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ieginners Guide to
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REPAIR

BY
GEORGE
ZWICK
 BEGINNER'S
GUIDE
TO TV REPAIR
By George Zwick

eb TAB BOOKS
Blue Ridge Summit, Pa. 17214
 FIRST EDITION

FIRST PRINTING—MARCH 1971

Copyright o 1971 by TAB BOOKS

Printed in the United States

of America

Reproduction or publication of the content in any manner, with-

out express permission of the publisher, is prohibited. No liability
is assumed with respect to the use of the information herein.

Library of Congress Card Number: 73-147381

 Preface

To serve a useful purpose, a preface should be a sort of ab-

stract or summary stating what a book is about as well as
what it is not. For the sake of absolute clarity, we shall first
state what this book is not. First, it is not acomplete course in
TV repair. It will not teach you how to do jobs that can be done
only by a competent, experienced TV repairman. This in-
cludes many and varied tasks, as, for example, the
replacement of the picture tube (the large hunk of glass that is
your screen) and the subsequent adjustments—a task
definitely not in the beginner category.
Second, this book will not teach or recommend any repair
involving personal hazard. There are such repairs in the
complex machine called aTV set, particularly acolor TV set,
and no man, however "handy" or "mechanically inclined,"
should be foolhardy enough to attempt any of these.
Finally, the book will not suggest any repair in which
there is a low probability of success. To do so would likely do
more harm than good, as it is liable to condition the TV owner
to accept a mediocre, substandard level of performance,
rationalizing that this is "the best he can get."
What does the book intend to accomplish? It is the purpose
of this book to enable anyone interested enough to learn the
basics of TV repair so that he can keep his receiver per-
forming at its best, by following asafe, simple, preventive and
corrective maintenance program that requires no specialized
tools or equipment. This maintenance includes such things as
adjustments to compensate for aging, degradation, image
distortion, etc. It also tells how to correct such defects as
improper illumination (brightness-contrast), picture in-
stability (rolling-tearing), and overloading (smearing, etc.).
In addition, the book includes procedures on how to remedy
such catastrophic defects as loss of vertical (decrease in
picture height to a thin horizontal line), loss of sound, loss of
picture, loss of both sound and picture, as well as such
frightening symptoms as smoke, crackling and frying sounds,
etc.
 In the case of color receivers the "uninitiated" will find
that the book "solves" the mystery of color without creating
new technical mysteries, by showing that the color TV
receiver is basically a black-and-white set with added
capabilities.
A few remarks are appropriate regarding the status of the
"beginner" as compared to aprofessional TV serviceman. We
counsel against a beginner attempting repairs beyond his
capability, possibly doing more harm than good. That is why
we do not recommend soldering jobs, especially in
semiconductor (transistor) circuits, where a deft hand aided
by special tools and specialized experience is a prerequisite.
That is also why we caution against certain "dangerous" jobs
such as picture tube replacement, although these are ob-
viously not dangerous to the professional. And that is also why
we caution against "diddling" with IF adjustments (those
little screwdriver adjustments you see on the chassis) which
are originally made at the factory with the aid of sophisticated
oscilloscopes and sweep generators and which the
professional repairman has aright to find undisturbed if he is
to do agood job at afair expenditure of time.
The technical level of the book is necessarily different for
different users. While the more experienced reader may find
some of the detailed explanations somewhat naive, these same
explanations may be nothing short of astounding revelations
to the uninitiated. However, the overall level of the subject
matter is such that the average reader will be able to progress
from page to page without difficulty, so that what may at first
glance seem too technical and overwhelming will in due
course become quite logical, fairly simple, and relatively easy
to accomplish.
Lastly, and by no means negligible, the book is intended to
perform a needed service for those who do not ever wish to
tinker with a TV set but who would very much like to have a
layman's understanding of a TV receiver: how it works and
why it fails, without resorting to engineering or mathematics
or even technical language. For there is a great advantage to
be gained from an intelligent appreciation of how any
household appliance works, especially so atelevision receiver,
even if only to be able to talk intelligently to a professional
repairman, as well as listen to him understandingly.

George Zwick
 Contents

1 THE TV SYSTEM 7
Basic Sound and Picture Systems—Original Sound to
Reproduced Sound—Original Picture Image to Radio
Signal

HOW A TV RECEIVER WORKS 21

2 The Antenna System —The TV Receiver

COLOR TV & HOW IT WORKS 41

3 Nature of the Visual Spectrum—The Color Transmitter—
The Color Receiver—The Color Picture Tube

THE COLOR -ONLY SECTIONS 54

4 Burst Amplifier—Color Sync & Oscillator Control—Burst
Oscillator—Color Demodulators—Color Amplifiers—
Color Killer—Convergence—Color Picture Tube Circuits

5 INTRODUCTION TO TROUBLESHOOTING 64
Equipment—Tube Substitution—Special Series-Parallel
Filaments—Tube "Pulling"—Testing by Substitution

OPERATING ADJUSTMENTS 80
6 Vertical Size—Vertical Linearity—Vertical Roll—Freak
Sync Trouble—Horizontal Size or Width—Horizontal
Linearity—Horizontal Drive—Pincushion Correction—
Centering—Focusing—Ion Trap—Magnets: Cautionl—
Other Horizontal Defects

PRELIMINARY TROUBLESHOOTING 110

7 Blooming—Defocusing—Picture Dim and Blooming When
the Set is Cold—Hum, Buzz—Multiple Pictures—Line
Noise & Line Noise Filters
8 TROUBLESHOOTING PROCEDURES
No Picture, No Sound—No Power to the TV Set—No
120

Picture, No Sound, No Raster—Tubes Light—No Picture,

No Sound, Raster OK—No Sound, Picture OK—"Snow"—
Sound OK, Picture Missing—Dim Picture Not Covering
Full Screen—Picture Dim—Brightness and-or Contrast
Ineffective—Heavy Black-and-white Bars—Picture
"Smoking"—Sound Bars—"Herringbone Weave"—Loss
of Fine Detail—Smear—Line "Pairing"—"Short" or
"Fire"

TROUBLESHOOTING THE COLOR

SECTION 145
No Color—B & W Normal—Weak Colors—Color Func-
tions—Individual Color Adjustments—Color In-
terdependence—Red Missing—Blue and Green Missing—
Blue Only Missing—Colors Present—Picture "Broken
Up"—Color TV Antennas
 Chapter 1

The TV System

Before embarking on a detailed, nontechnical description of

various portions of a modern TV system, it is desirable to
present a brief synopsis of the overall process, from end to
end, in order to provide acontinuity of visualization so that as
you read about aparticular step in the system you will have in
the back of your mind, so to speak, the complete picture of the
overall purpose and end result to be achieved.

BASIC SOUND AND PICTURE SYSTEMS

The TV system, whether monochrome (black and white)

or color, consists of two distinct transmitter-receiver
systems—the sound (audio) system and the picture (video)
system. The interconnections and any commonalities between
the two systems is entirely incidental; in other words, it is not
essential that there be any common connections or functions
between the two systems—it is done merely for economy and
convenience. Let it be thoroughly understood that aphysically
separate sound system alongside a corresponding totally
independent picture system would be just as feasible from a
strictly technical viewpoint.
The sound system is essentially the same as the FM
portion found in AM-FM receivers. The FM sound part of the
TV signal picked up by your antenna has the same general
characteristics of an FM signal—namely, high immunity to
noise (static, electrical interference, etc.), relatively short-
range reception capability, and (potentially) a higher sound
quality. Fig. 1-1 shows, in "block diagram" form, the major
components of the TV sound system.
Fig. 1-2 shows in similar form, the building blocks of the
video (picture) system. This is an AM signal (like the AM
music stations) and is subject to the same general conditions
accompanying AM station reception—fading, freak long-
distance reception, interference (streaks, etc., across the
screen) and so on.

7
Fig. 1-1. Simplified block diagram of a sound transmitter
(A) and a sound receiver (B). Notice that the two systems
are virtually "mirror images" of each other.

Terminology

A few words about the terminology we just used might not

be out of order here. AM stands for amplitude modulation and
signifies a system of radio transmission and reception in
which the magnitude of the electric signal varies directly
(modulated) with the loudness of the voice or music or with
the brightness of the image in case of a TV picture. Since
electrical noise can add to or subtract from such an electric
signal, it is only logical that such noise is reproduced by the
receiver as physical noise (static, clicks, etc.) or as streaks,
dashes, etc., on the TV screen. In other words, AM is not
immune to noise.
FM stands for frequency modulation. This system ignores
any variations in size of the radio signal as might be caused by
the addition of noise to the signal and transmits and receives
sound information by means of a variation in the spacings
(modulation) between adjacent waves. Technically, both
picture and sound could be AM or FM, but there are other
reasons for the present use of FM sound and AM picture.

8
Transmitting and Receiving Systems

In Figs. 1-1A and 1-2A the vertical dashed lines define the
three distinct major functions of each transmitting system. On
the extreme left of Fig. 1-1A is the microphone which changes
sound waves to electric currents. In Fig. 1-2A the camera
performs the corresponding function of changing light into
electric energy. The middle sections of both Figs. 1-1A and 1-
2A serve the major function of amplification (enlargement) of
the faint electric currents, as well as modifying them to a
format suitable for transmission from an antenna. The right-
hand section of Figs. 1-1A and 1-2A actually radiates the
electrical energy from the transmitting antennas into space,
to be "received" by many receiving antennas.
The receiving systems (Figs. 1-1B 1-2B) are virtually the
mirror opposite of the transmitting systems just described. On
the extreme left are the receiving antennas, located so as to
"get in the way" of the radiated energy from the transmitters.
(That is why receiving antenna location is so important.) The
middle section of each receiver amplifies or builds up the very
small signals to the levels necessary for proper reproduction.
The right-hand sections reproduce sound waves from the
electrical energy in the sound signal and form pictures from
the electrical energy carried in the picture (video) signal.

TRANSMITTING ANTENNA
I
I

I
CAMERA A

\7\ RECEIVING ANTENNA

I
I
"RADIO"

AMPLIFIER

I PICTURE TUBE

Fig. 1-2. Simplified block diagram of a picture transmitter

(A) and a picture receiver (B).

9
ORIGINAL SOUND TO REPRODUCED SOUND

Sound Waves

All sound (voice, music or noise) is produced by aphyscial

force which sets the air into vibration. The amount of force
applied to the air determines the loudness of the sound, while
the different pitch (from bass to a whistle) results from the
rate (speed) of vibration of the air.

The Microphone

The microphone is a device which converts mechanical

energy (air pressure or vibration) into electrical energy. The
amount of the electrical energy produced depends on the
physical force applied (sound loudness); the pitch of the
original sound determines the frequency (numerical rate of
vibration) of the electrical energy produced. For sound the
frequency may be as low as 20 vibrations per second (a deep,
organ note) and as high as 20,000 vibrations a second (a very
high-pitched whistle). Incidentally, ordinary household AC
has a frequency of 60 vibrations (or cycles, or Hertz) per
second.

The Amplifier

These electrical devices, using either tubes or transistors,

have but one function—to faithfully enlarge the feeble elec-
trical currents emanating from the microphone. No one tube
or transistor can provide all the amplification that is required,
so there usually are a number of amplifiers, following each
other, each amplifying the output of the preceding amplifier or
stage, until the required maximum is obtained.

Audio and Radio Frequencies

To attain a useful understanding of TV transmission and

reception it is essential to clarify the concept of frequency. As
was mentioned earlier, electrical energy exists in awave-like
phenomenon, just as sound energy is carried by air waves, not
unlike the waves (or ripples) caused by a disturbance in the
water. The term frequency is used to indicate just that: the
number of times a wave recurs in a certain period of time,
usually 1second. Thus, in all future reference to frequency in
this book, the meaning will be the same: the number of waves
(or cycles) per second. As stated before, audio (sound)
frequencies (audible to the ear) or AF are assumed to extend

10
from about 20 cycles per second (deep organ note) to about
20,000 cycles (20 kilocycles or 20 KC) per second for a very
shrill whistle. Above 20,000 or 30,000 cycles, they are called
radio frequencies (RF for short), extending through AM and
FM radio, TV and radar transmitting and receiving
frequencies to the near-optical (light) portion of the spectrum.
Here we find first infrared (invisible heat waves), followed by
the visible light spectrum (red through violet), the ultraviolet
(again invisible) and on to X rays, etc. Video (picture)
frequencies are related to television. They stand for those
frequencies which carry picture information and extend from
about 20 cycles per second to about 4,000,000 cycles per second
(4 megacycles).
Until several years ago, frequencies in the entire spec-
trum from audio through invisible light were referred to as
cycles per second, thousands of cycles per second (kilocycle),
millions of cycles per second (megacycle), etc. Now by
international standards the term "Hertz" is used instead of
cycles per second. (Heinrich Hertz, a German physicist, was
the first to demonstrate the production and reception of
electromagnetic or radio waves.) Thousands of cycles is
referred to as kilohertz (kHz), etc.

A final note on waves and frequencies: The higher the

frequencies, the shorter the length of the wave. For example:
The sound wave of a telephone bell (with a frequency of, say,
1000 Hz) is approximately 186 miles long! By contrast, the
radio wave transmitted by a UHF television station is little
more than 1 foot long. (This explains why the elements or
metal rods of aUHF TV antenna are so much shorter than the
corresponding VHF types.) While any frequency can be
transmitted from place to place over wires, only those classed
as radio frequencies (RF) can be sent through space
("wireless" transmission).

RF and AF Amplifiers

The middle sections of our simple diagrams in Figs. 1-1

and 1-2 consist mainly of amplifiers and accessory devices and
controls. Those immediately following the microphone are
audio amplifiers, as stated previously. However, in order to
transmit this audio economically and efficiently over great
distances, a temporary change is made. The audio wave is
superimposed (that is, it modulates) on a radio wave
piggyback style. This combined RF -AF energy is further
amplified and finally applied to the antenna.

11
 Antennas

A transmitting antenna has but one function: To radiate

the energy applied to it, in the desired direction (or in all
directions), in the most efficient manner possible. While the
obvious purposes of the receiving and transmitting antennas
seem to be quite different from each other, they actually
behave very much alike. Incidentally, despite many claims to
the contrary, there is no substitute or shortcut worthy of its
name for a high grade, elaborate antenna, whether for
transmitting or receiving.
At the receiving end, the antenna does not radiate
energy—it collects. Located in the path of the radiated energy,
the receiving antenna collects or acquires a very small
sampling of the original energy or signal as radio waves cross
it. By means of atransmission line (sometimes called lead-in)
the intercepted signal is carried to the input of the receiver.
It is unfortunate but true that while a properly designed
receiving antenna will favor the stations (frequencies) for
which it was designed and discriminate against others, it is
fairly helpless in rejecting undesirable electrical energy, such
as noise, static, etc. The transmission line, or lead-in, is
equally susceptible to noise or static pickup, although
something can be done here. "Shielding," or protecting the
lead-in from surrounding electrical noise, is feasible. The
antenna itself cannot be shielded (or it won't receive any
signals); the only recourse lies in the selection of a suitable
location where noise is at a minimum.
Receiver

The amplifier sequence in the receiver is virtually a

mirror reflection of that in the transmitter. The amplifiers
immediately following the antenna amplify the combined
(AF -RF or modulated RF) signal to the required level. Next,
and in the same general portion of the receiver, areversal of
the modulation process takes place by a device called a
demodulator or detector. This reversal consists of "stripping"
the RF, which has served its purpose, from the signal, leaving
only the audio frequency signal. Further amplification now
takes place until the AF signal is sufficiently strong to operate
a speaker or headphones.

The Speaker
In function, aspeaker or loudspeaker is the exact opposite
of the microphone. Electrical energy in the form of audio
waves is applied to the speaker, where it is converted to the

12
mechanical motion of a surface usually called the speaker
cone. The cone vibrates faster or slower depending on the
frequency (pitch) of the corresponding original sound waves
and sets the air in similar motion. The loudness of the sound
depends on the distance the cone moves, which in turn depends
on the "strength" or size of the electrical wave applied to it.

ORIGINAL PICTURE IMAGE TO RADIO SIGNAL

We shall trace the sequence of steps necessary to convert

a visual scene into an electromagnetic energy wave suitable
for transmission in space. After the conversion from light to
electrical energy has been accomplished in the camera the
remaining functions are very similar to the sound-to-radio
waves-to-sound process just described. The functions to be
described apply equally to monochrome and color trans-
mission and reception and should give you a clear non-
technical concept of what is going on so that you will be able to
deduce what went wrong and where when the TV set performs
unsatisfactorily or fails to perform altogether.

The Physical Image

All images—persons, scenes or what-have-you—are seen

by the human eye because of the light they emit or reflect. It is
quite obvious that all such images are color images. In ad-
dition, the various colors reaching the eye are of different light
intensity. Thus, we commonly say dark brown, or dazzling
white, or bright yellow, etc., suggesting that we see, in ad-
dition to different colors, different degrees of light intensity.
The best example of this is aso-called black-and-white picture
made by acamera, where all colors become different shades
of black and white. A person's face is brighter than his shoes,
but not as bright as his white shirt, etc. In a manner of
speaking, our descriptions of different colors are given in
terms of brightness or dimness, with the notion of color being a
separate characteristic of the object or scene we are viewing.

The Photographic Recording

To the human eye, ascene or object presents acontinuous

range of color and illumination. Actually, however, this
seeming continuous image is but acomposite of many discrete
little areas, each of which may differ from its neighbor either
in color, in brightness or both. In a black-and-white
photograph, the image is actually made up of tiny specs of the
image spaced from each other. The concept of grain (fine

13
 grain photograph, for instance) refers to just this particle
structure. While the color photograph is claimed to be
grainless, this is but a relative term in contrast with the
chemical grain structure of the black-and-white picture.

The Halftone

A practical example of adiscrete particles composition of

an image is the familiar newpaper or magazine photograph.
Viewed with the naked eye, such a photograph looks smooth
and continuous. Under a magnifying glass, however, the
picture is revealed as consisting of individual dots with clear
spaces between dots. The shading in the picture depends on
the "weight" of the black dots in comparison to the adjacent
white spaces. While this composition is due to the technique of
mass reproduction (newspaper printing, etc.), the fact
remains that images of very high quality can be and are
reproduced by the discrete dot structure.

Conversion of Image Dots Into Electric Signals

The first step in producing a television signal is the con-

version of light (optical energy) into electricity. It begins with
a photographic-type camera, lenses, focusing, viewfinders
and all. However, here is where the similarity ends. Instead of
projecting the image onto a ground glass (as in studio
cameras) or on a photographic film (any camera) it is
projected onto a special electro-chemical surface called a
photo mosaic. Incidentally, the projected image may be quite
small, often not much larger than apostage stamp.
Next, an electron beam or stream scans the mosaic
image, one spot at a time, as if "reading" the bits of the
image. Each time the electron stream impinges on one of the
spots of the mosaic image, an electric current is generated
having characteristics peculiar to that particle; i.e., the
electric pulse or current from that image particle contains
information necessary to reproduce this image particle on the
home TV screen.
There is also included with each such electric pulse the
position or location information, both in the vertical and the
horizontal directions. This positioning information is trans-
mitted and received by the home TV antenna, faithfully
amplified and reproduced, and finally used to guide the
electron beam in the TV picture tube for proper positioning of
the image particle.
A simple example of an "electron gun" used to produce a
scanning beam is found in the neck portion of a TV picture

14
tube. It is composed of the glowing heater (seen from the
outside) and a number of positioning "electrodes" (metallic
plates, baffles and wires) inside the tube neck. A simplified
version of the scanning process, both in the TV camera and
ultimately on the TV set screen is as follows:
The glowing heater in the TV picture tube neck produces a
stream of (invisible) electrons, aform of electric current. This
stream is shaped into a pencil-point thin beam which is
directed toward any desired point on the screen. This may be
observed on the TV screen immediately after the set is
switched off and the picture disappears. However, while on
this "electron pencil" causes a point on the screen to light up
or glow.
The function of this "electron pencil" on the photo mosaic
of the pickup camera is abit different. Here the electron pencil
simply "reads" or identifies the brightness or shading of the

Simplified Representation of Scanning

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15 — — — — 16
17
18
19
20
21
22

The sequence is: 1-2, 5-6, 9-10, 13-14,

17-18, 21-22 and so on, up to about 262.
Then it continues with 3-4, 7-8, 11-12, 15-16,
19-20 and on to above 525.
Both the line spacing and the slanting
are exaggerated for clarity. Dashed lines
are so shown for clarity.

Fig. 1-3. Drawing showing how a TV picture is scanned by

electron beams. The solid lines represent one scan field,
the dashed lines the alternate scan field. (Line spacing and
slant are exaggerated for clarity; the dashes are used to
distinguish between the two fields.

15
 spot and produces an electric signal corresponding to this
image spot. The location of the image spots and the scanning
sequence is arranged according to an established (National
Television Standard Committee, or NTSC) code, briefly
illustrated in Fig. 1-3. The image is divided into approximately
525 "lines" or strips. The beam just described moves over or
scans each line or strip from left to right, skipping every other
line (scanning 1-2, 5-6, 9-10, etc.), until the bottom of the pic-
ture is reached. At the end of the bottom line the beam jumps
back to the upper left and repeats the process (scanning lines
3-4, 7-8, 11-12). The beam travels from top to bottom at the rate
of 60 times per second. It takes two complete cycles to cover
the entire image since alternate lines are scanned during each
cycle. Thus the complete image is scanned 30 times asecond.
Alternate line scanning is called "interlacing," and
serves to produce the correct final picture. At the beginning of
each line, a timing signal (sync pulse) is sent to both the
camera and to your receiver so that both electron beams (in
the camera and in your picture tube) begin each line at the
same time. A similar signal or pulse is sent each time the
beam is at the bottom of the image and is just about to repeat
the sequence from the upper left corner. Therefore, both the
pickup camera and the picture tube scanning sequences begin
at exactly the same instant.
Incidentally, the common TV receiver adjustments called
brightness and contrast are closely related to the brightness
information of individual particles as transmitted. The
brightness control sets the general background illumination of
the scene, without regard to individual particle illumination,
while the contrast adjustment sets the range (full black to full
white) of illumination for the individual particles of the image,
so that neither extreme is lost; i.e., the black area will just
about be black, while the brightest part will just be white,
without glaring or having a washed-out appearance. This
applies equally to color and to black-and-white pictures, since
these settings are normally made on the color receiver with
the chroma adjustment set for no color (a monochrome pic-
ture).
"Cataloging"—Location and Sequencing of Image Particles
It was briefly stated earlier that positioning information is
sent between lines and also at the end of each scan sequence
(also called "fields"). To clarify this process let's follow a
complete sequence for one-thirtieth of asecond, this being the
time7 f6r one complete picture.
Fig. 1-3 should help you visualize what is taking place. It
is safe to assume that you have observed the fact that the

16
picture seems to consist of a number of horizontal lines or
strips, sloping a bit downward from left to right. Also, in
certain cases of abnormal operation, not necessarily the fault
of the receiver, the thickness of the lines seems to double while
their number correspondingly decreases. Approximately 400
of these strips or lines make up the TV picture. Fig. 1-3 shows
only a few for clarity. The alternations of solid and dashed
lines (interlaced with one another) are meant to indicate the
sequence in which they are scanned.
The complete scanning cycle referred to earlier occurs as
follows: The electron beam starts at the upper left corner, at
Point 1, the beginning of the first line marked on the
illustration. At Point 2, the visual portion of the first line ends.
A "blanking" signal (another pulse fed along with the two
sync pulses already mentioned) now makes the beam invisible
until the beginning of the next line, when the beam jumps back
to the beginning of the second line, Point 5in Fig. 1-3 and the
blanking signal is removed, allowing the second solid line to
start. Thus, each line has atiming signal which turns it on at
precisely the same moment that the corresponding beam in
the TV camera starts the same line. This continues to the
bottom of the picture when all (approximately 225) of the solid
lines have been scanned. The time consumed is one-sixtieth of
a second.
Another timing signal is now sent, again making the beam
invisible until the beam has had time to snap back to the upper
left and the beginning of the first dashed line. The complete
process now repeats until the last visible dashed line has been
scanned for a total of about 450-475 lines and a total time of
one-thirtieth of asecond. Again the beam is blanked out until it
returns to the beginning-of the first solid line (marked 1) in the
upper left-hand corner, ready to repeat the process for the
next picture.
It should be noted that the blanking of the beam at the end
of each line, as well as at the bottom of each set of lines, is
merely to avoid seeing something other than the picture in-
formation on the screen. What is significant is the fact that
during these blanking periods, the timing (synchronizing)
information is sent to insure that each picture element in the
home TV set is "in step" (in synchronization) with the
corresponding element at the pickup camera. The sets of solid
and dashed lines amount, in fact, to double scanning of each
picture. Each set of lines is known as a "field" and consumes
one-sixtieth of a second. Two fields are interweaved, or
interlaced, and the combination is called a "frame" of which
there are, consequently, 30 per second.

17
Fig. 1-4. Simplified block diagram of a TV transmitter,
showing separate sound and picture paths combined
before reaching the transmitting antenna.

Conversion of Electrical Impulses into Radio Waves

The electrical impulses representing individual image

elements and the timing (synchronizing) pulses are combined
with or superimposed upon a radio wave (carrier), amplified
to the required power level required for transmission over the
intended distances (a TV station is licensed for a certain
maximum power level to meet the needs of the geographic
area it is to serve) and applied to the antenna.
Incidentally, the frequencies of TV stations in the U.S. are
much higher than those used for ordinary AM radio broad-
casts for technical reasons (number of stations to be ac-
commodated, shorter distances covered, etc.). While ordinary
AM stations are centered around 1MHz, the TV frequencies
range from just over 50 MHz to almost 900 MHz. This affects
not only the location of TV stations in the radio spectrum ("in
space") but also poses different requirements on design,
complexity, etc.

18
The TV Sound

There remains but one additional signal required for a

complete TV transmission and that is the sound (or noise)
accompanying the picture. As stated before, the TV sound is
transmitted as FM, for certain technical reasons as well as for
some advantages (noise immunity, for instance). The TV
sound could be transmitted over acompletely separate system
from microphone to loudspeaker. This, however, would be
unwieldy, more expensive, and technically less satisfactory.
For these and other reasons, the TV sound is sent as part of the
overall station transmission with many functions, circuits,
and actual components "shared" by the picture and the sound
portions of the receiver.
Fig. 1-4 shows, in simplified form, the sequence of func-
tions and their combination into a single final signal for
transmission. Notice that the sound part of the system
resembles very much the ordinary radio (AM) described
previously. However, instead of being applied to the antenna
system directly, the sound signal (this time an FM system) is
combined with the TV picture signal and then both are am-
plified as an integrated signal and applied to the transmitting
antenna. For all practical purposes, this is now a single radio
signal containing all the information necessary to reproduce a
TV picture, both sight and sound.

The Complete TV Signal

To summarize the characteristics of a typical TV

broadcast signal as received by the home TV set, the TV signal
is a composite of two independent signals or "stations"—an
FM sound station and an AM picture station. The FM sound
station contains just the sound that accompanies the TV
picture. The AM picture signal consists of the following:

1. Picture brightness information, bit by bit.

2. Picture background illumination, the overall scene.
3. Picture bit location information in the form of cueing
signals for starting and stopping each line, field, and frame.
4. Picture repetition rate timing signals which assure
exactly the same line, field and frame frequency at both the
transmitter and receiver.
Items 3 and 4 above are in effect two components of
control information serving the same general purpose; that is,
to assure that the reproduction of the picture on the home TV
set is precisely in step with the production of the original

19
 picture in the pickup camera. During the description of a TV
receiver in Chapter 2reference is made to the various com-
ponents of the timing signals, particularly in connection with
the subject of vertical hold and horizontal hold.

20
 Chapter 2

How a TV Receiver Works

If you were to look at the wiring diagram (called aschematic)

it would seem to be amass of meaningless lines and symbols,
but to an experienced TV repairman every line and every
symbol is significant. They help him follow the path of each
signal through each section of the receiver, so he can find out
why the set won't work as it should. A schematic also tells the
technician what should happen to the signals as they pass
through each section. To help you get some idea what's going
on in those circuits, let's consider each part of the TV
receiving system.

THE ANTENNA SYSTEM

The home TV antenna differs from that used by a TV

station for two major reasons: One is the fact that the
receiving antenna must be "receptive" to a large number of
stations, each of a different frequency. In other words, the
receiving antenna is a broadband device; therefore, some
compromise is necessary in comparison to an antenna
designed for one particular station only. The latter, of course,
is the case with the transmitting antenna of any one station.
The second difference stems from the fact that the trans-
mitting antenna is intended to radiate in all directions—it is
omnidirectional—while the home antenna, even if it has to
"look" in different directions to receive stations from dif-
ferent geographic locations, is in fact a highly directional
system; its multidirectional receiving capability is provided
by rotating it to the desired position. It may be said that all the
elements (rods) of the antenna point in the same direction for
maximum signal pickup from that direction.

Transmission Line

A brief comment on the function of the lead-in or trans-

mission line. Its sole purpose is to transmit the energy picked
up by the antenna to the TV set input, with a minimum of loss
and, perhaps just as important, with no pickup along the way.

21
e UHF
. ANT
Al B C E F G
VHF TUNER VIDEO DISCRIMINA- AUDIO
IF AMPLIFIER
-1111..
,
DETECTOR - "SOUND IF" -IIIP TOR —Ile AMPL.
V1 V2 V3 V3, V4, V5 V7, V8
D2 or V6 D3, D4 V9, V10

- VHF ANT 6'

C
z
a. „.•
.... .......
.......::. .........."..::"„.....
......."
D
UHF TUNER
A2 VIDEO
D1
AMPLIFIER
"CONTROL" (SYNC)
V6
H J
l VERTICAL
SYNC AMPL
e OSCILLATOR-AMP-
& OTHER FUNCT.
V11, V12 LIFIER
V13, V14

1 K L
1 HORIZONTAL 1
'H-AMPLIF I ER
i HORIZONTAL AFC
OSCILLATOR 'DAMPER
DISCHARGE 'RECTIFIER — — —
V15, V16 tV17, V18, V19

POWER 111» TO
M SUPPLY —ft. ALL Fig. 2-1. Block diagram of a typical TV receiver. The lines
V2D or DS, D6 —e. BOXES and arrows indicate signal paths.
Since any such pickup is likely to be almost all noise and
hardly any signal, the importance of a proper high quality
transmission line cannot be overemphasized. We shall see
later, in troubleshooting, how a poor transmission line, due to
poor quality, installation, and poor location, can be the cause
of poor TV reception.

THE TV RECEIVER

Fig. 2-1 is a block diagram with each of the major func-

tions of the receiver represented by a box. We shall now
examine each of these "boxes" primarily from the service
viewpoint.

The Tuner
Boxes Al and A2 represent devices called "tuners" or
more commonly "front ends." Their purpose is to select the
desired station and amplify the relatively feeble signal from
the antenna. For the past few years there are (required by
law) two tuners in each TV set, one VHF (very high
frequency), covering Channels 2through 13, and UHF (ultra
high frequency), covering Channels 14 through 83. Both
tuners, but particularly the UHF, are very complex, rather
sophisticated assemblies, requiring for their maintenance and
repair test equipment and technical know-how well beyond the
capability of not only the beginner but even agood segment of
the TV repair industry. In fact, many high grade TV repair
shops have TV tuners repaired by special service stations fully
equipped to do the work.
The above statements are intended to caution the beginner
against any rash action in attempting to correct amalfunction
in this portion of the receiver. There are, however, certain
tasks which are within the ability of the beginner to perform
satisfactorily, and these are described under Troubleshooting.
The construction and the location of the tuner is of par-
ticular interest, more so than any other section of the set,
except perhaps the high-voltage "cage" (described later).
Both the station selector and the fine-tuning adjustment are,
for technical reasons, physically built into the tuner(s). This
requires that the tuner be located at an accessible position on
the cabinet. For this reason (as well as for some strictly
technical factors), the tuner is a separate physical entity, a
little box-chassis which is relatively easy to disconnect from
the remainder of the TV set.
The interconnections between the tuner and the main TV
chassis and the antenna are as follows:

23
Fig. 2-2. Typical tube-type TV tuner, showing input con-
nections (1), coaxial output connection (2), and a tube
shield (3).

1. The signal input from the antenna terminals to the tuner

is by way of twin-lead or sometimes concentric (coaxial)
cable, mostly however, through a parallel wire.
2. The signal output, almost universally in the form of a
shielded coaxial cable (a center wire surrounded by in-
sulation, such as rubber or plastic, with abraided copper outer
sleeve) terminated in a single contact plug.
3. A 3- or 4-wire cable connecting to the various voltages in
the main chassis. These wires may end in individual lugs
fastened by screws, or in acommon, multi-pin plug which fits
amating socket on the main chassis. Of course, there is some
provision for rigidly fastening the complete tuner to the
cabinet. Fig. 2-2 is one example of such a tuner; others may
differ in a minor detail, but essentially they are of the same
general construction and interconnection arrangement.

The modern VHF tuner, if it is of the tube type, usually has

two tubes of the miniature (all glass, no separate base) kind,
and they are clearly marked for location, type, and function.
Thus, atuner may have the following stamping near the tube
sockets: 6AH5 V1, 6EA8 V2. Sometimes, when more than one
tube type is suitable, dual markings may appear, such as

24
3AH5 or 3HM5 and 6EA8. In other cases, the designations V1
and V2 may not appear on the tuner, but will be shown on the
tube location chart somewhere inside the TV cabinet. The
correlation between tube markings on the tuner and the tube
location chart inside the TV cabinet is used extensively to
identify tubes by function, malfunctions, symptoms and
suggested corrective action. We shall have more to say about
tube locations and charts under Troubleshooting.
In those tuners (some VHF and practically all UHF)
where transistors have replaced tubes, there is the high
probability that the transistors are soldered-in instead of
plugged into a socket, in which case the advice given above
regarding tuners in general applies very much here. To
repeat, tuner work, other than tube replacement, is not for the
amateur. Even if a beginner could locate the suspected
transistor, any attempt to unsolder it, however "carefully"
done, is sure to be disastrous! It takes an experienced hand
and special tools to successfully solder or unsolder
semiconductors. Removal of the entire tuner, where such a
procedure is indicated, if not done carelessly, is far easier and
safer.
Of the two tubes in the tuner, at least one is a dual-
purpose type, so there are three distinct functions performed
here. The first tube, almost always located nearer the in-
coming antenna lead-in, is an RF amplifier which increases
the signal level of the station being received. A bad tube in this
position will seldom result in no picture and sound whatsoever.
Instead, it will account for a very feeble picture with heavy
"snow" and weak sound very much resembling a weak or
distant station. The remainder of the TV set is doing its best
with the very small input signal that manages to get through
the defective amplifier. Removing a bad RF amplifier tube
from its socket may produce very little added degradation of
the picture. (In those sets where removing one tube causes all
other tubes to stop glowing, another procedure is suggested
under discussion of Transformerless TV Receivers.)
The second tube of the tuner is almost always (except in
those rare cases where the tuner has three tubes) a dual-
function tube. It will invariably be identified on the location
chart as V2, and sometimes with the added optional
description: MIX-OSC, meaning mixer-oscillator. We need not
know the whole story about mixer-oscillators to know their
functions. If this tube fails, there is nothing on the screen
(except the white raster), no faint picture, no snow, just atotal
blank, and no sound. On a nontechnical basis, one might
consider adefective V1 (RF amplifier) as agate that is barely

25
cracked open, while adefective mixer-oscillator is shut tight
(100-percent closed) so that nothing can get through!
We mentioned the rare possibility of encountering an older
vintage TV set having a 3-tube tuner. These tubes probably
will be identified on the chart as V1 -RF, V2-MIX, V3-0SC. It
should be apparent from this that the combined functions of V2
in the modern tuner are separated in the old 3-tube unit: The
comparison is quite simple: The first tube is identical, both in
function and malfunction, in both tuners. The tube marked V2-
MIX in the old version, when defective, may still permit some
noise (snow) to get through, but seldom apicture, even afaint
one, or sound. A failure in V3-0SC may produce similar
symptoms with one exception: no picture or sound at all. In
troubleshooting it is not automatically necessary to replace
both mixer and oscillator tubes, if only one tests un-
satisfactorily, but it is most practical to suspect both tubes
when the symptoms are as described above.

The IF Amplifiers

We know that the RF amplifier is the first tube of the

tuner. It, as well as the amplifiers to be described here, has
similar functions—to amplify a small TV signal to a larger
one. The difference between the two types of amplifiers is in
the degree and level of amplification. The term IF means
"intermediate frequency" and simply refers to amplifiers
after the tuner (Block B, Fig. 2-1). When IF tubes malfunction,
the severity of the snow resulting is much less, but they still
behave generally as "gates which are usually open and more
or less shut during a malfunction.
There are, however, some noteworthy differences from
the beginner's viewpoint. First, because the signal levels are
so much greater here, the chances of a total absence of the
picture and sound are somewhat less; adim or "thin" picture
will get through more easily. Second, because of the use made
of IF amplifiers (some common to both sound and picture,
others are strictly for sound) afailure in one IF amplifier may
cause aloss of sound without affecting the picture. Thirdly, the
physical configuration is quite different. While the RF am-
plifier is almost universally located on a separate, integral
unit (the tuner), the IF amplifiers very generally are located
in some sort of string fashion (see Fig. 2-1) on the main chassis
of the TV set.
In Fig. 2-1 the paths traveled by the picture and sound
from the antenna to the picture tube and speaker are shown by
lines and arrows. It can be seen that for VHF (Channels 2
through 13) the signal path is from the antenna, via the VHF

26
tuner to the IF amplifiers. For UHF (Channels 17 through 83)
the path is from the antenna through the UHF tuner, through
the VHF tuner and then to the IF stages. This difference is of
importance in troubleshooting (as we shall see later), because
the RF tube (V1) on the VHF tuner is no longer the first stage
in the path of the signal from the antenna.
As was mentioned previously, a TV receiver is really a
two-in-one device, combining apicture (AM) receiver with a
sound (FM) receiver. As such, many components are common
to both. These shall now be identified and described. Box B in
Fig. 2-1 is amulti-amplifier system for the combined video and
audio signals. Although these signals are of comparatively
greater strength than those entering the "front end" (Al or
A2), a failure in any stage of this amplifying system can be
just as catastrophic for either picture or sound.
There are usually three separate amplifiers (or stages) in
sequence, as links in a chain. A defect or total failure in any
one stage breaks the chain and prevents the signal from
continuing on its way. There is usually some feedthrough of
signal even when one stage goes dead, as in acase of tube or
transistor burnout or other failure, so that some small portion
of the normal signal is transferred to the next stage. One
symptom of such a failure might be a very weak picture on
any station, although some stations may come in better than
others, largely because of the original difference in signal
strength between stations.
The symptoms of "snow" mentioned in regard to the front
end are much less apparent here and may even be completely
absent. Another result of such a failure might be picture in-
stability, such as "tearing" of the picture in a generally
horizontal (actually diagonal) direction and possibly a rolling
picture (vertical direction). This is due to the fact that the
amplifiers in Box B also must pass the timing-synchronizing
pulses and a failure in these amplifiers will invariably
degrade the quality of these pulses to a level below that
required for picture holding. In the section on Troubleshooting
we shall present concrete procedures designed to help locate
trouble in the IF portion of the set.
At this point it is imperative to clearly indicate what the
beginner may not and should not attempt. We refer to the IF
transformer adjustments. You may see around a half dozen
either rectangular metal cans or uncased spool-like coils or
transformers, some of them with ahole or slot that seems to
invite a screwdriver blade for turning. These are in fact ad-
justments, but they cannot be properly done "by eye" or
"ear." Required is some very sophisticated equipment and

27
very specific (different for each and every "can" in every TV
set) knowledge and expertise. Worse yet, unlike the ad-
justment of some circuits which we will recommend later in
the book and which can be either repeated or restored to their
original (preadjustment) position, the adjustment of any of
the IF coils is, from the very beginning, a point-of-no return
case. Not only is it virtually impossible to know what the
adjustment is accomplishing, but it is equally impossible to go
back to the starting point.
To further illustrate the futility of such adjustments, the
professional serviceman uses complex equipment which gives
him a visual presentation of the operation of all the circuits at
the same time. Only on such a visual display can an expert
serviceman observe the effect of each adjustment on the
overall picture. Looking at the front of the TV set while
twiddling one of the adjustments is almost certain to destroy
the normal quality of the picture without showing any im-
mediate change as the twiddling is made. Finally, it is a
fortunate fact that these adjustments, except for some very
minor effects, are virtually permanent and do not require any
correction, except by the professional serviceman after he
replaces a transformer in case of a burnout or other
catastrophic failure. To sum up, the best advice is leave the IF
adjustments alone! They are probably as they should be.
The Video Detector

In the video detector stage (Box C, Fig. 2-1), although

relatively simple and consisting of but one diode (or one tube)
in most cases, a number of functions occur. The semicon-
ductor diode (marked Dl or D2 on the tube layout chart)
converts the video IF signal to aform suitable for application
to the picture tube (from video IF to video). Also, the combined
picture and sound signals coming from the common IF am-
plifiers V3-V5 are separated. A failure (rather rare) of this
diode stops both picture and sound signals. (In some receivers
the sound is "picked off" before it reaches the video detector,
so a failure of the diode in such sets would not affect the
sound.) We shall discuss this again later under
Troubleshooting.

The Video Amplifier

The video amplifier tube (seldom more than one) in Box C

(V6, Fig. 2-1) is avideo (picture signal) amplifier, building up
the picture signal to the level required for application to the
picture tube. In addition, this tube also amplifies and trans-
mits the sound IF signal to Box E in many receivers and the

28
various picture control (sync) pulses to Box F. Should this
tube fail, all three components would be affected, as in the
case of the defective diode in the same box. In case of tube
deterioration, due to old age, etc. the effects may not bé
catastrophic; i.e., the picture and sound may still be there, but
on degraded levels. In such acase, the picture control (sync)
pulses may be inadequate to keep the image from rolling and-
or tearing. In normal operation, the picture signal goes from
V6 to the picture tube, as shown in Fig. 2-1.

The Sound IF System and Detector

The sound IF amplifier system (Box E, Fig. 2-1), in-

cluding V7 and V8, is functionally very similar to the IF am-
plifiers in Box B, except that only sound signals (FM) exist in
this unit. Sometimes the amplifier consists of but one stage
(and one tube), depending on the design of the particular
manufacturer. Another similarity to the IF amplifier in Box B
is the fact that the sound IF amplifier is also followed by a
detector—an FM sound detector, often called a discriminator
because it discriminates against noise and similar in-
terference. The discriminator (Box F, Fig. 2-1) may be either
a tube or a pair of semiconductor diodes, depending on the
particular make of the TV set, and a transformer or coil.
Failure of the discriminator tube (or diode) will, of course,
cause a complete loss of sound.

The Audio Amplifier and Speaker

Beginning at the discriminator output and all the way to

the speaker, the signal is known as audio for it consists only of
audio frequencies. Where the discriminator consists of apair
of semiconductors, the audio amplifier in Box G (Fig. 2-1) may
consist of two tubes. In some sets, amultifunction tube is used
as a discriminator-audio amplifier combination, followed by
only a single tube called the final (or output) audio amplifier
in Box G. In either case, the final audio amplifier connects
(via an output transformer) to the speaker.
A failure of either or both of the audio amplifiers will
cause a total loss of sound, although sometimes a defective
first audio tube (V9 in our case) may allow afaint sound to go
through. In such a case, the volume control which regulates
the amount of signal going into this tube (regardless where the
control is physically located) may have some minor effect on
the already feeble sound. It is also worth noting that the first
audio tube is rather fragile internally, while the output tube is

29
quite rugged, so that between these two tubes, the failure is
more likely to occur in the first.

The Sync Circuits

The sync circuits (Box H, Fig. 2-1) contain two or three

tubes, some of them being sections of dual types. The purpose
of the sync section is to provide the proper timing and
"registration" of the image bits on the screen. As stated
earlier, this timing-synchronizing information is transmitted
by the TV station as part of the picture signal. There are two
main types of pulses here, those responsible for the proper
starting time of each line of the left side of the screen
(horizontal sync pulses) and those controlling the exact start
of the picture at the upper left corner of the tube (vertical sync
pulses).
Thus, the first function of the sync circuits is that of async
amplifier ;i.e., to increase the sync signal to its required level.
There is also a sync separator stage, which separates the
vertical sync pulses from the horizontal pulses, and there is,
additionally, a third function called sync clipping, which, in
simplified terms, means the extraction of the sync in-
formation from the combined picture-sync signal. For
practical reasons (such as economy) most of the sync tubes
are dual tubes, so that an additional function, not necessarily
pertaining to sync, is performed by such a "spare" half-tube.
Frequently the spare is utilized as a vertical oscillator, to be
discussed later.
The sync circuits and tubes have no effect on sound at all,
and only indirectly on the picture. Actually the picture in-
formation is completely independent of sync performance.
However, since the sync signal controls the sequence and
location of each picture element, and malfunction in the sync
section is certain to produce chaos in the picture, either an up-
or-down rolling of the picture or some tearing in the
horizontal-diagonal direction. It is, therefore, a safe general
procedure, whenever the picture will not stand still, to suspect
one or more of the sync tubes.

The Vertical Oscillator-Amplifier

We know that the picture on the TV screen is "painted" by

an electron beam moving in zig-zag fashion, one line at atime,
from left to right. It is apparent from this action that as the
beam sweeps from left to right it is also pulled downward at a
constant rate. This downward movement of the beam is ac-

30
complished by a systems known as the vertical sweep, con-
sisting of a vertical oscillator and a vertical amplifier (tubes
V8 and V9 in Box J. Fig. 2-1). The two tubes in the vertical
system follow each other in sequence (in series), so that either
one, if defective, will cause afailure in the downward pull of
the beam on the screen. The first tube, V8, is called the ver-
tical oscillator.
In nontechnical terms, the vertical oscillator could be
called a timer because it determines how long it takes the
beam to traverse the screen from top to bottom. Since the time
must be precisely the same as the corresponding time at the
transmitter, the vertical sync pulse is used to "time the
timer." In other words, the vertical sync pulse from the
transmitter sets the precise rate for the vertical oscillator in
the receiver.
Fig. 2-3 shows what happens when the vertical sweep
circuit fails. With a single bright line across the center of the
screen the electron beam is painting all the lines "on top of one
another." There are other picture defects attributable to
trouble in the vertical sweep system. A crowded (compressed
or "squashed") picture at the top and astretched-out picture
at the bottom are often due to a defect (nonlinearity) in the
vertical amplifier and its associated components.
There are three adjustments associated with the vertical
sweep system which may require resetting in case of
malfunction. These are V-Hold, V-Size and V-Linearity. The
first of these in some sets may be accessible from the front of
the cabinet. The last two almost always are located in the
rear, because they seldom require adjustment. Each is
described under Troubleshooting, where cause-and-effect
relationships are outlined.

Fig. 2-3. A single horizontal line across the screen is an

indication that the vertical deflection system has failed.

31
 As the name implies, the V-Hold (vertical hold) is used to
stop the picture from rolling; i.e., to prevent rolling (ver-
tically). The V-Size (vertical size) is an adjustment to make
the picture cover the full height of the visible screen. The V-
Lin (vertical linearity) adjustment serves to adjust the pic-
ture for minimum distortion, as when the lower half of a
circular object looks flattened out while the upper half is egg-
shaped. The V-Lin control is adjusted to make the circle
perfectly round.

Horizontal AFC (Automatic Frequency Control)

While the sync circuits are responsible for the precise

timing of the picture reproduction process, the timing of
horizontal synchronization is more severe and more rigorous
than the vertical. It is for this purpose that an additional
safeguard is provided in the form of automatic frequency
control (Box I, Fig. 2-1). Briefly, this is a self-correcting
system using both the incoming sync pulse and a "feed-
back system" in the receiver to maintain horizontal syn-
chronization at all times.

The Horizontal Deflection System

The primary purpose of the horizontal deflection system

(Box K, Fig. 2-1) is for the left-right movement of the beam.
For this reason, we shall first describe this function only,
although, as we shall see later, this deflection system has a
most important secondary function.
Because of the added functions of this portion of the set, as
well as because of more critical accuracy demands, the
horizontal system contains more tubes than the relatively
simple vertical circuit. The first tube, V15, acts as the
horizontal AFC (automatic frequency control). It receives the
horizontal sync pulse from the sync separator and produces an
automatic, precise timing pulse for the horizontal oscillator.
V16, the horizontal oscillator and discharge tube, performs a
dual function; the first is similar to that of V13 in Box J, the
other being required because of the more rigorous demands of
this portion of the TV set.
Following the oscillator is the horizontal amplifier, V17, a
heavy duty, high-power tube which performs, in addition to
the obvious function of a horizontal amplifier, that most im-
portant second function mentioned above. The output of the
horizontal amplifier goes to the picture tube for the basic
function of deflecting the electron beam from left to right. As

32
such, its task is quite comparable to the vertical deflection
amplifier just described. However, because of the very im-
portant added functions this unit performs, the whole
horizontal deflection portion of the TV set is much more
complicated and much more elaborate.
At least two of the tubes, V18, horizontal damper (or B+
boost) and the high-voltage rectifier (V13), perform functions
entirely different from deflection. However, since these two
functions are the result of (we refer to them as byproducts)
the basic sweep circuit operation, and further, because of the
interdependence of these diverse functions, they are grounded
together. The special precautions here include (in some sets)
a local (does not affect the rest of the TV set) fuse for the
horizontal circuits only, and a protective enclosure or cage
because the very high voltage generated here is a potential
safety hazard. Even with the cage, and even with the TV on-off
switch in the off position, a severe electric shock and con-
sequent secondary injury may result from carelessness in this
area. We shall detail these later.

The High-Voltage Cage

The HV cage (Box L, Fig. 2-1) of any TV set is physically

distinct and separated from the open part of the chassis
primarily for reasons of safety. It is here that the extremely
high potential (25,000 volts in many color TV sets) for the
picture tube is developed. While it is true (as has been argued)
that the energy behind this extra high voltage is too feeble to
be lethal, the danger from this source is nonetheless very
grave. Even secondary effects, such as the reaction to the
shock, a resultant fall, etc., can be extremely serious. The
caution labels in the vicinity of the high-voltage cage have
their purpose, but aclear understanding of what is involved is
even more valuable.
In some cases the cage contains only three tubes, the
fourth (oscillator-discharge tube) is left outside the cage for
practical considerations. Using the 4-tube configuration shown
in Fig. 2-4, the functions are as follows: V16A is a sort of in-
termediate tube between the precisely timed horizontal
oscillator tube and the horizontal amplifier, V17. Non-
technically speaking, the horizontal discharge tube serves as a
transfer stage for the horizontal sweep voltage from oscillator
to amplifier. The horizontal amplifier, V17, performs
primarily the function of amplifier, which brings the level of
the horizontal sweep up to that required by the picture tube.
Tubes V18, the damper, and V19, the high-voltage rectifier,

33
 PICTURE SIGNAL TO PICTURE
HORIZONTAL HORIZ. HORIZONTAL
FROM TUBE
OSCILLATOR DISCHARGE AMPLIFIER HIGH
FREQUENCY VOLTAGE 20,000v
V16A V16B V17 TO PICTURE
CONTROL
RECTIFIER 25,000v TUBE
(SYNC)
V18

TO VERTICAL
AMPLIFIER
DAMPER
TO HORIZONTAL
(B+ BOOST)
AMPLIFIER
V19
ETC.

Fig. 2-4. An expanded block diagram of the stages represented by Boxes K and L in Fig. 2-1.
are part of what was earlier called the important second
function of the horizontal amplifier.
At this point we must elaborate somewhat on the
mechanism of picture painting, as we've called it, in order to
make some troubleshooting procedures and corrective ad-
justments more understandable. The picture tube of any set,
monochrome or color, consists of three functionally distinct
components: The electron "gun," the positioning (or
deflection) structure, and the screen.
The gun is physically the rear or neck portion of the tube
(in which the glowing heater can be seen when the set is on). It
performs the function of generating, shaping, and focusing the
electron beam to apencil-point sharpness at the point where it
hits the screen. The image brightness adjustment is also
connected to this portion of the tube. It may be worthwhile to
re p
ieat here that this is an invisible beam of electrons, not

light! (The light you see is the result of the electron beam
striking a phosphor coating inside the picture tube.)
The positioning of the beam, including its zig-zag
movement across and down the screen is accomplished by the
outputs of the horizontal and vertical amplifiers connected,
respectively, to the horizontal and vertical deflection yoke
(coils placed around the picture tube neck). It is, therefore,
obvious that if the beam stays on a single horizontal line in-
stead of moving gradually down to create acomplete picture,
the vertical deflection system is at fault. By logical deduction
one might conclude that a failure in the horizontal deflection
system would produce asingle up-and-down line on the screen.
Logical as this may seem, this is usually not the case, because
of that second important function of the horizontal amplifier
referred to earlier. We shall now see this is so.
The third portion of the picture tube, the screen, is an
electron-to-light converter. The coating on the inside of the
tube has this capability, but it will produce light only if the
electron beam strikes the coating at sufficiently high speed.
This high speed is imparted to the beam by a high voltage
(actually a multi-kilovolt potential) generated by the
horizontal amplifier under normal operation. Therefore,
whenever the horizontal amplifier is not performing, no such
high voltage is generated and no light whatsoever appears on
the screen!
We can now return to the description of the rectifier-
damper tubes in Box L and their functions. As stated just
above, the horizontal amplifier generates, almost as a
byproduct, a high voltage ranging up to about 25,000 volts.
Since this happens to be AC, while DC is required for the

35
speedup of the electron beam, a "rectifier" tube (V19, Fig. 2-
4) is used to convert the AC to DC. This may be a 1X2, 1B3,
1AX4, etc. Unlike most glass tubes in a TV set, this one glows
intermittently, and hence very dimly, and cannot easily be
seen. However, failure of this tube alone, even if the horizontal
amplifier operates normally, will result in no light whatsoever
on the picture tube screen.
The damper tube, V18, serves another useful byproduct
function. In fact, this tube is sometimes marked on the cabinet
chart as "B+ Boost." It does just that. (B+ is asupply voltage
used by all stages in the receiver.) Since all tubes in the TV set
require avoltage (up to 350 or so) for operation, advantage is
taken of an available "surplus" voltage in the horizontal
amplifier to boost the nominal 150 to 200-volt supply to about
350 volts where this is needed. The damper or boost tube is also
arectifier, changing AC to the required DC. What is important
to the beginner is the fact that if this tube fails, some vital
voltages are interrupted and the picture again disappears
completely. In fact, the self-same horizontal amplifier which
"generates" this boost voltage is dependent on it for its
operation, asort of pulling-yourself-up by-your-own-bootstrap
scheme that works very well!
Another key device in Box L (in some sets) is a fuse, not
for the TV set as awhole, but only for the horizontal deflection
system. Failure of this fuse (sometimes without apparent
cause) will disable the horizontal amplifier and indirectly the
B+ boost and the high-voltage power supply. The symptoms
will then be the same as afailure of any other vital link in Box
L; that is, the loss of all light on the TV screen. The failure of
this fuse is rather infrequent, and because it is a part of the
rather dangerous high-voltage system, it is not accessible
from the outside rear of the cabinet, like the main 115v AC
fuse. In addition, it often is soldered in place. Fortunately,
satisfactory replacement can be made in almost all TV makes
without the use of a soldering tool.
There are a few operating adjustments associated with
the horizontal deflection system. These adjustments are
reasonably accessible, quite safe, and with proper care (and
use of the manufacturer's instructions where available) can
be easily made. The adjustments are made at the factory and
may require minor "touching up" after long periods (2 years
or more) of operation, or they may need readjustments after
replacement of a defective part. The adjustments and their
functions are as follows:
Horizontal Width: This is a"slotted shaft" adjustment for
obtaining the correct picture width on the screen. It is amulti-

36
turn adjustment, and it should not be necessary to adjust it
except on rare occasions, as when replacing the horizontal
amplifier tube (V17) due to old age. It should not be necessary
to turn this adjustment more than four or five full turns either
way. If this does not produce the desired result, some other
defect is probably the cause. Incidentally, turning this ad-
justment too far in either direction is likely to completely
disengage the moving core ("slug")—it will actually fall out!
If this happens is may be beyond the beginner's ability to
recover and replace.
Horizontal Hold: This adjustment is physically very much
like the width adjustment. Its purpose is to preset the circuit
controlling the movement of the beam across the screen (left
to right) to its approximately correct position, so that the
automatic frequency control (AFC) can take over and make
the timing precisely correct. We shall see later that in some
cases of picture tearing, a slight adjustment of this circuit will
restore the picture to stability. But the hold control cannot
correct any sweep faults, and further, when an adjustment is
made, it must be done very gradually, sometimes only a
fraction of a full turn, for results.

Horizontal Drive: In some older TV sets, an adjustment

marked H-Drive may exist. It has the effect of "stretching"
one side of the picture and should be made only when the left
and right halves of the picture differ in width. It should not be
necessary to reset this control and it cannot be satisfactorily
done with any picture on the screen except atest pattern. Such
a pattern in the form of a circular design containing many
details is usually shown by the TV station afew minutes before
"beginning programming." Some TV servicemen have
substitute test patterns for adjustment purposes. The beginner
may wait for some form of acircular emblem (a trademark in
advertising) to appear on the screen before making changes in
the drive adjustment.
Horizontal Lock-In: This adjustment, like the previous
one, is found only on some sets. Its behavior is somewhat
similar to the hold control described earlier. Turning it from
its normal position toward either extreme will produce a
diagonal tearing of the picture, in one direction or the other,
like one or the other of the two arms of the letter X, depending
on the direction of rotation of the adjustment. Fig. 2-5 is an
example of such tearing. The lock-in control's correct setting
is the point where channel changing or adjustments will not
produce any tearing (thanks to the automatic control by the
horizontal sync pulse).

37
 i'm
ffl--
l'
Fig. 2-5. A display on your TV screen similar to this
drawing is a case of horizontal tearing.

Centering Controls: These functions used to be rear-of-

chassis adjustments on TV sets a number of years ago. They
are no longer in use today, as they are replaced by a
mechanical centering device which is part of the picture tube
deflection yoke. However, in those rare cases where one of
these adjustments is found on the back of the chassis, the
procedure is simple: With a test pattern on the screen (or an
equivalent circular emblem of some sort), the control is ad-
justed for best centering of the image on the screen.

The Power Supply

The power supply (Box M, Fig. 2-1) is rather simple yet a

very important part of the TV set. It supplies power to all the
tubes or transistors in the set. A failure here is certain to
disable the complete TV set, except, in case of the tubes, it
may not prevent them from lighting. The tube, V20, is called a
rectifier, and its function is to convert AC to DC, as required
by the various tubes and transistors. Sometimes two tubes,
side-by-side, serve the function, in which case a failure of one
may not completely disable the set. However, since the
remaining tube is probably overloaded, it is most prudent to
check both and replace both even if one seems to function.
Some basic precautions are to be observed when handling
rectifiers and tubes, and these do's and don'ts are detailed
under Troubleshooting.
In connection with the power supply, it is appropriate to
explain the two main types of tube hookups currently used by
manufacturers. These are the "parallel" system and the
"series" system.

38
 Parallel Tube Wiring: With this arrangement, all tubes
are wired independently of each other, similar to the wiring of
a string of Christmas tree lights in which burnout of one or
more does not affect the others. You can tell at aglance which
bulbs are burned out. In aTV set using this wiring method it is
simpler to locate adefective tube. Should one burn out, it alone
will not light (and feel cold to the touch) and thus is easily
identifiable.
An easy way to determine whether the set has parallel
tube wiring is to examine the tube chart inside the cabinet. In
aparallel tube set all the tube numbers (with two exceptions
given below) will begin with the same number, usually a6. For
example, the tubes may be numbered 6BC6, 6CG8, 6BM8, etc.,
the same first number. The reason why 6 is a common first
number is that they are all 6-volt tubes; in other words all tube
filaments operate on 6volts.
The two exceptions are the picture tube where the first
number (or first and second numbers) indicates the tube
diameter (21GP4B indicates a 21-inch tube, a 17LP4B stands
for a17-inch tube, etc.), and the high-voltage rectifier which in
the vast majority of TV receivers is a1-volt tube.
Series Tube Wiring: This type of tube filament wiring is a
characteristic of the so-called transformerless TV sets. As the
same implies, this TV receiver has no power transformer (and
disadvantages beyond the series string tube hookup). There
are three ways to identify aseries filament string. First, and
this never fails, if one tube burns out, all tubes go out, like the
old-fashioned Christmas light string. Even when the set
operates normally, pulling out one tube disables all the others,
since none will light. A second identification, also infallible, is
the tube numbering system where the first number or num-
bers of the tubes vary (4BZ8, 10JT8, 38HE7, for example). The
third clue is an inscription or imprint on the rear cover of the
TV cabinet (or just a printed label) warning (as required by
law) that one side of the 115-volt electric line is connected
directly to the (metal) chassis. The requirement stems from a
shock hazard that may exist with such construction, a con-
dition exclusive with transformerless receivers.
For troubleshooting a TV receiver with a tube failure a
very simple and fairly foolproof test is substitution—
replacement of asuspected tube by its exact duplicate known
to be good. This can be done most easily in the transformer
type or parallel filament set, as will be detailed later. In the
transformerless set there is first the problem of locating the
suspected tube, since all are out when one "goes." Substitution
is still possible but it is a hit-or-miss procedure in which the

39
defective one may be the last one you try. In a parallel
filament (transformer) set you actually can see and feel the
tube which burned out. Therefore, adifferent procedure has to
be followed in a series string TV set.
The transistor-tube (hybrid) TV set: As more and more
semiconductors (transistor and diodes) are finding their way
into TV sets, a consideration of this third arrangement is of
importance to the extent that such sets lend themselves to the
efforts of a beginner. There are no 100 percent solid-state TV
sets. At least the picture tube and perhaps one or more of the
others are still of the conventional vacuum tube type. Unlike
tubes most of the transistors in today's TV sets cannot be
suspected or identified as defective by either light or heat.
Transistors have no heaters and operate cold to the touch
(except for some very few "power" types, which get hot
enough to require location on a metallic heat radiator or heat
sink to prevent damage due to overheating). Usually,
low-power transistors are assembled on subassemblies or
"boards" (sometimes called PC or printed-circuit boards)
carrying a number of small parts. We examine some exam-
ples and outline procedures for dealing with them in our
section on Troubleshooting.

40
 Chapter 3

Color TV & How it Works

Up to this point color TV has not been included in our

discussion, but everything that has been said pertains equally
to color. In fact, when we discuss the circuits and functions
peculiar to color receivers only, you will see that these circuits
and functions are additional to the basic TV set circuits and
functions previously described. Furthermore, it is but
necessary to adjust one control (chroma) to its minimum
(equivalent to off) position in any color TV set to arrive at an
out-and-out black-and-white receiver insofar as results are
concerned.
Generally speaking, all the TV circuits up to and including
the video detector-amplifier (Boxes A through F in Fig. 2-1)
are common to all signals—sound, black-and-white TV, and
color.

NATURE OF THE VISUAL SPECTRUM

Fig. 3-1 is a graphic depiction of the color components of

visible (white) light after passing through an optical device
called aprism. Although discrete color blocks are indicated,

4.1 o
47
•Ç • 04 04-
\,4 \ff, 4
çt,.
4' 4 4
:- -
(1 . 4 4:- 4e.o03
4 0
/
1
0
4 e e
_
<2-
00 0000
00 0000
\
00 0000
00 0000

Fig. 3-1. Pure white light is composed of the colors

depicted here.

41
Fig. 3-2. The classic artist's color wheel principle shows
how the three primary colors blend into three intermediate
colors and white.

all colors gradually blend into each other. Fig. 3-2 is a much
simplified version of the same phenomenon, more familiar to
the student of elementary painting. The three primary colors
produce intermediate colors as well as white. In the present
color TV system, this basic 3-color system is utilized to
produce the color TV picture as we know it.

THE COLOR TRANSMITTER

Fig. 3-3 is a functional or block diagram illustrating in

much simplified form the components of a color picture
transmission system. A comparison with the monochrome TV
transmitter in Fig. 1-4 shows the basic difference between the
two. Let's consider the components of acolor system.

The Camera Tubes

Three camera tubes (Block A, Fig. 3-3), one for each of the
primary colors together with their individual amplifiers,
combine to produce the three components of color information
required to produce acolor picture on the home TV set. These
three components are:

42
 E
///
ANTENNA
MICROPHONE AUDIO FINAL
MODULATED
AMPLIFIERS AMPLIFIER
RF (FM)
ETC (FM)

A
CAMERA

RED

D
COLOR
PROCESSORS FINAL
MODULATED
B:I BLUE (MIXERS, --1111
" AMPLIFIER
RF (AM)
AMPLIFIERS, AM
ETC.)

[11 GREEN
 Picture brightness information: This establishes the
overall color picture brightness in the TV set, not just the
brightness of any particular color but the background
brightness level (proportionately) correct for all colors.
Picture color information: This is the heart of the color
signal and contains all the information required by aTV set to
reproduce the entire range of colors, corresponding to the
original scene.
Color timing (sync) information: This corresponds (and is
in addition) to the earlier described sync functions in B & W
television. It is sometimes referred to as the 3.58-MHz color
burst.

The Modulators or "Combiners"

The modulator or combiner portion of the color TV

transmitter corresponds to the similar functions in the
monochrome transmitter. Here the various electrical com-
ponents of the color picture are combined (Box B, Fig. 3-3),
without losing their identities, into an overall color signal,
which in turn is combined with the sound signal. A 3-in-1 TV
signal is the result.

The Final Amplifier and Antenna

The final amplifier and antenna system are essentially the

same as the B & W transmitter in Fig. 1-4, except for the ad-
dition of the color information. Neither the final amplifier nor
the transmitting antenna "know" the difference; i.e., they
amplify and radiate (respectively) a total television signal
made up of the required components. This same is true with a
receiver. We shall now proceed to examine acolor TV receiver
on a function-by-function comparison with its B & W coun-
terparts.

THE COLOR RECEIVER

The color TV receiver is a combination of a basic

monochrome receiver plus an "add-on" section which con-
cerns itself only with the color functions of the set. In fact, it
will soon become apparent that this add-on section picks up
where the B & W portion of the set leaves off. Consequently,
and as was briefly stated earlier, the standard procedures for
analyzing and troubleshooting a color TV set is to first con-
sider it as a black-and-white set. This is easily done by
reducing the color signal (turning the chroma control) to zero,
thus leaving ablack-and-white picture as would be received by

44
amonochrome receiver tuned in to a color program. It is for
this reason also that the block diagram to follow (Fig. 3-4) is
divided into two sections by adashed line. The B & W portion is
readily recognizable as the familiar monochrome TV set
shown in Fig. 2-1; therefore, the B & W section receives only a
minimum of emphasis in this discussion.
It will be advantageous, however, to view the complete TV
receiver as a unit, in order to clearly visualize the continuity
between and the transition from the combined monochrome
and color functions to the strictly color portions and functions.
The overall functional diagram is represented with this
purpose in mind.
Fig. 3-4 gives asimple, nontechnical means of comparison
between a monochrome TV set and the corresponding color
set. It shows a complete color TV set, with no reference to
black-and-white operation. However, it is obvious that the
complete black-and-white TV set of Fig. 2-1 appears with
hardly any change inside the framework of the color set
diagram!
In addition to the basic facts of structure, this graphic
comparison also shows, in greatly simplified form of course,
the two main constituents of the color picture. Function blocks
0 and P are responsible for the 3-component colors plus the
overall color picture brightness information, while function
Blocks J and K provide the information for the proper color
registration and mixing of the three primary colors into the
complete range of color shading which makes up the final
color image on the home TV screen. Fig. 3-4 is a more
elaborate functional presentation of a modern color TV set.
Before discussing individual tube, stage, or functional
blocks of the complete color TV set, let us briefly analyze the
complete sequence of functions as indicated in Fig. 3-4 in order
to get aconcise overall story of what happens. The TV signal,
containing picture information and sound information, is
intercepted by the antenna. It is a composite (all-in-one)
signal. Block A (the tuner) selects any one desired station
from the number of stations available in aparticular location.
The IF (intermediate frequency) amplifiers (Block B) am-
plify the selected station to the signal level required for fur-
ther processing.
So far, the composite signal picked up by the antenna and
selected by the tuner has been made larger as required, but it
still is riding "piggyback" on a carrier. Block C, the video
detector, performs but one simple main function—it separates
the intelligence (picture, sound, and sync information) from
the carrier, which served its purpose as a vehicle for trans-

45
 E G SPEAKER

"SOUND" SOUND AUDIO

IF DISCRIMINATOR
AMPLIFIER

D
A TUNER
IF VIDEO VIDEO
VHF B& W PICTURE
ii. AMPLIFIERS DETECTOR AMPLIFIER
UHF 1.4'e
COLOR

CONTROL OR SYNC NOTE 1

VERTICAL
VERTICAL DEFLECTION
H OSCILLATOR
SYNC -AMPLIFIER
CIRCUITS
HORIZONTAL
HORIZONTAL DEFLECTION
OSCI LLATOR-
AMPLIFIER
PIC. TUBE 20,000 VOLTS
HIGH VOLTAGE

NOTE 1. THIS PATH IS EXCLUSIVELY FOR BLACK.AND-WHITE

PICTURE SETS. IN COLOR SETS, IT IS REPLACED BY THE 3
PATHS FROM BOX K.
POWER
TO ALL
SUPPLY
BOXES
 POWER l
TO ALL
SUPPLY
BOXES

S
Q R CONVERGENCE
BURST BURST FOCUS
COLOR
-sr AMPLIFIER OSCILLATOR
KILLER
(COLOR SYNC) (3.58 MHz)

RED PICTURE RED

0 AMPLIFI ER
P -- _ —
COLOR F ie
COLOR GREEN PICTURE GREEN
(PRE)
DEMODULATORS AMPLIFIER
AMPLIFIERS — —. —. — —
BLUE PICTURE BLUE
AMPLIFIER

Fig. 3-4. Functional block diagram of a color receiver.

Those functions above the dashed line parallel those in a
black-and-white receiver. Below the dashed line are color-
only functions.
 mission of the signals. The output of the video detector is the
composite signal described above.
Although the carrier is discarded at this point, it is not
thrown away altogether. It is utilized to perform avital func-
tion of adjusting the TV receiver's amplification to the
required level; i.e., the weaker the incoming signal, the more
it is amplified, and vice versa. This is known as automatic
gain control (AGC for short). Incidentally, AGC adjustment is
a back-of-the-set adjustment that sometimes requires
resetting on both color and B & W receivers.
Box D in Fig. 3-4 is the video amplifier. True to its name, it
amplifies the video signal together with its other components
(sound and sync signals) received from the video detector just
described. At the output of the video amplifier, the three signal
components separate, each going its own way.
The picture information (commonly called video) goes to
the picture tube for conversion into an optical image. The
sound information, a sound-modulated carrier (sound energy
piggybacked on an RF carrier), goes to Box E—the sound IF
amplifier (same as a monochrome receiver). The signal now
is the equivalent of an FM radio signal in an ordinary FM
receiver. As such it is a sound signal "superimposed" on a
carrier. This in no way contradicts our earlier statement that
acarrier has been discarded by the video detector, although
the technical explanation is of no consequence to our purpose.
After amplification, the signal goes to an FM detector (Box F)
or discriminator where sound energy only is extracted. Box G
is an audio amplifier, which brings the sound energy to the
level required by aspeaker connected to the output of Box G.
At this point you may be wondering why the same am-
plifiers appear over and over again, interrupted by other
functions in the chain. Wouldn't it be better to have just one
amplifier in one place and do all the required amplification at
once? It would seem simpler; however, aTV (and radio, too)
receiver is designed to receive avery, very faint signal from
the antenna. In fact, such a signal may be a million or more
times weaker than the voltage of the ordinary flashlight cell
(nominally 1.5 volts). Necessary incidental losses within the
TV set make this situation even more critical. In other words,
the incoming TV signal must be amplified millions of times
before it becomes the final product (picture or sound).
The most practical and most ( technically) efficient way to
achieve this tremendous magnification is to do it in small
stages and at particular locations in the set. Thus, some
amplification (RF amplifier) is done immediately after the
signal arrives from the antenna. Additional amplification is

48
provided after initial processing (conversion to IF in the
tuner), this time in the IF (intermediate frequency) am-
plifiers. A third and usually final portion of amplification is
accomplished, after another conversion (detection), in the
video amplifier(s) for the picture signal and in the audio
amplifier (s) for the sound signal. There also are other am-
plifiers in the TV set, for such nonsignal functions as sync and
AGC (automatic gàin control).
Meanwhile, back at the video amplifier, the third com-
ponent of the composite signal from the video amplifier is the
synchronizing-timing signal (called sync for short). Box H
contains sync amplifiers, separators, and shapers, with an
overall function of making the timing pulses suitable for
controlling the accuracy of the sweep voltages, via the
horizontal and vertical oscillators. Box J is the combined
vertical oscillator-amplifier which produces the voltage for
vertical deflection of the picture tube beam. Box K is the
corresponding group for horizontal deflection, as detailed
earlier for monochrome. The dotted line in Box K separates
the strictly sweep function from the incidental (although most
important) functions of B+ boost and high-voltage supply
generation. Finally, Box L represents the power supply for the
entire TV set, including some adjustments and controls for the
picture tube.
Now, what about those color signals? Let's go back to the
video amplifier and see what happens to them. From function
Block D in Fig. 3-4 (video amplifier) the color picture in-
formation signal and the color sync information signal (color
burst) are applied to Boxes D and M.
Box 0, the color picture information amplifier, brings the
picture signal up to the required level for further processing.
In Box P, the color components (red, blue, and green) detector
or demodulator, the three-in-one color signal goes through a
system similar to that of the video detector, delivering three
separate color components. (We shall see later that a color
picture uses the three primary colors to produce the ultimate
color picture.) The individual color signal amplifiers in Box Q
act like video amplifiers, for one of the three primary colors.
These are in effect "final amplifiers" or output amplifiers,
feeding the picture tube.
The burst sync amplifier (Box M) is a timing or (sync)
pulse amplifier, equivalent to the sync amplifier in a black-
and-white TV set, except that the purpose of this one is for
synchronizing the burst oscillator (Box Q) with the incoming
signal.
The subcarrier (burst) oscillator signal is used in the color

49
demodulator (Box P) to "retreive" the three color signals. If
each color is to be reproduced accurately the burst oscillator
must operate in step with a similar oscillator at the trans-
mitter. A failure in the burst oscillator causes a complete loss
of the color in apicture. The burst oscillator is called the color
subcarrier because it is used as acarrier (just like apicture or
sound carrier) to detect or demodulate the color signals.
There are three additional functions in the strictly color
portion of Fig. 3-4; namely, the color killer and the focusing
and convergence systems (Boxes R and S). Of necessity, we
shall leave the explanation of these for later.

THE COLOR PICTURE TUBE

To better understand the construction and operation of a

color picture tube, let's quickly review the features of a
monochrome picture tube.
A monochrome TV picture tube consists of three main
sections; the gun, the deflection system, and the screen. The
gun produces a stream of electrons, which, with the aid of
properly applied voltages, is focused to a sharp point on the
face of the tube (the screen). The deflection system, again by
virtue of correctly applied voltages of proper characteristics
(horizontal and vertical sweep voltages), moves the beam to
the desired points, in proper sequence, on the screen.
Now, if instead of ablack-and-white phosphor (coating on
the inside surface of the TV screen), we substituted a red
phosphor (or ablue, or a green), the same exact picture tube
just described would produce the same TV picture, but in red
(or blue, or green), with all the various gradations in
brightness as in the black-and-white picture. It is a bit of
oversimplification, but nonetheless true, that the color TV
picture tube is acombination of three tubes, ared tube, ablue
tube and agreen tube, in one glass envelope. However, while
this picture tube has three distinct guns, each emitting an
electron beam, one for each color, it has but one screen, for all
three colors, and this accounts for the great complexity of
color TV tubes. In order to understand some vital adjustments
and corrections that are sometimes necessary on a color TV
set, it is first necessary to understand the structure and func-
tioning of a color picture tube.
In contrast with the black-and-white picture tube screen,
which has a continuous coating of phosphor and where the
electron beam may be placed on any point on the screen, the
color tube screen does not have a continuous coating but
consists of a large number (hundreds of thousands) of color

50
dots, and the electron beam must "hit" the dots only.
Specifically, the screen is composed of 3-dot groups; each
group has ared, ablue and agreen dot closely spaced but not
quite touching (a recent improvement in color picture tubes
has been realized by putting a "black border," a nonluminous
coating around each color dot, to reduce unintentional
"blending" of the colors). The dot arrangement is alternated
in each group so that no two adjacent dots in any direction are
of the same color. For better visualization, consider the dot
groups as subminiature billiard balls, arranged in triangles
(three in a group, almost touching) with no two balls in the
triangle being the same. Fig. 3-5 shows the dot layout on a
portion of a color screen as just described.
Immediately behind the tricolor picture tube faceplate is a
perforated metallic plate very precisely arranged and
positioned so that each hole in the perforated plate lies in an
exact position behind agroup of color dots (a color "triad") on
the faceplate. When the plate is correctly positioned, the red
beam goes through the hole and strikes the red dot only.
Similarly, the blue and green beams passing through the same
hole will strike the blue and green dots, respectively. This is a
precision structural alignment and is independent of the
characteristics or behavior of the TV set.
For the sake of clarity, let us state again that the three
guns in the tricolor picture tube are identical, and they are
called red, blue, and green only because of their physical
positioning with regard to the aperture mask (the plate behind
the screen) and faceplate not because of any color difference
between them; all three produce identical electron beams
with no inherent color characteristics.

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® 0 ® @0 0 @ ®
=XXX)
0 0 ®®®

Fig. 3-5. This sketch illustrates the dot pattern found on a

color TV picture tube screen.

51
Fig. 3-6. Sketches comparing the gun structure of black-
and-white (A) and color picture tubes.

It should be apparent from the above description that for

the proper excitation of the three colors, the three electron
beams originating at different positions in the neck of the tube
(see Fig. 3-6) must be made to properly bend or "converge" so
as to go through the holes in the aperture mask instead of
striking the space between the holes. While this is ap-
proximately provided by virtue of tube design, it is not suf-
ficiently accurate for a satisfactory color picture reproduc-
tion. To insure this, special convergence devices are em-
ployed. There are two such sets of convergence adjustments,
one consisting of a set of magnets placed around the neck of
the picture tube and adjustable for physical position (this is
called "static convergence" and is best left alone). The second
set of convergence adjustments are of the "rear of the set"
shaft types. Three such sets of adjustment controls exist, one
for each of the three primary colors.
While focusing is a function common to all TV picture
tubes, it is much more important in a color tube due to the
strict "compatibility" requirements between the three
electron beams (the 3guns), the hole in the aperture mask,
and the color triad just in front of each hole.

52
 Box S, Fig. 3-4, shows in functional block form the con-
vergence function just described. Although the convergence
adjustment shafts are accessible at the rear of the receiver,
these adjustments require extreme care as well as complex
equipment in order to set them properly. Such is not the case
with the focusing adjustments. With proper care (as we shall
indicate under Troubleshooting) this adjustment can be
satisfactorily performed by a beginner.
Incidêntally, at least one color TV manufacturer has built
in aconvergence test accessory, making it relatively simple to
carry out these adjustments when required. The trend in the
industry seems to be toward inclusion of the simpler self-test
or self-correct capabilities in the receiver. A common
example is the demagnetization or degaussing coil which
prevents and-or corrects color degradation due to stray
magnetic influences in the immediate vicinity of the color set.
Prior to this, the performance of acolor TV set, even though it
was in normal operating condition was affected (sometimes
seriously degraded) by the proximity of the set in regard to
appliances or electric wiring in the immediate vicinity of the
TV set.
A third "strictly color" function mentioned earlier is the
"color killer," and it is described fully later. At this point
suffice it to say that the purpose of this control is to make sure
that no color appears on the screen during a black-and-white
picture.

53
 Chapter 4

The Color-Only Sections

The best place to begin an examination of those sections of a

color receiver that deal solely with color reproduction is the
video amplifier, since that's where differences begin. Fig. 4-1
is a detailed block diagram of the "color-only" sections of a
hypothetical TV set. We do not mean an unreal TV set; it is a
diagram of acolor section most suited for our purpose; i.e., an
illustration of functions, adjustments, and control locations of
potential malfunctions, and it consists entirely of the func-
tional blocks found in actual color TV sets.
Beginning with Box A, the video amplifier of the B & W
portion of the set, we see that the color signal together with its
timing (burst or sync) signal go to Box E on the color side of
the vertical (dashed) dividing line. The dashed line from Box
A to Box F is an alternate way for the color timing signal to be
taken out of the old video amplifier. Thus, in some sets, two
separate signals may go from the old video amplifier to the
color portion of the set—the picture information to Box E and
the burst information to Box F. In more recent TV sets, the
combined signal is amplified in the first color amplifier, then
the burst separates and goes to the burst amplifier (Box F)
while the picture (chroma) signal goes to the second color
amplifier, Box G. Here again, some TV sets have only one
color amplifier, so that Box G would be missing. Whether a
particular TV set has one or two chroma amplifiers, the front-
of-the-set control marked color is located here and it adjusts
the color content of the picture from all black-and-white (no
color) to full color (and beyond, if turned to its extreme
position).

BURST AMPLIFIER

The simplest way of describing the function of a burst

amplifier (Box F in Fig. 4-1) is to say it is exactly the same as
the function of the sync amplifier (Box H, Fig. 3-4). The input
to the burst amplifier is derived either directly from the video
amplifier (Box A, dashed arrow) or via additional am-
plification in the first chroma amplifier (Box E, solid arrow).

54
 A E G PICTURE
RED DE TU BE
VIDEO 1st COLOR 2nd COLOR
AMPLIFIER 1- AMPLIFIER AMPLIFIER — M ODULA T O R

CHROMA

-.I
F CONTROL
RED GUN
VERTICAL BURST
BLUE DE- GREEN GUN—,
AMPLIFIER AMPLIFIER MODULATOR
BLUE GUN

H
SYNC 3.58 MHz RED
HORIZONTAL OSCILLATOR H, AMPLIFIER
PHASE BURST
AMPLIFIER CONTROL
DETECTOR OSCILLATOR

GREEN
D COLOR AMPLIFIER
KILLER
HIGH
CONVERGENCE
CONVERGENCE o
VOLTAGE TO CIRCUITS ON
BOARD BLUE
PICTURE TUBE
AMPLIFIER
BLACK-AND-
WHITE
PORTION OF CONVERGENCE
TV SET ADJUSTMENTS
(ONLY 3SHOWN) Fig. 4-1. Detailed functional diagram of the color-only
portions of a color receiver.
 The output of the burst amplifier is ultimately applied to the
3.58-MHz oscillator (Box J) for precise control (timing) of the
oscillator.

COLOR SYNC & OSCILLATOR CONTROL

The color sync phase detector (Box H) and oscillator

control (Box I) are grouped together for two reasons: First,
both perform functions incident to controlling the accuracy of
the burst oscillator, and second, because they may be con-
sidered, in a sense, optional. While some manufacturers use
this function for oscillator control, others achieve the same
result in a different way and do not incorporate these two
boxes in the TV receiver design. What is important to the TV
set owner is the fact that when these functions are found in a
set, they are links in achain, so that if one or both should fail,
the 3.58-MHz oscillator may wander sufficiently to cause some
serious deficiencies in the color rendition and balances (by
cutting off some of the color frequency components in the
output signals).
As we shall soon see, the 3.58-MHz oscillator is one of the
"ingredients" in the conversion of the chroma signal to the
red, blue and green portions of the final color picture. The
balance between these three primary colors is, of course,
essential for a normal color picture and can be achieved only
when the 3.58-MHz oscillator signal is fed to the demodulators
exactly in time with the corresponding signal in the trans-
mitter. The control circuits and tubes in Boxes H and I
establish and maintain synchronization between the trans-
mitter and the receiver, and a failure here invariably
degrades if not altogether destroys the normal color picture.

BURST OSCILLATOR

The 3.58-MHz precision oscillator (Box J, Fig. 4-1) is

seldom so identified, but this is a "crystal oscillator," which is
basically very accurate and very stable even before being
further controlled by the burst signal from the transmitter. An
examination of the immediate vicinity will locate the crystal.
It is a fragile, tissue-thin wafer of a synthetic, quartz-like
material (the natural mineral quartz is seldom used
nowadays) encased in a hermetically sealed plug-in unit, as
illustrated in Fig. 4-2. Although the little box requires careful
handling, it is relatively durable. However, occasionally it
may become intermittent (stop functioning, then start again
after the TV set is switched off and on) or it can fail corn-

56
pletely. In either case, if the crystal malfunctions, the color,
but not the picture, disappears.

COLOR DEMODULATORS

Boxes K and L are the color demodulators. As shown in

Fig. 4-1 the combined color signal comes from the (second)
chroma amplifier, while the second input is from the
precision-controlled 3.58-MHz oscillator (or reference signal).
Notice that there are only two demodulators, one for the blue
signal, the other for the red. The green demodulator, as such,
does not exist, and it is unnecessary. Since a combination of
the primary colors, blue and red, will produce green, no
separate demodulator is required. The green signal is derived
by mixing aproportional amount of red and blue.
The function of the color demodulators, stated in non-
technical terms, is to "extract" the color information from the
combined "color-plus-carrier" signal. The color demodulator
is avideo detector. While two demodulators are shown, it does
not necessarily mean that every TV set will have two tubes
performing these functions; some may use two transistors for
this purpose (in the most recent sets), while others may use a
dual tube in a single envelope. Whichever the case, the func-
tion is the same.
In case of malfunction a failure of a two-in-one tube will
completely shut off all color. Should one section of such adual
tube fail (this is not unusual) or should one of the two
demodulators fail in sets with two separate demodulators, two
of the three colors will be missing. This is due to the fact, as

e
mentioned earlier, that red and blue color components are

Fig. 4-2. The crystal used to control the frequency of the

3.58-MHz oscillator is usually hermetically sealed in a
metal container. Some are designed to plug in, others are
soldered in.

57
combined to produce the green primary color as well as all the
hues of green.

COLOR AMPLIFIERS

Boxes M, N, 0—the final color amplifiers, one for each of

the primary colors, are similar to the video amplifier of a
monochrome TV set. Since each color component signal has
its own independent path from the demodulator to the picture
tube, afailure in aparticular color (or blend of that color) is
unambiguously traced to the specific amplifier. As we men-
tioned earlier, the block diagram Fig. 4-1 is not of any par-
ticular manufacturer's TV set, hence differences are possible.

COLOR KILLER

Box P represents the color killer, aviolent title that means

just what it says. The function of this section is to prevent any
color from showing on the screen when a black-and-white
picture is being received. To begin with, let us remind our-
selves that amonochrome picture in acolor TV set is produced
from the correct combination of all three primary colors. In
other words, a black-and-white picture on the screen comes
not from no color, but from all colors in the exact proportion,
just as white is not the absence of color but the presence of all
colors.
Secondly, and this follows, that to transmit a black-and-
white picture requires proper use of all three primary color
cameras, amplifiers, and accessory circuits. While balance
would assure no coloration of ablack-and-white picture, such
balance cannot be taken for granted; consequently, color
fringes may appear on the color TV set when they are not
supposed to appear; i.e., when the picture is transmitted in
monochrome.
Finally, it should be remembered that in all cases,
whether monochrome or color pictures are transmitted, the
picture tube receives a "brightness" signal which is actually
the picture minus the color. Of course, when no color is
transmitted, this brightness signal is the picture while the
chroma amplifiers have nothing to contribute. Similarly,
when acolor picture is received on a black-and-white set (in
which there obviously are no color amplifiers), this brightness
signal is "all there is" and it produces a black-and-white
picture without any special adjustments or color killers.
It must be remembered that the color amplifiers as well
as the red, blue, and green guns of the picture tube operate on
current (electron) beams, not on beams of colored light. Thus,

58
any current in the path of a chroma amplifier (which
automatically feeds one of the three color guns) is capable of
"exciting" the color dots on the picture tube screen regardless
of whether or not color is being transmitted! To prevent this
unwanted color the color killer function is required.
In operation, the color killer circuit keeps the chroma
amplifiers in a nonamplifying condition (or cutoff) until a
color picture is received. At such time, asignal from the color
sync (burst signal) disables the color killer, thus releasing the
chroma amplifiers to perform their normal functions.

CONVERGENCE

Convergence (Box Q) is mostly a problem with 3-gun

picture tubes. In the old-fashioned black-and-white picture
tube, or, for that matter, in the single-gun color tube
(developed in the U.S. some years ago and recently employed
in some imported color TV sets), the problem of convergence
is greatly simplified. Convergence means aiming two or more
beams so that they converge and "meet" at one and the same
spot. As will be recalled from the description of the 3-gun color
tube, the aperture mask behind the color screen has one
pinhole behind each group of three color dots (triads). Not
only must the three electron beams go through the same
pinhole, but they must be so positioned and directed that the
red beam, after passing through the aperture, strikes only the
red color dot, and not one of the other two. Similarly, the blue
or green gun must be so oriented that only the blue or the
green dot is excited. It is the critical function of the con-
vergence circuits and adjustments to insure this, if true color
separation is to be realized.
It should be noted here that the basic compatibility be-
tween the three color guns, the single shadow mask aperture,
and the three color dots just in front of this aperture is insured
by the original construction of color tubes. This, however, does
not obviate "live" in-the-receiver adjustments and correc-
tions.
There are two types of convergence adjustments in
current 3-gun color TV sets. One is called "static" con-
vergence, the other "dynamic" convergence.
Static convergence of the three beams is a mechanical
adjustment of the positions of small magnets on the neck of the
picture tube. Its purpose is to have the three beams converge
at the center of the screen only. Stated simply, the purpose of
static convergence is to insure that the three guns, starting
(necessarily) from three different positions at the back end of

59
Fig. 4-3. Crosshatch pattern A shows ideal convergence,
both at the center (static) and corners (dynamic). Pattern
B shows good static convergence but misconvergence at
the edges.

the tube, produce one and only one spot when pointed to the
center of the screen. This is the correct starting point for
dynamic convergence.
The need for dynamic convergence stems from the fact
that the three beams travel different (longer) distances when
going to the far corners or edges of the tube than when going to
the center of the screen. Fig. 4-3 shows what a crosshatch
pattern would look like as aresult of the difference in the paths
the beams travel. Furthermore, since the length of the path
from the gun to the screen is different for each spot on the
screen (the shortest being to the center, the longest to any of
the corners) it is necessary to continuously adjust the con-
vergence forces as the beams sweep the screen. This is ac-
complished by dynamic convergence; i.e., continuous con-
vergence correction during sweep.
In most color TV sets, all dynamic convergence circuits
and adjustments are grouped together, usually on a discrete
circuit board, often called the convergence board. While the
required continuous correction takes place electronically, it is
first necessary to preset anumber of controls (two or more for

60
each color) so that the automatic electronic correction will be
just right. In other words, dynamic convergence adjustments
are intended to preset initial conditions from which the
automatic circuitry takes over.
Due to the complexity of convergence adjustments the
procedure may not be within the ability of the majority of
beginners to perform. This is due not so much to the technical
difficulty as it is to the need for some very specialized test
equipment. There is at least one TV manufacturer, however,
who incorporates such "specialized test equipment" into his
TV sets and provides lucid instructions for convergence ad-
justments. But, even for the majority who will not be able to
perform this function themselves, understanding the whys and
hows will aid them in understanding what a professional TV
serviceman is doing.
In illustrating the phenomenon of nonconvergence of Fig.
4-3, we show a crosshatch pattern. In Fig. 4-3A the lines are
essentially straight to the very ends, while in Fig. 4-3B
noticeable curvature appears and increases the farther the
line moves from the center, both in the horizontal and vertical
directions. In an actual color picture, improper convergence
will be accompanied by some color distortion and fuzzing near
the ends of the lines. But for proper examination and
correction, a test instrument capable of producing a
checkerboard pattern on the screen, as in Fig. 4-3, is required.
Such is the "specialized test equipment" referred to earlier.
The convergence procedure involves a sequence of ad-
justments of convergence board controls while observing a
crosshatch pattern (from the test set) on the screen. Each
color and each position (left, right, top, bottom) are in-
dividually adjusted until the overall crosshatch is as linear as
possible. Some sets have two sets of controls, one for blue, the
other for red and green combined.
From the viewpoint of the beginner it should be added that
convergence problems are neither frequent, nor chronic. They
are almost 100 percent certain to be required when a picture
tube is replaced, but seldom otherwise. However, should the
need be visually apparent, you know what is needed. We
mentioned earlier that one of the color TV sets on the market
has such acolor signal generator built in. It should be added
that the adjustment procedures for this set are quite specific,
as they should be, since they serve a particular set and can
point to each control by symbol and location and outline step-
by-step procedures for the complete convergence ad-
justments, for this particular set only, of course.

61
 COLOR PICTURE TUBE CIRCUITS
Block R in our typical color chassis (Fig. 4-1) is the color
picture tube and its associated controls. Here, there are a
number of such adjustments and controls, usually two for each
color gun, although the red gun may sometimes have only one.
There are other adjustments associated with the picture tube,
but these are on the yoke and other assemblies on the tube
neck, which we return to later.
At this point, we concern ourselves with the controls
relating to the color aspects of the TV set only. The two groups
of adjustments are the screen and drive adjustments. In most
receivers, there is a screen adjustment for each color—red
screen, blue screen and green screen. However, there may be
only two drive adjustments, one for blue, the second for green.
The design of the more recent color tubes and receivers often
eliminates the need for the red drive adjustment.
In spite of the fact that these controls, whether six, or five,
or even fewer in some sets, are marked with particular color
names, their adjustments are best made for abalanced black-
and-white picture. The adjustments are often referred to as
the "gray-scale" adjustments, meaning that they are set so
that the complete range or scale of light is reproduced on a
monochrome scene. Once this is done, the color picture should
require little, if any, touching up for best color balance.
As to the basic need for these adjustments, this stems
from the fact that the 3-gun picture tube is in fact three fairly
independent tubes, with some variations in characteristics
between them. The adjustments are intended to compensate
for and equalize these differences, as well as for some dif-
ferences in the three signals reaching these three guns.
Furthermore, since the correct proportions of the three colors
is required to achieve apure black-and-white picture, correct
adjustment for such apicture, therefore, implies that the color
balance is correct.
The screen and drive adjustments, although in-
terdependent, can nevertheless be made one set at a time.
First, the receiver brightness control is set for afairly middle-
to-dim level. Next, each screen control is advanced to the point
where atrace of color appears, then backed off to apoint just
beyond where this trace of color disappears. Next, the
brightness control is advanced to what is considered "normal
bright" and the drive controls adjusted for a full gradation
from dark to white on the scene, without any pitch black or
glaring white patches showing. In other words, the complete
range of light to dark should exist. A second touch-up of the
screen controls may be required, depending on the end results.

62
 If this is carefully carried out, there should be good color
balance when a color picture is received, although some final
touching up may be indicated if the color does not seem to be
balanced. To the beginner a balanced color picture is best
described as what seems to the eye to be a most "natural"
picture. Perhaps it might help to indicate what is not a
"balanced" color picture. If, for example, acolor picture has
abluish hue (or greenish or reddish), regardless of whether it
is sky, or skin, or grass, obviously there is an excess of blue (or
green, or red, as the case may be) in the picture. It is actually
possible to create such an artificially tinted picture by ad-
vancing one of the screen controls and observing the change.
A word of caution is in order, however. If you want to
make the test, you can best insure restoration of the color
balance to its original state by observing, and perhaps
marking, the position of the control about to be changed. Then
is it only necessary to reset the control to its original position
to obtain the original color balance.
Incidental to the discussion of color balance it is ap-
propriate to comment on artificial settings of the color balance
circuits for the sake of particular or special effects. It should
be remembered that the color TV set, like a painter, starts
with three primary colors, then mixes them in proper
proportions to obtain any desired color. However, while the
artist in order to achieve the exact hue or tint may have at his
disposal many more than the three basic colors, not so the
color TV tube. Unlike the artist's pallette, there are only three
colors to start with. This necessarily limits the versatility of
the color tube. While there are many other limiting factors,
this is the major one.
For best overall results, the proportion of the three colors
is such that all white or all blue or all green are easiest to
reproduce, while gradations and shadings are not so easy to
reproduce accurately. In practice, the eye is very tolerant on
color shades, except on such tints as flesh tones. While it is
possible to adjust the color balance of aset to favor flesh tones,
such favoring is usually achieved at the expense of color
balance; i.e., the general background (or some not so intended
objects) will take on the characteristic flesh tones. The clue to
the problem lies in the favoring. If for technical (design
transmission, etc.) reasons flesh tones do not look natural on a
properly adjusted color receiver, misadjusting the color
balance circuits to favor the flesh tones will invariably distort
the color balance on most other tints. It is like misadjusting
the tone control on a radio receiver or phonograph to obtain
better bass (low-frequency) response by cutting off the high
and medium frequencies essential to balanced sound.

63
 Chapter 5

Introduction to Troubleshooting

It is not our intention to tell abeginner in TV repair what to do

without also attempting to explain why something is to be
done, or why a certain procedure should be followed. Unless
you first understand what atube, atransistor, or an assembly
is supposed to do, basically, your chance of success in ef-
fecting acorrection or repair is much smaller than it could be.
That is also what we mean by potentially unsuccessful
"fixes."
While it is possible for an individual to look on a chart of
symptoms and find the one that seems most like that in his TV
set, then follow the suggested remedy and actually get the
desired result, the likelihood of such luck is rather small.
However, your luck will improve in direct proportion to your
familiarity with your set and your understanding of how it
functions when operating normally. It is not impossible for you
to look up afault in the index, which will refer you to acertain
page of this book, and by following the instructions end up with
a "fixed" set. But your chances of continued success are
better if you thoroughly acquaint yourself with the material in
the first four chapters before tearing into your set.

EQUIPMENT

While it is not our intention to suggest that a beginner

equip himself with a set of professional instruments and tools
just to be able to do some simple repairs, there are a few
necessary aids needed to undertake such repairs, in addition
to the usual simple tools found in every home, such as
screwdrivers, pliers, etc.
The first of these aids is a small soldering iron, about 100
watts capacity, preferably one of the "instant" heating type
commonly called asoldering "gun." This is not to suggest that
you immediately attempt to unsolder and solder parts of your
TV set. It is rather aform of insurance in case of "accidents."
For example, if during a simple tube change or adjustment
you unintentionally break an interconnecting lead (a number
of these seem to be "floating" around the back of every TV set
behind the cover), you should be able to repair it without
having to run for help. With a soldering gun you need some

64
solder—rosin core type only—never acid core or plumber's
type, and preferably of the "thin wire" type. A half-pound
spool of this stuff costs less than a dollar in a radio supply
house and will last almost a lifetime unless you get into the
business full-time.
The second piece of "equipment" that cannot be too highly
recommended is a complete set of tubes for your TV set (the
picture tube is, of course, not included). In hybrid sets (some
transistors, some tubes) this advice still applies as far as the
tubes in the set are concerned. The transistors are considered
later as parts of board assemblies. A set of tubes involves
some cost, of course, but actually it involves no additional
expense, since defective tubes have to be replaced anyway.
The great advantage in having acomplete set of spare tubes is
most obvious if you have a transformerless set (which are
fairly popular) as we shall see presently, but it is no less
convenient with transformer-operated receivers. Since the
small tubes in aTV receiver will probably have to be replaced
at least once during the life of the set, having aset of spares on
hand actually involves no additional cost at all.
The third item of great help to any repairman is a
schematic diagram or set of diagrams and other service data
for your set. This can sometimes be obtained by writing to the
manufacturer, giving the model of the set and the chassis
number. This information is always printed or stamped or
"stickered" on the back cover of the set and-or the back apron
of the chassis. Sometimes the chassis identification is also
given on the tube-transistor layout chart usually found inside
the cabinet.
There is another and much more readily available source
of service information. Instead of writing to the manufacturer,
a rather complete package of data, including schematics,
layouts, adjustment instructions and other helpful hints can be
bought in almost any radio supply house for a little over two
dollars. The folder usually contains data on more than one TV
set, but this is of no consequence (the folders are sold this way
only). While most users of this book and these diagrams may
not be very familiar with schematic diagrams, these never-
theless are very useful because they give tube and transistor
identification numbers, their functions as described in this
book as well as their relative physical locations in the chassis,
controls and adjustments, their locations, procedures, and
much other information easily usable by the beginner, par-
ticularly when used in conjunction with the procedures and
instructions given here for troubleshooting and corrective
adjustments.

65
 r
6CG8 6GH6 6JH6 6BN11 6HS8 6LU8 6KD6 6AF9

POWER
TRANS •
FORMER 6.3v
CCr
e • • • •

Fig. 5-1. Diagram of tube filaments or heaters wired in

parallel. The heavy lines in effect supply each tube in-
dividually, thus each heater operates independent of the
others. Notice that all tube numbers begin with the same
number (the number above the symbol used to represent a
tube filament).

The last item of equipment is asubstitute electric cord and

plug, known as a "cheater cord." The name is appropriate,
since it enables its user to "cheat" or defeat the protective
system designed into nearly all TV sets, specifically to prevent
the uninformed person from reaching into a potentially
dangerous TV set with the power on. Let us add, however, that
it is quite safe and permissible if you observe reasonable
precaution. It is our intention to properly inform you regard-
ing the dangers lurking behind that cover.
The safety interlock in the vast majority of TV sets con-
sists of the following: The AC line cord is physically
"tethered" to the protective back cover of the set. When the
cover is removed, the AC cord is automatically pulled out of a
2-pin male plug on the TV chassis. To operate the set with the
back removed requires a line cord identical to the one at-
tached to the cover. This is the "cheater cord," and it's
available from radio supply houses for less than adollar.
In a number of recent TV sets, the cheater cord is not
fastened to the back cover. Instead, it can be unplugged from
the back of the set before the back is removed. If this is not
done first, the cord will automatically disconnect from the
chassis when the back cover is taken off. In either case,
removing the cover also disconnects the cord, and it takes a
deliberate action to plug the cord back into the chassis without
the cover. This still insures that the TV set will not be ac-
cidentally exposed and operating. However, in this case, a
separate cheater cord is no longer required.

66
TUBE SUBSTITUTION

Before proceeding with actual troubleshooting

procedures, it is necessary to outline and explain avery useful
and very simple procedure which is applicable to a great
many, if not alarge majority, of TV repairs. This is the tube
substitution method of TV troubleshooting. Earlier it was
indicated how to carry out tube substitution the hard way—
remove asuspected tube from its socket and check it on atube
tester. Of course, if you don't have a tube tester, that means
going down to the neighborhood store displaying a "do-it-
yourself" tube tester, checking the tube, and buying anew one
if necessary. If you have a complete set of tubes for your TV
set you can troubleshoot and repair-by-substitution much
more easily and quickly.

Parallel Tube Filaments

Fig. 5-1 is a typical drawing of a parallel tube hookup.

Only the heaters or filaments (the elements that glow when
the set is switched on) are shown. Notice that every one of the
tubes is connected, independently, to the source of current,
most commonly 6.3 volts AC. An incidental clue to such a
parallel tube hookup is the fact that the tube numbers (except
the picture tube) all begin with the same number, usually 6
(like 6AH8, 6SS8, 6BG6 etc.), but sometimes 12 (like 12AH6
etc.).
Since each tube is connected to the source of the current,
without depending on any other tubes to complete the path, it
becomes obvious that pulling any tube out of its socket will not
prevent any of the remaining tubes from glowing or lighting.
Thus, when aparticular tube is suspected, it can be pulled out,
a new one of the same type plugged in, and the suspicion
confirmed or disproved. In case of a burnout, a tube fails to
light and can easily be spotted. In certain tubes a positive
visual observation or absence of light is not feasible, either
due to the coating (the "coating" is a byproduct of its being a
vacuum tube and has no other significance) inside the glass,
or because of some physical obstruction such as ametal sleeve
(called a tube shield). But by carefully touching each tube
with your bare hand you can determine its condition by the
warmth (Caution: sometimes a very high temperature! )or
coolness to the touch. By contrast, none of these tell-tale clues
are available with a transformerless, series-string tube
hookup. Other measures, therefore, are necessary.

67
 3AH8 6CG8 13J10 lOGN8 17CU5 2ORP4 15FM7 17JM6 22BW3

.."-- —
TO
115v AC

Fig. 5-2. When tube heaters are wired in series, as they are
in this drawing, they depend on each other for power. If
one goes out, the circuit is broken and they all go out.

Series Filaments

Fig. 5-2 is a typical wiring diagram of heaters in a series

hookup. Observe that the tubes follow each
other, chain-link fashion. This is called series wiring (like the
economy type Christmas tree lights). As in the case of parallel
hookup just described, the tube numbering is a reliable clue.
In a series hookup, there will be quite an assortment of tube
numbers, such as 3AH8, 18BQ7, 14SH6, 12GD9, etc. Whenever
any of of these tubes is removed from its socket, or whenever
one burns out, the circuit is "opened" and all tubes go out.
There is absolutely no indication which of the tubes is the
culprit, or, for that matter, whether more than one is in-
volved. While modern tube burnouts are not too frequent, this
does not help when a burnout does occur.
Incidentally, it is the nature of filament circuits that burn-
outs are more likely to occur in a series-wired set where
detection is more difficult. In the absence of a spare set of
tubes, the only practical procedure is to remove all tubes and
check them in a store tube tester. With spare tubes on hand,
one-at-a-time replacement can be made until the offender is
found. Of course, it is just possible that the very last tube so
tested is the burnout, but it is equally possible that the first, or
second, or third tube pulled out is the culprit. The advantage of
spares on hand is obvious.
In connection with series-wired tubes, it must be men-
tioned that there is one other possibility where all the tubes fail

68
to light when none of them is burned out. This will happen
when a protective device, called a fusible resistor or surge
protector, burns out. As was mentioned earlier, tubes in a
series-string circuit are more prone to burnout and shortened
life than the same types of tubes in parallel-wired or trans-
former-type TV sets. To reduce this failure hazard, many
manufacturers have incorporated in series-wired TV sets a
limiting (or surge absorbing) resistor, wired in as if it were
one additional tube in the string. However, since it is not as
obvious as a tube and often much less accessible, it can be
overlooked.
While some beginners may consider this task beyond
either their present ability or ambition, others may be quite up
to replacing the resistor themselves. Therefore, here is a
simple procedure for locating and replacing this resistor.
Incidentally, this so-called fusible resistor is sold by radio

BARE WIRE &

SURGE RESISTOR f TIGHT
ON-OFF
("SURGISTOR") j CONNECTION
SWITCH

TEMPORARY WIRE
"JUMPER."

VI V2 V3 V4 V5 V6 V7 V8 V9 VIO VII
7.\ 7.\ 7\ ts

dIme

CONNECTION TO CHASSIS (SOME TV SETS)

Fig. 5-3. A typical series filament string circuit. Three

requirements must be met for all tubes to light. The on-off
switch (shown open) must be closed; all the tubes must be
good (V4 is shown burned out); and the surge resistor
must be good. A piece of wire momentarily place across
the resistor will tell you if it's burned out because the
tubes will light when the wire is connected.

69
 supply houses, often in quantities of three or four in apackage,
for about a dollar or so. It is not a very critical part, and no
precise TV set make and model need be known to buy one of
these; anumber of different makes and models use the same
part. Fig. 5-3 shows a simple diagram of the wiring from the
AC line cord to the on-off switch to the surge resistor and
tubes. This resistor is almost always located immediately
after the on-off switch and in most sets is located in plain view
and reasonably accessible.
In order to determine whether or not the resistor is burned
out, disconnect the receiver from the wall outlet and remove
the rear cover. Should it be required to remove the chassis
from the cabinet (this is usually not the case), the picture tube
and the speaker are unplugged, leaving the chassis free. Most
service data clearly identifies what connectors exist between
the chassis and the speaker and picture tube. Usually, there
are two separate wires from the chassis to the speaker, each
with a quick-disconnect device. Sometimes these two wires
may interconnect through a 2-pin plug. The picture tube
usually has amulti-pin plug for the same purpose, and in some
color TV sets, two such plugs. In addition, there is a high-
voltage lead going to a snap button on the picture tube glass.
This also must be disconnected, preferably a few minutes
after the set has been switched off to allow time for the
residual high voltage to dissipate. Otherwise, an unpleasant
jolt may be in store for the bare hand touching this lead. In-
cidentally, alarge number of TV sets have a quick-disconnect
on this lead at the chassis end, making it so much easier to
handle.
To determine whether the surge resistor is burned out, the
professional TV man makes a continuity check with an ohm-
meter. However, it is perfectly safe to bridge this resistor
for test purposes (connecting the two ends together, as shown
in Fig. 5-3), then observe whether or not the tubes light. If they
do light, the resistor is burned out and should be replaced. If
they do not light, one of them is burned out.

SPECIAL SERIES-PARALLEL FILAMENTS

Before concluding our discussion of tube replacement in

series strings we should consider special series-parallel
filaments found particularly in some older receivers. So far, to
avoid complicating things, we have not mentioned the fact
that in series strings (as in Fig. 5-3) the same current flows
through all the tubes and that the tubes are purposely designed
and chosen so that all tubes in the string, regardless of tube
number, require the same current. In contrast, each tube in a

70
parallel-filament TV set may (and sometimes does) carry a
different current than its neighbor; they are independent of
each other in this respect. Not so in the series string
arrangement.
Let us again look at Fig. 5-3 in somewhat modified form in
Fig. 5-4. When the string is complete, i.e., all tubes light, the
current is continuous and the same through the whole string.
If, for example, tube V4 (shown dashed in Fig. 5-3) should burn
out, all tubes will be out. However, consider a series string
circuit of the type found in some of the older sets. Fig. 5-4
shows a simplified version for the sake of explanation. Notice
that V4 and V5 are, so to speak, "together." Should one of
these two tubes (say V4) burn out, all tubes will continue to
light, and the second tube of the pair (V5) in this case will be
overloaded and most likely will burn out or be permanently
damaged. This type of hybrid tube hookup was employed by
some manufacturers because there was not available a full
choice of tubes for asimple series hookup as in Fig. 5-3.
In troubleshooting a TV set of this type it is necessary to
have the data folder or diagrams (mentioned earlier) showing

Fig. 5-4. Some (older) TV sets have a "hybrid" series-

parallel filament circuit, where two tubes are (V4 and V5)
connected in parallel or a resistor is placed across a tube
filament.

71
the tube hookup. Before removing any tube for possible
replacement, it is but necessary to look at the tube heater
hookup, which is always shown in the diagram. Any tubes
connected like VI, V2, V3, V6, V7, or V9 in Fig. 5-4 may be
removed, tested and replaced without any fear of damage.
Any tube hooked up in pairs, like V4 and V5, should be
removed in pairs; i.e., the set switched off, both tubes
removed, each tube replaced in turn, then the set switched on
to observe the effect of the substitution.
A final suggestion on hybrid series tube wiring: In .some
(very few) obsolete sets, atube or two may be paired not with
another tube, as are V4 and V5 in Fig. 5-4, but with a heater
element (called aresistor). The circuit might look like V8 in
Fig. 5-4. Observe that should V4, V5, or V8 burn out or be
removed from their sockets, the remaining tubes will still be
able to light, but the heater element marked R or the second
tube of the pair will be carrying all the current and may be
damaged as a result. In such cases the safe and proper
procedure is to switch off the set, remove the tube or tubes,
substitute others, then switch on the receiver and observe the
effect of the tube replacement.

TUBE "PULLING"

Since it is assumed that you have no experience in even

the relatively simple task of tube changing, the following
instructions should further simplify this task. In addition, the
precautions given here will, as a minimum, save time and
prevent damage. More important, it may prevent potential
(minor) injury as well as discouragement.
Because of the prevalent practice to cram the maximum
amount of electronics into the minimum possible space, some
tube locations are often less than ideal for removal or
replacement. This requires extra care in removal and
replacement of tube shields and tubes. The general purpose of
this admonition is twofold: First, the removal of a tube must
not affect or damage any adjacent part. Delicate components,
fragile leads and potentially shock-producing (exposed)
voltages may lurk in the immediate vicinity of the tubes. Plain
care and common sense are all that is required to insure that
when the tube shield and tube are handled, other components
in the vicinity are left undisturbed. Second, proper care must
be exercised both in removal and replacement of tubes so that
tube pins are not bent or broken, sockets are not damaged, or,
what is less obvious, that socket connections are not loosened
by careless or forceful handling. This is easier done in some
cases than in others, as we shall show presently.

72
Octal Tubes

Octal tubes generally are known as the "older

generation." They are glass tubes with bakelite bases. Fig. 5-5
shows the base and matching socket of an octal tube. Although
they are called octal tubes, they may not have all eight pins.
But whether the tubes have five, six, seven, or eight pins, they
are all laid out on a symmetrical pattern of eight around a
circle. The octal socket, by contrast, and for reasons of sim-
plicity in manufacturing and stocking, has all eight pinholes,
with connecting lugs underneath. Any unused lugs (as when a
5-pin tube is to be plugged in) are simply left blank or used for
anchoring or supporting other electronic parts in the vicinity.
Notice that the tube has a"key" (corresponding to the key
on motor shafts and pulleys) and the socket has a keyway
which must be positioned in one correct way only, otherwise
the tube will not readily plug into the socket. Here is a good
example of what is meant by plain care and common sense
during tube removal and replacement. It is quite possible,
with a little force, to wear or damage the fiber or phenolic
keyway in the socket and finally "get the tubes in" the wrong
way! The proper procedure, and this can actually be done in
the dark, i.e., without seeing the keyway, is to hold the tube

Fig. 5-5. Sketch of an octal tube and socket.

73
upright over the center of the socket. Then, and without any
downward pushing whatsoever, the tube is moved slightly
until just the tip of the rounded part of the key barely enters
the center hole of the socket. Now, slowly turn the tube until it
drops abit into the socket. (Up to now, only the rounded end of
the tube key was pivoting in the hole.) When the tube drops, all
the pins will just about begin to engage the corresponding
socket holes and gentle but firm downward pressure will fully
seat the tube. An experimental trial with a tube and an ac-
cessible socket takes less time than it takes to describe it.
To remove the tube, astraight upward pull is used, taking
care that your hand (with the tube in it) doesn't come up
suddenly and hit something inside the TV set. Incidentally, a
straight, perfectly vertical pull upward is not always easy, but
with caution and judgment it is permissible, while pulling the
tube up, to wiggle it slightly from side to side. The tube pins
are strong enough and the socket pins flexible enough to
permit doing this without causing any damage.

Tube Shield Handling

A metal sleeve over the tube, where used, is an essential

part of the circuit; it is not ornamental or for mechanical
protection. It is absolutely imperative that the shield be
replaced and properly seated in its retaining base or clips
after the tube has been replaced. Failing to replace a shield
may not produce an immediate and obvious malfunction, but
many acomplaint of poor TV performance has been traced to
the absence of shields as the result of failing to replace them
after tube changes. In many TV sets the shields on the tuner
are soldered in place and are not completely removable. They
are, however, collapsible to half of their normal height
(by simply pushing down on the rim) so that the tube can be
removed. After tube replacement, the shield is returned again
to its original height.

Baseless All-Glass Tubes

These have been generally classified as "miniature"

tubes and included, up to afew years ago, 7-pin and 9-pin tubes
of rather small size. Since then, however, anew group of tubes
includes types which often are as large as the largest base-
type tubes. The method of handling is very much the same for
all types so they are discussed as agroup.
Seven-pin minatures: The pins of these tubes are made of
relatively soft metal and will withstand a limited amount of
bending and straightening. However, if any pins are bent in

74
the process of plugging into the socket, it can cause poor
contact and resultant performance troubles. Fig. 5-6 shows a
bottom view of a7-pin miniature tube and its socket. Observe
that unlike octal tubes, there is no key, no keyway, and no
mechanical guide for correct insertion. The seven pins are
symmetrically spaced on an 8-pin pattern, with one pin
omitted. Therefore, more care is required in removal and
especially in plugging in such a tube. In the latter case visual
observation of the tube and socket is essential, especially the
first time. As in the case of octal tubes, it is advisable to
"experiment" with a tube that is both accessible and visible.
The proper procedure for plugging in such atube is as follows:
Align the tube so that the blank space on the tube faces the
blank space of the socket. In other words, pins 1and 7 (wide
spacing) faces holes 1and 7on the socket.
With the tube resting on the socket (of its own weight),
rotate the tube very slightly back and forth, so as to get all
seven pins to the point where they just begin to find the
corresponding socket holes. This is best done by "feel."
Firmly push the tube straight down. If the pins are
aligned, the tube will move downward, although it will offer
some resistance.

Fig. 5-6. Drawing of a 7-pin miniature all-glass

tube and socket.

75
Fig. 5-7. The 9-pin miniature tube and socket are similar to
7-pin tubes.

Continue the downward pressure until the tube is fully

seated. This, too, is done by "feel," although it may also be
seen.
If the tube does not seem to begin moving downward when
you first apply pressure, remove it and carefully examine the
pins. Due to possible improper alignment, one or more of the
pins might have pushed against the socket material and
become bent. Carefully straighten the pin and repeat the
process.
Now and then a"gadget" appears on the market which is
intended to assist in plugging in these tubes. Most servicemen,
however, do not use them.
As mentioned in the case of the octal tubes, it is a good
idea to practice removing and replacing a tube on a fully
accessible socket where you can see exactly what happens.
What has been said about tube shields before applies even
more so here since most of the critical and sensitive functions
in modern TV sets are performed by miniature tubes and the
shield is part of the tube!

Nine-pin miniatures: Fig. 5-7 shows the tube pin layout

and socket of the 9-pin miniature tube type. What has been
said about the 7-pin tube and socket applied equally here.
Nine-pin tubes are somewhat larger in diameter, too.

76
 Other all-glass tubes: There are other ty; :3 of all-glass
baseless tubes in use in TV sets, but these are basically no
different than the two types just described. For example, a
series of tubes known as Compactrons are considerably larger
than the miniature types just described; in fact they are
among some of the largest tubes found in a modern TV set.
Their base structure differs somewhat from the miniatures,
and aword of caution with regard to this difference is in order.
All such tubes are, of course, evacuated the same as other
types. But miniature tubes previously discussed have the bulb
tip at the top, while Compactron types have this tip on the
bottom right in the center of the pin circle as shown in Fig. 5-8.
While handling this type of tube, care must be exercised
that the glass tip is not accidentally broken. As shown in Fig. 5-
8the socket has aclearance hole for the tip. Nevertheless, it is
possible to strike it against some object on the chassis.
Breaking this tip will not cause any violent implosion but it
will certainly destroy the tube!

Tube Top Caps

There are at least two tubes in a modern TV set which

handle very high voltage (in the thousands). Because of this,

Fig. 5-8. Some receivers use larger all-glass tubes like this
sketch of a Compactron and its socket.

77
 one connection to such a tube is brought out to a metallic
button (top cap) on top of the tube instead of to one of the base
pins. Furthermore, in the interest of safety, the connecting top
cap lead is often enclosed in anonmetallic (bakelite, phenolic,
etc.) outer shell. While the top cap button on the tube is
electrically soldered to the appropriate internal tube element,
the button is only cemented to the glass; quite often the
cement separates from the glass, leaving only the soldered
wire to hold the button. While this does not call for discarding
the tube, it calls for special care in removal and replacement
of the top cap lead.
To remove a connection from a loose button first try
(gently) to rotate the cap abit. If it responds, gradually pull it
straight upward while rotating it a bit. Under normal con-
ditions, such rotation will be accompanied by a very slight
scraping of metal against metal, indicating that the button on
the tube is rigid while the cap is rubbing against the button.
Since there is motion between the two metal surfaces, it is safe
to pull the cap off. However, should this slight rotation be
smooth and noiseless, it probably (even if not 100 percent of
the time) means that both the cap and button are turning
together, because the button is no longer cemented to the
glass. Further twisting is likely to break the connection to the
tube element and thereby destroy the tube. In such a case it
should be possible, using both hands or perhaps a thin
screwdriver blade, to hold the loose button on top of the tube
while working the cap loose. If a subsequent test in a tube
tester shows the tube to be in operating condition, the
looseness of the cap may be ignored. If desired, any household
cement may be used to re-attach the cap before plugging it
back into the TV set.

TESTING BY SUBSTITUTION

Now that we have become acquainted with the mechanics

of tube "pulling" and replacement, we can proceed to
troubleshoot by tube substitution.
Remove the back cover-line cord assembly or the line-
cord and the cover separately if they are not attached to each
other. Reconnect the set to the AC wall outlet, using the
cheater cord or the TV set cord if it is free.
Switch the TV set on. Observe as far as possible whether
any tube fails to light. In case of the transformerless TV set all
or none will light. We shall outline the procedure for this type
later. For a parallel-wired (transformer type) set only the
burned-out tube will not light. All others will light.

78
 If it is difficult to see whether or not a tube lights, deter-
mine by the touch method which tube if any does not feel
warm. If all tubes light, or are warm to the touch, the defect is
not due to a burnout, although a tube may still be defective.
Caution! Some tubes operate at very high temperatures,
sufficient to cause painful burns!
Determine from the troubleshooting procedures that
follow which of the tubes may be involved. Remove the tube,
following the procedures and caution notes given above.
Substitute agood tube for the suspected one. In cases where
more than one tube may be the cause, change only one tube at
a time.
Switch on the TV set, allow afew minutes for warmup and
stabilization, then observe the effect. If the tube was at fault,
the set should now perform normally. If it does not, return to
the paragraph in the book describing the malfunction and
continue the procedures given there.

79
 Chapter 6

Operating Adjustments

As we continue to explore TV troubleshooting the next logical

step is a knowledge of the operating controls—not only the
knobs on the front of the receiver but those mysterious looking
adjustments in the back.

VERTICAL SIZE

The normal TV set has sufficient vertical size, or as it is

commonly called "height," to fill the screen completely with
quite alittle to spare. In other words, the back-of-the set ad-
justment called "V-size" or "height" could make the picture
as much as 30 percent higher than the screen height if turned
far enough. However, normal design provides for a normal
size picture with the control in approximately its mid-rotation
position.
Another important consideration before adjusting the V-
size or height control is the avoidance of distortion. The nor-
mal picture format (or aspect ratio) by technical and NTSC
standard is 4X 3; i.e., for every four inches of picture width
there is acorresponding three inches of picture height. Under
these conditions, a circular emblem will look like a perfect
circle, not egg-shaped. In adjusting the V-size or height, care
should be taken that the picture is not stretched to the point of
distortion. This is best done with some circular object on the
screen. Some stations still show a circular test pattern a few
minutes before going on the air. However, it is not necessary
to wait for a test pattern—many emblems and other com-
mercial symbols shown between programs are circular and
will serve for V-size adjustments. The possible alternatives for
height adjustments, therefore, are as follows:
1. If the picture height is slightly below normal, adjust the
V-size or height, or V control until the picture just covers the
screen height. Check for nondistortion by observing the cir-
cularity of a suitable object on the screen, preferably a large
one, for ease of correct adjustments. For all adjustments
where observation of the screen is necessary, a mirror is
essential. The professional TV repairman has a special

80
mirror-on-a-stand for the purpose but any mirror, propped up
in front of the screen so it can be viewed from behind the set, is
quite satisfactory.
2. If the control setting for full screen height is at or near
its extreme position (little rotation remaining), the vertical
amplifier stage is not operating properly. Again, while it is
just possible that a defective part, resistor, capacitor, trans-
former, or even avoltage change is responsible for the loss of
height, the most likely and most frequent cause is an old, worn
tube in the vertical circuit.
Referring to the typical functional (block) diagram in
Chapter 2we notice that there is aV-osc (vertical oscillator)
tube and a V-amp (vertical amplifier) tube in every TV set.
Sometimes these functions have different names for the same
functions; thus "Vert-Multi" is an abbreviation for "vertical
multivibrator," a synonym for oscillator. In other cases, the
vertical oscillator is named "V-discharge."
"V-output" is quite commonly used for the vertical am-
plifier. What is significant is the fact that in the vast majority
of modern TV sets, these two functions are in one envelope and
can be located easily by observing the number description,
such as V6A and V6B, meaning parts A and B of tube V6. Thus,
after locating and removing this 2-in-1 tube from its socket, if
the TV set is switched on it should have normal sound and a
simple bright horizontal line across the center of the picture
tube. If, on the basis of probability, the pulled tube checks (in a
tube tester) as "weak" or "poor," replacement with a new
tube will solve the problem but will almost always require
readjustment of the V-size and perhaps also the V-Line
(linearity) control. The procedure is as follows:
1. Plug in the new tube and switch the TV set on. Wait a
few minutes for warm-up.
2. With amirror positioned so you can see the picture from
your position behind the set, reduce the V-size until the picture
is too small to cover the screen both at the top and bottom; i.e.,
until some blank screen shows.
3. Wait for a circular pattern or emblem to appear on the
screen and observe its symmetry. It is quite easy to tell
whether or not acircular shape is 100 percent symmetrical or
not. Fig. 6-1 is an example of patterns you may encounter
during this adjustment.
4. If the circular pattern resembles Fig. 6-1A, i.e., if two
halves are symmetrical, adjust the V-size to increase the
pattern or display until all four quarters are as identical as
possible, or until the circle is no longer flattened at the top and
bottom. This will produce the closest approach to a perfect

81
Fig. 6-1. These drawings show three conditions of vertical
nonlinearity. Using a circular emblem or insignia adjust
the vertical linearity for a symmetrical circle as indicated
at D. The circle at A is flat on both top and bottom; at B the
top half is stretched and the lower half compressed. The
nonlinearity at C is the exact opposite of the condition at B.

82
circle. (There may be some minor irregularity due to
horizontal and other imperfections, preventing the attainment
of a 100 percent perfect circle, but if this deviation is very
slight, no further correction is necessary.) The pattern should
look pretty much like that in Fig. 6-1D.
5. If the final, most nearly circular pattern is obtained
before the screen is fully covered in the vertical direction or,
conversely, if you have to turn the V-size control to the point
where the picture runs beyond the top and bottom edges of the
screen in order to get a circle, then the width ("horizontal
size") adjustment is incorrect and will have to be corrected
before completion of the vertical adjustment. However, at the
moment we are proceeding on the assumption that only the
vertical circuits require adjustment. (We shall return to the
horizontal adjustment presently.)

VERTICAL LINEARITY

If the reduced image on the screen resembles Fig. 6-1B or

6-1C, a second, closely related vertical adjustment must also
be made. This control varies the vertical picture symmetry,
usually called vertical linearity. While it is difficult to tell a
nearly perfect shape by viewing an action scene on the screen,
such is not the case for distorted proportion. For example, Fig.
6-1B corresponds to excessive stretching of the top of the
picture; people seem to have very short legs and their heads
seem to come to apoint. The opposite extreme, like Fig. 6-1C,
produces long-legged, high-waisted people with very low
foreheads. Correction of either requires the adjustment of the
V-lin (vertical linearity) control, again using a circular pat-
tern of some kind, plus the aid of a ruler and a grease pencil,
as follows:
1. Mark a horizontal line across the screen, midway
between the top and bottom; use a ruler for a fairly accurate
division of the height.
2. Adjust the V-size control, as previously, for a circle
smaller than the full screen height, exposing blank space at
the top and bottom.
3. Adjust the V-lin control until the upper and lower por-
tions (above and below the painted line) are as nearly of the
same height as you can tell with the naked eye (measurement
is not necessary).

VERTICAL ROLL

In anormally functioning TV receiver, the picture will at

times slide up or down one frame. This may happen when the

83
 PICTURE TUBE
TUNER IF AMPLIFIER VIDEOAMPLIFIER
V1 -6AH5 PICTURE INFORMATION V14
V3 1,V4, V5 1111—le V6A
V2 -6 EA8 6BZ6 (ALL) /
12 0F 6GN8

VID —
E-0
DETECTOR D1 VERTICAL SWEEP
HORIZONTAL SWEEP
c 0_ FM LIMITER DISCRIMINATOR iSOUND OUTPUT
0- (SOUND)
co V6B V7A V7B
1/
2 6GN8 / 6Z10 / 6Z10

000 VOLTS
1 2 1 2

SPEAKER

SYNC VERTICAL VERTICAL

CLIPPER &AGC OSCILLATOR AMPLIFIER
V8A V8B V9
6BA1 1 /
12 6BAll 6GK6

HORIZONTAL WIDTH
TO AGC CIRCUITS ADJUSTMENT—POT RECTIF ER
HORIZONTAL HORIZ. OSC HORIZONTAL HIGH VOLTAGE
CONTROL & DISCHARGE OUTPUT _H V12
_e l V10A I VlOB 2AS2
V1
/
12 6KD8 or 1/
2 6GH8 or
6JN6 RECTIFIER
/
12 6GH8 I 1/2 6KD8
LOW VOLTAGE
Vla
6AY3 5U4GB
B+ 650 VOLTS
B± BWST ALL
(DAMPER) TUBES
set is first switched on, when channels are changed, or when
programs are switched at the transmitter. At all other times,
the picture actually does not "want" to slip or roll as it is
controlled by and synchronized with a signal from the trans-
mitter (vertical sync; see Chapter 2). If however, a TV set
exhibits frequent rolling, requiring repeated readjustment of
the V-hold control, the fault is most likely in the sync circuits.
An examination of the typical block diagrams, and
especially the diagram of the particular set in question, will
reveal that there are such functions as sync amp (sync am-
plifier), sync separator, sync clipper, or perhaps com-
binations of these functions performed by one or more tubes
all having the common term sync. A defect in one of these
tubes is the most likely suspect causing vertical roll. As shown
in Figs. 6-2, 6-3, 6-4, and 6-5, these are dual- or triple-function
tubes, identified as sections A, B, or C (V5A, V5B, etc.). Each
section of such tubes may be involved in separate unrelated
functions, so that removal of one tube actually disables two or
three separate functions. Thus, in Fig. 6-2, one half of V8
(V8A) is async clipper amplifier, while the other half (V8B) is
the vertical oscillator. With V8 out of its socket, the picture
will collapse to a thin horizontal line.
In most cases, a sync tube serves both vertical and
horizontal sweep circuits. Removal of this tube will, therefore,
disable both V and H sync, and the picture will roll vertically
and "tear" (zig-zag fashion) horizontally. As soon as a good
tube is replaced in the socket, everything should return to
normal, provided the tube was at fault.

V-Sync Failure—Other Causes

Weak or defective sync tubes are not the only potential

causes for vertical roll. Referring again to the block diagrams
it will be noted that the signal to the sync amp or similar sync
tube comes from the block marked Vid. Amp (video am-
plifier). Very often this stage, and not the following sync
circuits, is responsible. Should the video amplifier be either
very poor or outright defective, a very poor sync signal will
leave this tube; therefore, the input to the sync stages is
inadequate.
Of course, in such a case the picture quality will also
suffer, most often exhibiting alack of highlights and contrast.
While advancing the contrast control may result in some
improvement to the picture, this self-same adjustment may
actually be detrimental to normal sync output. Thus, chronic
picture rolling in aset having aweak picture may well be due

85
 to asubnormal video amplifier. Also, while apoor picture may
be due to one or more substandard tubes anywhere from the
antenna to the video amplifier, it is rather easy to tell which
portion of the set is responsible. A weak "thin" picture that is
otherwise clean is almost certain to be due to a poor video
amplifier, while substandard functioning in the TV tuner or in
the IF amplifier is almost certain to produce asnowy perhaps
"wavy" or "snaking" picture.

FREAK SYNC TROUBLE

There is one other potential case of sync problems worth

mentioning here—interference from another TV station on the
same channel. Standard FCC channel allocations are such
that under normal conditions the geographic separation
between stations operating on the same channel preclude any
likelihood of the distant station interfering with alocal station
on the same channel. Modern TV sets have, in addition, a
certain amount of built-in immunity from this possible in-
terference because they tend to favor the much stronger local
station. However, during some not-too-frequent freakish at-
mosphere conditions, when distant signals tend to come in
rather strongly, interference may result. This is due to the
fact, that although technical standards (frequencies, sync,
sweeps, etc.) are the same throughout the U.S., very minor
and quite tolerable differences between those standards will
cause severe interference with the local station sync and,
consequently, with the picture as a whole. However, since
these are very transient conditions, occurring on some
stations only, nothing should be done about it. It is described
here merely to acquaint you with the phenomenon, and, by
implication, caution you not to rush into making "ad-
justments."

HORIZONTAL SIZE OR WIDTH

The symptoms of insufficient width are quite obvious: The

picture does not cover the full width of the screen and, quite
likely, has shrunk more on one side than on the other. As in the
case of vertical size, either tube degradation or adjustments,
or (most likely) both, are responsible. Referring to Fig. 6-2, we
see that tubes V10A, V10B, and V11 are involved. In Fig. 6-3, V9
and V10 are involved. In Fig. 6-4, V10 and V11 are involved.
While in Fig. 6-5, V9, V10A and VlOB are involved.
When insufficient width is the only complaint, the H-osc
function box may not be involved. However, since read-

86
 PICTURE TUBE
VIDEO V-13 23FP4A
IF AMPLIF IER

/
VHF TUNER
V3A- 1/26A R1 i
AMPLIFIER
V5A
PICTURE INFORMATION
I

1
V1 -6GK5 4V3 B- 1
..-le., /26A R11
V2 -6CG8A /
1 3 6AF11
V4A- 1/26JN8
VERTICAL SWEEP
VIDEO
DETECTOR D1
HORIZONTAL SWEEP

SOUND IF SOUND DETECTOR AUDIO AMPLIFIER

V5C V7A V7 B
....» 1/ 6AF11 1/
2 6T10 V26T10
(DISCRIMINATOR)
SPEAKER

20,000/ 25,000 VOLTS

VERTICAL VERTICAL
AGC KEYER SYNC CLIPPER OSCILLATOR AMPLIFIER
V4B --e, V5B V8A V8B
/
2
1 6J N8 /
2
1 6FY7 /
12 6FY7
V3 6AF 11
or 6FM7 or 6FM7

HORIZONTAL I
PHASE HORIZONTAL HORIZONTAL
DETECTOR OSCILLATOR AMPLIF IER
V9A —e. V9 B V10 HIGH VOLTAGE
.41100
/
12 6LT8 /
12 6LT8 6GE5 RECTIFIER
HORI Z. WIDTH—SLUG ADJUST
LOW VOLTAGE DAMPER (B+ BOOST) V11 1
RECTIFIER B+ l V12 I.,... 1K3
V14 5U4GB 6AX3
OR D2, D3 TO ALL To
BOXES • I
H- AND V- Fig. 6-3. Block diagram of another popular B & W TV set.
AMPLIFIERS
 justments are required after substituting ahigher performing
new tube for a worn-out old one, the H-osc box may also be
involved, since some of the adjustments are located there.
Again referring to the typical block diagrams, other tubes and
functions are shown, because they are intimately related to
the H-amplifier.
In troubleshooting for insufficient width, we shall first
suspect the horizontal amplifier. To proceed:
1. Switch off the receiver and remove the back cover and
AC cord. Use a cheater cord if necessary.
2. Carefully remove the top cap from the H-amp tube and
remove the tube. This cap may be very tight or sometimes
"frozen." Observe the suggestions given in Chapter 5 for
removing the cap without damaging the tube.
3. Install anew tube and replace the top cap securely. This
is avery high voltage point; aloose cap may cause arcing and
even damage to the horizontal output transformer! Caution: If
this tube is located inside ametal enclosure or cage, be sure to
secure the enclosure after tube replacement. Practically all of
the components in this cage operate at extremely high
voltages!
4. If the H-amp tube replacement does not correct the
insufficient width, one or two other tubes may be at fault.
Looking again at the typical block diagrams, Figs. 6-2 to 6-5
(V13, V12, V13, V10B respectively), we notice that each has a
tube called a "B+ boost" or "damper." Without going into the
technicalities of the function of the damper, it is sufficient for
our purpose to know that this tube contributes in large
measure to the normal operation of the vertical and horizontal
amplifiers by providing them with a voltage "boost." Should
this tube be below par (and this does happen frequently) the H-
amplifier will not provide sufficient output for full picture
width. Again, caution must be exercised here, since the
damper tube often is located inside the high-voltage cage.
Another tube that may be responsible for insufficient
width, also by virtue of providing insufficient voltage to the H-
amplifier (as well as to all other tubes in the set) is the rec-
tifier tube, where one is used. More and more TV sets
nowadays no longer use vacuum tubes for rectifiers;
semiconductor diodes, usually marked D (D1 and D2) on the
diagram, are preferred for many reasons, not the least of
which is a long, troublefree life. In the above mentioned
diagrams, the rectifiers are, respectively, V14, "2-diodes," "2-
diodes." When a tube-type rectifier is used, and if it is weak,
the symptoms will be more than just insufficient width. The
picture height may be subnormal, the sound may be below

88
 VIDEO DETECTOR
IF SOUND AUDIO
TUNER IF AMPLIFIER. DETECTOR AMPLIFIER
I V5A
V1-3 V3-4J D6 2 6CL8A
/
1 V6 ---• V7 SPEAKER
V2-6H B7' 1/
4-4JC6 4DT6A 12F X5
OR 6FV8A V14
SEMICONDUCTOR PICTURE TUBE

L
73 HRP4
VIDEO
I AMPLIFIER PICTURE INFORMATION
V8A
1 1OLZ8
/
2 SYNC VERTICAL VERTICAL
SEPARATOR OSCILLATOR AMPLIFIER
V8B V9A v9B VERTICAL SWEEP
/
12 1OLZ8 2 17JZ8
/
1 /
12 17JZ8
AGC•AMPL
V5 B HORIZONTAL e
AFC HORIZONTAL HORIZONTAL
/
12 6CL8A OSCILLATOR AMPLIFIER
2-DIODES HORIZ. WIDTH
0R6 FV8A V10 V 1
SEMICON - ADJUST-
8FQ7 21J Z6 "POINTS"
DUCTORS

HIGH VOLTAGE B+ BOOST

RECTIFIER (DAMPER)
LOW VOLTAGE
POWER SUPPLY V12 V13 H-AMPLIFIER
AC LINE 1K3 17BE3 V-AMPLIFIER ETC.
2-DIODES

18,000 VOLTS
TO ALL TUBES!

Fig. 6-4. Block diagram of a B & W TV set with series-wired filaments.

par, picture may be dim and flat, etc. Replacement of
semiconductor rectifiers is, in our opinion, beyond the scope of
a beginner and it is not recommended.
5. If it is obvious that the picture width is correct, no
further adjustments are required. However, this is the proper
time to readjust the set if, as is often the case, the picture is too
wide, "wrapping itself" partly around the tube, causing cutoff
of left and right edges. (This can best be seen when some
printing or writing is shown, such as at the opening of amotion
picture.) If it is apparent that the picture is too wide, proceed
as follows:
6. If you have a set of diagrams or service information for
the set, examine it to find what type of width adjustment is
provided. If no such data is at hand, proceed as follows:
7. Examine the back of the TV set (with the cover
removed) and compare it with the typical diagrams in Figs. 6-
2through 6-5. Notice that on these diagrams, three different
kinds of width adjustments are indicated: "pot, slug, and
sleeve, or tabs." While all of these are meant to achieve the
same purpose, the procedure for each is different and must be
understood before attempting to use any of them.
"Pot": This adjustment is of the volume control type and
may be a knurled, round shaft like that inside the knobs of the
ordinary radio, or it may be a slotted shaft designed for
screwdriver adjustment. In either case, it is an adjustable
potentiometer ("pot" for short) which can be rotated less than
one full turn. It is simplest to adjust and can easily be reset to
its original (before adjustment) position. It is worth men-
tioning asecond time that it is wise for the beginner to always
observe and, where possible, record the position of an ad-
justment before changing it. In this way, you can always go
back to the original condition, should you feel the adjustment
makes things worse or is ineffective.
With a pot type of control, slowly rotate the shaft (using a
mirror to watch the picture) until the width is less than full
screen. If the picture extends more or less equally on both left
and right edges, rotate the shaft in the opposite direction until
the picture just barely extends beyond the edges of the screen.
About 1/4 to 1 / inch is all that should be "wrapped" on each
2
side. The correct width setting is that which does not mask any
part of a line of printed matter (the list of actors, etc.,
displayed at the beginning of amovie is most suitable).
"Slug": A slug-type width adjustment is found in many
TV receivers and requires a different technique, as well as
some precautionary measures. The word "slug" refers to a
carbon-like rod that can be made to slide in or out of a fiber

90
 VIDEO DETECTOR
y
_..- TUNER
VIV2 -
3HA5 IF AMPLIFIER
V3-4EH7
VIDEO
AMPLIFIFR
V
-5GS 7- V4-4 E
_....
J7DIODE 1 m
/2 10-5AJY8
,..

(SEMICONDUCTOR)
SOUND I.F. DETECTOR AUDIO
SOUND AMPLIFIER
/
2
1 V5B
10JY8 1 /2 V6A
17BF11 V6B
17BF11 SPEAKER VI2, 3100DB4
PICTURE TUBE
AGC VERTICAL AMPLIFIER VERTICAL
/
2
1

AMPLIFIER
V7A8B10 TOCIRCUITS
AGC OSCILLATOR
V8A17J Z8 V8B17JZ8
/
12
--e.

SYNC HORIZONTAL HORIZONTAL HORIZONTAL B+DAMPER)

BOOST
/
2
1

SEPARATOR AFC
V7C8B10 OSCILLATOR
V9F AMPLIFIER
V10A V1OB
V7B8B 10
/3 1/3 6 Q7 1
—le /33G Y7 1
2 /
233GY7
TO SOME TUBES
LOW
1

RECTIFIER
LOWI2-DIODES
VOLTAGE RECTI VOLTAGE
HIGH VOLTAGE
FIER 18,000v
VII
ALL TUBES 1X2
I

1
48

Fig. 6-5. Block diagram of another transformerless receiver using series-wired filaments.
 SLUG (POWERED IRON COR E)

COIL (SPOOL OF WIRE)

THREADED SCREW (MOLDED INTOSLUG)

SCREWDRIVERISLOT

Fig. 6-6. Drawing of a typical slug-tuned coil.

sleeve on which aspool of wire is wound. The whole assembly

is called a "width coil" or (a bit more technically) a slug-
tuned coil. The tuning or adjustment of width is made by in-
serting the blade of aspecial tool (or midget screwdriver) into
the protruding slot of athreaded screw-like shaft. Fig. 6-6 is a
simple sketch of such a coil.
In contrast to the just described "pot" adjustment, the
slug can be turned as many as eight or more full times. In fact,
there is no "stop" on this adjustment, hence the precaution:
Do not keep on turning aslug more than three or four turns in
either direction. To do so may unscrew the slug completely,
letting it fall out or, worse, fall into the dark recess of the TV
chassis. Whichever way it falls, there follows a messy job of
replacing it, certainly one to be avoided by the beginner.
Fortunately, TV design is such that this slug is normally in an
approximately midposition, allowing aminimum travel of five
or six turns in or out—certainly enough for any width ad-
justment in the field. Normally, most width coils are designed
so that turning the slug out (counterclockwise from the
screwdriver end) will increase the width, and vice versa. The
procedure, therefore, is the same as the pot shaft rotation,
except that here afew full turns may be required, as follows:

92
 Rotate the slug clockwise until both left and right edges of
the picture are visible, until the picture is now too narrow.
Rotate the slug in the other direction until a slight overlap or
"wrap" is achieved on each side. Of course, too much overlap
cuts off the picture.
Other width adjustments: In some TV receivers, a
mechanical (magnetic) adjustment is provided for picture
width control. No two of these are alike, and adjustment
should not be attempted without some sort of service sheets or
instructions. Two of the most common mechanical ad-
justments are the width sleeve and the width tabs.
The width sleeve is just that—a metallic sleeve on the rear
of the neck of the picture tube. This sleeve is easily adjusted by
acombined sliding-rotation motion (it may sometimes stick to
the glass until dislodged) until the correct width adjustment is
obtained. Again we repeat the need for caution: There is no
danger from either heat or high voltage in this procedure, but
neither is there room for carelessness. Since the sleeve sliding
along the neck of the picture tube also affects horizontal
linearity, we shall return to this adjustment presently.
The width tabs function in much the same manner as the
sleeve. The tabs have the same effect on width as a sliding
sleeve. Since there can be a great variety of mechanical
means of varying picture width, no standard, uniform
procedure can be given, except as described above.

HORIZONTAL LINEARITY
As mentioned above in connection with the procedure for
horizontal width adjustment and correction, the horizontal
linearity adjustment is most conveniently made at the same
time. In some sets the two interact, so that it is almost man-
datory to do them together, unless a nonlinearity problem
exists without any accompanying reduction in width, in which
case it may be required to reduce the width in order to be able
to see the nonlinearity.
Horizontal linearity can best be understood by referring to
the discussion of vertical linearity. In simplest terms H-
linearity means that the left and right halves of the picture are
symmetrical. More specifically, and this applies to the vast
majority of TV receivers, horizontal linearity means that a
circle does not appear like an egg, and that the right side is
neither stretched or compressed. This is not always obvious
when the picture is "wrapped" around the tube sides;
therefore, nonlinearity is best shown when the width is
reduced to a little less than the edges of the screen. As in the
case of the vertical linearity, a circular object is most helpful

93
in observing horizontal linearity, although this is not a must. It
should also be borne in mind that although the standard aspect
ratio (picture width vs height) is 4 to 3, i.e., the picture is a
rectangle, not a square, acircle will appear (not an egg lying
down) on a properly adjusted TV set.
Horizontal linearity adjustments are not the same on all
TV sets. However, most sets have one of three types of ad-
justments. In earlier TV sets, a potentiometer adjustment,
through aknurled or slotted shaft on the rear apron of the set,
provides correction for nonlinearity. In other sets a slug ad-
justment, identical in appearance with the width slug ad-
justment described earlier, is used. In still other TV sets a
metallic sleeve on the tube neck, by itself or in conjunction
with a shaft adjustment, serve the same purpose.
Finally, some TV sets have no adjustment whatsoever,
relying on the normal operation of the circuit (which was
originally designed for proper linearity) to insure linear
horizontal configuration of the picture. It is important in the
latter case to make sure that the H-osc and H-amp tubes are
not significantly below normal. Any tube that tests "weak" on
atube tester is a likely suspect for causing nonlinearity, even
though the tube seems to work in the set.
The step by step procedure for linearity correction is:
1. Make sure that the H-osc and H-amp tubes are "good."
2. Reduce the picture width until both edges are visible. If
either the linearity of the centering (see centering, below) are
incorrect, the blank spaces may differ in width. With both
picture edges clearly visible, examine the picture carefully to
determine whether it is actually nonlinearity or improper
centering. If after examining a suitable scene, preferably a
circular object, it appears that both edges look symmetrical
but the blank spaces are of different width, no linearity ad-
justment is made; the picture is centered according to the
directions given below. If, however, there is definite distortion
on one edge (usually the right side), proceed as follows:
3. Rotate the linearity adjustment shaft, a small amount
at a time, first to the right then to the left and observe the
effects on the picture. Fig. 6-7 shows two opposites of
nonlinearity. In Fig. 6-7A the picture should be made to shrink
toward the center of the screen until symmetry is re-
established. In the case of Fig. 6-7B a certain amount of pic-
ture stretching is called for, until the picture most nearly
resembles Fig. 6-7C. Most likely, this will also affect width.
4. Readjust the width control, as described earlier, until
the picture again just begins to "wrap" around the edges of
the tube. Note: It may be necessary to slightly readjust the

94
Fig. 6-7. These drawings (A and B) show typical horizontal
nonlinearities in comparison with C. Compression on the
right is illustrated at A; at B the picture is stretched on the
right.

95
 width control during the linearity adjustment, but a final
width touch-up may still be required.
5. If the linearity adjustment is a "slug" type, proceed as
for the slug-type width adjustment: in other words, rotate the
shaft clockwise or counterclockwise two or three turns until
the effect is observed (is it going the wrong way or not), then
rotate in the proper direction until the best linearity is
achieved. The same precautions given for slug width ad-
justments apply here. If three or four turns seem to make no
difference, discontinue the adjustment; the fault does not lie
here. There are anumber of components (resistor, capacitor,
peaking coil) which, if defective, would cause horizontal
nonlinearity, and no amount of adjustment can correct this. A
professional repairman is then needed.
6. If the linearity adjustment is mechanical or a similar
type (as verified either by the service data or as may be in-
dicated on the interior of the TV set cabinet), the specific
procedure should be followed. One popular method (as
mentioned above), using a combination sleeve and shaft
linearity adjustment, is as follows:
Slide the metal sleeve on the neck of the picture tube until
the picture width is insufficient to cover the full screen width.
Rotate the linearity adjustment shaft on the back apron of the
TV chassis until the best linearity is obtained, following the
general criteria outlined above. When linearity has been
achieved, slide the sleeve on the picture tube neck until the
picture fills the screen (plus a little beyond the edges), ob-
serving the effect if any on the linearity. These two ad-
justments (width and linearity) are somewhat interrelated, so
it may be necessary to go through the procedure asecond time
until optimum linearity with proper width is obtained.

HORIZONTAL DRIVE

Although the horizontal drive adjustment, found in some

TV sets, is neither a width or linearity control per se, it can
affect both. Therefore, it should not be neglected during width
or linearity adjustments. If the suggested procedures for
correction of nonlinearity have been exhausted without
achieving acceptable linearity, a check of the H-drive ad-
justment should be made. This is invariably a shaft-type
adjustment, having a maximum rotation of less than one full
turn.
After noting the original setting, just in case, the control is
gradually rotated in one direction while observing the effects
on picture linearity, as described above; i.e., with the picture
not quite reaching the edges of the screen. If the linearity

96
worsens, the control should be turned in the opposite direction
until effective correction is achieved. It is quite possible that
in an attempt to obtain some additional width, the H-drive
control was advanced to the point of overloading, distortion,
and hence nonlinearity. The correct setting is that which
produces the best linearity at normal picture width. The drive
may have been advanced to compensate for worn tubes in the
horizontal oscillator-discharge-amplifier circuits, but it
should be checked and if necessary readjusted when the old
tubes are replaced with new ones.

PINCUSHION CORRECTION

During picture linearity adjustments, it may be necessary

to manipulate the pincushion correction magnets, apart of the
picture tube neck assembly in some sets. Pincushion magnets
are usually sliding metal tabs or bars and are intended to
correct for some inherent (design) characteristics of the
picture deflection system. Looking at the back of the tube,
there is a collar-like assembly called a "yoke" positioned at

Fig. 6-8. Cross section of a typical B & W picture tube neck

assembly. 1. deflection yoke; 2. wing nut to hold yoke; 3.
focus coil found in older sets; 4. focus adjustment; 5.
centering tabs; 6. ion trap magnet; 7. tube base.

97
Fig. 6-9. The bowed lines indicate a need for pincushion
correction.

the far front end of the tube neck (see Fig. 6-8). The function of
the yoke is to deflect (it is called a "deflection yoke") the
picture to a perfect rectangular format. Actually, however,
and especially in large-size picture tubes, some distortion of
the format, called "pincushioning," takes place. The picture
seems to be stretched as by pulling on the four corners,
leaving the sides somewhat "caved in" (see Fig. 6-9).
The pincushion tabs or bars are fastened to the yoke
structure and may be loosened up for sliding, after which they
are tightened again. As in other cases of nonlinearity
described above, these adjustments can best be made when
the edges of the picture are visible, hence are easiest to ac-
complish as part of the other adjustments.
A note of caution is in order here. Since the tube and
deflection yoke assembly are rigidly secured, the pincushion
correction was made during installation of the original tube
and it is usually not necessary nor advisable to make pin-
cushion adjustments unless there is clear evidence of
distortion or when the picture tube is replaced (by a
professional TV man, of course).
CENTERING

Another adjustment related to the various dimensional

corrections just discussed is centering. The centering ad-
justments position the picture so it extends equally in all four
directions. When the vertical size is adjusted, both the top and
bottom edges should be reached simultaneously if the picture
is centered; likewise, when the H-width is adjusted both sides
should expand at the same time. In very old TV sets, but also

98
in some recent color TV sets, two separate shaft adjustments
were used, one marked V-cent, the other H-cent.
Centering adjustments are very simple; the controls have
atotal travel of less than 360 degrees (less than one full turn)
and can safely be turned back and forth until proper picture
centering is achieved. In more modern TV sets, the centering
adjustments (if any) are mechanical-magnetic types, cen-
tering depending primarily on the original positioning and
assembly of the deflection and focus components on the neck
of the picture tube and only secondarily on "after the fact"
adjustments.
The most popular type consists of apair of tabs, flat metal
strips or bars, which can be rotated toward and away from
each other until centering is achieved. One tab affects
primarily the horizontal positioning, the other the vertical.
Again, these are rather interdependent adjustments, and
should, therefore, be made simultaneously. A variation of the
latter type is the single tab centering device. It can be moved
both horizontally and vertically (in fact, it can be made to
move in various directions simply by pushing down on it and
sliding it sideways at the same time). Still another centering
adjustment is a thumbscrew on the picture tube neck com-
ponents. This type requires only a clockwise or coun-
terclockwise rotation to achieve centering.

FOCUSING

The focus adjustment varies the sharpness of picture

detail. As in the case of the other adjustments, there are dif-
ferent ways of achieving the same end result and different
manufacturers use different methods. However, the
procedures given here apply.
1. No adjustment: There are a number of TV sets with
what is called "fixed focus"; the picture tube is designed and
constructed so that the picture is always in focus, although
there may be a provision for correction (by a serviceman) in
the rare case when this type is out of focus.
2. Focus thumbscrew: Some focus controls are in the form
of a short, flexible steel cable with athumbscrew at the end;
the cable extends through the back cover of the TV set.
Rotating the knurled end of the cable adjusts the sharpness of
the picture.
3. Sleeve adjustment: This focus correction device is in
the form of a ring or sleeve on the neck of the picture tube.
Sliding the ring or sleeve slowly along the neck of the tube
adjusts the focus of the image (Note: In those TV sets in which

99
 1

the width control is also a sleeve-type adjustment, it will be

found that the width adjustment is very much forward on the
picture tube neck, while the focus sleeve is very close to the
base, or rear end, of the picture tube.
4. Shaft focus adjustment: This is a control similar to a
volume control on the panel of an ordinary radio receiver. This
type of control is found on some (usually older) black-and-
white TV sets and on practically all color TV sets where
focusing is very much of a requirement. In all focusing ad-
justments, it is essential that the picture be watched at close
range in order to obtain the sharpest focus possible. While any
fine detail of the picture can be used for observing the effect of
focusing adjustment, it is best to use the horizontal lines,
preferably on a bright portion of a scene and focus for the
thinnest possible lines with clear separation between them.

ION TRAP

In agreat number of TV sets there is an additional picture

adjustment on the back of the TV tube neck—the ion trap
magnet. Since this can seriously affect picture brightness, size
and picture tube life, and furthermore, since its position near
the picture tube socket makes it vulnerable to accidental
dislocation, it is important to consider its purpose and indicate
the method of adjusting it if and when required.
The ion trap magnet is a form of bar magnet held on the
picture tube neck by a flexible coil spring. Its purpose (in
nontechnical language) is to insure that the electron beam
inside the neck of the tube is "on course"—moving properly
along the axis of the tube. It is required because other
"electronic" particles ("ions") are incidentally generated
inside the tube. Ions can damage apicture tube. The ion trap is
thus part of a scheme of "separating the sheep from the
goats"—getting rid of the ions, then making sure that the
electrons move where they should be moving—through a
number of small apertures toward the picture tube screen.
When adjusting the ion trap magnet a combined sliding-
rotation type of motion is used. The object is to get a dual
result—full picture screen coverage at maximum brightness.
It is actually possible, through misadjustment, to illuminate
only a central (circular) portion of the TV screen and at low
brightness, at that.
Since ion trap adjustments can be detrimental to the
picture tube, this procedure should be done carefully,
repeated a few times, if necessary, until the best possible
results are obtained. While a blank screen (no picture) is
easiest to observe during this adjustment, there is no par-

100
ticular objection to do this with any type of program on the
screen.
In connection with the adjustment of the ion trap magnet,
anote of caution is required. An improperly adjusted ion trap
magnet, in addition to producing a poor picture, can also
damage the physical interior structure of the picture tube, and
will ultimately result in poor focus and dark spots (burn spots)
at the center of the tube screen. To avoid this the magnet
should be kept near the base end of the picture tube and ad-
justments made with the lowest possible brightness setting as
quickly as possible.
For easiest adjustment and best results, it is recom-
mended that the ion trap magnet be moved as far back
(toward the tube base) along the neck as possible, consistent
with obtaining the desired results.
The brightness and contrast controls must be kept low, so
that slight changes are easiest to detect. After obtaining the
best adjustment, it might be desirable to note or mark the
position of the magnet both fore-and-aft as well as around the
neck, with a marking pen or a small piece of masking tape.
Thus, should this adjustment accidentally be disturbed in-
cident to other work in the back of the TV set, it is but
necessary to move and-or turn the ion trap magnet to the
marked location to restore the correct operation.

MAGNETS: CAUTION!

A warning pertaining to the effect of magnets, magnetic

materials, and magnetic distortion on picture tubes is in or-
der. While the subject of stray, unwanted magnetic effects on
TV pictures came to the attention of the public only since the
advent of color TV, the problem has always existed, albeit to a
much less degree, in all TV receivers. We shall return to this
subject in connection with the matter of "color purity" in color
TV sets. At this time we shall concern ourselves only with
black-and-white TV sets and how they can be affected by stray
magnetism due to the careless handling of magnets and
magnetic materials in certain areas of the TV set.
As explained earlier there are a number of adjustments,
such as width, linearity, etc., which depend either on the use of
a magnetic material, or on the modification of an existing
magnetic structure on or near the picture tube. Since iron and
steel are magnetic materials (even if they are not magnetized,
i.e., they do not seem to "pick up" nails, paper clips, etc.),
they may, when brought near an existing circuit, change that
circuit, at least temporarily. Since screwdrivers, pliers,
wrenches etc., are almost always of iron or steel, their

101
 1
Fig. 6-10. Sketch illustrating horizontal shift.

careless use on TV sets could adversely affect the TV set. For

example, using ascrewdriver blade to "nudge" or "push" an
ion trap magnet or centering tabs is, therefore, not advised.
Similarly, using a pair of pliers to turn a tight thumb-
screw, as used in some focus adjustments, can do more harm
than good, particularly since the degradation is not
catastrophic but relatively minor. Of course, it is quite proper
to use such tools on the chassis and other necessary areas in
the cabinet, provided these areas are not too close to the tube
neck, yoke assembly, focus magnet, if any, or the adjustments
on the neck of the picture tube.
OTHER HORIZONTAL DEFECTS
Under this category come such abnormalities as:
Tearing: Picture breakup into horizontal strips shifted to
left or right, somewhat like Fig. 2-5 (Chapter 2).
Shifting: What seems like avertical split down the middle
of the picture with the right-hand half on the left and vice
versa, often accomplished by a very thin, faint picture, (see
Fig. 6-10).
Snaking: The sides of the picture become wavy instead of
straight up and down; also accompanied at times by a rather
thin, faint picture, although a normal picture may also be
affected by this. See Fig. 6-11 for atypical example.
Streaking: The picture seems normal in every way, ex-
cept for dashed dark lines that seem to streak across the
screen from left to right, somewhat like Fig. 6-12. Referring to
our description of the functions of a TV set we said that there
are such sections as sync (short for synchronization) circuits,

102
whose function is to amplify the precise timing signals from
the transmitting station and use them for horizontal and
vertical frequency control, thereby keeping the picture steady
on the screen. A failure or defect in any of the sync circuits will
cause aloss of control with some such consequences as listed
above. To localize the defect, make two or three preliminary
determinations:
First, is the picture generally weak, faint, or thin, even if
the sound is relatively strong? The fault may be in one of the
amplifier tubes (other than sync). In other words, any
defective or old tube that causes a poor signal also causes a
poor sync signal. While this condition affects both the
horizontal and vertical picture stability, the vertical is far less
susceptible and should not be affected too much.
Referring to Fig. 6-2, the offending tubes might be one or
more of the following: V1, RF amplifier (on the tuner), V3, V4,
V5, IF amplifiers, and V6A, video amplifier. Replacing these
tubes one at a time should locate the culprit. With the return
of a normal contrast picture the sync problem will
automatically disappear. Sometimes in the normal course of
aging, a number of tubes may be responsible, each con-
tributing partially to the trouble. Thus, in areceiver with aset
of tubes a few years old, some, if not all, of the tvbes listed
may be responsible. Such tubes may test on "weak-replace"
or "?" portion of the tube tester scale. Replacing them one at a
time will increase the performance of the signal stages, im-
proving the sync and picture stability at the same time. If the
picture contrast is normal the fault is most likely in the sync
circuit, either tubes or adjustments or both.

Fig. 6-11. This picture distortion is called snaking.

103
Fig. 6-12. Picture streaking is caused by man-made noise,
usually, from motors, appliances, etc.

Referring to Figs. 6-2 through 6-5, we notice that, for

example, in Fig. 6-3 there is a tube marked "horizontal phase
detector (V9A), in addition to the H-ose (V9B) and H-amp
(V10). Similarly in Fig. 6-5 V7C is called horizontal AFC, while
in Fig. 6-2 tube V10A is marked H-control. In each of these
cases, the tube referred to performs one type or another of
horizontal sync function. A failure of any of the above men-
tioned tubes would invariably cause aloss of sync and some of
the defects mentioned above.
In those sets where atube performs nothing more than a
sync function, the defective tube is easy to identify: removing
it from the set (in parallel-wired sets only) does not affect the
already malfunctioning sync circuit. In most sets, however,
the sync tube or the control tube, as identified above, is one
half and sometimes even one third of a multifunction tube (2-
in-1 or 3-in-1-tube). In these cases removal of the tube will also
disable other functions, often leaving just a bright horizontal
line at the center of the screen. However, this is of no con-
sequence; replacement with a good tube should restore the
picture as well as normal functions. Incidentally, when testing
atwin or triple tube in atube tester, the tube should always be
discarded if one section tests below normal, even if the
other(s) are perfect!
Sync Adjustments
There may be causes for horizontal picture tearing or
other instability stemming from some misadjustment or
improper control setting which may include one or more of the
following:

104
 Overloading; contrast control: Picture tearing can often
result from excessive picture signal! Incredible as this may
seem, the technical structure of the average TV set is such
that increasing the "picture" or "contrast" control to give a
very hard or "strong" picture (beyond that required for
normal picture gradation) actually decreases the strength of
the sync signal and often results in tearing. If this is the case,
turning the same control toward a more moderate contrast
setting should correct the tearing.
Overloading; AGC control: In most TV sets manufactured
in the past few years, there is arear-chassis adjustment called
AGC (automatic gain control). Its function, when properly set,
is to place the receiver in such an operating condition that all
stations in the receiving area will produce an acceptable
picture with but an occasional adjustment of the front panel
contrast control. However, misadjustment of the AGC control
can cause no end of TV woes, not the least of which is loss of
picture stability (hum, buzz, and even a complete loss of
picture). Since most TV sets have a tube whose function is to
regulate AGC performance, a defect in the tube could also be
responsible. Because of these possibilities, the following
procedure applies to the AGC stage and-or the AGC control
setting:

AGC Tube Change

With horizontal tear on the TV screen, remove the AGC
tube and replace with a known good tube. Touch up the
channel tuning. If the picture becomes normal momentarily,
switch to an adjacent channel, then return to the test channel.
If the AGC tube was at fault, switching channels should not
matter. If tear still exists AGC is not at fault.

AGC Adjustment
Assuming the AGC tube to be normal, the adjustment is
checked next, proceeding as follows:
Using amoderately strong TV station, set the contrast (or
picture) control about halfway, or a bit beyond (clockwise)
until agood picture is seen. Do not back off the contrast even if
the picture seems too strong.
While watching the picture in a mirror, advance (clock-
wise) the AGC adjustment on the back of the chassis until a
buzz (or hum) is clearly heard. In some sets, advancing the
control too far beyond this point may cause acomplete loss of
picture. Exercise moderation!
Back off the AGC adjustment until all traces of the buzz
disappear, or just slightly more than that. The AGC is now

105
correctly set. Any malfunction of the horizontal sync will no
longer be caused by the AGC setting, and other corrections
must be attempted.

II-Hold, H-Lock, H-Range

While all three of these adjustments may not be found in
any one set, all have an H-hold adjustment, and some have one
or the other of the remaining two. Any one of these may be
responsible for picture tearing or instability.
H-hold: Assuming good tubes, apicture may fail to hold if
the H-hold control is at either extreme of its range. It is per-
missible for the picture to begin to show tendencies of tearing
or instability when the control is at either end of its travel. As
mentioned earlier some H-hold controls have less than a full
turn of adjustment range. In that case, afraction of a turn is
all that will be required for correction. In slug-tuned H-hold
controls, two or three turns in one direction or the other should
correct any instability due to this setting.
H-range, H-lock: These are always back-of-the-set ad-
justments and are intended to set the range over which the
automatic horizontal synchronization is effective. The proper
setting is that which will produce no loss in horizontal stability
when adjusting the fine-tuning control (if any) or when
switching from station to station. Starting with a condition of
instability or tearing, the H-range or H-lock control is adjusted
very gradually until the tearing disappears (picture is nor-
mal). Then a test for stability is made by switching channels
or by turning the front panel hold control to near extremes
(almost fully clockwise, then almost fully counterclockwise).
In either case there should not be aloss of sync.

Horizontal Shifting

This phenomenon is seldom present with a strong signal

and it is likely to occur during freak reception. However, it can
be caused by a substandard sync pulse, hence the procedure
for sync tube changing and-or H-lock adjustment should be
resorted to, if, upon careful thought, it is concluded that this is
not a case of freak "atmospherics." Incidentally, a careful
observation of the tube's behavior in a tester is of particular
importance here. A "leaky" or "gassy" tube is quite likely to
cause sync difficulties of every kind, so careful observation of
the neon leakage test is imperative.
Horizontal "Snaking"

Tube leakage as indicated by aneon glow, and even alevel

of leakage not detectable by most commercial tube testers,

106
may be responsible for this type of picture defect. Tube sub-
stitution, regardless of the tube tester's "verdict," is the only
way of discovering such adefective tube. In addition, all tubes
in the horizontal group may be responsible, even if they ap-
pear to be less likely suspects than the sync tubes. An in-
cidental clue to such an elusive tube defect (not shown on the
tube tester because the tube doesn't really warm up here) is
the fact that the snaking appears only after the set has been
operating for arelatively long time, when the tubes and their
surroundings have reached their highest temperatures.

Streaking

This display is unmistakable and it is caused by an

electrical "noise" (commonly called "static" on the ordinary
radio) of the man-made variety, and there is no simple way to
eliminate it. It may appear either as long dashed lines
traveling slowly across the screen, or as a random band or
stream of snow, also moving across the screen in unison. If it
occurs infrequently, it is best ignored. If it is chronic, it may
require relocation of the TV antenna by trial and error—a very
costly remedy.
If the noise can be traced to its source (an arcing "pole
pig" or power company pole transformer, a heating system
motor that sparks excessively, asimilar workbench motor, or
some other electrical appliance that exhibits sparking), the
proper procedure is to correct the condition at its point of
origin. Should the source be a utility company device, their
cooperation will be required. It can usually be obtained,
provided acompany representative is shown the "evidence."
He will have no difficulty in recognizing the malfunction and,
if it is his company's responsibility, will arrange for correc-
tion. Where an in-house appliance is causing the noise,
correction will have to be made by a competent repairman
familiar with such appliances (oil burner, for example). More
on this subject in the next chapter.

Intermittent Streaking & Picture Breakup

Not the least of the causes for erratic, intermittent

streaking, rolling, and tearing of the TV picture is the "front
end" or tuner. This very critical and most sensitive of all
sections of the TV receiver, black-and-white or color, is
without question the most manipulated and most worn portion
of the set. Regardless of make or model, the tuner contains a
large number (up to 100 in some sets) of delicate switches or
contacts, undergoing make-and-break operation whenever a

107
 station is changed. Since, as explained earlier the precise
sync-timing signals are an integral part of the TV picture, the
signal interruption caused by switching from channel to
channel also removes the sync pulses, and, for the moment,
the TV receiver is "on its own."
In a normally functioning TV tuner, i.e., one that is not
worn out or otherwise defective, switching channels
momentarily interrupts the timing signals, but they are
restored almost instantly. But during the switching interval, a
quick tear or roll may take place, or there may be a
momentary diagonal zig-zag or "one picture" may slide up or
down. In aworn tuner, and that includes virtually every tuner
after a few years use, the switch contacts tend to become
intermittent and erratic, causing some misbehavior of the
kind just described.
With a color receiver malfunctions such as "color con-
fetti," absence of one or more colors, and especially color
instability and shifting, can be due to poor contacts in the
tuner. No special point is made of this fact under the color
picture troubleshooting because the problem is not peculiar to
color. In fact, it is much preferable (as is indicated in the
introduction to Color TV Troubleshooting) to cut off the color
when troubleshooting such color. When operation is restored
to normal on B & W, color performance will automatically
have been corrected. In other words, this is a basic receiver
problem, not a color problem.
There are two ways to solve anoisy or intermittent tuner
problem: either thoroughly clean and lubricate it or have it
overhauled by a specialist. A noisy tuner is so common a
problem in TV sets that a very practical and relatively
inexpensive procedure has been established and is being
followed by the repair industry. The old tuner is sent to a
specialist.overhaul shop where a "factory-type" overhaul is
done on each tuner. The end results may be called "as good as
new." In view of the heavy use the tuner must endure,
anything less than such a professional overhaul is a poor
second choice, except where this service is not available or
where a competent serviceman is positive after examination
that the overhaul is not required.
If you decide that cleaning and lubricating is the best
course, you should begin, if you feel confident enough to tackle
the job yourself, with a100 percent detailed examination of the
"before" conditions, including the method used to attach the
tuner to the front panel and-or the chassis, and the exact
positions, color, marking, etc., of each lead and cable from the
tuner to the chassis. Most leads, in newer sets at least, are of

108
the quick-disconnect type, but if any (especially a wire braid
or "shielding") is soldered, carefully unsolder it, using no
more heat than necessary; of course, when you reassemble
you must exercise equal care in resoldering to the same spot;
be sure the resoldered joint isn't a cold solder joint (a
seemingly rigid mechanical joint with a grainy appearance
that will pull off if tugged hard or pried). It is most important,
also to return all wires to the correct connections and locations
as before.
After removing the tuner from the chassis look at the
contacts. Misalignment and looseness should be apparent
now. In case of "snap-in" channel coils remove one coil to
observe the interior. Using afine, soft brush (a small camel's
hair artist's brush is best) clean the wiping contacts and the
shaft bearing with a contact cleaner sold in radio supply
stores. Do not use household grease solvents, especially
carbon tetrachloride. Allow all surfaces to dry. Best cleaning
can be done while repeatedly switching channels back and
forth.
Apply a very small amount of contact lubricant (only the
kind specifically made for the purpose and sold in radio supply
houses) to the wiping contacts and shaft bearings while
operating the channel selector and fine-tuning control back
and forth.
A final note of caution: under no circumstances should you
resort to the use of pressurized spray lubricant! While the
immediate effect may (or may not) be to "quiet" a noisy
tuner, the ultimate effect is bound to be disastrous. This
"brute force" method of alleged "cleaning and lubrication"
deposits a coat of dust-and-dirt-collecting film on many parts
of the tuner which cannot long tolerate the resultant electrical
leakage without aloss of sensitivity, increased noise, and most
likely, ultimate degeneration beyond repair.

109
 Chapter 7

Preliminary Troubleshooting

In Chapter 6we saw how to adjust a TV set's operating con-

trols and to deal with problems external to the set. Let's look
at some of these matters a little closer.

BLOOMING—DEFOCUSING

This is a common phenomenon in older TV sets. A picture

with blooming and defocusing problems exhibits insufficient
brightness and contrast. Advancing either control, but par-
ticularly the brightness control, seems to have the effect of
defocusing the picture, "softening" it as if acloud were spread
over the picture, fuzzing over the sharp details. The brightness
may increase somewhat, but not enough before detail, and to a
certain extent, shape is degraded. The fault lies in either or
both of these areas:
High-voltage power supply and the picture tube: There is
aconsiderable amount of interaction between the high-voltage
power supply and the picture tube. In an old picture tube, the
electron emission capability may be substantially below
normal. Increasing the brightness setting further taxes an
already depleted source of electrons, while at the same time it
upsets the voltage distribution in the high-voltage system,
often so as to produce a decreased high-voltage (kilovolts)
output, which is indirectly responsible for picture brightness.
Similarly, the natural aging of some tubes in the horizontal
deflection-high-voltage system further acts to produce
blooming, as aresult of a reduced high voltage and decreased
electron beam acceleration.
Referring to the typical block diagrams in Figs. 6-2
through 6-5 in Chapter 6, we notice that everyone has a high-
voltage rectifier (V12 in Fig. 6-2, V11 in Fig. 6-3, V12 in Fig. 6-4
and V11 in Fig. 6-5), aB+ boost or damper (V13 in Fig. 6-2, V12
in Fig. 6-3, V13 in Fig. 6-4, and VlOB in Fig. 6-5), a horizontal
amplifier (V11 in Fig. 6-2, V10 in Fig. 6-3, V11 in Fig. 6-4, and
V10A in Fig. 6-5). In addition, in color TV sets there is also a
high-voltage regulator which is covered in greater detail in the
last chapter. Each of these tubes can be responsible for
blooming, in the following order of probability:

110
 High-voltage rectifier: This is almost certain to be one of
the following tubes, regardless of the model number of the TV
set: 1B3, 1K3, 2B3, 3CA13, 3A3, 1X2, or 2AS2. This tube is in-
variably inside the high-voltage cage or under a protective
shield or barrier, as the case may be. As mentioned earlier it
is difficult to see whether or not this tube filament is glowing.
This does not matter in this case, since the tube is certain to be
on; the suspicion is that the tube is substandard. Replacement
with anew one is asure test, while the ordinary tube tester is
less reliable in this case, since it may show the tube to be fair-
to-good which is not good enough in this case. The standard
precautions in handling this tube during replacement should
be followed, of course.
B+ boost or damper tube: This tube may be indirectly
responsible for blooming, but if the high voltage is sub-
stantially below normal, this tube may simultaneously affect
V-size, H-width, and the general performance of the set, since
this tube is an essential part of the overall power supply
system. If the tube tests "fair," or even "fair to good," it is not
good enough and should be discarded in favor of anew one.
Horizontal output tube: Since this tube and its circuits are
responsible for producing the multi-kilovolt supply for the
picture tube, it can account for blooming because of
degradation (reduction) in this supply. While it was indicated
earlier under decreased H-Width in Chapter 6that a poor H-
amplifier tube will cause reduced picture width, this is not
always the case. Depending on individual TV set circuit
details, the reduced high voltages which may cause blooming
may also, contrary as this seems, prevent a reduction in
picture width since blooming and picture dimming, because of
reduced high voltage, also expand the picture size, both
horizontally and vertically.
Picture tube: When no symptoms other than blooming and
patchy, chalky white result from advancing the brightness
and contrast controls, the picture tube is the most likely
culprit. If the tube is afew years old, this likelihood becomes a
high probability. A picture tube rejuvenator or booster will
extend the remaining life of the tube by a number of months.
Care must be exercised to obtain the correct type of booster
(for series or for parallel tube sets). Rejuvenation, a
technique used by professional repairmen, will accomplish the
same purpose.
For 3-gun color picture tubes (all U.S. made sets),
boosters have become available and may be used, provided
the instructions are carefully followed. Since the color tube
consists of three separate electron-emitting structures, some
boosters and rejuvenators have a simple provision for

111
 boosting one of the three, depending which of the color guns is
deficient, by externally adjusting the booster before use.
High-voltage regulator: Because of the more critical
requirements of the color system, additional circuits and
tubes are used to keep the higher voltage as nearly constant as
possible. This applies to both color and black-and-white
reception. Looking at the color TV block diagrams in Chapter
9the regulators are V13 in Fig. 9-1, V14 in Figs. 9-2 and 9-3. On
color reception, blooming may evidence itself as color
smearing, fuzzing, and what is sometimes called color in-
stability. In troubleshooting such a TV set, in addition to
following the suggestion of turning down the chroma control to
remove all color, a check after replacement of a suspected
regulator tube should include turning up the chroma control to
see how the remedial action has affected color reception.

PICTURE DIM AND BLOOMING WHEN THE SET IS COLD

This behavior is exactly the same as described above

except that the picture gradually seems to achieve normal
brightness and contrast after agood warm-up (a quarter hour
or more). The temporary condition is almost certain to be due
to weak tubes. While anumber of tubes can be responsible for
this condition, the picture tube is the most likely suspect. The
procedure, therefore, starts from this point. However, since it
is impractical to remove the picture tube and test it like a
small tube, a suitable booster is employed to obtain the same
result.
Attach the booster to the picture tube, following in-
structions given in Chapter 8. Allow the tube to operate with
the booster for a few days. If the trouble disappears, the
picture tube is at fault. Three remedies are possible:

1. Leave the booster on permanently. It will prolong the

life of the "dying" tube.
2. Have the tube "rejuvenated." Approximately the same
results will be obtained but the booster will not have to be
used.
3. Have the picture tube replaced. Under normal con-
ditions, between 80 and 90 percent of the tube's useful life has
already been realized, so the cost of a new tube is quite
justified if the TV set is otherwise performing satisfactorily.

If the booster does not materially improve the per-

formance, acheck of one or two other tubes in the set should be
made. This includes the high-voltage rectifier, the B+ boost or
the damper tube, in that order.

112
 If none of the above checks locate the cause, there is the
possibility that acomponent (most likely afilter capacitor) in
the high voltage or B+ boost circuit is responsible. This,
however, is not a task for a beginner.

HUM, BUZZ

These two names actually stand for two different symp-

toms. However, since it may sometimes be difficult for an
inexperienced ear to clearly distinguish between the two, and
further, since the two often appear together, we shall describe
them together, but suggest how to identify their sources which
may or may not be the same in all cases.

Hum

Hum can best be described as a smooth, steady low-

pitched "m-m-m" that is the standard characteristic of
household (60-cycle) AC. It can usually be heard on almost any
tube-type radio with the volume control fully off if you place
your ear close to the loudspeaker. It is almost always in-
dependent of the station being received, the weather, volume
control setting, etc. In fact, it is the sound of 60-cycle AC when
audible. In most tube receivers (and sometimes in tran-
sistorized sets when not operating on internal batteries) the
hum is due to a small residue of this AC sound that is not
filtered out.
In severe cases the appearance of hum signifies one of
three possibilities: First and most likely is that one or more of
the filter capacitors in the receiver (radio or TV) has
deteriorated with age and heat so that it does not function at
maximum effectiveness. Since there is no simple visual in-
dication or identification of the defective component, the
services of an experienced repairman are required. A second
although less frequent cause of hum is a defective tube which
has developed a "partial short" between the AC input and one
of the functional elements in the tube (in technical parlance
this is usually called "heater-to-cathode leakage"). This can
be analyzed, located, and remedied by following this
sequence:

Turn the volume up or down. If this seems to make no

difference in the hum level, turn the volume fully off. If no
change in the hum results (there probably will be no change)
the fault most likely lies in one of the filter capacitors. In-
cidentally, this type of defect seldom happens suddenly, it is a
gradual deterioration, not a catastrophic failure.

113
 If the hum level changes with changes in volume, atube is
quite likely to be the cause. (Furthermore, such a defect is
peculiar to tubes only; transistor circuits are not subject to
this difficulty, although afilter capacitor failure as described
above could produce hum in atransistor receiver as well.) To
confirm your suspicion, change to a different station and
readjust the fine tuning. Any resultant changes in the hum
level further point to a defective tube, and the isolation to a
specific tube is carried out in one of two ways, depending on
whether the TV set has aparallel or series heater string. In the
case of parallel wiring:
Remove the sound discriminator tube. This is the first
tube in the TV receiver which handles nothing but sound
(audio). If the hum persists with this tube out of the socket, the
fault lies beyond this point, closer to the speaker. This includes
the first audio amplifier (if any) and the final audio amplifier.
To find out which of these two tubes is responsible, replace the
discriminator and remove the first audio tube. If the hum still
persists, the final audio amplifier is most likely responsible.
Replace with a new tube.
If removing the discriminator tube stops the hum, either
that tube or one of the tubes preceding it is at fault. If
replacing the discriminator tube does not cure the hum, the
fault lies in apreceding stage. In that case, remove the 1st IF
tube. The logical sequence here is the same as just outlined for
the audio sections. Thus, if the hum disappears with the first
IF tube out of its socket, either that tube itself or one of the
tubes from there to the antenna is responsible, including the
RF amplifier (V1 in most sets) and the converter (V2).
Remove the RF Amplifier. If the hum stops, this tube is at
fault. If not, the next tube in the tuner (V2, converter) is
defective.
If pulling the first IF amplifier does not stop the hum, the
fault lies in either of the remaining two IF amplifiers. Remove
and replace the second IF amplifier. If the hum stops, try a
new tube. If not, the third IF amplifier tube is defective.
A final note on this hum problem. Earlier it was stated
that while aconstant hum regardless of the channel selector
position or adjustment is most likely due to a defective filter
component, and that a hum that responds to a change in
station or volume control setting is probably due to adefective
(although still functioning) tube, it must be pointed out that a
tube-caused hum problem may produce effects other than
audible hum. This includes "snaking" or weaving, or other
image distortion on the screen. So be sure to observe any
abnormal displays on the screen.

114
 Removing tubes to trace a hum source is a convenient
method for sets with parallel-wired filaments. But what about
those sets with series filaments? Since removal of one tube
(with rare exceptions) disables all others, the only alternative
is outright substitution all the way until the offender is found.
Some time can nevertheless be saved here by proceeding as
before from the audio output tubes back toward the antenna.
A general precaution in all tube-caused hum problems:
After plugging in a new tube, if the hum seems to have gone,
wait at least a few minutes before considering the problem
solved. Many cases of tube hum (heater-to-cathode leakage)
develop only after a thorough warm-up and disappear after
some cooling. Since removal and replacement of atube lets all
other tubes cool down, it is necessary to wait until all the
(suspected) tubes again reach their operating temperature.
Of course, this does not apply to parallel filaments, where all
but the removed tube maintain their operating temperature.

Buzz

By this term we mean asound characteristically peculiar

to TV sets (except the very "ancient" ones having a "split-
sound" system), a mechanical buzz as caused by a loose ob-
ject inside the TV set or a physical defect such as a rubbing
sound in the loudspeaker assemblies. The buzz of concern to us
is similar to the hum described earlier, except for a change
from the smooth "m-m-m" to arather raspy, buzzy sound of
the same pitch. As in the case of the smooth hum, there are
some characteristic signs which can help identify the origin
and location of this interference.
Warm-up buzz: During the first seconds (up to aminute or
two) of warm-up, a buzz does not necessarily indicate any
malfunction; stabilization of some of the automatic gain
circuitry usually reduces this buzz to an inaudible level. No
action is required in this case.
Constant buzz: If the buzz remains for any length of time
or is aconstant annoyance simple adjustments may remove it.
The checks for the specific cause should be made in this order:
Retune the fine-tuning control: Often it is necessary to set
the fine-tuning control not for the best sound consistent with a
good picture, but for the optimum or the best possible sound
with good picture and minimum buzz. Once this control is so
adjusted, it should hold for most stations without individual
readjustments. If this does not reduce the buzz to inaudibility,
overloading may be responsible.
Assuming the tubes to be in good condition (i.e., not very
old) and the contrast control not set unreasonably high, check

115
 the AGC control. This rear chassis adjustment regulates the
overall amplification of the picture and sound IF stages. Too
high a setting will produce a buzz and sometimes a glaring
picture. As indicated earlier the AGC control is adjusted as
follows: Choose a "medium good" station. Adjust the contrast
control about midway or until agood range of light and dark
areas is obtained. Now advance the AGC control until the buzz
is audible, then reduce this setting just past the point where
the buzz stops. Recheck the range of black-and-white areas to
see that neither extreme has been lost; that the darker areas
are not prematurely becoming a solid black while the very
light areas are not becoming aglaring white. Readjustment of
both the AGC and contrast may have to be made to obtain a
happy medium—a full range of illumination from black
through all shades of dim through full brightness with a
minimum of audible buzz.

Sync buzz: This fairly infrequent phenomenon is due to

interaction between the sync tubes, vertical oscillator and
amplifier and the video amplifier. Assuming that the TV set
operated normally in the past, such abuzz may stem from two
sources. One is the rearrangement (unintentional) of the
wiring within the chassis so that the vertical sync and video
amplifier circuits are too close to each other. This could
happen only after a repair; therefore, it may be necessary to
correct the "lead dress" to eliminate the buzz. Another source
of sync buzz is a malfunction in the video amplifier tube.
Substituting anew video amplifier tube will prove or disprove
this suspicion. Incidentally, a tube tester check of this tube
may not be conclusive because a rather small leakage or
amount of gas within the tube may be causing the trouble and
the defect won't show up until the tube warms up.
Intercarrier buzz: This is a buzz inherent and charac-
teristic of almost all TV sets except the ancient ones known as
the "split-sound" types. In agreat many TV sets, there is rear
chassis adjustment (usually a slotted-shaft type) marked
simply "buzz." The control is rotated very gradually until the
buzz is at aminimum. This should be done with astation tuned
in and while listening to the sound (music or speech) ac-
companying the program. In some TV sets there is also a
tunable coil (called a quadrature coil) which is adjusted to
eliminate buzz. However, this adjustment is seldom identified
and it is best not to tamper with it unless you know what you're
doing. Like any other tuned circuit adjustment, it cannot be
properly made without professional equipment and skill.
Fortunately, it seldom requires readjustment except after a
repair in the immediate circuit vicinity.

116
MULTIPLE PICTURES

We refer here to the existence of two or more duplicate

pictures one on top of the other. Usually each picture is not
very stable and is only afraction of the full screen height. The
fault here is unmistakable: the vertical oscillator circuit is
operating out of frequency. There are three possible causes,
two reasonably likely, and the third very rare indeed.
V-hold misadjusted: Whether this control is an operating
control On the front panel or a semi-accessible one behind a
little door, it usually has sufficient adjustment lattitude to
cause oscillator operation at afraction of its normal frequency
or well above it. In other words, it is possible to produce such a
malfunction by rotating the control to its extremes.
The first step to correct a case of multiple pictures is to
adjust the V-hold control first in one direction then in the
other. The picture will roll up or down, and after awhile should
"jump" from three to two and finally to one picture across the
screen. Careful adjustment is required after asingle picture is
obtained to leave the control at the optimum position. This is
checked by switching stations and observing whether or not
the picture tends to roll.
Defective component: A defective capacitor or resistor
(changed value) in the vertical oscillator circuit will cause
something other than one picture to appear on the screen. In
rare cases, the V-hold control can compensate for this change,
but this is most unreliable. Thus, if the control has to be moved
to an extreme position, acomponent is at fault and the "cure"
at best will be very temporary.
Defective tube: In very few cases, a defective tube may
cause this difficulty. If the picture can be stopped by setting
the V-hold control to its extreme position, you may try
replacing the vertical oscillator tube. However, just a slight
improvement, i.e., requiring almost as extreme a position of
the control for a single picture display, still points to a
defective component.

LINE NOISE & LINE NOISE FILTERS

In connection with the problem of electrical noise or in-

terference such as streaks, dashes, etc., some words about
"noise filters" are in order. There are many such devices or
gadgets advertised to cure any and all TV ills. While they are
not all completely useless, many of the claims are
exaggerated. Before buying and installing one of these, you
should know what you can reasonably expect.

117
 There are three sources of noise associated with a TV set,
whether visual (in the picture) or audible. Two of these are
external, while the third is internal. To dispose of the last one
first, noise in aTV set can come from a defective component;
an old resistor can sometimes develop either what the ser-
viceman calls an "intermittent," one with poor internal
continuity. What is even more likely, due to the high operating
temperature involved, a tube may become a noise source. If
it's atube, it is often possible to locate such aculprit by gently
tapping the tube with the rubber eraser end of an ordinary
pencil; if the tube is noisy the tapping may produce flashing
streaks in the picture and-or bell-like sounds from the speaker.
(Incidentally, a tube tester is of little value in performing
reliable tests for noise.) In case of a defective component, a
professional will have to be called upon for analysis and
repair. The same holds true for operating controls which
become noisy with age. This includes contrast, volume, tone
(if any), fine tuning, and channel selector.

— Line Noises"

Line noise includes all types of electrical noise generated

by appliances which operate on AC. While not all appliances
are potential noise makers, some of them are, and their
electrical noise "travels" along the AC wiring in the house and
enters the TV set. Be contrast, noise from utility poles
equipment and devices outside the house seldom reach the TV
set this way. But this is nothing new, and radio and TV
manufacturers have, almost without exception, provided
simple noise filters inside the receiver for this purpose.
Nevertheless, it is possible that an additional filter may be of
some help, if it is the proper kind and is properly installed.
It is very doubtful whether the simple little gadget that
looks like an AC plug on one end and an AC receptacle on the
other can be much use. The fact that the built-in filter does not
seem to help suggests one of two possibilities. Either the noise
does not enter via the AC line, or if it does, that the elimination
of the noise must be accomplished at the source, i.e., at the
offending appliance, be it the washing machine, oil burner,
electric drill, etc.
The third source of noise, and a very likely one, is the
antenna. Of course, an old corroded antenna with poor lead-in
connections is apotential source of noise. But we have in mind
here that noise generated elsewhere and picked up by the
antenna along with station signals. Other than relocating the
antenna and transmission line, nothing can be done here,
except enlisting the aid of the utility company if their power

118
lines, pole transformer, etc., prove to be the cause. In fact, for
any but the simplest type of local noise, the average TV owner
is hardly in a position to move his antenna any appreciable
distance, especially horizontally. A change in the antenna
height may be helpful, if it can be first found experimentally
that adifferent height (higher or lower) is noise free.
With regard to the transmission line, the problem is easier
to solve. If it is apparent that the transmission line runs along
anoisy structure or device or power line, either relocation or
shielding should produce some improvement. Relocation is
simpler and should be tried first. If this is not feasible or it
does not help, substitution of a shielded (metal clad) trans-
mission line is almost 100 percent certain to be effective.
There are two simple types of shielded transmission lines
suitable for practically all TV sets. One is unbalanced 75-ohm
line, sometimes called a "coaxial" line. This contains an in-
sulated center conductor and a metallic (braided) outer
conductor, sometimes rubber covered. When installing this
lead-in, the outer conductors must be thoroughly "grounded"
by asolid connection to the TV chassis. In addition, the TV set
must be equipped (some are) for a75-ohm transmission line.
Otherwise, alittle accessory known as a transformer must be
connected between the coaxial line and the TV set.
A second type of shielded transmission line is the "300-
ohm twin line." This is the usual two-wire flat line with the
addition of an external shield. Assuming that the TV set
requires a 300-ohm antenna (most sets do), the connections
are the same as with the unshielded transmission line, except
that the external shield must be tightly connected to the TV
chassis at one end and to the TV mast at the other. There's
usually a slight signal loss because of this outer braid or
shielding, but this is not significant, provided the antenna
proper is fairly good.
A final note on noise prevention or elimination: The notion
that an indoor antenna is immune to "outdoor noise" is
completely false. No compact, a simple, abbreviated antenna
can improve reception over a good outdoor antenna. In fact,
the window "improvements" can seldom approach the per-
formance of even the simplest outdoor antenna properly in-
stalled, and except for locations with extremely high signal
strength, these window gadgets are fairly useless. And as to
devices which employ radar principles and convert one's
housewiring into one giant all-direction antenna, the best that
can be said for them is that they will work where any scrap of
wire will work; they will not be much use where a normal
antenna is required.

119
 Chapter 8

Troubleshooting Procedures

Up to now the various adjustments and corrections we've

covered have been primarily of the preventive-corrective
maintenance type, intended to keep a TV set in normal
operating condition, as well as to correct deviations from such
normal operation due to aging, wear, deterioration, etc. Our
concern now involves catastrophic failure where the TV set
ceases to operate either partially or totally.

NO PICTURE, NO SOUND—NO POWER TO THE TV SET

As obvious as this may seem, it is sometimes overlooked.

If there is absolutely no evidence that the power is on (pilot
light on, some tubes lighting in transformer type sets, etc.), a
few simple tests will provide the answer. They should be made
before going further.
Check for aloose plug, or a disconnected plug at the wall
outlet.
Check for adefective wall outlet by plugging in alamp or
other appliance.
Check the on-off switch on the TV set. It may be defective,
but this is very rare.
If the answer to the first two checks is negative for
transformer type sets, the fault lies either in adefective on-off
switch or a defective power transformer. In either case, the
repair is not for a beginner. The switch is almost always part
of a control assembly (volume, tone, etc.) and requires
professional attention. A transformer replacement is even
more out of the reach of an amateur. Do not attempt either!
Fortunately, both of these possibilities are rather improbable.
In atransformerless (series tube hookup) TV set, the next
step is to proceed according to the detailed instructions given
in Chapter 5. Since any one tube (or tube group, see Figs. 5-3
and 5-4 or fusible resistor will stop all tubes from lighting, the
procedure suggested will almost certainly lead to the
"break." The remedy is then obvious.

120
NO PICTURE, NO SOUND, NO RASTER—TUBES LIGHT
There are two inferences to be drawn from these
symptoms. One, the fault lies in a part of the set common to
both video and audio. Second, since the screen is dark (no
raster—the lighted screen with or without a picture), a fault
common to both the signal circuits and deflection circuits is
responsible.
A power supply failure may be either very simple or
beyond the capability of the beginner, depending on whether
the power supply uses tube rectifiers (V14 in Fig. 6-2, V14 in
Fig. 6-3) or semiconductors (selenium or silicon diodes as in
Figs. 6-4 and 6-5). In the case of the latter (and these also fail
most infrequently, usually due to gradual deterioration with
age), aprofessional's skill is required, even if it is aquick and
simple job for him.

NO PICTURE, NO SOUND, RASTER OK

This symptom eliminates the deflection (H and V) circuits
and points strictly to sections common to the video and audio
portion of the set. Of course, this failure cannot exist in
transformerless sets, as any tube failure disables
everything—video, audio and raster. Referring to the block
diagram in Fig. 6-3, all tubes in the tuner (V1 and V2), IF
amplifiers (V3A, V3B and V4) and the video amplifier (V5A)
are suspect. The sound IF tubes (V5C, V7A and V7B) are not
likely to be involved, even if the sound is missing because the
simultaneous absence of the picture points to one or more of
the tubes from the video amplifier (inclusive) back toward the
antenna. By substituting tubes as suggested earlier you should
quickly locate the problem if it is atube.

NO SOUND, PICTURE OK
Failure of the sound may involve any of the stages and
tubes beginning with the sound IF, just following the video
detector, up to and including the speaker. This includes V5C,
V7A and V7B in Fig. 6-3, V5A, V6 and V7 in Fig. 6-4, etc., and
applies equally to parallel and series filament tube sets, since
the presence of apicture precludes any tube burnouts. Sound
failure can also be due to afailure in the sound detector, which
in some sets consists of a pair of semiconductor diodes.
However, diode failure is most infrequent and may be an-
ticipated as a "wear-out" type of failure, taking much longer
than tubes. In those rare cases, when the sound is weak even if
all the tubes identified above test "good," the detector diodes
may as a last resort be suspected.

121
 TUNER PICTURE IF VIDEO DETECTOR VIDEOAMPLIFIERS

VI •RF AMPL PICTURE TUBE

V3 •1st IF
V2A •MIXER 1.12 •lot VIDEO VIDEO
VI •2nd IF V6 -DETECTOR
V2B •OSCILLATOR VI3 •OUTPUT VIDEO
VS 3rd IF
(SOMETIMES V1, V2, V3)
L-

SOUND IF O
LIMITER DISCRIMINATOR AUDIOAMPLIFIER SPEAKER
o
VII LIMITER
V9 •lot SIF V13 •1st AUDIO
VI2 •
VIO •2nd SIF V16 •OUTPUT
DISCRIMINATOR

DAMPER (8+ BOOST)

SYNC INVERTER-CLIPPER HORIZONTAL AFC & OSC HORIZONTAL AMPLIFIER HIGH VOLTAGE RECTIFIER
V18

VISA V16A
V1SB V12 VIF
V1613

VERTICAL OSCILLATOR VERTICAL AMPLIFIER

V 20 V2I

B- RECTIFIER

B+ TO ALL TUBES
V2?
tD

<
CI (I
)
a) 7
 There is an important caution that must be made in
connection with the sound section of a TV receiver and it
pertains to the handling of the speaker. Since most speakers
on TV receivers have quick-disconnect clips or pin-and-jack
connections (for convenience in removing the chassis from the
cabinet) it is quite possible to (deliberately or accidentally)
pull the speaker leads off, leaving the speaker electrically
disconnected from the receiver. This is potentially damaging.
In tube-type sets, disconnecting the speaker with the set on
may in some sets damage the output tube. With transistor
sound sections, disconnecting the speaker with the set on
spells sure death to one or two expensive transistors!
Therefore, NEVER disconnect the speaker leads while the TV
in on. In the troubleshooting procedure just discussed, first
switch off the set, substitute for the suspected tube, then
switch the receiver on again. While damage is not 100 percent
certain in some tube sets, it is not worth risking such damage.
With transistors damage is certain.

Split-Sound Sets

Although extremely rare now, in some TV sets, known as

the "split-sound" type (as distinguished from the current
"intercarrier" type), there may be a sound failure in stages
not identified on the block diagrams in Figs. 6-2 through 6-5. As
an illustration, Fig. 8-1 is ablock diagram of an old split-sound
TV set. Notice that the sound and picture information channels
"split apart" (hence the name) immediately after the tuner.
In such aset, if any are still around, the absence of sound must
be due to a fault in V8, V9, V10, V11, V12, or V13. None of the
tubes in the upper string (the video IF), including V4, V5, V6,
V7, V8, (and V9 if any), can be involved. Incidentally, the two
(or three) tubes in the tuner, V1 and V2 (and V3 if any), cannot
be responsible for the absence of sound unless both sound and
picture are missing.
In connection with this type of relic, it should be pointed
out that a failure of picture only, but with a raster present,
must be charged to the upper leg of the split, i.e., the video IF
channel comprising V4, V5, V6, the video detector, V7, and the
video amplifier (s) V8 (and V9, if any).

"SNOW"
This picture defect may vary from good sound, snowy
picture to fairly good sound, very faint picture, or no picture at
all. In addition, the snow may appear at random, suggesting
(improperly so) that the fault lies outside the set. Actually,

123
 this is not so. "Snow" is aname given to apicture which seems
to be broken up into small flecks or pieces which seem to
shimmer or waver. They do not fall or move down the screen,
although in ageneral way they are reminiscent of snow-filled
air. Regardless of which of these "snow" problems a par-
ticular TV set has, it is distinctly different (in fact, opposite)
from the weak picture cases described earlier. In the vast
majority of cases, the presence of "snow" is evidence that the
TV set is working hard to produce apicture from apoor signal.
This means that either no signal is received by the TV set, or
the received signal cannot get through due to a break in the
functional continuity in the set. The procedure for isolating the
fault and applying the appropriate remedy is as follows:
Examine the antenna lead-in system. An old or otherwise
poor antenna system will not necessarily cause a sudden
appearance of snow. But a break in one or both conductors of
the lead-in at the point of connection to the antenna, at the
point or points of fastening on the way down, at the entrance
through awindow or wall, or finally, at the connection to the
antenna terminals on the rear of the set—a break at any one of
these vulnerable points is a likely cause for snow on an
otherwise normal TV set. To check for a suspected broken
lead-in, a substitute antenna, "rabbit ears," an indoor wire
antenna, or even a length of wire connected in place of the
suspected antenna will be sufficient to verify whether or not
the antenna is at fault. Of course, allowance must be made for
the fact that the substitute antenna is, at best, a mediocre
performer. But if the picture improves and the snow effect is
diminished, the antenna lead-in is probably at fault, and that
means afurther check for abreak in the wire (s) .If, however,
no appreciable improvement is noticed with the substitute, the
antenna system is not at fault.
Check the RF amplifier tube (by tester or substitution) in
the tuner (V1 in all block diagrams). This tube, more than any
other, is likely to be the culprit. Even when it has deteriorated
very severely, this tube will still allow some signals to get
through, hence it may not be suspected. But the self-
compensating functions of amodern TV set will try to make up
for the severe reduction in signal, thus amplifying a lot of
noise which appears as snow. If no improvement is attained,
similarly check the first IF tube (V3 in all block diagrams,
except V4 in Fig. 8-1). To alesser degree than V1, this tube is
also potentially responsible for snow and should be checked
accordingly. Check the remaining IF tubes if the RF and first
IF tubes seem OK. While the probabilities are much lower that
one of these tubes is reponsible, they should be checked in a
tester or by substitution.

124
SOUND OK, PICTURE MISSING
A totally dark screen with normal sound points to trouble
in the video portion of the TV set, including the picture in-
formation and horizontal sweep circuits (if there's no raster)
but not the vertical or sync circuits. The horizontal stages are
involved because they are responsible for the presence or
absence of any light (raster or picture) on the screen.
The troubleshooting procedure is based on some logical
assumptions. First, the picture tube is not burned out. In a
transformer-type set, a burned-out picture tube is identified
like any other burned out tube—absence of any light near the
base of the tube. Of course, it is assumed that the picture tube
socket is properly seated on the tube base; once in along while
it may work loose or simply lose proper contact. Second, the
tube did not become defective since the last time it was on; it
usually doesn't happen that way, certainly not suddenly. If the
tubes are wired in series and all tubes light, the procedure is
no different than for a parallel tube set. If no tubes light
(remember, this is an all-or-none situation), the procedure
outlined previously should be followed until the bad tube is
found. If this does not solve the problem, i.e., tubes will light,
but still no picture, the troubleshooting is the same as for the
parallel filament sets.
The step-by-step sequence for locating the cause of adark
screen is as follows: Replace the horizontal output tube (V11 in
Fig. 6-2, V10 in Fig. 6-3, V11 in Fig. 6-4, V10A in Fig. 6-5), etc.
Since this tube is directly responsible for generating the high
voltage (15,000 to 25,000) necessary for producing light on the
screen, afailure of this tube will result in atotally dark screen.
The precautions outlined previously regarding the handling of
this tube, especially if it happens to be inside the high-voltage
cage, must be followed at all times. If a new horizontal output
tube does not solve the problem, the next step is in order. This
is also assuming that the horizontal output stage is not
working, although the tube itself is OK.
Carefully remove and replace the damper tube (V13 in
Fig. 6-2, V12 in Fig. 6-3, V13 in Fig. 6-4, etc.). This tube, if
faulty, breaks the path of the B+ boost (250 -650 volts), again
disabling the horizontal circuit responsible for producing light
on the screen. In most cases, this would have to be a
catastrophic failure; aweak or even poor testing damper tube
will not remove all light from the screen.
If the damper tube proves to be good, proceed to carefully
remove the high-voltage (15,000 -25,000 volts) rectifier (V12 in
Fig. 6-2, V11 in Fig. 6-3, or V12 in Fig. 6-4). This tube is always
inside the protective cage and it always has a top cap con-

125
Fig. 8-2. Some fuses are intended to be soldered in place;
therefore they have "pig-tail" leads (A). Solderless
fuseholders (B) are available. They clip onto the burned-
out fuse and the replacement fuse is inserted in the clips on
top of the fuseholder.

nection which may be reluctant to come off. An additional

difficulty, even if a minor one, is the fact that this tube lights
very dimly sometimes almost invisibly (depending on its
physical position) and hardly feels warm to the touch, hence
should not be assumed to be bad just by appearance alone.
Incidentally, this is the only tube in a transformerless
(series filament tubes) TV set that is not part of the series
string; it can be burned out even if all the other tubes in the set
are lighting. The above steps, one or more of them, should
restore the picture or at least the raster to the screen, except
for one other possibility in some TV sets only.
As stated earlier some TV sets make use of an internal
fuse, usually inside the high-voltage cage, for the protection of
the horizontal output portion of the TV set only. (This is not the
main fuse which protects the whole TV set.) When this internal
fuse blows, the whole horizontal output circuit, including the
high-voltage system, is interrupted, resulting in no light on the
screen. To check such afuse, it is safe to temporarily wrap a
piece of foil or even place apiece of wire across the metal ends
of the fuse. See Fig. 8-2 for details. If it makes no difference,
the fuse is not at fault. Replacement of the fuse is relatively
simple, even in those cases when the fuse is soldered into
position by "pigtails."
Visual inspection must be very carefully made as the
metal conductor inside the glass fuse is very thin; therefore,

126
an open is not too obvious. In replacing the fuse, if it is of the
snap-in type, the procedure is quite obvious. The fuse should
be of the same physical length in order to fit into the
fuseholder clips. Its electrical value is not very critical, and
lacking any other information, it is safe to use a 200 volt, 1 /
4

ampere type. A fuse rated at less than 1 / ampere may fail too
4

frequently without any provacation, while an especially

heavier type (1 / ampere or more) may not afford any
2
protection. If the fuse is of the soldered-in type, a slightly
different replacement procedure is called for. All radio repair
supply houses sell a replacement fuse assembly which looks
somewhat like Fig. 8-2B; as can be seen, this is a double
fuseholder or two fuseholders fastened back-to-back. One side
is slipped over the old presumably burned out fuse, while a
new snap-in fuse is placed on the opposite side.

DIM PICTURE NOT COVERING FULL SCREEN

When operation is just a little below normal, i.e., when the

picture could be a little brighter and have a little more con-
trast and when the picture does not quite reach the edges, the
fault is probably a poor rectifier tube (or tubes). Referring to
the block diagrams again (Figs. 6-2 through 6-5) we find the
rectifier tubes identified as 5U4G, 5U4GB, 6AX4, 5AX4.
In some very large TV sets, particularly of earlier vin-
tage, two rectifiers (a pair of the same or two different types)
are used. Since in every case the rectifier supplies the power
to all other tubes in the set, a reduction in output here will
reduce the performance of most tubes in the set to some
degree. Furthermore, rectifier tubes operate at high tem-
peratures and full load at all times and are more prone to
deteriorate than any other tube in the set. Replacement of
weak rectifier tubes usually corrects insufficient brightness,
poor contrast, and insufficient height and width.
It should be mentioned here that there is an auxiliary
rectifier tube, previously identified as a damper or B+ boost.
While the damper does not affect all the tubes in the TV set, it
directly affects the horizontal and vertical circuits, hence the
height, width, raster brightness and, indirectly, picture
brightness.

PICTURE DIM—BRIGHTNESS AND-OR CONTRAST

INEFFECTIVE
There is another case of improper brightness or contrast
control where the picture size is normal. Unlike the previous
example where the brightness and contrast controls are
functioning but at their maximum settings there is still not

127
 sufficient picture brightness, this case identifies acondition in
which the brightness and contrast controls are not functioning
properly. Sometimes increasing these settings, or advancing
the controls, will produce a photographic negative effect—
blacks are white and vice versa. More often the gradual
variation from dark to light to bright, as is the case with the
average TV scene, will not be obtainable, except perhaps at
very low (dim) settings of the brightness and contrast con-
trols. At all other positions, as when attempting to get a nor-
mal picture, the light and dark areas appear flat, muddy, and
very dull. Sometimes such apicture suggests looking through
avery dirty window or through agray filter at anormal scene.
Any of these symptoms, alone or in combination, suggest a
defective picture tube (of course, it is assumed that the
problem is not the one just described above). The electron
emission has deteriorated to such alow fraction of the normal
amount that internal adjustments or small tube replacements
will no longer help. The only permanent remedy is the
replacement of the picture tube, and this is a job for the
professional serviceman.
If you're shopping for a replacement picture tube (plus
installation) some money can be saved by buying a rebuilt
tube. In fact, if no specific instructions are given to the con-
trary, the "new" tube may well be arebuilt one. This is quite
satisfactory, both ethically and technically, provided it is a
tube rebuilt by one of the "standard" tube manufacturers. The
100 percent brand new tube today is still available, but its use
is the exception rather than the rule, and it offers absolutely no
advantage over the standard rebuilt tube.

Tube Rejuvenation

When it has been established that adim picture is due to a

weak picture tube, the life of such a tube can be extended,
often for a number of months, by a simple technique com-
monly called rejuvenation. What it amounts to is a
rejuvenation of the electron-producing element of the tube. It
can be restored, for a while at least, by the application of a
higher-than-normal voltage, thus raising the temperature of
the electron-emitting surface on the tube element.
Most professional servicemen use a"one-shot" remedy by
applying an overvoltage for a short while, thus reactivating
the electron emitter. After this, the tube reverts to its normal
operating voltage. You may also install a "booster" device
which is attached to the tube and left there for the remaining
life of the tube. It is simple, less expensive, equally effective,
and most important it may be less likely to shorten the tube

128
life. Since a "rejuvenation" overvoltage is applied for only a
relatively short time, it is necessarily more drastic and may
have some "delayed action" effect on the remaining life of the
tube. By contrast, the booster, which continuously operates
with the tube, applies amuch more modest overvoltage and is,
therefore, less detrimental to the remaining tube life.
Fig. 8-3 is a sketch of a common picture tube booster. At
one end is a socket (or section of one, as found on most TV
sets) which fits over the picture tube base, exactly like the
original one. At the other end is a plug, made from an octal
tube base, which contains a sealed-in small transformer.
Connection to the TV set is simple:
Switch off the set and carefully pull the socket from the
picture tube base. Mate and connect this socket with the base
plug on the booster. Connect the socket on the other end of the
booster cable to the base of the picture tube. The booster may
be left hanging "as is."
One important reminder: There are two different types of
boosters for sale in radio supply stores and they are not in-
terchangeable, even if they look alike. One is exclusively for
parallel (transformer-type) tube hookups, the other is ex-
clusively for series tube hookups (transformerless). Make
absolutely sure which type of TV set yours is and purchase the
correct type.

HEAVY BLACK-AND-WHITE BARS

This symptom looks somewhat like Fig. 8-4A. There may

be either one dark and one light horizontal bar, each covering
approximately 50 percent of the screen height, or, as in Fig. 8-
4B there may be three bars, one wide and two narrow. Often

PLUG

SOCKET—IT GOES OVER

CABLE PICTURE TUBE BASE

Fig. 8-3. Sketch of a typical picture tube rejuvenator.

129
 A

Fig. 8-4. AC hum can cause he raster to vary from black to

white (A) or from white to black to white (B).

130
these bars will slowly drift up or down the screen. To locate the
cause of this malfunction, more than one step is usually
required.
Understanding the problem will make the solution so
much easier. The vast majority of such bars is caused by what
is commonly called "AC hum," although the word "hum"
usually refers to the audible manifestation of the unwanted
presence of AC in a circuit. One of the most likely sources of
such AC hum (or at least those within the ability of the
beginner) is a tube. A defective tube in this case is one which
has developed what is called "heater-to-cathode leakage."
The technical significance of this statement is of no particular
importance at this point, except insofar as corrective action is
concerned. Specifically, when one or more tubes are suspected
of causing the horizontal bars, you should test them very
carefully on atube tester having aleakage indicator, usually
in the form of a small neon bulb. Total emission tests, as in-
dicated by the needle swinging into the "Replace," "Weak" or
"Good" portion of the scale, are of no value here, and may, in
fact, be misleading, since tubes with heater-to-cathode shorts
or near shorts often read high. Not only must the neon glow be
looked for very carefully, but enough time (at least a few
minutes) must be allowed for the suspected tube to reach a
high enough temperature to produce the leakage or short. The
same precaution applies to the tube substitution procedure.
Merely switching off the TV set often allows sufficient time for
the culprit tube to cool somewhat and operate normally when
the set is switched on again.
Therefore it is imperative for the beginner to follow two
simple steps in order to eliminate this ambiguity of in-
dications. First, observe how soon the bars appear after the
set is turned on initially. Second, when switching tubes allow
at least that much time to see whether or not the bars reap-
pear before concluding that the job is done. It should be noted
here, that contrary to most other malfunctions in a TV set,
which usually can be traced to one particular and exclusive
tube or stage, the AC hum responsible for the bars under
discussion here can originate almost anywhere in the TV set,
although under different circumstances and with different
symptoms. Because of this, the troubleshooting procedure
must be able to locate the defect without arandom hit-or-miss,
trial-and-error, let's-see-what-happens type of procedure.
To locate a defective tube, it is most helpful to isolate the
fault to aparticular portion of the TV set, keeping in mind the
fact that a number of tubes can be removed from the TV set
without affecting the raster. For example, referring to a

131
typical block diagram as in Fig. 6-3, all the tubes, individually
or in a group from VI through V7, can be removed without
removing the raster, although the picture itself may disap-
pear. A systematic isolation procedure for this TV set might
be as follows:
Remove the first IF (V3 in most sets) ;both picture and
sound will be disabled but not the raster. If the bars disappear,
the defect is either in the tube just removed or in the tuner
itself. To determine which is at fault, replace V3 and remove
Vi. If this removes the defect, Vi is at fault. If the bars persist,
the fault lies either in the converter tube, V2, or in the
previously removed V3. If neither of these tubes affect the
bars, the trouble lies further on, in the IF stages, V4 and V5,
the video stage, V6, or in the picture tube itself, as we shall
determine presently.
Remove the last IF tube (V5 in Fig. 6-2). This also disables
the picture and sound, but since the video amplifier (V6) is
still in its socket, it is a most likely suspect. If the bars
disappear, the fault is somewhere in the IF circuits, such as V4
or V5. To determine which, replace V5 and remove V3. If the
bars disappear, V3 is at fault; if the bars persist, V4 is at fault.
If removing V5 makes no change, the IF is not at fault. As the
bars persist, the video amplifier is almost certain to be
responsible.
Another possibility, although a much less likely one, is the
sync tube(s). If the high probability video amplifier does not
seem to be defective, the sync tube(s) should be checked. In
fact, after eliminating the video amplifier as the cause, the
sync tube(s) become the prime suspect.
Remove V6A, the video amplifier. This will disable both
the picture and sound, as was discussed earlier. If removing
the video amplifier also removes the bars, the logical step is
the replacement of this tube. If this cures the malady, this tube
was at fault. If the bars persist, remove and replace the sync
tube, V8A. If the bars are still present, the fault lies beyond
this point either in the picture tube or in the power supply to
the picture tube.
Very often the fault will be in the power supply portion of
the picture tube circuits (i.e., filter capacitor) but most likely
the picture tube itself has an internal short or a near short.
Occasionally, even if rarely, it is possible to "burn out" the
short with a tube rejuvenator. If a professional serviceman
offers to do this, he will probably stipulate that it must be done
at your risk. This is not unreasonable and entails no loss to the
owner, since the tube is not serviceable and its trade-in value
will not diminish even if it is burned out in the attempt.

132
PICTURE "SNAKING"

This defect in the TV picture is mentioned here because it

is usually caused by the same type of tube defect as the AC
bars just discussed, namely, leakage between elements in one
of the tubes. All vertical lines—objects, picture edges, or
people—seem to weave in shapes of S curves. Almost any tube
in the TV set may be at fault, but it's most likely to be tubes in
the horizontal, sync and video circuits (V10A, V10B, V11, V8A
and V6A in Fig. 6-2), and least likely to be those in the tuner
(V1 and V2) or in the IF amplifiers (V3, V4, and V5). The
procedure for locating the bad tube is the same as for the just
discussed hum bars.

SOUND BARS

Sound bars are somewhat similar to the heavy black-and-

white hum bars except they are much thinner (Fig. 8-5), more
numerous (there may be a dozen or more), they appear
somewhat wavy, and, instead of slowly drifting up or down,
they seem to waver with the sound from the speaker, as if
animated. Sound bars appear when some of the sound energy
reaches the picture tube and is reproduced as light. The cause
of this malfunction is seldom a defective tube, rather it is due
to an improper adjustment either of the fine-tuning control or,
more seriously, one of the tuned circuits inside the TV set.

Fig. 8-5. The effect of sound bars is similar to hum bars,

except there are many more of them.

133
 However, only the fine tuning is within the capability of the
beginner to correct. It is simply necessary to readjust the fine-
tuning control for a clean picture even if it means some
reduction in volume.
If this is not effective, it is an indication that either one or
more of the IF circuits is improperly adjusted, or, in some TV
sets, the "sound trap" (called 4.5-MHz trap) circuit is im-
properly adjusted. This should not occur if the TV set ever
functioned properly, as it is extremely unlikely that these
circuits would drift out of adjustment (although this is
possible). However, after a repair, or especially a realign-
ment in the repair shop, some of these circuits may have been
improperly adjusted.

"HERRINGBONE WEAVE"

This interference pattern on the screen is seldom due to

internal causes, but these cannot be automatically discounted.
One likely cause of this phenomenon is interference from
another TV set. Although the FCC has established some very
clear standards for TV (and AM-FM) receiver radiation,
many sets will make their presence known in other neigh-
boring sets, especially in apartment houses and in master TV
antenna installations. This can easily be identified by its
random, intermittent nature and absence from most channels
(it appears only when the offending receiver and the "victim"
are tuned to the same station). There is little that can be done
about it, other than attempt to minimize it by "touching up"
the fine-tuning control or switching to a different channel "for
the duration."
Where there is an adjustable fine-tuning control, a
herringbone pattern may be due to improper setting of this
control. In older sets, adjustment of this control is required
each time the channel is changed. The proper setting is the
point which gives the best picture, not the loudest sound (these
two were not always coincidental). In more modern receivers,
where the fine tuning is not critical and where usually one
setting serves for all channels, there is considerable leeway in
setting this control, but it can still be set (improperly) so as to
produce a herringbone weave on one or more stations. An
optimum setting (good for all stations, not best for any one)
should be made by trial and error to avoid herringbone effects.
Incidentally, since many TV sets may receive the same
channel on two adjacent selector positions (i.e., Channel 2 on
dial positions 2and 3, Channel 7on positions 7and 8, etc.) it is
important to have the fine tuning optimized for the best results
on the correct position. It is perfectly normal for some sets to

134
have aherringbone pattern on the picture when, say, Channel
2is examined on the Channel 3position of the selector. In such
acase, the fine tuning is most probably incorrect.
A herringbone pattern may, in some few cases, stem from
internal causes. If, after exhausting the various possibilities
listed above, the problem still persists, asubstitution of one or
more tubes in the video detector-video amplifier section of the
receiver should be tried. This includes V6A in Fig. 6-2, V8A in
Fig. 6-3, V5A in Fig. 6-4, V5A in Fig. 6-5, etc. In those cases
where the video detector is a semiconductor diode, you may
have to call in aprofessional serviceman to do the job, because
careful soldering is required. This also applies to those cases
where tube substitution is of no help, suggesting that a
defective component other than tubes may be responsible.
However, semiconductor video detectors are seldom at fault.

GHOST LINES (Barkhausen)

This sort of picture "interference" appears as one or more

ragged vertical lines, usually in the left portion of the picture.
Sometimes barkhausen may appear as a small group of ad-
jacent lines somewhat as in Fig. 8-6. Such interference is most
prominent between scenes (station breaks, etc.) or when the
received station is one of the more distant (weaker) ones. This
"ghost" is invariably caused by a peculiarity (not really a
defect) of the horizontal amplifier (V11 in Fig. 6-2, vio in Fig.

Fig. 8-6. Ghost lines or barkhausen appear vertically

toward the left side of the screen.

135
Fig. 8-7. A ghost image, caused by multipath reception of
two signals (one delayed slightly), appears to the left of
the desired image.

6-3, etc.) tube. No tube tester will discern anything abnormal

in such a tube, and nothing short of substitution will prove
whether or not the problem is within the tube. Of course, it is
just barely possible that the second tube may behave in the
same manner, but this is highly unlikely. There are one or two
other possibilities for which the corrective steps follow:
Check that the tube caps on the horizontal amplifier and
the HV rectifier (V11 and V12 in Fig. 6-2, etc.) are well seated
and otherwise not intermittently connected. Check that the
door or cover of the cage containing the high-voltage com-
ponents is not (accidentally) loose or open. Check for the
(rare) possibility that the TV lead-in is somehow bunched up,
possibly because of surplus length, near this cage or near the
horizontal amplifier tube or general vicinity. Substitute new
tube(s) for the H-amplifier.
There is one other (and less preferable) method for
remedying this effect without replacing the horizontal am-
plifier tube. It involves the purchase of a little device,
sometimes called a Barkhousen Suppressor, and consists of a
small magnet with an attachment (spring) band. This gadget
is slipped over the horizontal amplifier tube's glass enevelope
and its position adjusted by rotating and-or sliding it up or
down, while observing the "ghost" lines on the screen.

136
Caution! At the top cap of this tube there is a potential of
thousands of volts. It is not necessary to come in contact with
it, since the magnet is skipped over the tube with the cap off
and the receiver off. But care is the watchword, here,
nevertheless.
PICTURE GHOSTS

This malfunction is another one seldom caused internally,

but it is quite easy to correct. A picture ghost is a duplicate
picture, usually weaker than the "original" and usually
displaced somewhat to the right. Fig. 8-7 is one example of this
type of ghost. We are employing the word "usually," because,
as is mentioned below, there is also an "unusual" version of
the same thing. A brief explanation will make it so much
easier to correct the fault.
It is common knowledge that aTV signal travels from the
transmitting antenna to the receiving antenna. It is also afact,
although not so "commonly" known, that the TV image is
reproduced on the home screen from left to right, i.e., the
picture is generated much in the same sequence as the writing
(or reading) of aline on apage. Therefore, it follows that the
portions of the TV picture on the right appear later than the
portions on the left. Of course, the difference in time is ex-

a ,.... : ..«._ELIVILL2/2%_95. R2 S2 G.N..4..,

L PA TH.......\\ /
-
t
x, ' -\-
Q"/ REFLECTOR
4e\ j/ (BUILDING, MOUNTAIN, ETC.)
_-- ---

0+ /

/
(70 / ------- TV TRANSMITTER
, --- -
-•--._
RECEIVING ANTENNA

Fig. 8-8. Multiple signal paths between transmitter and

receiver cause ghost images.ohe

137
 tremely small (millionths of a second) and the eye sees the
whole picture simultaneously. However, should two signals
from the same TV station arrive one behind the other because
one comes in around-about way the second signal will arrive a
little later. This is known as multipath reception; i.e., one
signal travels the shortest path between the transmitter and
receiver antennas, while the other follows asomewhat zig-zag
path by striking some object on the way, then bouncing off,
etc. This latter path is obviously longer, and takes more time.
(Fig. 8-8 is asimple illustration of this occurrence.)
If the TV receiver is far enough away from the trans-
mitting center (such as a central metropolitan location) so
that all stations lie in approximately the same line or path, the
surest way to avoid or eliminate the type of ghost just
described is to reorient the antenna. It probably has shifted, so
that it no longer points directly at the transmitters. It should
be remembered that TV transmitters radiate in all directions
(omnidirectional), while all receiving antennas are relatively
sharply unidirectional. Therefore, it is possible that the
receiving antenna now "looks at" atall building or a hill which
acts as a reflector for transmitted signals. In that case the
antenna is picking up adirect and areflected signal.
If the transmitting location is not in sight, a map and
compass should be used for correct pointing, although a cut-
and-try (rotate antenna, observe picture, repeat if necessary)
procedure is quite satisfactory. It is also fairly safe (although
not absolutely certain) to assume that the correct direction is
that in which most TV antennas in the immediate vicinity are
pointing.
In cases where different TV stations are not in line but are
in definitely different compass bearings, an antenna rotator is
essential. This will permit the receiving antenna to be pointed
directly at the transmitter, without any compromise.
As more and more TV receiving antennas are made to
receive a combination of VHF (Channels 2-13) and UHF
(Channels 14-83) signals, an additional adjustment may be
required both for elimination of ghosts and for maximum
signal, especially on the UHF stations. This adjustment
consists of the raising or lowering of the antenna, while
simultaneously rotating it, for minimum ghosts and
maximum signal. Contrary to most cases of VHF antenna
installation, the highest possible location is not necessarily the
best for UHF. In fact, lowering aVHF-UHF antenna system as
little as afew inches may make the difference between a poor
UHF signal and a very strong signal. Since the VHF is not so
critical, it is safe to adjust the height for best UHF per-

138
formance only. The direction of the antenna is fairly critical
for all stations, hence this should not be neglected.

Tube Ghosts

As stated above, tubes may cause picture ghosts, but such

faults are confined almost exclusively to the "front end" of the
TV set, specifically in the antenna stage (V1 in all block
diagrams or VI VIA in VHF-UHF TV sets). In those TV sets
where the UHF tuner uses no tubes, the problem is virtually
eliminated automatically, as the transistorized antenna
circuit is seldom susceptible to this problem.

LOSS OF FINE DETAIL

This defect may be either organic or due to misad-

justment. Any portion of the picture where fine variations are
present, such as a person's eyes or hair, a fine pattern on
paper or clothing, and even the fine scan lines (raster) will be
degraded by this defect. There are afew probable causes:
IF Alignment Incorrect: If the TV used to have good
picture detail, a loss due to IF circuits misalignment will
seldom occur, except and unless those circuits have been
improperly adjusted. The remedy is obvious.
Improper setting of the fine-tuning control, (especially in
very old TV sets) can materially degrade picture detail, since
the ultimate effect is similar to that of a misalignment. The
remedy here, too, is obvious, except that the setting of the fine-
tuning control also affects the sound and, as discussed above,
ghosts. An optimum (possibly compromise) setting is
recommended.
Defective Tube: Either the video amplifier or the video
detector may be responsible. Checking the suspected tube(s)
is of little value here and substitution is recommended. As in
the case of ghost problems, should a semiconductor diode be
involved, or should tube replacement fail to solve the problem,
the services of a professional will be required.
Improper Focusing: Although this misadjustment should
be fairly obvious to the beginner he may not be aware of it at
all times, since, in mild cases, defocusing can be tolerated,
especially in action scenes (which applies to most TV
programs). Picture focus deterioration with long use is not
unusual and it should be checked whenever picture detail
seems deficient.
As detailed earlier, focusing is best done by closly ob-
serving the TV screen (using a mirror, if necessary) while
adjusting both the focus control and the ion trap magnet for

139
 the sharpest horizontal lines on the screen. Changes in the ion
trap magnet position should be made with circumspection, as
it is easy to degrade picture brightness, picture size, and
coverage of the screen edges by gross changes in the ion
magnet position. Very slight and gradual rotation and sliding
will easily show whether the focus is affected.
In connection with the adjustment of the ion trap magnet,
caution is required. An improperly adjusted ion trap magnet,
in addition to producing apoor picture, can also cause damage
to the interior structure of the picture tube and ultimately
result in poor focus and dark spots (burn spots) at the center of
the tube screen. To avoid this, the magnet should be kept near
the base end of the picture tube and adjustments made with
the lowest possible brightness setting and as quickly as
possible.

SMEAR

This defect in quality is best observed on the larger areas

of uniform illumination, such as a wall, the border between a
person's white shirt and his dark suit, etc. Practically every
cause listed above for loss of fine detail applies here, with two
exceptions. First, the focus misadjustment is not nearly as
evident on large areas of uniform illumination, although the
ion trap magnet may have a noticeable effect. Second, there is
a good likelihood that a defective component in the video
amplifier circuits is responsible for the loss of good quality in
the heavy areas.
One other potential cause for loss of heavy detail is
misadjustment of the AGC. Since the AGC function sets the
amplification level of the TV set, it is, in amanner of speaking,
acoarse presetting for the contrast control, while the latter is,
comparatively speaking, a fine control. As stated earlier, the
AGC should be set so that the contrast control is set about
midway while receiving an average signal. Any setting of the
AGC requiring the use of either the maximum or minimum
extreme setting of the contrast control for an average signal is
also likely to cause a type of distortion which ultimately
evidences itself in picture smear.

LINE "PAIRING"

This is a picture quality defect causing severe image

degradation both in the fine detail and in the large solid areas,
but particularly in the fine detail area. It is due to an ac-
cidental overlapping of adjacent raster lines. In appearance
the number of horizontal lines on the screen is effectively cut

140
in half, while the thickness of each "new" line and the spacing
between them is doubled.
In the first Chapter it was established that the visible
rectangle (raster) on the screen consists of approximately 480
interlaced lines; i.e., lines "painted" by the electron beam,
first the odd-numbered set (lines 1, 3, 5, 7, etc.) then the even-
numbered lines (2,4,6,8) etc. During normal operation the
sync or precise timing pulses from the transmitter keep the
spacing between the lines exactly right, so that, for example,
line 2 falls exactly midway between lines 1 and 3, line 4 fits
exactly between lines 3and 5, and so on. In this manner, any
picture information on one of these lines is clear and distinct
from any information on an adjacent line. Should, however,
due to amalfunction, two adjacent lines overlap, two different
sets of picture detail will overlap and neither will be clear. The
term "pairing" of lines used above refers to just such an
overlap. A failure in the sync circuits, due to either internal
(TV set) or external (freak reception or transmitter
malfunction) causes will often produce this phenomenon. To
verify whether or not the TV set is responsible, proceed as
follows:
Switch to a different channel (preferably a third or fourth
away). If the malfunction persists, the fault probably lies
within the set. Since it is extremely unlikely that two or more
TV stations are having "technical difficulties" at the same
moment, this source can be discounted. Similarly, "freak"
reception, with possible interference from a more distant
station on the same channel, while it will produce just this
effect, is most unlikely to occur on a substantially different
frequency. Thus, if the pairing occurs on, say, Channel 2,
switch to Channel 5or 7and observe. If freak reception was
responsible, the other channels will most likely not be af-
fected. Since pairing persists, the TV set is at fault.
Replace the horizontal control tube (V10A in Fig. 6-2), the
horizontal phase detector tube (V9A in Fig. 6-3), or the
horizontal-AFC tube (V7C in Fig. 6-5). Each of these tubes,
although somewhat different in name and operation, performs
the same basic function of controlling the timing of the in-
dividual raster lines. A defect in any of them may produce
pairing and similar sync malfunctions. In testing these tubes,
careful checking for leakage after a few minutes warm-up is
important. Of course, substitution of a new known-to-be-good
tube is always conclusive.
Remove the sync tube (V8A in Fig. 6-2, V8B in Fig. 6-4,
etc). This tube can be equally responsible for pairing, except
that aserious malfunction here would also show up in aloss or

141
 degradation of vertical sync. The picture would tend to roll or
slide up or down one or more frames at random times.
However, since the vertical circuits are much less susceptible
to sync troubles, the malfunction may not be very obvious
here.
Check the V-hold control. Although this control setting is
not very critical in the presence of a strong signal, a fine
touch-up may sometimes cure amild case of pairing. Readjust
this control for best interlace; the picture rolling, if any, will
automatically be corrected.
Check the AGC control setting. The AGC control ad-
justment cannot be overemphasized. It may seem paradoxical
to the beginner (and even to some TV repairmen) that too
strong a picture signal may go hand-in-hand with too weak a
sync signal. Since the AGC adjustment serves to establish the
strength of the picture signal or contrast, it is quite clear that
in an effort to obtain agood strong picture where one did not
exist (quite often for other reasons), the AGC setting can be
advanced to the point where the sync pulses are reduced below
asafe minimum. Readjustment of the control should be made
until good sync performance (no more pairing) is restored,
even if this produces a somewhat weaker picture, which, in-
cidentally, can be corrected by the contrast control.
"SHORT" OR "FIRE"

This type of failure in a TV set, although it may be

relatively hazardous, is usually easy to diagnose, especially
when the failure is catastrophic; i.e., the set stops working
completely. There are a number of possible failures of this
type, each requiring a different procedure and remedy.
Fuse Blows: If the main fuse (the one which is accessible
without removal of the back cover) fails, if may be due to
either a momentary overload, a weakness of the particular
fuse, or an overload due to a defect in the TV set itself. It is
permissible to replace such a blown fuse with another one of
exactly the same value (a lower value will blow without
provacation, a higher value may not protect the TV set, and
may even cause afire) and carefully watch the behavior of the
set immediately after replacement and for a while afterward.
If no further difficulties arise (TV set works normally, no
smells of burning appear, no crackling or frying sounds are
heard), the incident may be forgotten. The assumption is that
the fuse or a sudden surge in the line voltage was responsible,
and the TV set is not at fault.
Replacement fuse blows: If the second fuse blows,
whether immediately or soon thereafter, it must be assumed

142
that the set is at fault. No further fuse replacement should be
attempted.
Circuitbreakers: What has been said about the main fuse
of the TV set applies equally to the circuitbreaker—a device
which has replaced the "old reliable" fuse in many TV sets. In
simple terms, the circuitbreaker is a type of "lifetime fuse."
When the ordinary fuse blows during an overload and has to be
replaced with a new one, the circuitbreaker opens and
disconnects the TV set from the AC line. To restore operation
it is merely necessary to "reset" the circuitbreaker by
pushing abutton on the outside of the device.
There are two common types of circuitbreakers in use
today. One type can't be reset as long as the overload persists,
so that there is little danger of unknowingly causing the TV set
to operate under damaging or even dangerous conditions. If a
breaker can't be reset, as evidenced by the fact that the push-
button does not respond to normal pressure, it is an indication
that the overload is still there.
Fuse not blown—burning smell: It will sometimes happen
that a fuse will not blow when it should (fuses are not very
accurate devices; their behavior is not 100 percent predic-
table). In such a case, damage to the TV set is possible,
depending primarily on how long the overload exists before
the fuse goes (the correct and safe procedure is to im-
mediately switch the set off) and whether it's atransformer or
transformerless type set.
In transformerless sets, a "local" overload may be suf-
ficient to start a small part, called a resistor, to overheat or
actually burn out. A burning resistor emits some intolerable
odors. While the remedy is beyond the scope of the beginner,
the damage is seldom of major proportions. It is usually
caused by the total failure of another component (a capacitor,
for example).
In transformer-type sets, in addition to the same
possibility as just outlined for atransformerless set, repeated
blowing of the correct size fuse is very likely to be due to a
defect (short circuit) in the power transformer. It, too, may
"fry" and smell for a very short time (seconds, not minutes)
without being permanently damaged. This, too, is arepair job
for the professional, and his advice on whether or not
replacement is required must be taken.
As in the case of a burnout in a transformerless set, a
failure here seldom takes other parts with it; in other words, a
burned-out transformer usually does not cause damage to
other parts. However, as a matter of cause and effect, a
transformer failure, in addition to being due to an inherent

143
defect, may also be caused by an earlier failure of another
part. A defective rectifier tube (V14 in Figs. 6-2 and 6-3),
semiconductor diodes (Figs. 6-4 and 6-5) or a short-circuited,
filter capacitor in the main power supply may be responsible,
in which case, they too, will have to be replaced when the TV
set is repaired.
In addition to a defective power transformer or shorted
capacitors, there are many other potential causes of fuse
blowing, even if less common than these two. However, since
in all cases the services of a professional repairman are
required, it is only necessary here to classify all fuse failures
with two categories: One, a random failure not due to any
permanent defect. This one is identified by the fact that the
correct replacement fuse does not blow. The second, a
causative failure (due to a permanent internal defect or
damage), which should be repaired by a professional.
In connection with random fuse blowing, it should be
pointed out that it may sometimes be caused by injudicious
placement of the TV set. Since most TV sets generate hun-
dreds of watts of heat, it is absolutely essential to allow the
heat to dissipate. Pushing aTV cabinet tight against a wall or
some other piece of furniture is sure to cause overheating, and
regardless of whether or not the fuse blows, the heat buildup
shortens the life of the tubes and other components, not to
mention the degradation of performance caused by thermal
instability.

144
 Chapter 9

Troubleshooting the Color Section

As has been pointed out color and black-and-white receivers

are essentially the same up to the video amplifier. In other
words, all circuits and functions from the tuner through the
video detector plus sync, sweep, and sound are common to
both monochrome and color TV reception. Therefore, the
troubleshooting procedures discussed so far apply equally to
color and B & W receivers. In fact, color TV troubleshooting,
except for problems in sections that deal solely with the color
signals, is easier when the color functions are disabled.
Referring to the color TV block diagrams (Figs. 9-1 through 9-
4) you'll see that in each case an adjustment is provided for
setting the color level of the set. If the color control is turned to
one extreme (counterclockwise) it shuts off the color com-
pletely, leaving a normal black-and-white picture on the
screen. Turning the control in the opposite direction (clock-
wise) gradually increases the color signal up to full color (and
beyond, into distortion).
The color control is called different names in various
receivers. In Fig. 9-1 it is called simply "color." In Fig. 9-2 it is
called "chroma gain," while in Figs. 9-3 and 9-4 it is called
"color control" and "color level," respectively. In each case,
this adjustment should be turned to the extreme no-color end
of rotation before starting any of the troubleshooting
procedures outlined previously.

NO COLOR—B & W NORMAL

The first and most obvious reason for the absence of a

color picture is the setting of the chroma or color input control.
Since this affects all three primary colors, all color will
disappear if the color control is accidentally turned off. A
simple check of the control setting will determine whether or
not it is the cause of no color. If it is, the control is simply reset
(assuming no other adjustments have been changed) by eye
while observing the screen.

145
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If after advancing the chroma control there is still no color

on the screen, the failure probably lies beyond this point
(between the control and picture tube). Furthermore, since
none of the colors are present the defect must be in a circuit
common to all colors, including the bandpass amplifiers
(V15A in Figs. 9-1 and 9-2, V15A-V15B in Figs. 9-3 and 9-4), the
3.58-MHz oscillator (V15B in Fig. 9-1, V17B in Fig. 9-2, V20B in
Fig. 9-3 and V18A in Fig. 9-4), the chroma demodulators and-or
the final amplifiers. To find out which stage is defective:
Replace the first bandpass amplifier (or just the bandpass
amplifier if only one is used in the set). In some cases, the tube
location diagram inside the TV cabinet may call the tube 1 /V
2

(number). This is illustrated in Figs. 9-1 through 9-4, and is

reflecting the fact that many tubes in modern TV sets are
multiple-function or multiple-section types. Thus, two, three
or even more tubes in one envelope is not uncommon. So, when
you remove a tube of this type, another function may be
disabled, too. For example, in our typical block diagram in
Fig. 9-1, half of V15 is the bandpass amplifier, the other half is
the subcarrier amplifier. However, since the whole tube must
be discarded if one half is defective, it does no harm to disable
two functions at once. When a good tube is substituted, both
functions will return to normal if the tube was at fault. If the
trouble is still there, then this particular (dual) tube is not the
cause.
Replace the 3.58-MHz oscillator. As was mentioned in the
general discussion of the color receiver process in Chapter 4,
this function is essential for the reproduction of any color.
Putting it another way, for the purpose of troubleshooting, if
this oscillator fails, all color will be absent. Replacement with
agood tube will prove or disprove this suspicion. As in the case
of the chroma amplifier (s), a twin tube may be involved here,
too, but this does not affect this trial-and-error check on the
subcarrier oscillator.
Check the 3.58-MHz crystal. A brief explanation should be
helpful. As mentioned earlier in the general description of the
TV system, certain very precise timing (or sync) signals are
sent from the transmitter for "cueing" or timing the various
signal sequences on the receiver. One of those signals ex-
clusive to the color TV set is the "subcarrier" burst signal.
This is a precise timing pulse which keeps alocally generated
signal at its exact timing, and it is commonly called the 3.58-
MHz oscillator. Without this oscillator (or signal generator),
no color reproduction can take place. The heart of this

148
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oscillator is an electromechanical element called a crystal. In
most TV sets it is a plug-in device and most resemble the
drawing in Fig. 4-2.
To remove the 3.58-MHz crystal, grasp it and pull upward,
after first noting carefully the appearance of the picture tube
screen. Often, avery poor crystal may still allow some color to
appear on the screen. If the removal of the crystal makes no
difference, then the fault does not lie here. However, if the
slight coloration previously seen does disappear, the crystal is
probably defective (or intermittent) and should be replaced.
This is a standard item found at most radio supply houses
catering to the TV serviceman; therefore, a replacement
crystal of the same type is readily obtainable. Where the
service data lists a crystal by a particular manufacturer's
part number, it may be more practical to obtain a
replacement from the service department of that manufac-
turer.
In some recent TV sets, the 3.58-MHz crystal is a "pigtail"
type; i.e., it is not like the plug-in type just described but is
intended to be soldered in, just like a resistor or capacitor. In
such a case, the crystal is "worked around" in the
troubleshooting procedure until all the other alternatives are
exhausted, and if none solves the problem of the absence of
color, it is assumed that the crystal is at fault and a
professional serviceman is called.
Replace the color killer tube. There is just a possibility,
although not very probable, that a malfunction in this tube
would cause the color absence. As explained in Chapter 4 the
function of the color killer stage is to shut off the chroma
amplifiers in the absence of a color signal. At first glance, this
may not sound very logical; why shut off the color amplifiers
when there is no color to amplify? Actually, however, this is
not quite so, as can be easily shown.
On all color block diagrams, Figs. 9-1 through 9-4, each of
the three color "guns" of the picture tube receives a signal
from a color amplifier. The signals are electric currents or
voltages, not actual colors! Thus, if any of the color amplifiers
feed an electrical signal into one of these guns, that gun will
produce acolor on the screen, the particular color depending
on which gun is being fed. To insure, therefore, that no color is
shown when a black-and-white picture is transmitted, the
color killer keeps the color amplifiers shut off until a color
burst signal (present only when acolor picture is transmitted)
commands the color killer to let the amplifiers perform
normally. If, due to a malfunction, the color killer tube keeps
the chroma amplifiers permanently shut off, no color will

151
 come through. Replacement with a good tube will prove or
disprove this suspicion.
Check the color killer setting. In all cases where there is
an adjustable control marked "color killer adjust" or just
plain "killer," the setting of this control should be checked,
even before suspecting the color killer tube. It is just possible
that this control is set so that the bandpass amplifier(s) could
never pass a signal. Incidentally, the color killer control is
normally set so that all traces of color just barely disappear,
then advanced ever so slightly beyond this point. When some
professional servicemen set the killer they use an indicating
instrument of one type or another, but the suggested
procedure for a beginner is effectively equivalent to that
above.
Component failure. If all the above procedures fail to
restore the color to an otherwise normal TV set, the fault must
lie in one of the internal components in the path of the color
signal, such as a coupling capacitor or a failure of a supply
voltage to one of the tubes. In the first case, the tubes function
normally, but the signal path is interrupted. In the second
case, one or more tubes are inoperative due to the failure of
the correct operating voltage. Whichever the case, the ser-
vices of a professional serviceman are required.

WEAK COLORS

If all the colors are more or less uniformly weak, i.e., no

one color is much worse than the other two, the fault again lies
in a common color circuit. The troubleshooting sequence here
is as follows:
Replace the bandpass amplifier (s ). A weak tube in either
of these stages (if there are two) will most likely decrease the
color contrast.
Check the color control setting. If this control has not
(intentionally or accidentally) been backed off, in other
words, if this control is in its usual position or setting, try
advancing it clockwise. Advancing the color control will
probably restore the color to agood level; however, if it does it
is an indication of weak or "low" tubes, especially if ad-
vancing the control to its maximum position still does not
produce a normal color picture. Incidentally, it should not be
necessary to have this control beyond its approximate mid-
position if the bandpass amplifiers are in normal working
condition.
Normal color killer setting. An improper setting of this
control can produce the same symptoms as weak bandpass
amplifiers. Unless one is sure that the setting of this control is

152
correct (from previous observation under normal set
operation), the possibility exists that the setting of this control
is responsible for reduced color performance. A quick check
on the proper setting is to switch to a station transmitting no
color at the moment and adjust this control as outlined above
for the normal setting to obtain a clean black-and-white pic-
ture.
Selective color troubleshooting. Up to now we have
discussed what might be called total or catastrophic color
failures. These involve either all of the color portions of the
receiver or avital link in the chain which, if broken, stops any
and all color from getting through. In the following pages, we
shall consider local color defects, when a partial break in a
secondary chain, so-to-speak, is responsible. For this purpose
it is necessary for abeginner to be able to clearly identify the
function, function block, and tube or tubes involved in each
case, although he will not have to understand the technical
version of how and why. Such identification is a bit confusing
because different terms are used by different manufacturers
for the functions and because of differences in functions
between different TV sets (always achieving the same end
result nevertheless) as well as the addition or omission of
certain functions in comparison with other color sets due to
different designs, etc. But, nevertheless, it will be worth your
while to be able to identify the same function on the different
typical diagrams shown, regardless of the differences in
names, addition, or deletion of certain steps or a combination
of more than one function in multipurpose tubes.

COLOR FUNCTIONS

In the TV set the three primary colors exist individually,

throughout the TV set, up to and including the picture tube.
Thus, when it is stated that one color is absent, it is understood
that the various shadings or combinations of this color are also
missing. Thus, amissing red signal denotes apicture made up
of the remaining two colors only, so that the absence of blue
would show no shades of blue but also an abnormal green,
since the green signal is largely dependent on the existence of
anormal red and blue. This may not follow from the logical
understanding of colors (as in nature), because it is based,
instead, on the technical structure of the color system in the
TV set as we shall presently show.
An examination of the various block diagrams in Figs. 9-1
through 9-4 will disclose the following: There is a group of
function boxes called "demodulators" and an adjacent group

153
called "amplifiers." Further observation will disclose that the
demodulators are identified as the "X-demodulator" and the
"Z demodulator" (there is no "Y"), as in Fig. 9-2, and consist
of two tubes or two sections of a twin tube. In the latter ap-
plication they are marked to indicate that they are 1/ 2 of a2-in-

1tube (for example, V18A, 1 / of a6DT8 etc.). In other cases, as

2

in Fig. 9-4, they are part of a3-in-1 tube, such as a 6LE8. In one
case (Fig. 9-1), no tubes are used; instead six semiconductor
diodes (DI, D2, D3, D4, D5, D6) are employed. In Fig. 9-3 the
terms "(R-Y)" and "(B -Y)" are used instead of "X" and "Z."
In the next group of function boxes, in practically all cases,
they are marked: R-Y amplifier, B-Y amplifier, and G-Y
amplifier.
In some cases (Figs. 9-3 and 9-4) there are no such am-
plifiers at all. In one example (Fig. 9-4) one multipurpose tube
(V16, 6LE8) performs all the functions of the demodulators
and final color amplifiers. In the second group of functions,
those of final color amplifiers, there are also a number of
different arrangements.
Returning to the names and functions of the various
stages, the demodulators serve to extract or separate the color
signals from the combined electrical signals which served to
"carry" the color information through the TV set. After the
demodulators, the signals are the ultimate color information
which (in some TV sets) require only additional amplification
before application to the three color guns of the picture tube.
As to the color identification, both the demodulators and the
following amplifiers carry the designations R-Y, B-Y and G-Y.
Notice that the dashes between the letters are "minus"
signs and should be read. G minus Y, R minus Y, etc. These
names describe a method of color processing technically
called "difference color system," viz., "difference color
demodulators and difference color amplifiers." In the
beginning at least it is not necessary to know the technical
reasons for this. Instead, it is perfectly satisfactory to assume
that R-Y stands for red, B-Y for blue, and G-Y for green. What
needs to be made clear here is that in many TV sets there will
be no G-Y demodulator because this is achieved as part of the
R-Y and B-Y functions. Furthermore, in some TV sets the
demodulators are marked X demodulator and Z demodulator.
The first of these is equivalent to the R-Y demodulator and the
Z to the B-Y.

INDIVIDUAL COLOR ADJUSTMENTS

In addition to the previously mentioned overall (all color)

color gain control, marked "chroma control" or "color,"

154
there are two other sets of adjustments in the color-only
portion of the receiver which must be taken into account when
partial color deficiency is evident. One set of controls is called
"drive," the other set is called "screen." There is usually one
in each set for each color, marked (respectively) red drive,
blue drive, green drive and red screen, blue screen, green
screen.
The drive and screen adjustments are interdependent and
may seem to have very similar effects on the color quality.
Actually, however, they cannot be used interchangeably—one
cannot properly turn the drive control all the way up to
compensate for atoo-far-down setting of ascreen adjustment.
A simple way of describing the distinction between the two
controls is to say that the drive control sets the initial or
starting point for the operation of each color gun, while the
screen adjustment determines the "gain" or output of the
particular color. Thus, if the red drive, for example, is
properly adjusted, there will be a normal range of color
brightness in the picture, although the picture may still be
"thin," or faint, or weak. Improper adjustment of the drive
controls may produce, depending on whether the adjustment
is too little or too much, either too faint a picture in the dim-
mer portions of the scene or too strong (glaring, harsh, ex-
cessive) on the brightest portions of the scene. By comparison
the screen adjustment can make the whole picture look either
too low or weak (insufficient) or too high (oversaturated). The
normal adjustment for these twin-type settings is, first, to get
the complete range of variation from dimmest to brightest,
and second, to get this complete range up to alevel which is an
acceptable "good" picture.
"Gray-Scale" Method of Screen and Drive Adjustments

The above procedure for adjusting these two sets of

related controls is based on purely subjective criteria—you
adjust the controls until, to the best of your knowledge and
observation, the color picture is most acceptable. A somewhat
more "impartial" method, and one that the professional
serviceman usually follows, is what is known as the gray-scale
adjustment. This simply means that the three guns of the
picture tube are balanced to produce as nearly aperfect black-
and-white picture as the design of the TV set allows.
As explained earlier in connection with the characteristics
of light, white light is a balanced combination of all colors. In a
color TV system, this is modified to read: A normal black-and-
white picture is the result of the correct combination of the
outputs of all three color guns. It is the purpose of the drive

155
 and screen adjustments to produce such a correct com-
bination. The term "gray-scale" is borrowed from
photographic terminology and denotes acontinuous gradation
from pitch black through all shades of gray to full white. A
normal black-and-white photograph should show all these
gradations, provided, of course, that they existed in the
original scene. In a3-gun color picture tube proper setup of the
gray scale is a prerequisite for a balanced color picture. But
even in agray-scale adjustment carried out by aprofessional
serviceman there is a certain amount of "magic" involved,
except in those cases of more recent sets where a detailed
adjustment procedure, applicable to a particular set only, is
provided by the manufacturer. In such cases there is often an
auxiliary switch marked "normal-service" (or similar ter-
minology), indicating that the switch is left in the normal
position for use of the set (some normal functions are disabled
in the service position), and temporarily switched to "ser-
vice" for adjustment purposes. But even in these cases, final
touch-up is still done by the serviceman by "magic." Based on
all these factors, the best procedure for the beginner still is to
use careful observation and judgment, proceeding as follows:
1. Set the brightness control to a moderately low level
(definitely lower than when viewing) and observe any
coloration on the raster. Identify which color or colors appear.
2. Adjust the screen control of one of the colors on the
raster—in other words "tune out" the blue coloration with the
blue screen, etc., until the color in question is at a minimum.
Do not go beyond this point.
3. Repeat, if necessary, for the second and third color, in
the same manner until the raster is substantially free of
coloration.
4. Advance the brightness control to full, normal bright-
ness. Do not advance much beyond this point.
5. As in the case of the low brightness adjustments above,
repeat the whole sequence, but with the drive controls. While it
is always advisable to follow the manufacturer's recom-
mendations and instructions, this may not always be within
the capability of a beginner. The case of the gray-scale ad-
justment may be just an example. Unless the directions are
clearly understood (they were written for professionals), the
adjustment should not be attempted. However, the ob-
servation-judgment procedure outlined above is still valid and
cannot cause any difficulty if followed.
6. Slowly rotate the brightness control from its last
setting (full normal bright) down to a fairly dim setting,
simultaneously watching the screen for reappearance of

156
coloration as the screen is dimmed. If no appreciable
coloration reappears, the adjustment is complete. If
noticeable coloration reappears, repeat Steps 1through 5once
more. This is not "starting from scratch" but a touch-up, so
that amore careful and more gradual procedure is not called
for. The second adjustment should produce optimum
satisfactory pictures, both black-and-white and color.

COLOR INTERDEPENDENCE

Although separate final amplifiers may be used for each

of the three primary colors, there is a certain amount of in-
terdependence between them, so much so that afailure in one
color "chain" will probably affect them all because of the
technical nature of the color image structure. As detailed
earlier, most TV sets have but two color demodulators, a R-Y
(or "X") and aB-Y ("Z"). The G-Y does not exist separately
because it is in asense acomposite of the other two, as far as
extraction of the signal is concerned. (We do not, of course,
mean that a simple mixture of red and blue will produce
green; what is meant is that the color transmission standards
are such that proper "circuiting" of the R-Y and B-Y signals
will also result in aG-Y output for feeding the G-Y final am-
plifiers.) Furthermore, just as R-Y and B-Y (red and blue)
components combine to produce the G-Y (green) component,
so also will a defect or malfunction in one of the first two
produce a corresponding deficiency or abnormality in the
third one. Thus, for example, loss of the red signal will,
primarily, remove virtually all of the red from the picture
and, secondarily, distort the remaining colors, particularly
the green, into some other hue or combinations of hues. A
detailed troubleshooting sequence for the absence or
degradation of a particular color follows.

RED MISSING

There are three areas which affect the red color in the
picture—the demodulators, the final (individual) color am-
plifiers, and the picture tube. Based on some possibility of side
effects (on the other primary colors as well as on the in-
between shades) the test sequence is:
Blue and green appear fairly normal: Since you probably
do not have access to acolor-bar generator (except in the case
of a built-in color generator found on only one such TV set on
the market today), the judgment of color must be done sub-
jectively. Look for known blue picture elements such as sky,

157
 or known greens such as grass, to judge. If such areas of
known color seem to show normal color, the trouble is
probably not in the demodulators.
Replace the R-Y final amplifier: This is V16 in Fig. 9-1,
V19 in Fig. 9-2, etc. If normal color returns, you've found the
cause of the trouble. If there's no substantial improvement,
replace the original tube.
Locate the "red screen" adjustment: This control affects
only the red gun of the picture tube. Before manipulating this
control, mark the "before" position (hurled or slotted shaft)
with a pencil or a piece of masking tape. Advance this control
gradually, usually clockwise, to increase the red color. If no
noticeable effect is observed, restore the shaft to the "before"
position. If gradual improvement results from turning the
control advance the adjustment further until red is normal.
A note of caution is in order here: First, if the red screen
control had accidentally been backed off (this is a possibility,
but not aprobability), advancing it to normal color production
is perfectly proper. However, if the control has to be turned all
the way to barely obtain a fairly good red, a defect elsewhere
in the system is responsible and compensating for this fault
with the screen control is not advisable, for the good of the
picture tube. While it is quite possible that the red gun in the
picture tube has degenerated, this is not too common, since in
normal use all three guns deteriorate more or less equally.
Replace the R-Y demodulator: This is no more than a
possibility in view of the fact that the green seems normal; it
would not be normal if the R-Y (or the "X") demodulator were
degraded. If this replacement does not cure the red deficiency
when advancing the red screen is only partly effective, a
defect in one of the components (a capacitor or resistor) is
most likely the cause. Incidentally, the red screen adjustment
is fully helpful; it may well mean that one of the color guns is
defective and a new picture tube will ultimately be required.
Under these circumstances, no harm is done in advancing the
control and obtaining as much use of the tube as possible
before a replacement must be purchased.
Carefully touch up the "red drive" control. This is im-
portant because the drive and screen controls for any one
color are very much interdependent and may seem to act
alike, especially in the hands of the inexperienced. As in the
case of the screen adjustment outlined above, it is good
practice to observe the initial setting of the drive adjustment
so as to be able to return it to its original setting if no change is
apparent. The original setting of the drive control is important
since, unless there is evidence to the contrary, the control was

158
set for the proper operating conditions for the particular gun
(red in this case) and only a competent serviceman using a
high grade instrument can set this control to its proper
position. However, you're safe in making a slight read-
justment, up or down, if there is clear evidence that such a
readjustment, combined with a corresponding adjustment of
the screen control, improves the red color sufficiently to make
it acceptable. If such adjustment fails to show a substantial
improvement in the red color, a defective component is
probably responsible.

BLUE AND GREEN MISSING

As in the case of red, the blue channel has its own

demodulator (B -Y or "Z" demodulator) and its final amplifier
(B -Y amplifier). If the screen shows a color picture containing
mixtures of red but not blue or green, the indications are that a
defect common to both blue and green is responsible, since
blue is one component of the green signal. The first and most
likely suspect is the B-Y demodulator (or the "Z" demodulator
in some TV sets). The first step is:
Replace the B-Y demodulator: If the blue color reappears,
the green will also be present. If replacement of the
demodulator tube does not help, there is one other tube
suspect. However, since both blue and green are missing, both
the B-Y and the R-Y amplifiers would have to be defective.
This would be rather unlikely if the B-Y and G-Y amplifiers
were two separate and distinct tubes. A close look at the
typical block diagrams in Figs. 9-1 through 9-4 will show that
in almost every case the two amplifiers are two sections of a
multi-section tube. A failure in both sections, therefore, is no
longer unusual. Consequently, the next step is:

Replace the 2-in-1 (or 3-in-1) tube comprising the B-Y and
G-Y amplifiers. This is V16 in Fig. 9-1, V19 in Fig. 9-2, etc. If
the fault lies in the color amplifier, this step should be ef-
fective. If it does not restore the blue and green colors,

Reduce the chroma (or color or color control) control to

minimum, so that no color is present. If the black-and-white
picture is normal, the picture tube is probably OK and the
fault lies in a defective component (an open capacitor or
resistor). Of course, there is just the possibility that both the
blue and green guns of the picture tube are defective, but
you'll need a professional serviceman for positive diagnosis
and repair.

159
 BLUE ONLY MISSING

This malfunction is evident by a predominently red-green

picture with an almost total absence of blue. Since the green is
present, the blue signal must exist in the output of the B-Y (or
"Z") demodulator. The only possibilities for a loss of the blue
color are:
Defective B-Y amplifier: Replace the B-Y tube, whether
it's a separate tube or one section of a multifunction tube; a
failure here will be cured by the substitution of a good tube. If
no satisfactory improvement is obtained here,
Readjust the blue screen control on the back of the set. As
discussed earlier, apartial deterioration of any one color gun
in the picture tube can be (temporarily, at least) compensated
by advancing the screen control. If, however, only a slight
improvement (or none) is realized from amajor readjustment
of the screen control, the fault lies either in a defective com-
ponent in the blue signal path or, less likely but still possible,
the blue section of the picture tube is gone. In either case,
outside help will be required. On the other hand, should the
blue screen adjustment produce asubstantial improvement, a
further correction may be attempted by asmall readjustment
of the blue drive control. Since this points to a degradation of
the blue gun, these two adjustments can restore the tube to a
reasonably normal operating condition for as long as the tube
will hold out. Again, this precaution is worth repeating: no
decision to replace a picture tube should be made without the
concurrence of the professional TV man.

COLORS PRESENT—PICTURE "BROKEN UP"

This could be either a total "tearing up" of the color

picture, similar to the diagonal zig-zag tearing of a black-and-
white picture when the horizontal frequency adjustments are
off (see Fig. 2-5), or in less severe cases apartial breakup with
the color wavering and general picture instability, often only
intermittently. As a general rule, this type of behavior
suggests improper operation of one of the color sync stages.
This includes, depending on the particular TV set, the burst
amplifier (V15B in Fig. 9-2, V18 in Fig. 9-3 etc.), the burst gate
(V7C in Fig. 9-1), and finally the 3.58-MHz oscillator (Fig. 9-1,
V15; Fig. 9-2, V17A; etc.) and the 3.58-MHz crystal itself. In
some TV sets the sync and oscillator functions may be called
color sync, burst gate, subcarrier amplifier, and chroma
oscillator control. In all cases the functions are the same even
if the names differ. These functions are engaged in timing the
color sequences and positioning precisely in step with the

160
pictures being transmitted. Any malfunction here will throw
the received picture out of kilter. The procedure in
troubleshooting these malfunctions is as follows:
Replace the first color sync tube: Since the number of
sync-related functions (and tubes used in each case) differ
widely, it is necessary to determine the sync "lineup" in each
particular set. Thus, using our typical block diagrams as
examples, in Fig. 9-1 the sync stages consist of burst gate V7C,
and subcarrier amplifier V15B, in the order given. The
corresponding sequence in Fig. 9-3 is gated burst amplifier
V18, phase detector V19A, reactance control V20A, and 3.58-
MHz oscillator V20B. In Fig. 9-2 the sync lineup is burst am-
plifier V15B and reactance control V17A. In Fig. 9-4 burst
amplifier V17A and 3.58-MHz oscillator V18A. These typical
diagrams are based on actual TV sets and cover the vast
majority of all color sets in use today. Should one exceptional
case have a somewhat different arrangement or designation,
you can identify each function by comparing the names and
functions with those given here. The word "chroma" may be
used for the word "color," "control" is often used for "sync,"
"burst" may be used interchangeably with "oscillator"
("osc"), or "reference" or "subcarrier."
Although the replacement or substitution of tubes in the
order given is the most direct way of finding amalfunctioning
stage, it does not mean that random substitution will not
ultimately produce the same results. But for logical
procedures the sequence should be followed, as it proceeds, in
all cases from the color IF amplifier to the 3.58-MHz oscillator.
A final general reminder: In all the sets represented by the
block diagrams in this Chapter the 3.58-MHz stage contains a
crystal, and it is just as vulnerable a link in the sync chain as
all the other tube stages enumerated here.
Replace the first tube in the sync lineup. Very often this
will be one section of a multifunction tube, but this does not
change the procedure. If only a minor improvement in
stabilization results, you have not found the trouble. In Fig. 9-1
the first tube is the burst gate, V7C, '/3 of a6M11 tube. In Fig.
9-2 it is the burst amplifier, V15B, 1
/ of a6BN11. In Fig. 9-3 it is
2

V18, 6EJ7, the burst amplifier. In Fig. 9-4, the burst amplifier
is V17A, 1 / of a 6A19.
2
Remove the second sync tube. In Fig. 9-1 this is the sub-
carrier amplifier, V15B, 1/ 2 of a6BW11. In Fig. 9-2 it is V17A, 1
/
2

of a6GH8A, the reactance control. In Fig. 9-3 the second tube

is V19A, the sync phase detector, and in Fig. 9-4, it is the 3.58-
MHz oscillator, V18A. If no better then aslight improvement is
apparent, the fault lies elsewhere and the procedure continues
as follows:

161
 Where the second step involved the 3.58-MHz oscillator, as
in Fig. 9-4 replace the 3.58 crystal if it is a plug-in type. It is
also advisable in this case to observe whether the color
breakup is always present from the moment the TV set is
switched on or if it appears later after the set warms up. If the
latter is true, the crystal is amost likely suspect, as these units
sometimes stop functioning (oscillating) after a period of
normal operation but may return to normal if the set is
switched off, then immediately switched on again.
Another possibility is poor contact at the crystal con-
necting pins. As described earlier, in many TV sets the crystal
connects to the TV set by means of two thin wire pins, similar
to those on miniature tubes. Applying agentle pressure on the
crystal case may momentarily restore normal operation if
poor contact is the cause. In other TV sets the crystal is
soldered in, like any other part, and replacement is not so
easy. As afinal note, it remains to be said that acrystal failure
or a 3.58-MHz oscillator failure usually, even if not always,
causes atotal loss of color, not just breakup.
In TV sets similar to Figs. 9-1 and 9-3, replace the next
likely offending tube. This is the oscillator control, V20A, 1 / of
2

a6GH8A, in Fig. 9-3. Finally, in all types of TV set lineups the

last stage is again the 3.58-MHz oscillator or the reference
oscillator. If none of those steps seem to make an adequate
improvement in color stability or normal picture, the fault
probably lies in one of anumber of components in this general
area, requiring troubleshooting by a professional using
specialized instruments.
It should be added here that in a number of cases of mild
color instability the fault lies outside the TV set. Occasionally,
a color is transmitted under circumstances making perfect
stability unrealizable. The owner can best verify this by
switching to an adjacent color channel. If the problem
disappears, the probabilities are that the station, not the TV
set, is at fault.

COLOR TV ANTENNAS

Commercially available TV antennas vary all the way

from a piece of "ribbon" lead-in type of wire cut to some
approximate length costing little over a dollar, through
various "dipole" versions, all the way to multi-element, multi-
bay structures, costing hundreds of dollars. The more
elaborate the antenna, the higher the "gain" (a term in-
dicating the strength of the signal delivered to your set), and
vice versa. An important characteristic closely related to gain
is the bandwidth.

162
 The second factor, although much less scientific, is
nevertheless just as important: viewer attitude. It is a fact
that the average observer is far more tolerant when viewing a
black-and-white picture than he is of color. This is due, in part
at least, to the fact that even a faint picture can be seen and
followed in monochrome, while the weak picture in color is
intolerable and actually much more difficult to follow. Taking
both of these into proper consideration, the following may be
said about the color TV antenna requirements:
A number of publications, some in libraries and others on
the shelves in the stationary stores, spell out these
requirements quite adequately (it is not practical to furnish
this information here for many reasons). The general cliche
that good quality costs more is true, indeed, so one should not
be tempted by some "sensational" mail-order antenna
discoveries at "amazing" bargain prices. Without any other
basis for judgment, it is still safe to assume that the cheaper
the antenna, the less capable it is. In cases of color ab-
normalities such as smear or overlap of one color onto an
adjacent color to its right or left, it is advisable to consider the
antenna as a possible source of the trouble.
In ablack-and-white picture, acondition similar to smear
often results from an improperly installed or wrongly oriented
antenna. The usual name for such an appearance is
"ghosts"—a slight displacement of the picture edge, as if two
superimposed identical pictures were slightly out of
"register" or slightly displaced from one another, either to the
left or to the right. One check on the accuracy of this diagnosis
in acolor picture is to turn the chroma (or color gain or color)
control all the way off, so that a black-and-white picture
remains. If evidence of ghosts exists, the diagnosis was
probably correct. Adjusting (rotating) the antenna, if it is not
otherwise defective (broken elements, poor lead-in con-
nections at the antenna, loose elements, etc.) should eliminate
ghosts (or at least reduce them to a minimum) and effect a
marked reduction in the color smear.
A fairly common cause of both color smear and color
"mixing" or distortion, particularly around the edges of the
picture, is accidental magnetization of some of the structural
metal around the face of the picture tube by "stray f ields"—
AC lines in the wall, a heavy current appliance in the im-
mediate vicinity of the TV set, etc. No amount of adjustment
can remove this color distortion. Only a demagnetization or
"degaussing" of the picture tube will restore color purity.
While some of the more recently manufactured TV sets
have abuilt-in degaussing capability, most of the earlier color

163
 sets are not so equipped. While the process of external
degaussing is relatively simple and quick, it does require a
degaussing device, alarge (6- to 10-inch diameter) ring made
of many turns of insulated wire terminated in an AC plug. In
operation the device is plugged into an AC outlet and moved
about (in a definite manner and speed) in front of the TV
picture tube. A few moments are required to demagnetize the
steel frame and rim of the color tube. While it is not par-
ticularly difficult for a beginner to construct and use such a
device, its very infrequent use makes the task unjustifiable.
Actually, it may be more economical to have aprofessional do
it for the nominal fee he charges. Incidentally, inexpensive
degaussing coils, sometimes advertised as "color purifiers,"
have appeared on the market and come with complete simple
instructions for their use.

164
 Glossary

A
AC (Alternating Current) The type of electricity normally used in homes
(and most industries). Its contrasting opposite is direct current, or DC,
now obsolete except for certain specialized applications. All batteries
supply DC.
ACC (Atitomatic Color Control) A circuit similar in function and purpose
to AGC, except that it is supplied exclusively to the color (bandpass)
amplifiers to maintain constant signals.
AC Hum A low-pitch "m-m-m" sound heard whenever AC power is
converted into sound, intentionally or accidentally. The common AC hum
is a 60-Hz note.
AFC (Automatic Frequency Control) A method of maintaining the
frequency or timing of an electrical signal in precise agreement with
some standard. In FM receivers, AFC keeps the receiver tuned exactly to
the desired station. In TV, horizontal AFC keeps the individual elements
or particles of the picture information in precise "registration" with the
picture transmitted by the TV station.
AGC (Automatic Gain Control) A system that automatically holds the
level or strength of asignal (picture or sound) at apredetermined level,
thus compensating for variations due to fading, etc.
Amplifier As applied to electronics, a magnifier. A simple tube or
transistor or acomplete assembly of tubes and-or transistors and other
components may function as an amplifier of either electric voltage or
current.
Anode The more positive (+) element of a 2-element device such as a
vacuum tube or a semiconductor diode. In a television tube, an anode
(there are more than one) is an element having arelatively high positive
voltage applied to it.
Aperture mask An opaque disc behind the faceplate of a color picture
tube; it has aprecise pattern of holes through which the electron beams
are directed to the color dots on the screen.
Arc, arcing An electric spark that jumps (usually due to a defect) be-
tween two points in a circuit which are supposed to be insulated from
each other, but not adequately so.
Aspect ratio The relation or proportion between the width and height of a
transmitted TV scene. The standard aspect ration is 4:3, meaning that
the picture is 3inches high for every 4inches of width, or four-thirds as
wide as it is high.
Audio Any sound (mechanical) or sound frequency (electrical) that is
capable of being heard is considered as audio. Generally, this includes
frequencies between about 20 and 20,000 Hz (or cycles per second).

165
 B
B+ A DC supply voltage, as low as 1volt in transistor circuits and as high
as hundreds of volts in circuits, which is essential to normal operation of
these devices. The plus sign indicates the polarity, not "more than."
B+ boost A circuit in TV receivers which adds to, or "boosts," the basic
B+ voltage. The boost source is aby-product of the horizontal deflection
system. Also see Damper.
Bandpass (amplifier) In acolor TV set, one or two color signal amplifiers
located "at the beginning" of the color portion of the TV set; they are
designed to amplify only the required color frequencies. (They "pass" a
certain "band" of frequencies).
Barkhausen A term applied to adisplay of one or two black vertical lines
on the left side of the picture tube, due to some spurious behavior
(oscillation) in the circuit. These lines are usually seen best when there is
no picture on the screen (just ablank raster).
Blanking A term used to describe the process which prevents certain
lines and symbols (which are required for keeping the picture "in step"
with the transmitter) from being seen on the TV screen.
Brightness Refers to both the amount of illumination on the screen (other
than picture strength) and the control that is used to adjust the brightness
level.
Burst In color TV, aprecise timing signal (it is not continuous, but comes
in spaced "bursts") transmitted for controlling the 3.58-MHz oscillator
essential for color reception.
Burst oscillator The precision 3.58-MHz oscillator (vibrator) vital to color
reception. It is kept in step (sync) by the burst.
Buzz This is sometimes called intercarrier buzz, a raspy version of AC
hum, usually caused by improper adjustment of some IF circuits.
B-Y The blue component of a color picture.

C
Carrier The radio signal which "carries" the sound or picture in-
formation from the transmitter to the receiver. The carrier frequency is
the identifying frequency of the station (e.g., 880 kHz, 93.1 MHz, etc.).
Cathode The negative or minus element of a 2-element tube or
semiconductor. The cathode and the anode combine to form a diode (2-
element device). The cathode is also the source of electrons in such
devices.
Cathode ray tube A tube in which electrical energy is converted to light.
An electron beam (or beams), originating at the cathode, impinges upon
aphosphor light-emitting screen. TV picture tubes, radar tubes, "tuning
eyes" in some FM sets, and many similar types are basically cathode ray
tubes.
Chroma Another term for color. Color amplifiers are often called chroma
amplifiers. The term is also used to denote the control used to increase or
reduce the color content of a picture.
Clipper A term describing the operation of one of the sync circuits in aTV
set. It is the stage (tube or transistor) that separates the sync (timing)
signals from the picture information.

166
Color killer A special circuit whose function is to turn off the color am-
plifier circuits when ablack-and-white signal is being received. Also the
control used to adjust the operation of the circuit.
Contrast The depth of difference between light and dark portions of aTV
scene. Also the name given to the control for adjusting the contrast level.
Convergence The system that brings the three electron beams together in
acolor picture tube so they all pass through the same hole in the shadow
mask and strike the correct dots on the screen.
Converter A stage in the tuner (or "front end") of aTV set (or any radio
receiver) which converts an incoming signal to a predetermined
frequency called the IF or intermediate frequency. All incoming signals
are converted to the same IF.
Corona Similar to an electric arc, except that this is acharacteristic of
much higher voltages (thousands). Corona occurs as acontinuous, fine
electrical path through air between two points, sometimes accompanied
by afaint violet glow (usually near the picture tube).
Crystal A quartz or synthetic mineral-like slab or wafer having the
property of vibrating at aprecise rate or frequency. Each crystal is cut to
vibrate at the desired frequency. Such acrystal is used in the 3.58-MHz
burst oscillator to control its frequency.

D
Damper A diode (usually atube but in newer sets asemiconductor) used
in horizontal amplifier circuits to suppress certain electrical activity. It
incidentally provides B+ boost voltage.
Deflection The orderly movement of the electron beam in a picture
(cathode ray) tube. Horizontal deflection pertains to the left-right
movement, vertical deflection the up-down movement of the beam.
Degaussing Demagnetizing. In color TV sets, an internal or external
circuit device which prevents (or corrects) any stray magnetization of
the iron in the picture tube faceplate structure. Magnetization results in
color distortion.
Demodulator A demodulator separates or extracts the desired signal,
such as sound energy or picture information, from its carrier—the radio
wave on which it is carried from the transmitter.
Detector Same as demodulator.
Diode A 2-element electron device, either atube or semiconductor. The
simplest and most common application of adiode is in the conversion of
AC to DC (rectification).
Discriminator An audio detector in an FM receiver or TV sound circuits.
Also, adetector performing asimilar function in other frequency control
circuits (such as horizontal frequency control).

F
Faceplate The front assembly of a picture tube. In a color tube, it in-
cludes the tricolor phosphor and the aperture mask.
Field Refers to one scan of the picture tube. Two scans are needed,
reproducing alternate lines during each scan, to complete one frame
(picture). A field takes one-sixtieth of a second.

167
 Flyback. Retrace Name given to return movement of the electron beam
in apicture tube after completing each line and each field. You don't see
flyback or retrace lines (normally) on the picture tube because they are
blanked out.
Frame The combination of two interlaced fields is called aframe. Since it
consists of two fields each of one-sixtieth of asecond duration, the frame
duration is one-thirtieth of a second.
Frequency The number of recurring alternations in an electrical wave,
such as home AC, radio waves, etc. Frequency is specified by the number
of alternations occurring during one second and given in Hertz (cycles
per second), kiloHertz (1000 cycles) and megaHertz (million cycles).

Gain Relative amplification. The number of times a signal increases in

size (level) due to the action of one or more amplifiers. The overall gain
of a signal often is millions of times.
Gas Refers to the presence (undesirable) of a trace of gas inside a
vacuum tube. A "gassy" tube is adefective tube.
Ghost Most commonly a "double exposure" type of a scene on the TV
screen. Usually a fainter picture appears somewhat offset to the left of
the "main" image, caused by the reception of two signals from the same
station; one signal is delayed in time.
ti -Y The green color signal.

H
high voltage Generally refers to the multi-thousand picture tube voltage,
but it can be used to mean any potential of a few hundred volts or more.
horizontal Pertaining to any of the functions associated with left-to-right
scanning in a picture tube including the horizontal amplifier, oscillator,
frequency, drive, lock, AFC, etc.
Hue In color TV, the basic color characteristic which distinguishes red
from green from blue, etc.
Hum Same as AC hum.

IF ( Intermediate Frequency) In the tuner of a TV or radio receiver the

incoming signal from the desired station is mixed with a locally-
generated signal to produce an intermediate signal, usually lower than
the frequency of the incoming signal. The IF is the same for all stations.
The tuner changes to accommodate each incoming signal.
Intercarrier A term describing the current system of TV receiver design
in which a common IF system is used both for picture and sound in-
formation. In older TV sets, the split-sound design was employed, in
which separate IF channels for the picture and sound were used.
Ion trap See Trap.

168
 L
Linearity Picture symmetry. Horizontal linearity pertains to symmetry
between the right and left sides of the picture (best observed with a
standard test pattern). Also, an adjustment for achieving such linearity.
Vertical linearity refers to symmetry between upper and lower halves of
a picture.
Line, filter A device sometimes employed between the AC wall outlet and
aradio or TV set to reduce or eliminate electrical noises.
Line, transmission The antenna lead-in wire or cable.
Lock, horizontal An adjustment in some TV sets for setting the automatic
frequency operation on the horizontal sweep oscillator.
Loss Usually refers to the amount of signal lost in the antenna lead-in
(transmission line). This is particularly serious on UHF.

M
Modulation The process of combining (by superimposition) a sound or
picture signal with a "carrier" signal fèr purposes of efficient trans-
mission through air. The carrier's only function is to "piggyback" the
intelligence.

o
Oscillator Generator of a signal, such as the 3.58-MHz color subcarrier
signal, the RF oscillator in the tuner, the horizontal oscillator (15,750 Hz),
and vertical oscillator (60 Hz).

P
Parallel A method of circuit component connection where all com-
ponents involved connect to common points, so that each component is
independent of all other components. For example, all light bulbs in your
house are connected in parallel.
Phosphor The coating on the interior of the faceplate of a picture tube,
which gives off light when struck by an electron beam. The chemical
composition of the phosphor determines the color of the light it will emit.
Power supply That portion of a piece of electronic equipment which
provides operating voltages for its tubes, transistors, etc.
Preamplifier Ahigh-gain amplifier used to build up asignal so it is strong
enough to present to the normal level amplifiers. For example, an an-
tenna preamplifier for fringe area reception.
Pulse A single signal of very short duration, used for timing and sync
purposes. Sync pulses are the best example of this type of signal. Pulses
occur in precisely measured bursts.
Purity, color The display of the various true colors without any accidental
or unwanted contamination of one color by any of the others. Color purity
is largely dependent on correct convergence adjustments.

169
 R
Retrace The return movement of the scanning electron beam from the
extreme right to the extreme left and from the bottom to the top of the
raster. Also see flyback.
Retrace blanking The extinction (or darkening) of the light on the face of
the picture tube during retrace time, in order to make these lines in-
visible. Should retrace blanking fail, white lines sloping downward from
right to left would be seen on the screen.
R-Y The red color component of the overall color picture signal.

s
Saturation Pertains to the "full depth" of acolor, in contrast to a faint,
"feeble" color. Saturated colors are "strong" colors.
Series A connection between a number of components (or tubes) in
"chain" fashion; i.e., one component follows the other. If any one com-
ponent opens or burns out it breaks the series circuit.
Shadow mask Same as aperture mask.
Shield Ametallic enclosure or container surrounding acomponent (tube,
cable, etc.). Also see tube shield.
Shielded cable A wire having a metal casing on the outside to prevent
unwanted electrical energy from reaching the inner conductor.
Signal Electrical energy containing intelligence such as speech, music,
pictures, etc.
Signal-to-noise ratio A mathematic expression which indicates the
relative strength of asignal within its noise environment. A good signal
has a high signal-to-noise ratio.
Sound bars Thick horizontal lines (or bars), usually alternately dark and
light, appearing on the TV picture screen due to unwanted sound energy
reaching the picture tube. In appearance, the width, number, and the
position of these bars varies with the nature of the sound. Sound bars are
caused by a misadjusted circuit.
Subcarrier The color picture information carrier. It is called asubcarrier
because it is a secondary carrier in the particular channel. The color
subcarrier frequency is 3.58 MHz.
Sync An abbreviation for asynchronizing signal. It is atiming signal or
series of pulses sent by the transmitter and used by the receiver to stay in
precise step with the transmitter.
Sync clipper See clipper.
Sync separator A circuit in aTV receiver which separates the sync from
the picture information or-and the vertical sync pulses from the
horizontal sync pulses.

T
Trap An electrical circuit which absorbs or contains a particular elec-
trical signal (also called wave trap). Also amagnet used on the neck of
some picture tubes for electron beam deflection.

170
Triad The 3-color, 3-dot group (red, green, blue) of which the color pic-
ture tube phosphor is made. Each group of three dots is atriad, and there
are thousands of triads on amodern color tube screen.
Tube shield A metal sleeve which fits snugly over a glass tube and
"shields" it from extraneous electrical impulses. A tube shield is part of
the tube's electrical circuit.

U
UHF (Ultra High Frequencies) Radio and TV frequencies from 300 MHz
upward. Channels 14 through 83 are all located in the UHF band and are,
therefore, called UHF stations.

Vertical Pertaining to the circuits and functions associated with the up-
down motion or deflection of the electron beam.
Vertical amplifier An amplifier following the vertical oscillator; used to
enlarge the vertical sweep signal.
VHF' (Very High Frequencies) Radio and TV stations located below 300
MHz (down to 50 MHz). TV Channels 2through 13 as well as the FM band
are in the VHF frequency spectrum.
Video A term applied to picture signals or information (video circuits,
video amplifier, etc.).

Wave The name given to each recurring variation in alternating electric

energy, including radio and TV signals.

X demodulator This is designation of the red (R-Y) signal demodulator.

Y
Yoke Deflection yoke. The electrical assembly, somewhat in the shape of
ayoke or collar, mounted on the picture tube neck against the flaring bell
of the tube. By electric and magnetic means, the yoke imparts to the
electron beam the scanning (left-right and top-bottom) or deflection to
produce the raster and the image.
Y signal This is the picture-only (minus color) signal that is fed to the
color picture tube. It is sometimes called the "brightness" signal,
meaning the actual brightness and darkness (and all shades in-between)
of the picture. This "brightness' signal plus the red signal produce all the
red hues in the picture; the same Y signal and blue give all the blue
coloration, and finally, the Y signal plus the green give the green
coloration to the scene.

Z demodulator Same as the X demodulator, except for the blue (B-Y)

signal.

171
 INDEX

A Brightness control, blooming,

110
AC hum bar, 131 Brightness control ineffective,
AFC, horizontal, 32 127
AGC, 49
Burst amplifier, 49, 54
AGC control adjustment, 105
Burst oscillator, 49
Aging, tubes, 103 Burst oscillator control, 56
Alternate line scanning, 16
Buzz, 115
AM, 8
Buzz control, 116
Amplifier, 10
Amplitude modulation, 8
Antenna bandwidth, 162
Antenna gain, 162 Camera, 14
Antenna orientation, 138 Camera photo mosaic, 15
Antenna, receiving, 21 Centering adjustments, 98
Antennas, 12, 162 Centering controls, 38
Aperture, picture tube mask, Changing tubes, 72
51 Cheater cord, 66
Aspect ratio, 80 Chroma amplifiers, 54
Audio amplifier, 11, 29 Chroma control ineffective,
Audio frequencies, 10 148
Audio output, 29 Circuitbreakers, 143
Automatic frequency control, Cleaning, tuner, 108
horizontal, 32 Clipper, sync, 30
Automatic gain control, 49 Coaxial cable, 24
Co-channel interference, 86
Color adjustments, 154
Color amplifiers, 49, 54, 154
Barichausen, 135 Color balance, 62
Bars, black-and-white, 129 Color burst, 44
"Baseless" tubes, 74 Color camera, 42
Black-and-white bars, 129 Color control, 54
Blanking, 17 Color control ineffective, 148
Block diagram, color receiver, Color demodulators, 57, 154
45 Color detector, 49, 57
Block diagram, TV receiver, Color information, 44
22 Color instability, 112
Block diagram, TV system, 7 Color killer, 53, 58, 151
Blooming, 110 Color missing, 57, 153
Blown fuse, 142 Color oscillator control, 56
Blue and green missing, 159 Color picture breakup, 160
Blue demodulator, 57 Color picture brightness, 44
Blue missing, 160 Color picture tube, 50
Booster, picture tube, 111, Color picture tube adjust-
128 ments, 62
B-plus boost, 36, 88, 111 Color picture tube converg-
Bright horizontal line, 31 ence, 52
Brightness control, 16 Color processors, 44
Color receiver, 44 Diode, rectifier, 88
Discharge, horizontal, 33
Color receiver block diagram,
Discriminator, sound, 29
45
Dots, color picture tube, 50
Color receiver sound, 49
Drive adjustments, picture, 62
Color receiver sweep, 49
Drive controls, color picture
Color receiver sync, 49
tube, 155
Color receiver video detector,
Drive, horizontal, 96
45
Dynamic convergence, 60
Color smearing, 112
Color subcarrier oscillator,
148 E
Color sync, 44, 161 Eight-pin tubes, 73
Color sync amplifier, 49 Electrical noise, 118
Color sync phase detector, 56 Electron gun, 14, 35
Color timing, 44
Colors, 13
Colors, primary, 42
Fields, 17
Combiner, color transmitter,
Filament wiring, 39
44 Filter capacitor, 113
Compactrons, 77 Filters, noise, 117
Compression at the top of the
Fine picture detail, loss of,
picture, 31 139
Constant buzz, 115
Fixed focus, 99
Contrast control, 16
Flesh tones, 63
Contrast control ineffective,
FM, 8
127
Focus, 139
Contrast, excessive, 105 Focus adjustment, 99
Convergence, 59 Focus, color receiver, 52
Convergence, color picture
Focus trouble, 110
tube, 52 Frame, 17
Crosshatch patterns, 61 Frequency, 10
Crystal, color oscillator, 148 Frequency modulation, 8
Crystal oscillator, 56 Fuse, 126
Crystal oscillator control, 56
Fuse blows, 142
Cycles per second, 11 Fuse, horizontal sweep, 36
Fusible resistor, filament, 69
D Fuzzing, color, 112
Damper, 36, 88, 111
Damper tube, 125 G
Dark screen, 36 Ghosts, 135
Deflection yoke, 35 Grain, photo, 13
Defocusing, 110 Gray-scale adjustments, 62,
Degaussing, color picture 155
Gun, electron, 14, 35
tube, 53
Degaussing, picture tube, 163
Demagnetization, color pic- H
ture tube, 53 Halftone, 14
Heater-to-cathode leakage,
Demagnetization, picture tube,
131
163
Height, 32, 80
Demodulator, 12
Herringbone pattern, 134
Demodulators, color, 154
Hertz, 11
Detector, 12
Detector, color, 49, 57 High-voltage cage, 33
Detector, sound, 29 High-voltage rectifier, 35,
Detector, video, 28, 45 111, 125
Dim picture, ineffective High-voltage regulator, 112
brightness or contrast, 127 Hold, horizontal, 37, 106
Dim picture, shrink, 127 Hold, vertical, 32, 117
 Horizontal AFC, 32 Lead-in wire, 12
Horizontal amplifier, 32, 88 Lead-in wire break, 124
Horizontal bars, 129 Leakage, tube, 106
Horizontal centering, 38, 99 Length of waves, 11
Horizontal discharge, 33 Light rays, 11
Horizontal drive, 96 Light reflection, 13
Horizontal hold, 37, 106 Line noise, 118
Horizontal line, 31 Line pairing, 140
Horizontal linearity, 93 Linearity controls, horizontal,
Horizontal lock, 106 94
Horizontal lock-in, 37 Linearity, horizontal, 93
Horizontal oscillator, 32, 86 Linearity, vertical, 32, 83
Horizontal output tube, 111,
Lock-in, horizontal, 37
125
Loss of color, 50, 56, 57
Horizontal range control, 106 Loudspeaker, 12
Horizontal shifting, 102, 106
Lubricating, tuner, 108
Horizontal size, 86
Horizontal size controls, 90 M
Horizontal streaking, 107 Magnets, effect on picture,
Horizontal sweep, 32 101
Horizontal sweep, color re- Mask, picture tube aperture,
ceiver, 49 51
Horizontal sync, 30, 104 Microphone, 10
Horizontal tearing, 27, 37, Miniature tubes, 74
102 Mixer-oscillator, 25
Horizontal width, 36 Modulation, 11
Hum, audible, 113 Multipath reception, 138
Hybrid receivers, 40 Multiple pictures, 117
Hybrid tube filament wiring,
N
71
Newspaper photo, 14
Nine-pin tubes, 76
I
No color, 50, 56, 57
IF adjustments, 27 No color, B & W normal, 145
IF amplifier, 26 No light on screen, 36
IF amplifier, sound, 29 No picture, 121
IF amplifier, snow, 124 No picture, no power to the
Infrared, 11 set, 120
Instability, picture, 27 No picture, raster OK, 121
Intercarrier buzz, 116 No raster, 121
Interference, co-channel, 86 No sound, picture OK, 121
Interlacing, scanning, 16 Noise, 107
Interlock, receiver power, 61 Noise filters, 117
Intermediate frequency ampli- Noise, power line, 118
fier, 26
0
Intermediate frequency ampli-
Octal tubes, 73
fier, sound, 29
Intermittent tuner, 108 One color missing, 57, 153
Ion trap, 100 Oscillator, burst, 49
Ion trap magnet, 139 Oscillator, color subcarrier,
148
Oscillator control, burst, 56
K
Oscillator, crystal controlled,
Kilocycles, 11
56
Kilohertz, 11
Oscillator, horizontal, 32, 86
Oscillator, vertical, 31, 81
L
Output tube, horizontal, 111
Lead-in, 21 Overheating, 143
Lead-in shielded, 119 Overloading, 105
 Regulator, high voltage, 112
Rejuvenator, picture tube,
111, 128
Pairing, raster lines, 140
Resistor, series filament, 68
Parallel filament wiring, 39
Parallel tube filaments, 67 RF, 11
RF amplifier, 11, 25
Particle structure, photo, 13
RF amplifier, snow, 124
Photo mosaic, 14
Rolling, vertical, 27, 30, 83
Photographic recording, 13
Picture absent, raster OK,
S
121
Picture absent, sound OK, Safety interlock, 61
125 Scanning, 17
Picture and sound absent, 121 Scanning, TV camera, 14, 16
Picture and sound transmis- Screen adjustments, picture
sion, 19 tube, 62
Picture aspect ratio, 80 Screen aspect ratio, 80
Picture breakup, color, 160 Screen, color picture tube, 50
Picture brightness, color, 44 Screen controls, color picture
Picture centering, 98 tube, 155
Picture color information, 44 Separator, sync, 30
Picture ghosts, 137 Series filament surge resistor,
Picture instability, 27 69
Picture system, 7 Series filament wiring, 39
Picture tube adjustments, Series-parallel tube filaments,
color, 62 70
Picture tube aperture mask, Series tube filaments, 68
51 Service data, 65
Picture tube electron gun, 35 Seven-pin tubes, 74
Picture tube, rebuilt, 128 Shielded lead-in, 119
Picture tube rejuvenation, 128 Shields, tube, 74
Picture tube rejuvenator, 111 Shifting, 106
Picture tube screen, 15 Shifting, horizontal, 102
Picture width, 86 Short, tube, 113
Pincushion adjustment, 97 Shrink, raster, 127
Pot, width control, 90 Signal paths, 26
Power line noise, 118 Size controls, horizontal, 90
Power supply, 38 Sleeve focus adjustment, 99
Power supply rectifier, 88 Sleeve, width, 93
Power supply weak, 127 Slug-tuned width coil, 92
Primary colors, 42 Smear, 140
Processor, color signals, 44 Smear, color, 112
Pulling tubes, 72 Snaking, 102, 106
Snaking picture, 86
Snaking (weaving), 133
Radio frequencies, 11 Snow, 25, 26, 86, 123
Raster absent, 121 Soldering gun, 64
Raster line pairing, 140 Sound absent, picture OK, 121
Raster shrink, 127 Sound bars, 133
Rebuilt picture tube, 128 Sound, color receiver, 49
Receiver, 12 Sound detector, 29
Receiving antenna, 12, 21 Sound frequencies, 10
Receiving system, 9 Sound IF amplifier, 29
Rectifier, high voltage, 35 Sound OK, picture missing,
Rectifier, power supply, 38, 125
88 Sound system, 7
Rectifier tube, 127 Sound transmission, 19
Red demodulator, 57 Sound waves, 10
Red missing, 157 Spare tubes, 65
 Speaker, 12 TV receiver block diagram,
Split-sound receivers, 123 22
Static convergence, 59 Two colors missing, 57
Streaking, 102, 107, 117
Stretched bottom of the pic -
U
tare, 31
Subcarrier oscillator, 49 UHF reception, 138
Subcarrier oscillator, color, UHF tuner, 23
148 Ultraviolet, 11
Substitution, tube, 78 Unstable picture, 27
Sweep, color receiver, 49
Sweep, horizontal, 32 V
Sync, 102 V control, 80
Sync adjustments, 104 VHF tuner, 23
Sync buzz, 116 Vertical amplifier, 31, 81
Sync circuits, 30 Vertical centering, 38, 99
Sync clipper, 30 Vertical discharge tube, 81
Sync, color, 44, 161 Vertical height, 32
Sync, color receiver, 49 Vertical hold, 32, 117
Sync pulses, 16 Vertical linearity, 32, 83
Sync separator, 30 Vertical multivibrator, 81
Sync tubes, 85 Vertical oscillator, 31, 81,
117
Vertical output, 81
Vertical roll, 27, 83
Vertical size, 80
Vertical sweep, color re-
Tabs, width, 93 ceiver, 49
Tearing, 27 Vertical sweep, 30
Tearing, horizontal, 30, 37, Vertical sync, 30
102 Video amplifier, 28, 85
Three-gun picture tube, 50 Video, color receiver, 49
Thumbscrew focus adjustment,28 Video detector,
99 Visual spectrum, 41
Tools, 64
Top cap, tube, 77
Transformerless receiver, 39
Transistors, tuner, 25115 Warm-up buzz,
Transmission line, 12, 2111 Wavelength,
Transmission line, shielded,86 Wavy picture,
119 Weak colors, 152
Transmitting antennas, 12 Weak picture, 25, 86
Transmitting system, 9 Weak sync, 103
Tube-caused ghosts, 13941 White light,
Tube filament wiring, 39 Width, 36
Tube hum, 131 Width coil, 92
Tube leakage, 106 Width controls, 90
Tube pulling, 72 Width, picture, 86
Tube shields, 74 Width sleeve, 93
Tube substitution, 67, 7893 Width tabs,
Tube top caps, 77
Tubes, aging, 103
Tubes, spares, 65 X
Tubes, tuner, 24 X rays, 11
Tuner, 23, 107
Tuner cleaning, 108
Tuner repairing, 108
Y
TV camera, 14 Yoke, deflection, 35
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