Tools to Improve

Quality and Quality

Diagnosis Procedure
CHAPTER 8
CHAPTER’S
OBJECTIVES
1.The Plan-Do-Check-Act Cycle
2.Ishikawa’s Basic Tools of Quality
3. The Seven New Tools for
Improvement
4.Other Tools for Performance
Measurement
PLAN-DO-
CHECK-ACT
CYCLE
 PLAN
Describe the process: list the
key tasks performed and Define customer
Describe the players:
Define the process: its sequence of steps, people expectations: what the
external and internal
start, end, and what it involved, equipment used, customer wants, when, and
environmental conditions,
customers and suppliers,
does. where, for both external
work methods, and materials and process operators.
and internal customers.
used.

Describe the perceived

Determine what historical Develop potential changes
problems associated with
data are available on Identify the primary or solutions/alternative to
the process; for instance,
process performance, or causes of the problems and the process and evaluate
failure to meet customer
what data need to be their impacts on process how these changes or
expectations, excessive
collected to better performance. solutions will address the
variation, long cycle times,
understand the process. primary causes.
and so on.

Select the most promising

solution(s).
 DO

01 02 03 04
Perform the final Conduct a pilot study Identify measures to Collect the data
alternatives solution or experiment to test understand how any
the impact of the changes or solutions
potential solution(s). are successful in
addressing the
perceived problems.
 CHECK
1 2 3
Examine the Determine whether Identify further
results of the pilot process experimentation
study or performance has that may be
experiment. improved or failed. necessary.
 Select Select the best change or solution.

Develop an implementation plan: what needs to be done, who

Develop should be involved, and when the plan should be accomplished.

ACT
Standardize the solution, for example, by writing new standard
Standardize operating procedures.

Establish a process to monitor and control process

Establish performance.
Ishikawa’s Basic
Tools of Quality
Ishikawa’s Basic Tools of Quality

Flowcharts
Check sheets
Histograms
Cause-and-effect diagrams
Pareto diagrams
Scatter diagrams
Control charts
 The basic 7 tools of quality may be used in a logical order.

Ishikawa’s
They can be used in any order.
Basic
Tools of Foster (2010), Hoshin Kanri (Policy Deployment) has been used in
Quality Japan since the 1960s as a means of implementing policy.

Implicit in Hoshin Kanri is the use of the basic seven tools of

quality.
Logical Map of the Order of the Basic Seven (B7) Tools
Flowchart/map
Data analyzed
chart – provides The root causes Finally causes
Data are using either
the team the identified using are prioritized
collected using histograms,
big picture of a cause-and- using Pareto
check sheet scatter plots, or
the process to effect-diagram. Chart.
control chart.
be improved.
 Simple Rules for Process Maps
Use the simple symbols to chart the process from the beginning, with all arcs in the process map leaving
and entering a symbol - The arcs represent the progression from one step to the next.

Develop a general process map and then fill it out by adding more detail, or a subflowchart, to each of the
elements.

Step through the process by interviewing those who perform it – as they do the work.

Determine which steps add value and which don’t in an effort to simplify the work.

Before simplifying the work, determine whether the work really needs to be done in the first place.
1. Process Maps/
Flowchart
• A picture of a process, or map of the process,
as it exists
• A flowchart or process map identifies the
sequence of activities or the flow of materials
and information in a process. Flowcharts help
the people involved in the process understand
it much better and more objectively by
providing a picture of the steps needed to
accomplish a task.
• The following set of symbols is used:
EXAMPLE:
Home Occupation
Process: Current
EXAMPLE:
Home Occupation
Process: Proposed
 1 2 3 4 5 6
Settle on a standard Clearly communicate Observe the work Develop a map of the Review the process Develop a map of the
set of process the purpose of the being performed by process. map with the improved process.
mapping symbols to be process map to all the shadowing the employees to make
used. individuals involved in workers performing needed changes and
the exercise. the work. adjustments to the
process map.

Steps in Process Mapping

 2. Check Sheet

Check sheets are special

types of data collection
Data-gathering tools that Can be either tabular,
forms in which the results
can be used to provide data computer-based, or
may be interpreted on the
for histograms schematic
form directly without
additional processing.
Setting up
a check Identify common defects occurring in the

sheet: process.

Draw a table with common defects in the

left column and time period across the
tops of the columns to track the defects.

The user of the check sheet then places

check marks on the sheet whenever the
defect is encountered.
EXAMPLE:
 3. Histograms
• Graphical representations of data in bar format.
• Used for continuous numerical data and to observe the shape of the
data.
• Histograms provide clues about the characteristics of the parent
population from which a sample is taken. Patterns that would be
difficult to see in an ordinary table of numbers become apparent.
• Displays large amounts of data that are difficult to interpret in
tabular form
• Shows centering, variation, and shape
• Illustrates the underlying distribution of the data
• Provides useful information for predicting future performance
• Helps to answer “Is the process capable of meeting requirements?
 4. Scatter Diagram
Supplies the data to Provides both a visual
Provides a good follow-
confirm a hypothesis and statistical means
up to cause and effect
that two variables are to test the strength of
diagrams
related a relationship

Charts used to
Sometimes used to
examine the
identify indicator
relationships between
variables in
variables; also called
organizations.
scatter plots.
Steps to set up a
scatter plot:
1. Determine your x (independent) and y
(dependent) variables.
2. Gather process data relating to the
variables identified in Step 1.
3. Plot the data on a two-dimensional plane.
4. Observe the plotted data to see whether
there is a relationship between the
variables.
EXAMPLE:
 5. Control Chart
• Charts used to determine whether a process will produce a product or service with consistent measurable properties
• Show the performance and the variation of a process or some quality or productivity indicator over time in a graphical
fashion that is easy to understand and interpret. They also identify process changes and trends over time and show the
effects of corrective actions.
• Monitors performance of one or more processes over time to detect trends, shifts, or cycles
• Allows a team to compare performance before and after implementation of a solution to measure its impact
• Focuses attention on truly vital changes in the process
• Focuses attention on detecting and monitoring process variation over time
• Distinguishes special from common causes of variation
• Serves as a tool for on-going control
• Provides a common language for discussion process performance
EXAMPLE
 • A tool to help move to lower levels of abstraction in
solving problems
6. Cause- • A cause-and-effect diagram is a simple graphical

and-Effect method for presenting a chain of causes and

effects and for sorting out causes and organizing

(Ishikawa relationships between variables.

• Enables a team to focus on the content of a
Diagrams) problem, not on the history of the problem or
differing personal interests of team members
• Creates a snapshot of collective knowledge and
consensus of a team; builds support for solutions
• Focuses the team on causes, not symptoms
Steps to create a cause-and-effect diagram:

Draw the backbone and the Continue to fill out the

ribs by asking participants diagram asking “Why?”
State the problem clearly
to identify major causes of about each problem or
in the head of the fish.
the problems labeled in the cause of a problem until
head of the diagram. the fish is filled out.

View the diagram and Set goals to address the

identify core causes. core causes.
EXAMPLE:
• Looks like the
skeleton of a fish
• Problem = Head
• Ribs = Major
causes
• Bones = Subcases
 7. Pareto Diagram

A Pareto Chart/Distribution is one in

which the characteristics observed are
ordered from largest frequency to Helps a team focus on causes that have
smallest. A Pareto diagram is a histogram the greatest impact
of the data from the largest frequency to
the smallest.

Helps prevent “shifting the problem”

Displays the relative importance of
where the solution removes some causes
problems in a simple visual format
but worsens others
01 02 03
Information must be Data must be A frequency chart
selected based on collected and must be constructed,
types or classified into showing the number
classifications of categories. of occurrences in
defects that occur as descending order.
a result of a process.

Rules for constructing Pareto charts:

Steps in Pareto
analysis:
1. Gather categorical data
relating to quality
problems.
2. Draw a frequency chart
of the data.
3. Focus on the tallest bars
in the frequency chart
first when solving the
problem.
The Seven New Tools
for Improvement
New Seven (N7)
Tools for Activity
Improvement network
Affinity
diagram
diagram

Process
Interrelations
decision
hip digraph
program chart

Prioritization Matrix
matrices diagram

Tree
diagram
Typical Flow of
the Seven
Management
and Planning
Tools
 A tool that helps a group converge on a set number of themes or ideas
that can be addressed later by creating a hierarchy of ideas on a large
surface.

Useful to first surface all the issues associated with the problem. Look
likes brainstrom activities

1. The Gathers large amounts of intertwined verbal data (ideas, opinions, issues)

Affinity
Diagram Organizes the data into groups based on natural relationship

Makes it feasible for further analysis and to find a solution to the

problem.

It creates a hierarchy of ideas on a large surface.

 Give the team members a
supply of note cards and a
Identify the problem to pen and have them write Allow only about 10
be stated. down issues that relate to minutes for this activity.
the problem (one idea per

Steps in
card).

Place the written cards on

Lay out the finished cards
so all participants can see
Let everyone on the team
(silently) move the cards
establishing
an affinity
a flat surface. and have access to all the into groups with a similar
cards. theme.

diagram
You reach consensus when
If you disagree with Draw a finished affinity
all the cards are in groups,
someone else’s placement diagram and provide a
and the team members
of a notecard, say nothing, working copy for all
have stopped moving the
but move it. participants.
cards.
EXAMPLE:
 2. The Interrelationship
Digraph

• A tool that shows the relationship between different issues by

understanding the causal relationships between the different issues
that surfaced
• After completing the affinity diagram, it might be useful to
understand the causal relationships between the different issues that
surfaced.
• For Finding Solutions Strategies by Clarifying
• Relationships with Complex Interrelated Causes
• Resolves tangled issues by unraveling the logical connection
• Allows for “Multi-directional” thinking rather than linear
• Helpful to identify the most important issues to be focused in
pursuing the solution to a problem.
 Steps to complete the interrelationship
digraph

Construct Create Count Identify Draw

Construct an Create the digraph After reviewing the Identify the cards Draw a double box
affinity diagram to by examining the arrows and making with the most around the key
identify the issues cards one by one, needed revisions, arrows as the “key factors and
relating to a asking “What other count the numbers factors.” brainstorm ways to
problem. issues on this of arrows pointing address these
digraph are caused to each note, and issues.
or influenced by write the numbers
this issue?” on the notes.
EXAMPLE:
 3. Tree Diagram
• A tool that is used to identify the steps needed to
address the given problem
• For Systematically Pursuing the Best Strategies for
Attaining an Objective
• Develops a succession of strategies for achieving
objectives
• Reveals methods to achieve the results.
• Also known as Systematic diagrams or Dendrograms or
very similar to work breakdown structure.
 Steps used to complete a tree diagram

1 2 3 4
Assemble the header cards Once the goal statement has Once the major tasks have Continue doing this for
from the affinity diagram and been determined, ask “What been identified, move to the successive levels until you
choose the card that are the steps required to next level under each task have exhausted your ideas
represents the most resolve or achieve this major and ask this for second-level for steps.
important issue. objective or goal?” tasks: “What are the steps
required to resolve or achieve
this objective or goal?”
EXAMPLE:
 4. Prioritization Grid
A tool used to make Some people refer
Ranking is based on
decisions based on to Force-Field
several alternative.
multiple criteria Ranking

The criteria is based

The decision is
on numerical score
based on the high-
such as 1=very weak
ranking score.
and 5=very strong.
 Steps in making a prioritization grid

Apply a percentage weight to

Determine your goal, your Average the individual ratings
Place the selection criteria in each of the criteria for each
alternatives, and the criteria for each criterion, then rank
order from most important to option and apply a weight to
by which a decision is to be those average scores, with the
least important. each of the criteria such that
made. highest averages ranked as 1.
all the weights add up to 1.

Rank each alternative with

respect to the criteria and Multiply the final criteria
add the rates for each ranking (Step 4) by each Rank each alternative
Add the importance scores
alternative, then rank the sum corresponding alternative’s according to importance. (The
for each alternative.
of the scores for each rank (Step 5) to calculate an lower the score, the better).
alternative to determine final indifference score.
criteria rankings.
Example:
C r i te r i a C u sto m e r A c c e p ta n c e S tr e n g th I m p o r ta n c e O p ti o n
(m o st i m p o r ta n t) C o st R e l i a b i l i ty (l e a st i m p o r ta n t) S u m S c o r e R a n kin g
O p ti o n s
D e s ig n A
P e rc e n t a g e w e ig h t .40 .30 .20 .10
Rank 4 3 3 1
Im p o rt a n c e s c o re 1.6 .90 .60 .10 3.2 1 (t ie )
D e s ig n B
P e rc e n t a g e w e ig h t .30 .40 .10 .20
Rank 3 4 1 2
Im p o rt a n c e s c o re .90 1.6 .10 .40 3.0 2
D e s ig n C
P e rc e n t a g e w e ig h t .25 .25 .25 .25
Rank 1 2 4 3
Im p o rt a n c e s c o re .25 .50 1 .75 2.5 3
D e s ig n D
P e rc e n t a g e w e ig h t 0.3 .10 .20 .40
Rank 3 1 3 4
Im p o rt a n c e s c o re .90 .10 .60 1.6 3.2 1 (t ie )
S u m o f w e ig h t s 1.25 1.05 .75 .95
A ve ra g e w e ig h t .31 .26 .19 .24
C rit e rio n R a n k in g 1 2 4 3
 • A brainstorming tool that can be
used in a group to show the
relationships between ideas or issues

5. Matrix
• For Clarifying Problems by “Thinking
Multidimensionally”
• Is similar in the concept of QFD –

Diagram
using symbol
• Consists of a two-dimensional array
to determine location and nature of
problem
• Discovers key ideas by relationships
represented by the cells in matrix
Steps involved in
creating a matrix
diagram

• Determine the number of issues or

dimensions to be used in the matrix.
• Choose the appropriate matrix.
• Place the appropriate symbols in the
matrix.
EXAMPLE:
6. Process
Decision
Program Chart

• A tool used to help

brainstorm possible
contingencies or
problems associated
with the
implementation of
some program or
improvement
Steps to create a process decision
program chart
• When developing the tree diagram, place the first-level boxes in sequential
order.
• In the second level, list implementation details at a fairly high level and try
to be all-inclusive at a macro level.
• At the third level, ask “What unexpected things could happen in this
implementation?” or “What can go awry at this stage?”
• At the fourth level, brainstorm possible countermeasures to the problems
identified at the third level.
• Evaluate the countermeasures for feasibility, and mark those that are
feasible with an O and those that are not feasible with an X.
EXAMPLE:
7. Activity Network Diagram

A tool used for controlling projects:

• Also known as a program evaluation and
review technique (PERT) diagram or a
critical path diagram.
• Nodes are circles, and times are given in
days.
EXAMPLE:
Other Tools for Performance
Measurement
1. Spider Chart
2. Balance Scorecard
3. Dashboard
1. Spider
Charts
• Graphs that present multiple metrics
simultaneously in a two-dimensional plane
2. Balanced • Spreadsheets that are communicated to management
on a regular basis – weekly, monthly, quarterly, and
Scorecards annually.
3. Dashboards
• Tools that quickly
communicate performance
levels, with a focus on
easy, clear communication
THE END