FLOW

Prepared By: Dr. Alexis John M. Rubio

Introduction
The accurate measurement of fluid flow is very important in
many industrial applications.
Optimum performance of many processes requires specific
flow rates. The cost of many liquids and gases are based on
the measured flow through a pipeline, making it necessary for
accounting purposes to accurately measure and control the
rate of flow.
This lecture discusses the basic terms, formulas, and
techniques used in flow measurements and flow
instrumentation.
Introduction
Highly accurate and rugged flow devices have now been
developed and are commercially available.
Developments in technology are continually improving
measurement devices [1, 2]. However, one single flow device
is not suitable for all applications, and careful selection is
required.
Fluid Flow
At low flow rates, fluids have a laminar flow characteristic. As
the flow rate increases, the laminar flow starts to break up and
becomes turbulent.
The speed of the liquid in a fluid flow varies across the flow.
Where the fluid is in contact with the constraining walls (the
boundary layer), the velocity of the liquid particles is virtually
zero, while in the center of the flow, the liquid particles have
the maximum velocity. Thus, the average rate of flow is used in
flow calculations.
Fluid Flow
The units of velocity are normally feet per second (ft./s), or
meters per second (m/s). In a liquid, the fluid particles tend to
move smoothly in layers with laminar flow, as shown in Figure
9.1(a). The velocity of the particles across the liquid takes a
parabolic shape.
With turbulent flow, the particles no longer flow smoothly in
layers, and turbulence, or a rolling effect, occurs. This is shown
in Figure 9.1(b). Note also the flattening of the velocity profile.
Fluid Flow
Flow Patterns
Flow can be considered to be laminar, turbulent, or a
combination of both.
Osborne Reynolds observed in 1880 that the flow pattern
could be predicted from physical properties of the liquid.
If the Reynolds number(R) for the flow in a pipe is equal to or
less than 2,000, the flow will be laminar. If the Reynolds
number ranges from 2,000 to approximately 5,000, this is the
intermediate region, where the flow can be laminar,
turbulent, or a mixture of both, depending upon other factors.
Flow Patterns
Beyond approximately 5,000, the flow is always turbulent. The
Reynolds number is a derived dimensionless relationship,
combining the density and viscosity of a liquid with its velocity
of flow and the cross-sectional dimensions of the flow, and
takes the form:

where V is the average fluid velocity, D is the diameter of the

pipe, ρ is the density of the liquid, and µ is the absolute
viscosity.
Flow Patterns
Dynamic or absolute viscosity is used in the Reynolds flow
equation. Table 9.1 gives a list of viscosity conversions.
Typically, the viscosity of a liquid decreases as temperature
increases. A conversion from absolute to kinematic viscosity in
Imperial units can be expressed as:
ν= µ/ρ
Where:
ν = kinematic viscosity (m2/s)
µ = absolute or dynamic viscosity (N s/m2)
ρ = density (kg/m3)
Flow Patterns
Example
What is the Reynolds number for glycerin flowing at 7.5 ft/s in a
17-in diameter pipe? The viscosity of glycerin is 18 × 10-3 lb s/ft2
and the density is 2.44 lb/ft3
Flow Patterns
Flow rate is the volume of fluid passing a given point in a
given amount of time, and is typically measured in gallons
per minute (gal/min), cubic feet per minute (ft3/min), liters per
minute (L/min), and so forth. Table 9.2 gives the flow rate
conversion factors.
Flow Patterns
In a liquid flow, the pressures can be divided into the
following:
(1) static pressure, which is the pressure of fluids or gases that
are stationary (see point A in Figure 9.2);
(2) dynamic pressure, which is the pressure exerted by a fluid
or gas when it impacts on a surface (point B – A); and
(3) impact pressure (total pressure), which is the sum of the
static and dynamic pressures on a surface, as shown by
point B in Figure 9.2.
Flow Patterns
Continuity Equation
The continuity equation states that if the overall flow rate in a
system is not changing with time [see Figure 9.3 (a)], then the
flow rate in any part of the system is constant.
From which:
where Q is the flow rate, V is the average velocity, and A is the
cross-sectional area of the pipe. The units on both sides of the
equation must be compatible (i.e., English units or metric units)
Continuity Equation
Example
What is the flow rate in liters per second through a pipe 32 cm
in diameter, if the average velocity is 2.1 m/s?
Continuity Equation
If liquids are flowing in a tube with different cross-sectional
areas, such as A1 and A2 as shown in Figure 9.3(b), then the
continuity equation gives:
Example
If a pipe changes from a diameter of 17 to 11 cm, and the
velocity in the 17cm section is 5.4 m/s, what is the average
velocity in the 11cm section?
Continuity Equation
Mass flow rate (F) is related to volume flow rate (Q) by:

where F is the mass of liquid flowing, and ρ is the density of

the liquid. Since a gas is compressible, must be
modified for gas flow to:

where γ1 and γ2 are specific weights of the gas in the two

sections of pipe.
Continuity Equation
is the rate of mass flow in the case of a gas.
However, this could also apply to liquid flow, by multiplying
both sides of the equation by the specific weight (γ), to give
the following:
Bernoulli Equation
The Bernoulli equation (1738) gives the relation between
pressure, fluid velocity, and elevation in a flow system. When
applied to Figure 9.4(a), the following is obtained:

where PA and PB are absolute static pressures at points A and

B, γA and γB are specific weights, VA and VB are average fluid
velocities, g is the acceleration of gravity, and ZA and ZB are
elevations above a given reference level (e.g., ZA− ZB is the
head of fluid).
Bernoulli Equation
The units in are consistent, and reduce to units of
length as follows:
Bernoulli Equation
Bernoulli Equation
This equation is a conservation of energy equation, and
assumes no loss of energy between points A and B. The first
term represents energy stored due to pressure; the second
term represents kinetic energy, or energy due to motion; and
the third term represents potential energy, or energy due to
height. This energy relationship can be seen if each term is
multiplied by mass per unit volume, which cancels, since the
mass per unit volume is the same at points A and B. The
equation can be used between any two positions in a flow
system. The pressures used in the Bernoulli equation must be
absolute pressures.
Bernoulli Equation
Example
If the height of a column of water h in Figure 9.4(b) is 7.5m,
what is the pressure at P2? Assume the areas at points 2 and 3
are 0.48 m2 and 0.3 m2, respectively?
Flow Losses
The Bernoulli equation does not take into account
flow losses. These losses are accounted for by
pressure losses, and fall into two categories:
(1) those associated with viscosity and the friction
between the constriction walls and the flowing fluid;
(2) those associated with fittings, such as valves,
elbows, tees, and so forth.
The flow rate Q from the continuity equation for
point 3 in Figure 9.4(b), for instance, gives:
Flow Losses
However, to account for the outlet losses, the
equation should be modified to:

where CD is the discharge coefficient,

Flow Losses
Frictional losses are given by:

where hL is the head loss, f is the friction factor, L is the

length of pipe, D is the diameter of pipe, V is the
average fluid velocity, and g is the gravitation
constant.
Example
What is the head loss in a 2-in diameter pipe 120-ft long?
The friction factor is 0.03 and the average velocity in the pipe
is 11 fps.
Flow Losses
Fitting losses are given by:

where hL is the head loss due to fittings, K is the head

loss coefficient for various fittings, V is the average
fluid velocity, and g is the gravitation constant.
Flow Losses
Example
Fluid is flowing at 3.7 ft/s through one inch fittings as follows:
7 × 90° ells,
5 x tees,
2 x gauge valves, and
19 x couplings.
What is the head loss?
Flow Losses
To take into account losses due to friction and fittings, the
Bernouilli Equation is modified as follows:
Flow Losses
The force depends on the shape of the insert, and can be
calculated from:

where F is the force on the object, CD is the drag coefficient, is

the specific weight, g is the acceleration due to gravity, A is
the cross-sectional area of obstruction, and V is the average
fluid velocity.
Flow Losses
Example
A 7.3-in diameter ball is traveling through the air with a velocity
of 91 ft/s. If the specific weight of the air is 0.0765 lb/ft3 and CD
= 0.35, what is the force acting on the ball?
THANK YOU