “A” is the
ing table makes it difficult for us to listen, and if we have to total equivalent sound absorption area.
concentrate or want to sleep. The close relationship between the volume of a room, the
sound absorption of the surfaces of this room, and the
reverberation time was discovered the physicist Wallace
reverberation time Clement Sabine (1868 - 1919). He found out that the rever-
Put simply, the reverberation time indicates the period of beration time T is proportional to the room volume V and
time it takes for a sound event to become inaudible. inversely proportional to the equivalent sound absorption
Technically, the reverberation time T has been defined as area A:
the time required for the sound pressure level in space to T = 0,163 x V / A
decay by 60 dB. The equivalent sound absorption area A is the sum of all
surfaces S present in the room, each multiplied by its cor-
responding sound absorption coefficient α:
Octave bands A = α1S1 + α 2S2 + α3S3 + … + αnSn
Acoustic parameters such as the sound pressure level or
the sound absorption coefficient are usually expressed in
increments of octaves and one-third octaves. The precise Sound absorption coefficient α
knowledge of acoustic properties in the smallest possible The sound absorption coefficient α of a material indicates
frequency steps of sound is a prerequisite for a detailed the amount of the absorbed portion of the total incident
acoustic design. For room acoustics the relevant octave sound. α = 0 means that no absorption occurs; the entire
frequencies are 125 Hz, 250 Hz, 500 Hz, 1000 Hz, 2000 Hz incident sound is reflected. If α = 0,5, 50 % of the sound
and 4000 Hz. The octave increments are obtained by energy is absorbed and 50 % is reflected. If α = 1, the entire
doubling the previous frequency. Each octave comprises incident sound is absorbed, there is no longer any reflection.
three one-third octave values (see also “single values”).

sound attenuation
porous absorbers Sound attenuation describes the ability of materials to
Porous absorbers comprise, for example, mineral fibres, absorb sound or to convert the sound energy present into
foams, carpets, fabrics, etc. The effect of the porous other forms of energy, i.e. ultimately into thermal energy
absorbers is due to the fact that sound is able to enter the (see also “sound insulation”).
open structures of the material where, by the friction of air
particles, the sound energy is converted into thermal energy
at the surface of the pores. Porous absorbers achieve their
best effect at medium and high frequencies.

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sound insulation sound waves
Sound insulation refers to the restriction of the propagation Variations in air pressure which are caused by sound events
of sound through the boundaries of a room. Sound insula- are referred to as sound waves. The length of the sound
tion is, therefore, a measure to separate rooms acoustically waves defines the frequency and their height defines the
from unwanted sound from adjacent rooms or the outside. level. Long sound waves have a low frequency and are per-
This has nothing to do, however, with the required acoustic ceived as low-pitched tones. Short sound waves have a high
sound attenuation within a room (see also “sound absorp- frequency and are perceived as high-pitched tones.
tion”). Sound insulation is a fundamental parameter of In air, a 100 Hz wave has an extension of 3.40 meters,
building acoustics. A distinction has to be made between whereas a 5000 Hz wave has an extension of approximately
airborne sound insulation and impact sound insulation. 7 centimeters.
Airborne sound is created by sound sources present in the
room which are not immediately connected to the boundary
surfaces, e.g. people who are talking. Impact sound, on the Sound masking
other hand, results from structure-borne sound (footfalls, Sound masking specifically uses natural (e.g. birds’ twitter-
knocking), which in turn excites the walls or ceilings to ing) or artificial (e.g. noise) sounds in order to blanket other
radiate airborne sound. Airborne sound insulation and sounds. This method can be used, for example, to drown
impact sound insulation both have to fulfil the requirements out information-containing sounds if the other background
established in relevant building laws. noise is too weak to mask them.

sound pressure
All sound events have in common the fact that they cause
slight variations in air pressure which can propagate in
elastic media such as air or water. We therefore refer to the
sound pressure of a tone. The heavier the pressure variations
are, the louder is the sound event. The faster the variations
occur, the higher is the frequency.

sound pressure level (Lp)

The sound pressure level (L for level and p for pressure) is a
logarithmic quantity for describing the intensity of a sound
event. The sound pressure level is often also referred to
as “sound level”, which is actually not quite correct. The
sound pressure level is expressed in decibels (abbreviated as
dB). Sound pressures are measured using microphones. The
measurable level range starts at just below 0 dB and ends at
approximately 150 to 160 dB.

sound events
General term for tones, music, bangs, noise, crackling, etc.

sound shielding
A sound shield is basically an obstacle which interrupts the
direct propagation of sound from a source to a receiver. It
can consist in a movable partition or an attachment to be
placed on top of a desk. Cabinets and other large-surface
pieces of furniture can also function as sound shields. Sound
shields can be provided with a sound absorbing surface
which additionally reduces the propagation of sound.

sound spectrum
The sound spectrum describes the frequency composition
of the sound. Pure tones are sound events of a single fre-
quency. A superposition of tones of different frequencies is
referred to as noise or sound.

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 many thanks for the support to the Akustikbüro Oldenburg

The physicists Dr. Catja Hilge and Dr. Christian Nocke founded an acoustic consulting company in Oldenburg (Germany)
in 2001. They work as specialized engineers for architects, expert witnesses for courts and consultants in the field of
acoustics. Architectural acoustics for class rooms, offices and other facilities has become one major focus of the company.

Contact data
Akustikbüro Oldenburg, Katharinenstr. 10, 26121 Oldenburg, Germany
t +49 441 7779041, f +49 441 7779042, info@akustikbuero-oldenburg.de, www.akustikbuero-oldenburg.de

Copyright EGGER Holzwerkstoffe GmbH & Co. OG, St. Johann in Tirol, Österreich

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